2 Solar Thermal Energy Collector

Introduction
Sun
Solar energy is a diffuse type of energy. So, to make
it available for suitable use, it must be collected
from a large area and then concentrated.
A solar thermal energy collector absorbs solar
radiation as heat and then transfers it to a heat
transport fluid which delivers the heat to a
thermal storage tank. The heat available in the
thermal storage tank is used for applications.
Solar thermal energy collectors can be broadly Fig. 2.1 Solar Thermal Energy Collector
classified into two categories:
1. Non-concentrating type solar collector (flat
plate solar collector).
2. Concentrating type solar collector.

Concentrating and non-concentrating type solar collectors

Non-concentrating type collector (Flat

Concentrating type collector
plate collector)

1. It is simple in design and construction. It Its design and construction is complex and
does not require solar tracking. requires a solar tracking mechanism.

2. It is more likely to withstand harsh outdoor It is less likely to withstand harsh outdoor
conditions because it is rigidly fixed. condition as solar tracking mechanism
requires flexibility and is exposed to rain,
storm etc.

3. Temperature of heat transport fluid can be A higher temperature yield can be obtained
raised only up to 100˚C in a concentrating type collector.

4. It has low efficiency. It has high efficiency.

5. Due to absence of optical concentration it Due to presence of optical concentration, a

requires large surface area. Also, the area small surface area is sufficient to intercept
from which heat is lost is large. same amount of solar radiation. So, area
from which heat is lost is also small.

6. It can absorb both beam as well as diffuse Since diffuse radiation do not obey optical
radiation. principles, it can absorb mainly beam
radiation and very little amount of diffuse
radiation coming directly over the absorber.

7. Low maintenance cost High maintenance cost.

Table 2.1 Difference between Concentrating and Non-concentrating Type Solar

Collectors

Solar Thermal Energy Collector 19

 Performance Parameters of a Solar
Collector
The important performance parameters of solar
thermal energy collector are:
yy Concentration ratio
yy Collector efficiency
yy Temperature range
Concentration ratio: It is the ratio of the effective
aperture area to the receiver area. The aperture
area is the projected area of the collector normal
to the radiation beam.
Effective aperture area
C=
Re ceiver area
yy The concentration ratio of a flat plate
collector is 1.
yy For concentrating type solar collectors, the
concentration ratio is greater than 1.
Collector efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual
amount of solar energy absorbed and transferred
to heat transport fluid to the solar radiation
energy incident on the collector.
It can be also defined as the ratio of the useful
heat gain to the radiation incident on the
collector.
Useful heat gain
c 
Radiation Incident on the Collector
Temperature range: It denotes the range of
temperature to which heat transport fluid can be
attained.
Liquid Flat Plate Solar Collector
The construction details of a liquid flat plate
solar collector are shown in the figure below:
Beam Diffuse
radiation radiation Tube or channel
Absorber plate
Transparent cover plate
(Glass Cover)
Thermal insulation
Fig. 2.2 Flat Plate Solar Collector
There are five main components of a liquid flat
plate solar collector. These are:
1. Transparent Cover Plate (Glass cover)
2. Absorber Plate
3. Tubes or Channels
4. Fibre glass insulation
5. Container
Transparent Cover Plate (Glass cover)
yy It is a transparent toughened glass sheet of 4
to 5 mm thickness.
yy It permits the entry of solar radiation as it is
transparent for incoming short wave radiation
but is nearly opaque to long wave thermal
radiation emitted by interior collector walls
and absorbing plate. As a result, heat gets
trapped in the space between the absorber
plate and the transparent cover plate. This is
known as the greenhouse effect.
yy It also prevents convection heat loss by
keeping the air between the absorber plate
and cover plate stagnant.
yy Anti-reflective coating is applied on the outer
surface of the glass to reduce the reflection
from the glass cover.
yy In general, one to two glass covers having
a spacing of 1.5 to 3 cm between them are
used.
Absorber Plate
yy It is a metal sheet of a thickness of 0.2 to 1 mm.
yy Absorber plate material should have high
thermal conductivity and resistance to
corrosion. Copper is generally the material of
choice for this. Aluminium, Steel, brass and
zinc can also be used.
yy When solar radiation strikes the absorber
plate, heat is absorbed and it raises its
temperature.
Tubes or Channels
yy These are soldered, brazed or pressure
bonded to the bottom of the absorber plate
having a pitch of about 5 to 12 cm.
In some arrangements, the tubes are bonded to
the top of the absorber plate or in line with and
integral to the absorber plate.
yy Water flowing through these tubes takes
away the heat from the absorber plate.

20 Solar Thermal Energy Collector

yy The diameter of the tube is between 1 and
1.5 cm.
Fibre glass insulation
yy It is provided at the bottom and on the sides
to minimize heat loss.
Container
yy It encloses the whole assembly in a box made
of metallic sheet or fibre glass.
The whole assembly is fixed on a supporting
structure that is installed in a tilted position at
a suitable angle facing south in the northern
hemisphere. For the whole year, the optimum tilt
angle of a flat plate collector is equal to the latitude
of its location. During winter, the tilt angle is kept
10-15° more than the latitude of the location, while
in summer, it should be 10-15° less than the latitude.
The commercially available flat plate collectors
have a face area of 2 m2.
Various Designs of the Absorber Plate
So far there are several designs of absorber plates
that have been developed. These absorber plates
can be broadly categorized into three categories
depending on the extent of the wetted area
relative to the total absorbing area:
1. Pin and fin type absorber plate: It offers less
wetted area and water capacity is also low.
Fig. 2.3 Pin and Fin Type Absorber Plate
2. Rectangular or cylindrical full sandwich type:
Wetted area and water capacity are higher
than the previous one.
Fig. 2.4 Rectangular or Cylindrical Full Sandwich Type
Absorber Plate
Solar Thermal Energy Collector
3. Semi sandwich type (roll bond type): Wetted
area and water capacity are intermediate
between the above two.
Fig. 2.5 Semi Sandwich Type Absorber Plate
Note: Though there are several designs of
the absorber plate available, the best choice
depends on the particular application. For
low-temperature applications, such as
warming of a swimming pool, a full water
sandwich type absorber plate may be
most suitable. For domestic and industrial
applications, pipe and fin type absorber
plates may be most appropriate as a high
temperature is required.
Various design parameters on the
performance of a flat plate collector
There are several parameters that affect the
performance of a flat plate collector. Some of the
important ones are:
Selective Surface: Absorber plate surfaces which
provide high absorptivity for incoming short-wave
solar radiation and low emissivity for outgoing
long-wave re-radiation are called selective
surfaces.
Solar radiation absorption ()
Selectivity
Thermal Infrared radiation
emission ()
Selective surfaces are desirable because they
maximize the net energy collection. Copper
oxide, nickel black and black chrome are some
examples of selective surface coatings.
Number of Cover plates (Glass cover): With the
increase in the number of cover plates, the flux
absorbed by the absorber plate decreases. The
value of heat loss from the absorber plate also
decreases. However, the amount of decrease is
not the same for each cover. Maximum efficiency
is obtained with one or two covers.
Spacing between the cover plates: For the best
performance of a flat plate collector, proper
21
 spacing between the cover plates is very
important.
Collector Tilt: Flat plate collectors are rigidly
fixed and do not have a solar tracking mechanism.
Therefore, the tilt angle at which they are fixed is
very important. The optimum tilt depends on the
nature of the application. Thumb rule to assign
collector angle is (φ + 15°) for winter applications
(e.g. water heating, space heating, etc.) and
(φ – 15°) for summer applications (e.g., absorption
refrigeration plant, etc.), where φ is latitude
angle.
Accumulation of dust on top of the Cover plate:
As the collector is installed in outdoor conditions,
accumulation of dust is a common phenomenon
reducing transmitted flux through the cover plate.
Thus cleaning of the cover plate has to be done
once in a while.
Glass Cover Absorber plate
(a) Fin type Insulation (c) Corrugated type
(b) Metal matrix type
Fig. 2.6 Various Types of Flat Plate Air Heating Collectors
Advantages of flat plate air heating collector over
liquid flat plate collector:
yy It is simple in design and construction.
The size is compact and requires little
maintenance.
yy The problem of corrosion is eliminated.
yy As air is directly the working fluid, the need
to transfer thermal energy from the working
fluid to another fluid is eliminated.
yy The possibility of freezing of working fluid is
also eliminated.
yy The pressure inside the collector does not
become very high.
22
Flat plate air heating collector
yy It is also known as a solar air heater or solar
air collector.
yy It is similar to a liquid flat plate collector with
a change in the configuration of the absorber
plate and tube (riser).
yy Since the air between the absorber plate
and the cover plate is stagnant. The value
of the heat transfer coefficient between the
absorber plate and the air is quite low. Due to
this, the surfaces are sometimes roughened
or longitudinal fins are provided in the airflow
passage. Corrugated, V-shape, matrix, etc.,
are some of the other variations of absorber
plates of this type.
yy The major applications of these collectors are
drying for agricultural and industrial purposes,
and space heating.
(ds) Thermal-trap type
Disadvantages of flat plate air heating collector
over liquid flat plate collector:
yy It has to handle a large amount of fluid due to
the low density of air as compared to water.
yy Low heat transfer rate between air and
absorber plate.
yy Less storage of thermal energy due to low
heat capacity.
Solar radiation attenuation between the cover
plate and absorber plate
It has two components:
yy Transmissivity of the cover plate
yy Absorptivity of the absorber plate
Solar Thermal Energy Collector
Transmissivity of the cover plate (τ) Now, if ρ1 and ρ2 are the reflectivities of the two
When beam radiation strikes a glass surface and components of polarization — one parallel to the
travels through it, there are two losses: plane of incidence and the other perpendicular
1. Reflection loss from the top surface of the to the plane of incidence. Then,
glass. I2 1
    1  2 
2. Absorption loss as the beam passes through I1 2
the glass material.
sin2 (r  i) tan2 (r  i)
The transmissivity of the system (t) can be 1  and, 2 
sin2 (r  i) tan2 (r  i)
obtained by considering transmission separately
due to (i) reflection and (ii) absorption, For radiation at normal incidence, i = 0o
    (n2  n1 )2
 1  2 
(n2  n1 )2
Where,  is transmissivity considering reflection
Now, consider one of the components of
only,
polarization of beam radiation incident on the top
 is transmissivity considering absorption only.
surface of the glass cover. As glass covers have
Transmissivity Considering Reflection only: two interfaces with air on both sides, multiple
reflection and refraction will occur as shown in
the figure below:
Incident
Reflected P1(1-P1)2 P31(1-P1)2 Glass cover
Beam P1
I2 Beam 1
I1
Medium 1 i

P)
i
P)

1
n1
1
P51(1-P1)

P
(Air)

1 (1-
1 1-

4
Interface

1
(1-
P(

P3
r (1-P1)
Medium 2 n2 P21(1-P1)

P 1)
(Glass)

(1-P1)2 P21(1-P1)2 P41(1-P1)2

Fig. 2.8 Ray Diagram for One of the Components of

Refracted Polarization of Beam Radiation Incident on the Top
Beam
Surface of the Glass Cover

Fig. 2.7 Reflection and Refraction of the Incident Beam One of the polarization components of
transmissivity is given by,
Let us consider beam radiation having intensity
I1 strikes on the glass surface at an angle of 1  (1  1 )2  21 (1  1 )2  41 (1  1 )2  .....
incidence of i. The reflected beam has reduced
 (1  1 )2 ( 1  21  41  .......)
intensity of I2 making an angle of reflection which
is equal to the angle of incidence. 1
 (1  1 )2
By Snell’s law, 1  21
sin i n 1  1
= 2 1 
sin r n1 1  1
Where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of Similarly, other polarization components of
medium 1 and medium 2 respectively and r is the transmissivity are given by,
angle of refraction. 1  2
2 
Reflectivity, 1  2
Intensity of reflected beam I2
 
Intensity of inco min g beam radiation I1

Solar Thermal Energy Collector 23

 I 
Note: For a system of N number of cover ln  L    KL
plates of the same material,  I0 
1  1 1  2 Transmissivity considering absorption only,
1  and 2 
1  (2N  1)2 1  (2N  1)1  IL  K L
   e
Now just like the expression for r, I
0
transmissivity can also be expressed as,
1 Note: If the beam radiation incident is at an

    1  2 
2
 angle i and the angle of refraction is r then,
Length of path traversed by radiation
L
through the glass cover, AB =
Transmissivity considering absorption only: cos r
Transmissivity, based on absorption in a
I 
transparent glass cover can be explained by     L   eKL/cos r
Bouger’s law which states that “the attenuation  I0 
of intensity due to absorption is directly
proportional to the local intensity”.
Note: If there are N number of cover plates
i I0 (glass covers), then,
A
I 
   L   eNK L/cos r
 I0 
r Ix X
L
dx Absorptivity of Absorber Plate (α)
Absorptivity of the absorber plate is defined as the
ratio of the solar radiation absorbed by the absorber
B plate to the radiation incident to the absorber plate.
IL
Transmissivity-Absorptivity Product
Fig. 2.9 Absorption of the Beam Radiation Incident on
For the analysis of the solar collector, it is essential
the Glass Cover
to calculate the transmissivity-absorptivity
product (τα).
Let the intensity of beam radiation at a depth
It is to be noted that τ is the transmissivity of the
x from the top is lx. Then, decrease in radiation
cover plate (glass cover) and α is the absorptivity
intensity (attenuation) is given by,
of the absorber plate.
dIx  KIxdx
Transmissivity-absorptivity product (τα) is defined
Where, K is the proportionality constant known as the ratio of solar radiation absorbed by the
as extinction coefficient, a property of the absorber plate to the solar radiation incident on
material. the cover plate.
dIx Incident solar radiation
 K dx
Ix
1 Cover plate
IL L   Pd

dIx

I0
Ix
  K dx 
0
 Air

Absorber plate Pd P2d

lnIx 
IL
I0
  K x 0
L

 Pd P2d
lnIL  lnI0   KL
Fig. 2.10 Absorption and Reflection at the Absorber Plate

24 Solar Thermal Energy Collector

A fraction of incident solar radiation is transmitted

te r
pla rbe
through the cover plate and falls on the absorber

so
plate, where some radiation is absorbed by the

Ab
absorber plate and some gets reflected to the
cover plate. Out of the reflected part, a portion

L
Q

fo
is transmitted through the cover plate and the

L
Q
S
remaining gets reflected to the absorber plate.
This continues to happen though the quantities
involved gradually get reduced.

IT
The net radiation absorbed by the absorber plate
is given by,

uid

n
  net 

Fl

tio
   (1  ) d   (1  )2 d2  ...

ula
  net   1  (1  ) d  (1  )2 d2  ...

Ins
 

te er

L
Q
pla cov

  net  
1  (1  )d

fi
T
po
Where ρd = reflectivity of glass cover for diffuse

To
radiation.

L
Q
For beam radiation,
  b  Fig. 2.11 Thermal Losses in a Liquid Flat Plate Collector
  b 
1  (1  )d

For diffuse radiation,
  d 
  d  Qu  ApS  QL
1  (1  )d
The values of transmissivities of the cover plate
are different for beam and diffuse radiations but
the absorptivity of the absorber plate is the same
for both beam and diffuse radiations.
Thermal Analysis of a Liquid Flat Plate
Collector
Our main aim is to maximize the useful heat gain
from incident solar radiation. For this, thermal
losses have to be minimized.
There are three components of thermal losses:
Conductive loss: It can be reduced by providing
insulation on the rear and sides of the absorber
plate.
Convective loss: It can be reduced by keeping an
air gap (of stagnant air) of about 2 cm between
the cover plate and the absorber plate.
Radiative loss: It can be reduced by applying
spectrally selective absorber coating.
The heat flow process in a liquid flat plate
collector is shown below:
Useful heat gain, i.e., heat transfer rate to the
working fluid (in W) is given by,
Where, Ap → Area of the absorber plate (m2).
S → Solar heat flux absorbed by the absorber
plate (W/m2).
QL → Rate of heat losses by convection and
re-radiation from the top, by conduction and
convection from the bottom and sides of the
collector (W).
Also, the heat transfer rate to the fluid is given by,
 f  Tfo  Tfi 
Qu  mc
Where m  = mass flow rate of the fluid (kg/s).
cf = specific heat capacity of the fluid (J/kg-K).
Tfi = fluid temperature at the inlet of the collector
(K).
Tfo = fluid temperature at the outlet of the
collector (K).
Now, solar flux incident on the top of the collector
= total radiation falling on an inclined surface at
any instant, which is given by,
IT  IbRb  IdRd  Ib  Id  Rr
[ Already discussed in chapter 2]

Solar Thermal Energy Collector 25

 The flux absorbed by the absorber plate is
obtained if the above equation is multiplied by
“Transmissivity – absorptivity product (τα)”
∴ S  IbRb     b  IdRd  Ib  Id  Rr     d
Instantaneous collector efficiency (ηi)
Solar radiation incident on the cover plate is AC
IT. But during transmission through the cover
plate, a fraction of this energy is lost. Therefore,
solar heat flux absorbed by the absorber plate
is AP S. Again some part of this energy gets lost
from the absorber plate whereas the remaining
is the useful heat gain which is transferred to the
working fluid.
In this context, instantaneous collector efficiency
is the ratio of useful heat gain to radiation falling
on the collector.
useful heat gain
i 
solar radiation incident on the collector
Qu

AC IT
Where,
AC is the collector gross area, i.e., area of the
topmost cover including the frame (generally, AC
is 1.15 to 1.20 times AP) and IT is solar flux incident
on the top of the collector.
Stagnation temperature
In case the flow of liquid through the collector is
stopped, the useful heat gain and the efficiency
becomes zero. In this case, total heat absorbed
by the absorber plate is lost to the surroundings
and the absorber plate attains a temperature so
that APS = QL. This is the maximum temperature
that the absorber plate can attain and is known
as stagnation temperature.
yy Knowledge of stagnation temperature helps
select an appropriate material of construction
for the manufacturing of a collector.
yy Instantaneous collector efficiency (ηi) and
stagnation temperature are used to indicate
the performance of the collector and also for
comparing the design of different collectors.
Plate effectiveness
It is defined as the ratio of the heat conducted
through the absorber plate to the tubes or
26
channels, to the heat which would have been
conducted if the thermal conductivity of the
absorber plate material was infinite.
Collector efficiency factor (F’)
The collector efficiency factor (F’) is defined as
the ratio of the actual useful heat gain rate to the
useful heat gain rate which would occur if the
collector absorber plate were at the local fluid
temperature (Tf ) for a given location.
The value of F’ is between 0.90 and 0.95.
Collector heat removal factor (FR)
The collector heat removal factor (FR) is defined
as the ratio of the actual useful heat gain rate
to the useful heat gain rate which would occur
if the collector absorber plate were at inlet fluid
temperature (Tf1) everywhere.
The value of FR is between 0 and 1.
Heat loss from the absorber plate
The collector loses heat from its top, bottom and
the sides,
 QL  Qt  Qb  Qs
Where,
Qt → rate of heat loss from the top
Qb → rate of heat loss from the bottom
Qs → rate of heat loss from the sides
Also, total heat loss from the collector is given
by,
QL  UT AP  TP  Ta 
Where,
QL → total heat loss from the collector
UT → Total heat loss coefficient
AP → Area of the absorber plate
TP → mean temperature of the absorber plate
Ta → temperature of the surrounding air
Now if Ut, Ub and Us are the top loss coefficient,
bottom loss coefficient and side loss coefficient
respectively, then heat loss from the top, bottom
and sides respectively are
Qt  Ut AP (TP  Ta )
Qb  Ub AP  TP  Ta 
Qs  Us AP  TP  Ta 
 Total loss coefficient, UT  Ut  Ub  Us
Solar Thermal Energy Collector
 Qt  (TP4  Tc41 )
Note: Useful heat gain (Qu) for the flat plate
AP

 hpc1 TP  Tc1 
1 1
collector can also be given by the following  1
P c
equation:
 (Tc41  Tc42 )
Qu  FR AP S  UT  Tfi  Ta   
 hc1 c2 Tc1  Tc2   1 1
 1
c c
Where,
FR → Collector heat removal factor  
 hw Tc2  Ta   c (Tc42  Tsky
4
)
AP → Area of the absorber plate Where,
S → Solar heat flux absorbed by the absorber plate hpc1  Convective heat transfer coefficient
UT → Total loss coefficient between absorber plate and the first cover
Tfi → Fluid temperature at the inlet of the collector plate
Ta → Temperature of the surrounding air hc1 c2  Convective heat transfer coefficient
between the first cover plate and the second
Top loss coefficient (Ut)
cover plate
From the top surface of the absorber plate, heat hw → Convective heat transfer coefficient between
loss takes place mainly due to convection and the second cover plate and the ambient air
re-radiation from the top of the absorber plate, TP → Average temperature of the absorber
in the upward direction. plate
Following assumptions are necessary to simplify Tc1 , Tc2 → Temperature of the cover plate 1 and 2
the determination of Ut: respectively
1. Steady and 1-D heat transfer. Ta → Ambient temperature
2. Negligible temperature drop across the TSky → Effective temperature of the sky with
thickness of glass covers. which radiative heat transfer takes place
3. Transparent glass covers and the absorber plate   Stefan-Boltzmann constant
create a system of infinite parallel surfaces. p , c  Emissivity of absorber plate and cover
4. A transparent glass cover acts to be opaque plate
for long wavelengths. yy Above three equations can be used to
A schematic diagram of a flat plate collector with determine Qt, which can be used to find Ut by
two cover plates is shown below: using the formula, Qt  Ut AP (TP  Ta )
yy Empirical correlation for effective temperature
TSky
of the sky is given by,
TSky  Ta  6
Ta
hw
yy Empirical correlation to be used to determine
Tc2 e the convective heat transfer coefficient
hc1-c2 between the second cover plate and the
Tc1 e ambient air,
hP-c1 hw  5.7  3.8 V
Tp P Where hw is in W/m2K and V∞ is the wind
speed in m/s,
Fig. 2.12 Flat Plate Collector with Two Cover Plates

Solar Thermal Energy Collector 27

 Bottom Loss Coefficient (Ub):

Ls Glass cover

Qs Absorber
L3 plate

Insulation Lb

Qb
Fig. 2.13 Bottom and Side Losses from a Flat Plate Collector

From the bottom surface of the absorber plate, TP  Ta

heat loss takes place mainly due to conduction and
convection from the bottom of the absorber plate,
in the downward direction. Mostly, the thickness
of insulation provided in the bottom is such that
the convection is negligible and heat loss takes
place predominantly by conduction only. Also, it is
assumed that heat transfer is steady and 1-D.
If ki is the thermal conductivity of bottom
insulation and Lb is the thickness of bottom
insulation then,
k surface area of the transparent cover plate
Ub = i
Lb
Side Loss Coefficient (Us):
In this case also, it is assumed that convection is
negligible and heat loss takes place predominantly
by conduction only. Also, it is assumed that heat
transfer is steady and 1-D.
Let the dimension of the absorber plate be L1 X L2
and the height of the collector casing is L3.
Therefore, sideways heat transfer area (As) = 2 (L1
+ L2) L3. Let us assume that the side insulation
thickness is Ls.
Average temperature drop across side insulation
T −T
= P a
2
T T
 Qs  2 L1  L2  L3 ki P a
2 Ls
Qs  Us AP  TP  Ta   Us L1 XL2   TP  Ta  or lenses and losses on account of geometrical
2 L1  L2  L3 ki
Qs 2 Ls
Us  
 1 2   TP  Ta 
L XL L1 XL2   P a
T  T
L1  L 2  L 3 ki

L1 XL2 XLs
 1 1  L3Ki
Or, Us    
 L 1 L2  Ls
Solar Concentrating Collector
We have seen that in a flat-plate collector, the
(glass cover) and that of the absorber plate are
practically equal. Thus, the solar radiation intensity
is uniformly distributed over the glass cover and
the absorber plate. As a result, the temperature of
heat transport fluid can be raised only up to 100°C.
If somehow, solar radiation falling over a large
surface of the glass cover is concentrated to a
smaller surface area of the absorber plate or
receiver, then the temperature can be increased
beyond 100°C. This concentration of solar
radiation is achieved by using the concept of
optics and optical systems such as reflecting
mirrors or refracting lenses which are used for
this purpose.
Mirrors or lenses concentrate the solar radiation
onto a smaller area of the absorber.
yy The reflection or absorption losses in mirrors

28 Solar Thermal Energy Collector

 imperfections in the optical system are taken Compound parabolic collector (CPC)
care of by a term known as ‘optical efficiency’. yy It consists of two parabolic reflectors (mirrors)
yy A solar tracking mechanism is used to track attached to a flat absorber (receiver).
the sun all the time for higher collection yy The parabolic reflectors are oriented in such
efficiency. a way that focus of one is located at the
Important terminologies used in Solar Concentrating bottom endpoint of the other in contact with
Collector the receiver.
1. Concentrator: Optical subsystem that yy Solar radiation in the central region of the
projects incoming solar radiation onto the aperture reaches the absorber directly
absorber plate. whereas those near the edges undergo one
2. Aperture (W): It is the opening of the or more reflections before reaching the
concentrator through which solar radiation absorber.
passes. yy A concentration ratio of 3-7 can be achieved.
3. Acceptance angle (2θa): It is the angle across Aperture
which solar radiation may deviate from the (transparent cover)
normal to the aperture plane and then reach
the absorber. Section of Section of
parabola 2 parabola 1
4. Concentration ratio (CR): It is the ratio of the
Reflector
effective area of the aperture to the surface (concentrator)
area of the absorber.
Focus of Focus of
Types of concentrating collectors parabola 1 parabola 2

There are a number of concentrating collectors

developed so far and many are in development Flat absorber
(receiver)
stage. We will discuss some of the important
concentrating collectors.
Fig. 2.15 Compound Parabolic Collector (CPC)
Modified flat plate collector (flat plate collector
with booster mirrors):
yy Geometry of CPC
yy In this arrangement, the flat absorber
(receiver) is provided with plane reflectors Axis of parabola 1 Axis of parabola 2
(called booster mirrors) at the edges. The
reflectors require periodic adjustments.
yy A concentration ratio of 4 can be achieved.
yy A temperature yield of 140°C can be achieved. Parabola 1 2A
H Y Parabola 2

X
Reflector 0
(Concentrator)
b
Reflector
(cpncentrator) Fig. 2.16 Geometry of CPC

Flat absorber Width of aperture = W

(receiver)
Width of absorber = b
Acceptance angle = 2θA
Fig. 2.14 Modified Flat Plate Collector (Flat Plate Height of aperture = H
Collector with Booster Mirrors) Length of aperture = L

Solar Thermal Energy Collector 29

 W 1
� Concentration ratio (C)    Receiver tube Focal circle
b sin A
(absorber)
yy The ratio of aperture height to aperture width,
H 1 1  1  1 
W
 1 
2 sin A  cos A  2  1  C  1  2 
  C 

concentrator area A A
�  conc.  conc.  1  C
Aperture area Aa WL

Cylindrical parabolic collector

yy A metal tube receiver (absorber) with the
selective coating is placed at the focal line of
a cylindrical parabolic reflector.
Mirroe strips
yy A concentration ratio of 5-30 can be achieved.
Fig. 2.18 Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator Collector
Receiver
(absorber)
Fresnel lens collector:
yy Fresnel lens consists of fine, longitudinal
Focal line
grooves on the surface of refracting material
Reflector
(acrylic plastic sheet) on one side and flat on
the other side.
Fig. 2.17 Cylindrical Parabolic Collector yy Fresnel lens has a large aperture and short
focal length.
yy If the width and length of the aperture are W yy The angle of grooves is designed to bring
and L respectively and the outer diameter of radiation to a line focus, where a receiver tube
the absorber tube is DO then the concentration (absorber) is provided to absorb the radiation.
ratio is given by, yy A concentration ratio of 10-30 can be achieved.
effective aperture area  W  D0  L yy A temperature yield of 150-300°C can be
C  
absorber tube area D0 L achieved.
 W  D0 

D0
Fresnel
Fixed mirror solar concentrator collector lens
yy Owing to the difficulty in manufacturing such
a large mirror unit in a cylindrical parabolic
shape (in the cylindrical parabolic collector),
long, narrow, flat mirror strips are used in this
collector.
yy It consists of fixed mirror strips arranged on
a circular reference cylinder with a tracking
receiver tube (absorber). The receiver tube is Receiver tube
made to rotate about the center of curvature (absorber)
of the reflector module to track the sun.
Fig. 2.19 Fresnel Lens Collector

30 Solar Thermal Energy Collector

Paraboloid dish collector (Scheffler solar
concentrator):
yy It is a point-focused type of collector in which
solar beam radiation is focused at a point in
the paraboloid.
yy A two-axis tracking mechanism is required to
track the sun all the time.
yy A concentration ratio of 100 to a few thousand
can be achieved.
yy A temperature yield of 3000°C can be
achieved.
Receiver
Concentrator
Supporting base
Fig. 2.20 Paraboloid Dish Collector
Hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator:
yy A linear receiver (absorber) is pivoted about
the center of curvature of the hemisphere to
intercept all the reflected radiation from the
hemispherical bowl mirror.
yy A two-axis tracking mechanism is required to
track the sun all the time.
yy It provides less concentration ratio than that
in paraboloid dish concentrator, owing to
spherical aberration.
Centre of
curvature
Absorber
Spherical
mirror
Fig. 2.21 Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator
Solar Thermal Energy Collector
Central tower receiver (central receiver with
heliostat):
yy Solar radiation is incident on a field of
heliostats (an array of flat mirrors). Upon
reflection, it is received by a centrally located
receiver on a tower.
yy Heliostats spread over a large area on the
ground, surrounding the tower.
yy Heliostats follow the sun to direct the beam
radiation on the receiver from all sides to
harness maximum solar heat.
yy A concentration ratio of as high as 3000 can
be achieved.
yy A large amount of heat energy collected in the
central receiver can be extracted by the water
flowing through the receiver and delivered
at a temperature and pressure suitable for
driving the turbines for power generation.
Central Receiver Sun
rays
Heliostats
Fig. 2.22 Central Tower Receiver
Limit to the Concentration Ratio
Solar radiation falling over a large surface of
the glass cover is concentrated to a smaller
surface area of the absorber plate or receiver.
This is achieved by using the concept of optics
and optical systems such as reflecting mirrors
or refracting lenses. However, there is a limit to
the concentration of solar radiation that can be
achieved.
31
 Aperture Maximum concentration ratio for a 3-D collector
Absorber (dish having compound curvature):
plate
1
max Cmax, 3D  2
sin max
max
Drawbacks of solar concentration collector:
Source
yy Needs tracking system which introduces
Fig. 2.24 Limit to the Concentration Ratio a certain amount of complexity in the
design.
Let 2ϕmax be the acceptance angle yy Maintenance also increases.
Maximum concentration ratio for a linear 2-D yy Costlier than solar flat plate collector.
Collector: yy Much of the diffuse radiation is lost because
1 it does not get focused.
Cmax, 2D 
sin max

Practice Exercise

1. The value of the concentration ratio of the (C) 0.2 to 0.4

flat plate collector is:
(A) 100
(B) 1000
(C) 1
(D) 10
2. In solar flat-plate collectors, the absorber
plate is painted with selective paints. The
selectivity is the ratio of: [ESE 2018]
(A) Solar radiation-absorption to thermal
infrared radiation-emission.
(B) Solar radiation-emission to thermal
infrared radiation-absorption.
(C) Solar radiation-reflection to thermal
infrared radiation-absorption.
(D) Solar radiation-absorption to thermal
infrared radiation-reflection.
3. In a solar collector, the function of the
transparent cover is to: [ESE 2016]
(A) Transmit solar radiation only.
(B) Protect the collector from dust.
(C) Decrease the heat loss from the collector
beneath to atmosphere.
(D) Absorb all types of radiation and protect
the collector from dust.
4. The value of the heat removal factor, FR of a
flat plate collector lies in between:
(A) 0.8 to 0.9
(B) 0.9 to 0.95
(D) 0 to 1
5. Consider the following statements:
1. The collector efficiency factor is defined
as the ratio of the actual useful heat gain
rate to the useful heat gain rate which
would occur if the collector absorber
plate were at the local fluid temperature
for a given location.
2. The heat removal factor is defined as
the ratio of the actual useful heat gain
rate to the useful heat gain rate which
would occur if the collector absorber
plate were at inlet fluid temperature
everywhere.
Select the correct option:
(A) Only statement 1 is correct.
(B) Only statement 2 is correct.
(C) Both statements 1 and 2 are correct.
(D) Neither statement 1 nor statement 2 is
correct.
6. Which type of flat-plate collector is used to
heat the swimming pools with the plastic
panel, utilizing solar energy? [ESE 2019]
(A) Pipe and fin type
(B) Full water sandwich type
(C) Thermal traps type
(D) Corrugated plate with selective surface
type

32 Solar Thermal Energy Collector

7. In a solar tower power system, each mirror
is mounted on a system called: [ESE 2020]
(A) Regenerator
(B) Linear Fresnel
(C) Dish
(D) Heliostat
8. In which type of collector is solar radiation
focused into the absorber from the top,
rather than from the bottom? [ESE 2020]
(A) Fresnel lens
(B) Paraboloid
(C) Concentrating
(D) Compound parabolic
9. A flat plate collector is 150 cm wide and
180 cm high and is oriented such that it is
perpendicular to the sun’s rays. Its active
area is 90% of the panel size. If it is in a
location that receives solar insolation of
1000 W/m2 peak, the peak power delivered
to the area of the collector will be:
 [ESE 2020]
(A) 1.23 kW
(B) 2.43 kW
Practice Exercise
1. Draw an equivalent thermal-circuit diagram
of a liquid flat plate collector with two glass
covers considering the thermal resistance
of glass covers. Neglect thermal resistance
from sides. [ESE (Mains) 2020]
2. A compound parabolic collector, 2m long
(L), has an acceptance angle (2θa) of 30°.
The absorber surface of the collector is flat
and has a width (b) of 20 cm. Calculate the
concentration ratio (C), the aperture width
(W), the height (H), and the surface area
(Acon) of the concentrator.
 [ESE (Mains) 2021]
3. Parabolic trough collector-based solar
thermal power plants with thermal
storage are becoming popular as they can
Solar Thermal Energy Collector
(C) 4.46 kW
(D) 6.26 kW
10. A surface having high absorptance for short-
wave radiation (less than 2.5 μm) and a low
emittance of long-wave radiation (more than
2.5 μm), is called: [ESE 2020]
(A) Absorber
(B) Emitter
(C) Selective
(D) Black
11. The concentration ratio of as high a value as
3000 can be obtained by: [ESE 2022]
(A) Modified flat plate collector
(B) Compound parabolic concentrator
(C) Cylindrical parabolic concentrator
(D) Central tower receiver
12. During winter, the tilt angle of a flat plate
collector at a location having latitude angle
ϕ should be:
(A) ϕ + 450
(B) ϕ + 150
(C) ϕ - 450
(D) ϕ - 150
generate power even during off-sunshine
hours. Explain the working of such a plant
with a neat sketch. Also explain the basic
thermodynamic cycle, on which such plants
operate, using a T-s plot.
 [ESE (Mains) 2020]
4. Write down the comparison of solar
collectors on the basis of concentrating and
non-concentrating types and compare them.
What are the performance indices used in
solar collectors?
5. Show all the heat losses taking place
from a flat plate solar collector with the
help of a sketch. Using energy balance,
develop performance equations and explain
graphically also. [ESE (Mains) 2017]
33
 6. The hotel industry intends to replace its
existing electric water heating system with a
solar water heating system. The requirement
for hot water is around 5,000 litres per day.
The proposed solar collector area is around
100 m2 and the average solar radiation
falling can be considered as 500 W/m2. If
the collector efficiency is 60%, estimate the
reduction in the electric bill of the hotel on
a yearly average basis. Consider the cost
of electricity as ` 6/kWh. Make suitable
assumptions wherever required. Consider
the average value of the length of the day
as 10 hours. Also, estimate the temperature
rise of water for given radiation and collector
efficiency data. Assume Indian context.
Assume electric geyser efficiency as 95%.
 [ESE (Mains) 2018]
7. A solar flux of 800 W/m2 is incident on a flat
plate solar collector used to heat water. The
area of the collector is 4 m2 and 90% of the
solar radiation passes through the cover
glass and is absorbed by the absorber plate
as shown in the figure. The remaining 10%
is reflected away from the collector. Water
flows through the tube passages on the
back side of the absorber plate and is heated
from an inlet temperature, Ti to an outlet
temperature, T0. The cover glass operating
at a temperature of 30°C has an emissivity
Answer Key
1. (C) 2. (A)  
3. (C)  
4. (D)  
5. (C)  
6. (B)   7. (D)
11. (D) 12. (B)
34
of 0.94 and experiences radiation exchange
with the sky at –10°C. The convection
coefficient between the cover glass and the
ambient air at 25°C is 10 W/m2K.
a. Obtain an expression for the rate at which
useful heat is collected per unit area
of the collector, qu′′ , by performing an
overall energy balance on the collector.
b. Determine the value of qu′′ .
c. Calculate the temperature rise of the
water, T0-Ti, if the flow rate is 0.01 kg/s.
Assume specific heat of water to be 4179
J/kgK.
d. Calculate the collector efficiency. Note
that the collector efficiency is defined as
the ratio of the useful heat collected to
the rate at which solar energy is incident
on the collector.
Data: σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2k4
Gs
Cover glass
Air space
Absorber plate
Water tubing
Insulation
 [ESE (Mains) 2017]
 
8. (A)  
9. (B) 10. (C)
Solar Thermal Energy Collector