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Earthquake: -
An earthquake is a tremor of the earth's surface usually triggered by the release of underground
stress along fault lines. This release causes movement in masses of rock and resulting shock waves. In
spite of extensive research and sophisticated equipment, it is impossible to predict an earthquake,
although experts can estimate the likelihood of an earthquake occurring in a particular region.
In 1935, American seismologist Charles Richter developed a scale that measures the magnitude of
seismic waves. Called the Richter scale, it rates earth tremors on a scale from 1 to 9, with 9 being the
most powerful and each number representing an increase of ten times the energy over the previous
number. According to this scale, any quake that is higher than 4.5 can cause damage to stone buildings;
quakes rated a magnitude of 7 and above are considered very severe. A less-known scale, the Mercalli
scale, was devised by Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli to measure the severity of an earthquake in
terms of its impact on a particular area and its inhabitants and buildings.
Some earthquakes are too small to be felt but can cause movement of the earth, opening up holes and
displacing rocks. Shock waves from a very powerful earthquake can trigger smaller quakes hundreds of
miles away from the epicenter. Approximately 1,000 earthquakes measuring 5.0 and above occur yearly.
Earthquakes of the greatest intensity happen about once a year and major earthquakes (7.0-7.9) occur
about 18 times a year. Strong earthquakes (6.0-6.9) occur about 10 times a month and moderate
earthquakes (5.0-5.9) happen more than twice daily. Most earthquakes are not even noticed by the
general public, since they happen either under the ocean or in unpopulated areas. Sometimes an
earthquake under the ocean can be so severe, it will cause a tsunami, responsible for far greater damage.
The greatest danger of an earthquake comes from falling buildings and structures and flying glass,
stones and other objects.
If you live in an earthquake-prone area, here are some steps that can be taken to minimize risks:
 Affix bookcases, cabinets, refrigerators and furniture to the walls.
 Fit cabinets with "childproof locks," so doors will remain closed and items won't fly out.
 California and Japan sell silicone putty kits that can be used to stick dishes and other breakables
to the walls.
 Have a backpack prepared and attached to the bed, containing shoes, a flashlight and batteries,
keys, money, first-aid supplies and medicines, a knife, food, water, ID and insurance
information. Attaching the pack to the bed helps to insure that it will not be thrown around
during an earthquake.
 Keep shoes next to your bed, so you can put them on as soon as a quake begins.
 Have a family evacuation plan including phone numbers and a safe place to which to evacuate.
 Establish escape routes from each room in the house.
If you are in an earthquake:
 If you are indoors, find a secure location to wait out the quake, such as under a heavy table or
desk, or in an interior hallway where you can brace yourself between two walls. Doorways are
among the safest places to stand, thanks to the strong beams overhead. However, watch out for
swinging doors. Stay away from windows.
 If you are outdoors, try to get into an open area, away from falling buildings, power lines, trees,
etc.
 If you are in a crowded public area, crouch down, with your hands protecting your head and

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neck.
 If you are in your car, pull over to the side, away from power lines and overpasses, and stay
inside the car until the shaking has subsided.
 Be sure to put on shoes immediately, to avoid injury from stepping on broken glass and objects.
 Check yourself and others for injuries.
 Check for gas and water leaks and damage to electrical wires. Only turn off gas lines if there is
damage; it may take a while for technicians to get to your area to turn gas and power back on.
 Survey the exterior of your home for structural damage to the chimney, roof, foundation and
walls.
 Do NOT use your automobile unless there is an emergency.
Earthquake
The sudden movement of the Earth caused by the abrupt release of accumulated strain along a fault in
the interior. The released energy passes through the Earth as seismic waves (low-frequency sound
waves), which cause the shaking. Seismic waves continue to travel through the Earth after the fault
motion has stopped. Recordings of earthquakes, called seismograms, illustrate that such motion is
recorded all over the Earth for hours, and even days, after an earthquake.
Earthquakes are not distributed randomly over the globe but tend to occur in narrow, continuous belts of
activity. Approximately 90% of all earthquakes occur in these belts, which define the boundaries of the
Earth's plates. The plates are in continuous motion with respect to one another at rates on the order of
centimeters per year; this plate motion is responsible for most geological activity.
Plate motion occurs because the outer cold, hard skin of the Earth, the lithosphere, overlies a hotter, soft
layer known as the asthenosphere. Heat from decay of radioactive minerals in the Earth's interior sets
the asthenosphere into thermal convection. This convection has broken the lithosphere into plates which
move about in response to the convective motion. As the plates move past each other, little of the
motion at their boundaries occurs by continuous slippage; most of the motion occurs in a series of rapid
jerks. Each jerk is an earthquake. This happens because, under the pressure and temperature conditions
of the shallow part of the Earth's lithosphere, the frictional sliding of rock exhibits a property known as
stick-slip, in which frictional sliding occurs in a series of jerky movements, interspersed with periods of
no motion—or sticking. In the geologic time frame, then, the lithospheric plates chatter at their
boundaries, and at any one place the time between chatters may be hundreds of years. See also Plate
tectonics.
The periods between major earthquakes is thus one during which strain slowly builds up near the plate
boundary in response to the continuous movement of the plates. The strain is ultimately released by an
earthquake when the frictional strength of the plate boundary is exceeded. See also Fault and fault
structures.
Most great earthquakes occur on the boundaries between lithospheric plates and arise directly from the
motions between the plates. These may be called plate boundary earthquakes. There are many
earthquakes, sometimes of substantial size, that cannot be related so simply to the movements of the
plates. At many plate boundaries, earthquakes occur over a broad zone—often several hundred miles
wide—adjacent to the plate boundary. These earthquakes, which may be called plate boundary-related
earthquakes, are secondarily caused by the stresses set up at the plate boundary. Some earthquakes also
occur, although infrequently, within plates. These earthquakes, which are not related to plate
boundaries, are called intraplate earthquakes. The immediate cause of intraplate earthquakes is not
understood.
In addition to the tectonic types of earthquakes described above, some earthquakes are directly

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associated with volcanic activity. These volcanic earthquakes result from the motion of undergound
magma that leads to volcanic eruptions.
Earthquakes often occur in well-defined sequences in time. Tectonic earthquakes are often preceded, by
a few days to weeks, by several smaller shocks (foreshocks), and are nearly always followed by large
numbers of aftershocks. Foreshocks and aftershocks are usually much smaller than the main shock.
Volcanic earthquakes often occur in flurries of activity, with no discernible main shock. This type of
sequence is called a swarm.
Earthquakes range enormously in size, from tremors in which slippage of a few tenths of an inch occurs
on a few feet of fault, to the greatest events, which may involve a rupture many hundreds of miles long,
with tens of feet of slip.
The size of an earthquake is given by its moment: average slip times the fault area that slipped times the
elastic constant of the Earth. The units of seismic moment are dyne-centimeters. An older measure of
earthquake size is magnitude, which is proportional to the logarithm of moment. Magnitude 2.0 is about
the smallest tremor that can be felt. Most destructive earthquakes are greater than magnitude 6; the
largest shock known was the 1960 Chile earthquake, with a moment of 1030 dyne-centimeters (1023
newton-meters) or magnitude 9.5. It involved a fault 600 mi (1000 km) long slipping 30 ft (10 m).
The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the severity of shaking and its attendant damage at a point
on the surface of the Earth. The same earthquake may therefore have different intensities at different
places. The intensity usually decreases away from the epicenter (the point on the surface directly above
the onset of the earthquake), but its value depends on many factors and generally increases with
moment. Intensity is usually higher in areas with thick alluvial cover or landfill than in areas of shallow
soil or bare rock. Poor building construction leads to high intensity ratings because the damage to
structures is high. Intensity is therefore more a measure of the earthquake's effect on humans than an
innate property of the earthquake.
Many additional effects may be produced by earthquake shaking, including landslides and tsunamis. See
also Landslide; Tsunami.
Earthquake prediction research has been going on for nearly a century. Unfortunately, successful
earthquake predictions are extremely rare. There are two basic categories of earthquake predictions:
forecasts (months to years in advance) and short-term predictions (hours or days in advance). Forecasts
are based a variety of research, including the history of earthquakes in a specific region, the
identification of fault characteristics (including length, depth, and segmentation), and the identification
of strain accumulation. Data from these studies are used to provide rough estimates of earthquake sizes
and recurrence intervals.
Earthquake
Sudden shaking of the ground caused by a disturbance deeper within the crust of the Earth. Most
earthquakes occur when masses of rock straining against one another along fault lines suddenly fracture
and slip. The Earth's major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic
plates. These include the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the
Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America; the Alpide Belt, which
passes through the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia; oceanic ridges in the Arctic, Atlantic,
and western Indian oceans; and the rift valleys of East Africa. The “size,” or magnitude, of earthquakes
is usually expressed in terms of the Richter scale, which assigns levels from 1.0 or lower to 8.0 or
higher. The largest quake ever recorded (Richter magnitude 9.5) occurred off the coast of Chile in 1960.
The “strength” of an earthquake is rated in intensity scales such as the Mercalli scale, which assigns
qualitative measures of damage to terrain and structures that range from “not felt” to “damage nearly
total.” The most destructive quake of modern times occurred in 1976, when the city of Tangshan, China,
was leveled and more than 250,000 people killed.

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earthquake, trembling or shaking movement of the earth's surface. Most earthquakes are minor tremors.
Larger earthquakes usually begin with slight tremors but rapidly take the form of one or more violent
shocks, and end in vibrations of gradually diminishing force called aftershocks. The subterranean point
of origin of an earthquake is called its focus; the point on the surface directly above the focus is the
epicenter. The magnitude and intensity of an earthquake is determined by the use of scales, e.g., the
Richter scale and the Mercalli scale.
Causes of Earthquakes:-
Most earthquakes are causally related to compressional or tensional stresses built up at the margins of
the huge moving lithospheric plates that make up the earth's surface (see lithosphere). The immediate
cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault, or fracture in the earth's
crust, resulting in movement of the opposing blocks of rock past one another. These movements cause
vibrations to pass through and around the earth in wave form, just as ripples are generated when a
pebble is dropped into water. Volcanic eruptions, rockfalls, landslides, and explosions can also cause a
quake, but most of these are of only local extent. Shock waves from a powerful earthquake can trigger
smaller earthquakes in a distant location hundreds of miles away if the geologic conditions are
favorable.
Seismic Waves:-
There are several types of earthquake waves including P, or primary, waves, which are compressional
and travel fastest; and S, or secondary, waves, which are transverse, i.e., they cause the earth to vibrate
perpendicularly to the direction of their motion. Surface waves consist of several major types and are
called L, or long, waves. Since the velocities of the P and S waves are affected by changes in the density
and rigidity of the material through which they pass, the boundaries between the regions of the earth
known as the crust, mantle, and core have been discerned by seismologists, scientists who deal with the
analysis and interpretation of earthquake waves (see earth). Seismographs (see seismology) are used to
record P, S, and L waves. The disappearance of S waves below depths of 1,800 mi (2,900 km) indicates
that at least the outer part of the earth's core is liquid.
Damage Caused by Earthquakes:-
The effects of an earthquake are strongest in a broad zone surrounding the epicenter. Surface ground
cracking associated with faults that reach the surface often occurs, with horizontal and vertical
displacements of several yards common. Such movement does not have to occur during a major
earthquake; slight periodic movements called fault creep can be accompanied by microearthquakes too
small to be felt. The extent of earthquake vibration and subsequent damage to a region is partly
dependent on characteristics of the ground. For example, earthquake vibrations last longer and are of
greater wave amplitudes in unconsolidated surface material, such as poorly compacted fill or river
deposits; bedrock areas receive fewer effects. The worst damage occurs in densely populated urban
areas where structures are not built to withstand intense shaking. There, L waves can produce
destructive vibrations in buildings and break water and gas lines, starting uncontrollable fires.
Damage and loss of life sustained during an earthquake result from falling structures and flying glass
and objects. Flexible structures built on bedrock are generally more resistant to earthquake damage than
rigid structures built on loose soil. In certain areas, an earthquake can trigger mudslides, which slip
down mountain slopes and can bury habitations below. A submarine earthquake can cause a tsunami, a
series of damaging waves that ripple outward from the earthquake epicenter and inundate coastal cities.
Earthquake
A tremor of the surface of the Earth, sometimes severe and devastating, which results from shock waves
generated by the movement of rock masses deep within the Earth, particularly near boundaries of
tectonic plates. (See fault, Richter scale, and seismology.)
· Earthquakes are particularly likely where such plates are sliding past each other, as in the San Andreas

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Fault.
· Earthquakes cannot be accurately predicted, although the likelihood of a region's suffering an
earthquake can be estimated.
Meaning #1: shaking and vibration at the surface of the earth resulting from underground movement
along a fault plane of from volcanic activity
An earthquake is a phenomenon that results from and is powered by the sudden release of stored
energy that radiates seismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a
shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and
destruction of property.
Earthquakes may occur naturally or as a result of human activities. In its most generic sense, the word
earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a natural phenomenon or an event caused by
humans—that generates seismic waves.

Types of earthquakes
Naturally occurring earthquakes
Most naturally occurring earthquakes are related to the tectonic nature of the Earth. Such earthquakes
are called tectonic earthquakes. The Earth's lithosphere is a patch work of plates in slow but constant
motion caused by the heat in the Earth's mantle and core. Plate boundaries glide past each other, creating
frictional stress. When the frictional stress exceeds a critical value, called local strength, a sudden
failure occurs. The boundary of tectonic plates along which failure occurs is called the fault plane.
When the failure at the fault plane results in a violent displacement of the Earth's crust, the elastic strain
energy is released and elastic waves are radiated, thus causing an earthquake. It is estimated that only 10
percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is ultimately radiated as seismic energy, while most of the
earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth and is eventually converted into
heat. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available potential energy and thermal energy, though
these losses are negligible. To describe the physical process of occurrence of an earthquake,
seismologists use the Elastic-rebound theory.
The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at depths not exceeding a few tens of kilometers.
Earthquakes occurring at boundaries of tectonic plates are called interplate earthquakes, while the less
frequent events that occur in the interior of the lithospheric plates are called intraplate earthquakes.
Where the crust is thicker and colder, earthquakes occur at greater depths of hundreds of kilometers
along subduction zones where plates descend into the Earth's mantle. These types of earthquakes are
called deep focus earthquakes. They are possibly generated when subducted lithospheric material
catastrophically undergoes a phase transition (e.g., olivine to spinel), releasing stored energy—such as
elastic strain, chemical energy or gravitational energy—that cannot be supported at the pressures and
temperatures present at such depths.
Earthquakes may also occur in volcanic regions and are caused by the movement of magma in
volcanoes. Such quakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions.
A recently proposed theory suggests that some earthquakes may occur in a sort of earthquake storm,
where one earthquake will trigger a series of earthquakes each triggered by the previous shifts on the
fault lines, similar to aftershocks, but occurring years later, and with some of the later earthquakes as
damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes
that struck the Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th Century, the half dozen large earthquakes in New
Madrid in 1811-1812, and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the
Middle East and in the Mojave Desert.
Induced earthquakes

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This section does not cite its references or sources.

You can help Wikipedia by introducing appropriate citations.
Some earthquakes have anthropogenic sources, such as extraction of minerals and fossil fuel from the
Earth's crust, the removal or injection of fluids into the crust, reservoir-induced seismicity, massive
explosions, and collapse of large buildings. Seismic events caused by human activity are referred to by
the term induced seismicity. They however are not strictly earthquakes and usually show a different
seismogram than earthquakes that occur naturally.
A rare few earthquakes have been associated with the build-up of large masses of water behind dams,
such as the Kariba Dam in Zambia, Africa, and with the injection or extraction of fluids into the Earth's
crust (e.g. at certain geothermal power plants and at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal). Such earthquakes
occur because the strength of the Earth's crust can be modified by fluid pressure. Earthquakes have also
been known to be caused by the removal of natural gas from subsurface deposits, for instance in the
northern Netherlands. The world’s largest reservoir-induced earthquake occurred on December 10, 1967
in the Koyna region of western Maharashtra in India. It had a magnitude of 6.3 on the Richter scale.
However, the U.S. geological survey reported the magnitude of 6.8. [1]
The detonation of powerful explosives, such as nuclear explosions, can cause low-magnitude ground
shaking. Thus, the 50-megaton nuclear bomb code-named Ivan detonated by the Soviet Union in 1961
created a seismic event comparable to a magnitude 7 earthquake, producing the seismic shock so
powerful that it was measurable even on its third passage around the Earth. In an effort to promote
nuclear non-proliferation, the International Atomic Energy Agency uses the tools of seismology to
detect illicit activities such as nuclear weapons tests. The nuclear nations routinely monitor each other's
activities through networks of interconnected seismometers, which allow to precisely locate the source
of an explosion.
Earthquakes occur on a daily basis around the world, most detected only by seismometers and causing
no damage. Large earthquakes however can cause serious destruction and massive loss of life through a
variety of agents of damage, including fault rupture, vibratory ground motion (shaking), inundation
(tsunami, seiche, or dam failure), various kinds of permanent ground failure (liquefaction, landslides),
and fire or a release of hazardous materials e.g gas leaks or petrol leaks. In a particular earthquake, any
of these agents of damage can dominate, and historically each has caused major damage and great loss
of life; nonetheless, for most earthquakes shaking is the dominant and most widespread cause of
damage. There are four types of seismic waves that are all generated simultaneously and can be felt on
the ground. Responsible for the shaking hazard, they are P-waves (primary waves), S-waves (secondary
or shear waves) and two types of surfaces waves, (Love waves and Rayleigh waves).
Most large earthquakes are accompanied by other, smaller ones that can occur either before or after the
main shock; these are called foreshocks and aftershocks, respectively. While almost all earthquakes
have aftershocks, foreshocks occur in only about 10% of events. The power of an earthquake is always
distributed over a significant area, but in large earthquakes, it can even spread over the entire planet.
Ground motions caused by very distant earthquakes are called teleseisms. The Rayleigh waves from the
Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004 caused ground motion of over 1 cm even at seismometers that
were located far from it, although this displacement was abnormally large. Using such ground motion
records from around the world, seismologists can identify a point from which the earthquake's seismic
waves apparently originated. That point is called its focus or epicenter and usually coincides with the
point where the fault slip started. The location on the surface directly above the epicenter is known as
the hypocenter. The total length of the section of a fault that slips, the rupture zone, can be as long as
250 km for the biggest earthquakes.
Earthquakes that occur below sea level and have large vertical displacements can give rise to tsunamis,
either as a direct result of the deformation of the sea bed due to the earthquake or as a result of
submarine landslides directly or indirectly triggered by the quake.

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Measuring earthquakes
Main article: Seismic scale
Since seismologists cannot directly observe rupture in the Earth's interior, they rely on geodetic
measurements and numerical experiments to analyze seismic waves and accurately assess severity of
earthquakes. The severity of an earthquake can be measured in terms of magnitude and intensity. For
that seismologists use two fundamentally different but equally important types of scales. The original
force or energy of an earthquake is measured on a magnitude scale, while the intensity of shaking
occurring at any given point on the Earth's surface is measured on an intensity scale.
While the non-specialized media will often refer to the magnitudes of earthquakes as being reported on
the Richter scale, the magnitudes reported nowadays are actually on the moment magnitude scale. The
older Richter scale is not adapted for larger earthquakes.
The analyses of earthquake severity allow scientists to estimate the locations and likelihoods of future
earthquakes, helping identify areas of greatest hazard and ensure safety of people and infrastructure
located in such areas.
To show the extent of various levels of seismic effects within a particular locality, seismologists
compile special maps called isoseismal maps. An isoseismal map uses contours to outline areas of
equal value in terms of ground shaking intensity, ground surface liquefaction, shaking amplification, or
other seismic effects. Typically, these maps are created by combining historical instrument-recorded
data with responses to postal questionnaires that are sent to each post office near the earthquake and to a
sparser sample of post offices with increasing distance from the earthquake. This way of preparing a
seismic hazard map can take months to complete. In contrast to the old method, a newer method of
information collection takes advantage of the Internet to generate initial hazard maps almost instantly.
Data are received through a questionnaire on the Internet answered by people who actually experienced
the earthquake, reducing the process of preparing and distributing a map for a particular earthquake
from months to minutes.
Seismic hazard maps have many applications. They are used by insurance companies to set insurance
rates for properties located in earthquake-risky areas, by civil engineers to estimate the stability of
hillsides, by organizations responsible for the safety of nuclear waste disposal facilities, and also by
building codes developers as the basis of design requirements.
In building codes, the shaking-hazard maps are converted into seismic zone maps, which are used for
seismic analysis of structural components of buildings. The seismic zone maps depict seismic hazards as
zones of different risk levels. Such zones are typically designated as Seismic Zone 0, Seismic Zone 1,
Seismic Zone 2 and so on. The seismic zone maps usually show the severity of expected earthquake
shaking for a particular level of probability, such as the levels of shaking that have a 1-in-10 chance of
being exceeded in a 50-year period. Buildings and other structures must be designed with adequate
strength to withstand the effects of probable seismic ground motions within the Seismic Zone where the
building or structure is being constructed.

Size and frequency of occurrence:-

Small earthquakes occur every day all around the world, and often multiple times a day in places like
California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as Indonesia and Japan on the other side of the Pacific.[2]
Large earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; namely, roughly ten times
as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger
than magnitude 5. For example, it has been calculated that the average recurrence for the United
Kingdom can be described as follows:
 an earthquake of 3.7 or larger every year

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 an earthquake of 4.7 or larger every 10 years

 an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years.
The number of earthquake reporting stations increased from about 350 in 1931 to about 4,000 today. As
a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past -- currently, about 35 per day worldwide.
This does not necessarily mean that the number of earthquakes has increased, however. The USGS
estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-7.9) and
one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable.
[3] In fact, in recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has actually decreased. More

detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the USGS.[4]
Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000 km-long,
horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire,
which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate.[5][6]Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other
plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalaya Mountains.

Effects/impacts of earthquakes
There are many effects of earthquakes, these include, but are not limited to,
There are many effects of earthquakes, these include, but are not limited to,
(1) Broken windows. (2) Collapse of buildings (3) Fires, as seen in the 1906 San Francisco
earthquake (4)Tsunamis, as seen in the 2004 Sumatran earthquake (5) Landslides (6)
Destabilisation of the base of some buildings which may lead to collapse in a future
earthquake (7) Disease (8) Lack of basic necessities (9) Human loss of
life (10) Higher insurance premiums.

Preparation for earthquakes

Emergency preparedness Household seismic safety Seismic retrofit
Earthquake prediction

Specific fault articles

Alpine Fault Calaveras Fault Hayward Fault Zone North Anatolian
Fault Zone New Madrid Fault Zone San Andreas Fault Great Sumatran fault

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