ANA 207 (GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY)

Yusuf Abdullateef O.
Department of Anatomy
PAAU Anyigba.
What is embryology?
Embryology is the branch of Anatomy that deals with the study of the formation and
development of an embryo and fetus. It is a branch of biology that deals with the topics
concerning gamete formation (gametogenesis), a fusion of gametes (fertilization),
and embryo formation (embryogenesis). Additionally, embryology encompasses the study
of congenital disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology.
Origin of germ cells
Germ cells

Germ cells refer to the sex cells that sexually reproducing organisms use to pass on their
genomes from one generation to the next (parents to offspring).
The germ cell for males is the sperm cell while that of females is the egg or ovum. Egg and
sperm cells are called germ cells, in contrast to the other cells of the body, which are called
somatic cells.
Germ cells produce gametes and are the only cells that can undergo meiosis as well
as mitosis. Somatic cells are all the other cells that form the building blocks of the body and they
only divide by mitosis.
In many animals, the germ cells originate from primordial germ cells in the primitive streak and
migrate via the gut of an embryo to the developing gonads. There, they undergo both mitosis and
meiosis, followed by cellular differentiation into mature gametes, either eggs or sperm. Germ
cell specification begins during cleavage in many animals or in the epiblast during gastrulation in
birds and mam;mals. After transport, involving passive movements and active migration, germ
cells arrive at the developing gonads.
Totipotent cells can form all the cell types in a body, plus the extraembryonic, or placental cells.
Embryonic cells within the first couple of cell divisions after fertilization are the only cells that
are totipotent.
Pluripotent cells can give rise to all of the cell types that make up the body; embryonic stem
cells are considered pluripotent.
Multipotent cells can develop into more than one cell type, but are more limited than pluripotent
cells; adult stem cells and cord blood stem cells are considered multipotent. For example, a
hematopoietic stem cell — this cell type can differentiate itself into several types of blood cells
like lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, etc.,
Oligopotent cells are cells that can differentiate into a few cell types. A lymphoid cell
specifically, can give rise to various blood cells such as B and T cells, but, not to a different
blood cell type.
A unipotent cell is the concept that one stem cell has the capacity to differentiate into only one
cell type. Hepatoblasts, which differentiate into hepatocytes
spermatogenesis and oogenesis
spermatogenesis
spermatogenesis is the process by which sperm cell production occurs; the primordial germ cells
give rise to the haploid spermatozoa. The primordial germ cell for male is known as
spermatogonia. Sperm production takes place inside the seminiferous tubules, which is a
convoluted cluster of tubes located inside the testes. The seminiferous tubule has an outer wall
and the lumen.
The process is basically divided into 2 phases
Spermatocytogenesis: Here one germ cell divides into four precursor gametes known as
spermatids (immatured sperms)
Spermiogenesis: the spermatid go through the process of maturation and differentiation to form
matured sperm cell known as spermatozoon
Spermatocytogenesis
It begins with primary germ cells known as spermatogonium Type A, which is located in the wall
of the seminiferous tubule. The work of the Type A spermatogonium is to divide to form the
Spermatogonium type B and primary spermatocytes via mitosis (2 cells which are diploid).
In the second division, the primary spermatocyte goes to meiosis I by dividing their
chromosomal materials into half to form secondary spermatocytes which are haploid cells
In the last phase of division, the secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II to form 4
immature cells which are known as spermatids (haploids)
The spermatids are immature sperm cells that cannot fertilize an ovum, they contain Golgi
bodies, centriole and mitochondria
Spermiogenesis
It comprises of four stages
Golgi phase: the Golgi body present in the body forms the enzyme of the acrosome
Acrosomal phase: the acrosome forms condensation around the nucleus
Tail phase: the centriole present elongates to form the tail of the sperm cell
Maturation phase: the excess cytoplasm is lost and it forms the matured sperm
The matured sperm are then release in the lumen of the seminiferous tubule via aprocess known
as spermiation. The sperm cells spend few days in the epididymis and gain motility and are now
capable of fertilization
Oogenesis
Oogenesis is the process of formation of female gametes. This process begins inside the fetus
before birth. The steps in oogenesis up to the production of primary oocytes occur before birth.
Primary oocytes do not divide further. They either become secondary oocytes or degenerate.
Oogenesis starts from pre-natal life and get arrested until puberty
Primordial germ cells (PGCs) from the embryo will begin migration at about 4 weeks of embryo
and by 6 weeks will arrived at the genital ridge.
The PGCs will undergo mitosis to form oogonium increasing the number (7 million cells at 5 th
month)
At about 7th month of fetal life, oogonium reduce in number (to about 400,000) and begins first
meiotic division to form primary oocytes. These primary oocytes get arrested at prophase I until
puberty. Each of the primary oocyte get surrounded by follicular cells and this forms the
primordial follicle.
Between birth and puberty, the oocyte doesn’t change but the follicular cells change by becoming
cuboidal, these cuboidal cells will form a glycoprotein membrane between themselves and the
oocyte known as zona pellucida. the number of cuboidal cells continue to increase and surround
the oocytes. At puberty we now have the primary follicles. The number of oocytes continue to
drop (40,000).
At puberty, FSH will act on the follicular cells and will begin to form an area of fluid filled space
within them known as antral, pushing the cells towards the periphery.
At every monthly cycle some primary follicle will complete the first meiotic division and enter
the second meiotic division forming secondary oocytes and polar body. The secondary oocyte
contains haploid number of chromosomes. The secondary oocyte contains most of the cytoplasm
leaving the polar body will little.
The secondary oocytes grows & gets bigger, they produce estrogen which turns off FSH. The
fluid filled spaces increase and forms the graafian follicles. This stage gets arrested as
metaphase of second meiotic division.
At about day 14 of monthly cycle, another hormone, LH is release which stimulate ovulation.
The second meiotic division is completed only if fertilization occurs which will now form the
ovum and 2nd polar body. The ovum has haploid number of chromosomes.
During fertilization, the sperm DNA incorporate with the ovum forming the zygote
Birth defects may arise through abnormalities in chromosome number or structure and from
single gene mutations. Trisomies (an extra chromosome) and monosomies (loss of a
chromosome) arise during mitosis or meiosis. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes
normally pair and then separate. However, if separation fails (nondisjunction), it results in
trisomy or monosomy.