BIOLOGY

FIFTH GRADE

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BY: LAITH MAMDOOH

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 SYNTAX - ‫طريقة االستعمال‬

* = Indicates information that comes from the

small (Did you know?.. Add to your
information..) paragraphs

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* and * = blanks
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Red Text = Definitions / Functions

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—> = Function indicator

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Purple Text = Author's notes

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Orange/Green text = blanks

& = Indicates True or False

# = Question from the Chapter Review

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 Chapter 2
Respiration and Gas Exchange

Introduction
Q/ How did primitive organisms use to get energy?

A/ Primitive organisms used to get necessary energy from glycolysis reactions, through
which one glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvic acid.

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Q/ Where is glycolysis used?

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1. Glycolysis is common for both aerobic and anaerobic reactions to produce energy.
2. The energy producing cycle involves photosynthesis and glycolysis.
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Q/ What are the disadvantages of the energy producing cycle/carbon cycle?

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A/ Disadvantages of this cycle are:

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1. Less than (0.1%) of energy releases during glycolysis reactions.

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2. High concentration of respiration products is poisonous for organisms.

3. High concentration of oxygen that is produced in photosynthesis is poisonous for
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some organisms.
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4. Glycolysis does not supply carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

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Q/ What are the main reactions of the carbon cycle?

A/ (1.)Photosynthesis, (2.)glycolysis and (3.)respiration are the main reactions of the carbon
cycle in nature.

*The sun is the main source of energy on earth.

#Q/ Some organisms can survive without food ingestion for several months but they cannot
survive without oxygen for minutes?

A/ Some organisms can produce energy from stored lipids without digestion for several
months but they need to take oxygen continuously because they cannot store oxygen.

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&Organisms have different structures, organs or systems for respiration. (T/F)

Cellular Respiration
Q/ Explain cellular respiration.

A/
1. Glucose is broken down into water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in cellular
respiration, and energy is released at the end of the reaction.
2. Glucose, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids are the reactants of cellular
respiration. Enzymes which are activated by ions and coenzymes are used during

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cellular respiration.
3. Cellular respiration can be summarized by the following equation:

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C6H12O6 + 602 ———————> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)
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ATP (Adenosine Three Phosphate): Is an important compound that provides energy for
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muscular contraction, secretion, impulse transmission, and active transport.

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Q/ What’re the functions of ATP?

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1. Provides energy for muscular contraction, secretion, impulse transmission, and
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active transport.
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2. Chemical bond energy obtained from ATP is used in the synthesis of complex
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molecules. For instance, during the production of proteins from amino acids, ATP is
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converted into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate).

#Glycolysis: It is a reaction in which glucose is used as the primary source of energy for
metabolic activities. It is common in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Q/ How is glycolysis performed?

A/
1. Glucose is the primary source of energy. Glucose is activated by consuming 2 ATP.
2. The activated glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.

#Q/ 2 ATP is used at the beginning of glycolysis?

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A/ Because glucose is activated by consuming 2 ATP and it is then broken down into 2
molecules of pyruvic acid.

Phases of Cellular Respiration

*Aerobic respiration occurs in four phases.

Q/ Where do the phases of cellular respiration occur?

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1. Breaking of glucose molecules into two molecules of pyruvic acid (phase 1) occurs in

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the cytoplasm.
2. The remaining four phases occur in mitochondria.

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The phases below will contain the answer to “Explain the processes of the _____ phase in
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aerobic respiration.” unless stated otherwise.
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Phase 1
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1. Glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules pyruvic acid during reactions
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that take place in the cytoplasm.

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2. NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is reduced by hydrogen.

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NADH: Is a coenzyme that is used in the production of ATP.

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NADH —> Used in the production of ATP

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Phase 2

1. Pyruvic acid molecules pass into the mitochondria and transform into Acetyl CoA by
the separation of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
2. NAD molecules are reduced by hydrogen molecules that were separated from
pyruvic acid. (NADH)

Phase 3 (Citric Acid Cycle)

1. It takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.

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 2. FADH (Flavin Adenine dinucleotide), NADPH, and CO2 are formed in the reactions.
3. Two citric acid cycles happen for one molecule of glucose.

#Matrix: Is the space within the inner membrane of the mitochondria in which the citric acid
cycle takes place. The enzymes in it facilitate the reactions which are responsible for the
production of ATP.

Phase 4

1. The ETC (Electron Transport Chain) makes up the final stage of aerobic respiration.
2. In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain lines the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion.

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3. These energised electrons of hydrogen (H) are released during glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle and they’re transported through the ETS in the form of (NADPH+H) and

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FADH.

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4. As they move from molecule to molecule, the electrons lose some of their energy.
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This energy is used in the production of energy by chemiosmosis.
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5. Electrons are finally gained from oxygen and water is formed. (34) ATP is produced
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at the end of ETS (Electron Transfer System).

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Cristae: are long folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria.

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*The inner membrane of mitochondria has many long folds called cristae.
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Respiration in Plants
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#Q/Explain the respiratory structure of plants.

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1. Plants don’t have a specialized respiratory system but they have a structure for gas
exchange.
2. Plants get oxygen from the atmosphere through tiny openings on leaves called
stomata and they take dissolved oxygen in water through roots then to the xylem
vessels. Then, this oxygen diffuses to the plant cells.
3. Plants don’t need oxygen during the day when it is provided through
photosynthesis.
4. Produced carbon dioxide is released from the plant’s body through stomata or by
diffusion from outer cells.

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*Plants don’t have a specialized respiratory system but they have a structure for gas
exchange.

Stomata: Are tiny openings on the surface of leaves through which plants get oxygen from
the atmosphere.

Q/ Plants don’t need oxygen during the day. Explain.

A/ Plants don’t need oxygen during the day when it is provided through photosynthesis.

Gas Exchange Mechanisms

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Q/ What are the gas exchange mechanisms in plants?

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A/ The gas exchange mechanisms in plants are (1.)stomata and (2.)lenticels.

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a. Stomata
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#Stoma: Is a tiny structure that is formed by the differentiation of the epidermal tissue and
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it plays a role in the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the leaf’s tissue and the atmosphere.
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Q/ Explain the gas exchange mechanism of stomata

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1. The stoma is a tiny structure that is formed by the differentiation of the epidermal
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tissue and it plays a role in the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the leaf’s tissue
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and the atmosphere.

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2. A stoma is composed of a pair of bean-like cells known as guard cells with a space
between them, known as the stomal opening.
3. The inner walls of the stoma’s guard cells are thicker than the outer walls. This
difference has a role in the opening and closure procedure of stomata.

b. Lenticels

Q/ Explain the gas exchange mechanism of lenticels.

A/

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 1. The epidermis of the plant forms a protective layer on the surface of young, tall
plants and the outer tissue becomes woody as the plant matures and ages.
2. The stomata lose their ability to function and are replaced by lenticels.
3. Lenticels maintain gas exchange between the woody plant and the atmosphere and
are found mostly on the roots, stems and branches.

Lenticels →Maintain gas exchange between the woody plant and the atmosphere.

*Hydrophytes absorb dissolved oxygen in water by their body surface.

Respiration in Animals

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*The respiration mechanisms of animals vary according to their living conditions.

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Levels of Respiration sE
#Q/ What’re the levels of respiration in animals?
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A/ Respiration occurs in three levels in animals;

1. External respiration: Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion takes place between
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blood and respiration surfaces.

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2. Internal respiration: Gas exchange takes place between blood and body cells.
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3. Aerobic cellular respiration: It is the breaking down of glucose in cells to produce

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energy. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are released at the end.

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Breathing Mechanisms
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Respiration: is the exchange of gases between an organism and its environment (taking in
oxygen and releasing CO2).

Q/ What’re the different organs used in respiration in animals?

A/ There are different organs used as respiratory organs by different organisms, including:
1. Body surface
2. Gills
3. Trachea
4. Lungs
5. Skin

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Q/ What is the function of trachea in animals?

A/ Trachea are systems of pipes. Branches of these pipes penetrate all tissue to facilitate
the diffusion of gases into all regions of the body.

Q/ Give examples of animals that respire through gills/lungs.

A/
● Gills ⇒ Mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, fish and amphibians respire through
gills.
● Lungs ⇒ Adult amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs.

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Q/ What’s the most important feature of gills?

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A/ The most important feature of gills is that they absorb oxygen dissolved in water.
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Respiration in Invertebrates
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#Q/ What’re the types of respiration in invertebrates?

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A/ There are three types of respiration in invertebrates:

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1. Cutaneous respiration
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2. Gill respiration
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3. Tracheal respiration
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a. Cutaneous Respiration
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#Q/ Explain cutaneous respiration in invertebrates.

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1. Unicellular organisms provide gas exchange by simple diffusion through the cell
membrane.
2. Invertebrates, like hydra and planaria, use different methods to provide gas
exchange. Their wide body surface provides enough area to take enough oxygen.
3. More developed invertebrates, like earthworms, provide gas exchange through their
body surface and oxygen is transported to cells by circulatory system.

Q/ How do hydra and planaria provide gas exchange?

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A/ Hydra and planaria provide gas exchange by diffusion through their wide body surface
and body extensions.

b. Gill Respiration

Gills: Are the respiratory organs of aquatic organisms. They’re formed from the projections
of epithelium and are closely associated with the circulatory system.

Q/ What’re some examples of invertebrate animals that use gill respiration?

A/ Starfish and sea worms have gill respiration.

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c. Tracheal Respiration

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Q/ What’re some examples of invertebrate animals that use tracheal respiration?
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A/ Tracheal respiration is seen in terrestrial arthropods like centipedes and in insects with
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an exoskeleton like spiders.

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Q/ Explain tracheal respiration in invertebrates.

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1. The branches of trachea penetrate all tissues to facilitate the diffusion of gases into
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all regions of the body.

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2. Each trachea opens into the exterior of the body by a series of spiracles, with one
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pair in each body segment.

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3. In the tracheal system, gas exchange occurs at the tracheoles by simple diffusion.
4. Oxygen is transmitted from the spiracles to the tracheae, then through the
tracheoles and finally into the tissue.
5. Carbon dioxide follows the same pathway but in the opposite direction.

Respiration in Vertebrates

a. Cutaneous Respiration

Q/ Explain cutaneous respiration in vertebrates.

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A/
1. Some kinds of vertebrates like amphibia and some fishes use their skin for gas
exchange. For example, eels provide 60% of gas exchange by its skin which is rich in
blood capillaries.
2. Cutaneous respiration has a big role for amphibia during hibernation.

Q /What’re the advantages of cutaneous respiration in amphibia?

A/ Thickness of skin, being rich in blood vessels and the presence of mucous glands are
advantages of cutaneous respiration in amphibia.

#Q/ Cutaneous respiration is the best respiration for amphibia?

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A/ Because of its advantages, which include:

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1. Thickness of the skin.

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2. Being rich in blood vessels.
3. The presence of mucous glands.
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Q/ Some kinds of salamanders use cutaneous respiration?
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A/ Because they don’t have gills or lungs.

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*Salamander is an example of cutaneous respiration in vertebrates.

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b. Gill Respiration
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Gills →Extract dissolved oxygen from water and excretes carbon dioxide
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Q/ What’re gills composed of?

A/ Gills are composed of comb-like filaments, the gill lamellae, which help increase their
surface for oxygen exchange.

Gill lamellae →Help increase the surface of gills for oxygen exchange

Q/ Explain gill respiration in fish.

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A/ When a fish breathes, it draws in a mouthful of water at regular intervals. Then, it draws
the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through the gill openings, so the water
passes through the gills to the outside.

#Operculum: is the bony flap that protects the gills from harm. It opens and closes to allow
water to pass over the gills.

c. Pulmonary respiration (REMOVED)

Respiration in Amphibia

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Q/ Explain the respiration in amphibia.

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1. The lungs of amphibia are similar to small sacs as there are no folds on their
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surface.
2. Since the lungs are unfolded, no alveoli is present.
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3. In contrast to other vertebrates, the lungs in amphibia are attached directly to the
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pharynx and there’s no trachea.

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Respiration in Reptiles
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Q/ Explain respiration in reptiles.

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1. All reptiles breathe using lungs. In reptiles, the wall of each lung is folded to form a
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wider surface area for gas exchange than in amphibia.

2. Snakes differ from other vertebrates of their class since they have only a single lung.
The second lung is thought to have disappeared during metamorphosis.
3. The single lung of snakes resembles a long sack which function as an air tank when
the snake swallows its victim.

The single lung of snakes →Air tank when the snake swallows its victim

Respiration in Birds

Q/ Explain respiration in birds.

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A/
1. There are five air sacs attached to the lung. These sacs use much of the body cavity
to be filled with air. They penetrate the bones and connective tissue under the skin,
an aspect that is closely related to the flying ability of birds.
2. Trachea is divided into two bronchi. Then, bronchi are divided into bronchioles which
are connected to the bones via capillaries and air sacs.
3. Air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils and flows into the lungs and
then to the air sacs. Air sacs increase the oxygen storage capacity of birds.
4. The oxygen taken by the lungs passes into the blood and is carried to the body cells.

Q/ The structure of the respiratory system in birds is more sophisticated than in other
animals?

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A/ Because it includes air capillaries surrounded by a network of blood capillaries.

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#Q/ What's the importance of air sacs in birds? sE
A/ There are five sacs attached to the lung:
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1. They cause much of the body cavity to be filled with air.

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2. They penetrate the bones and connectivity tissue under the skin, and aspect that is
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closely related to the flying ability of birds.

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3. Trachea is divided into two bronchi. Then, bronchi are divided into bronchioles which
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are connected to the bones via capillaries and air sacs.

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4. Air sacs in birds increase the oxygen storage capacity of birds.

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Respiratory System in Humans

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Q/ What does the respiratory system of the human consist of?

A/ The respiratory system of the human consists of the following structures:

1. Two outer nostrils.
2. Nasal cavity that is covered with a mucosal membrane and contains many glands
that secrete mucus.
3. Two inner nostrils that open to the pharynx.
4. Pharynx, which is a common passageway for food and air. It contains a small piece
of cartilage known as epiglottis. It prevents the entering of food molecules into the
trachea.
5. Larynx, which contains vocal cords that help produce sounds. Hence, it is called a
voice box.

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Pharynx: It is a part of the respiratory system. It is a common passageway for food and air.
It contains a small piece of cartilage known as epiglottis, which prevents the entering of
food molecules into the trachea.

Larynx (voice box): It is a part of the respiratory system. It contains vocal cords that help to
produce sound.

#Q/ The larynx is called a voice box?

A/ Because it contains vocal cords that help produce sounds.

Trachea

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Q/ Explain the structure of the trachea in humans?

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1. It is a tube which is located in the chest in front of the esophagus. The inner surface
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of the trachea is covered with mucous glands and cilia.

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2. The mucous glands of the trachea secrete mucus which moistens the air and the
cilia catch and throw out foreign particles.
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3. The trachea is divided into two branches called bronchi. The main bronchi are
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divided into smaller branches called bronchioles and they’re located in the lungs.
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4. In the lungs, bronchioles are subdivided into air sacs which consist of small rooms
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called alveoli.
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5. Alveoli have thin walls surrounded by a network of blood capillaries which are
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branched from the pulmonary artery.

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6. The exchange of gas between blood and the environment occurs through the walls
of the alveoli.

#Alveoli: Are small rooms in the air sacs, whose walls are thin and surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries which are branched from the pulmonary artery. The exchange
of gas between blood and the environment occurs through the walls of the alveoli.

Q/ Where are lungs located in animals and humans?

A/ In animals and humans, the lungs are located in the thorax, which is separated from the
body cavity by a diaphragm.

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#Q/ Explain the structure of the lungs in humans.

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1. Lungs are surrounded by a thin, double-layered membrane known as the pleura.
2. The space between the pleural membranes covering the lungs and the pleural
membrane lining the thoracic cavity is called the pleural cavity.
3. A fluid in the pleural cavity provides lubrication between the lungs and the chest
cavity.
4. The lungs consist of many similar units known as alveoli, and they’re composed of a
single layer of squamous epithelial cells and are surrounded by a network of
capillaries. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange in the lungs.

Pleura: Is a thin, double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs.

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Pleural cavity: Is the space between the pleural membranes covering the lungs and the

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plural membrane lining the thoracic cavity. It contains a fluid which provides lubrication
between the lungs and the chest cavity.
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Respiration Mechanism
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*Inhalation, or breathing in, is the intake of air into the lungs. Exhalation, or breathing out, is
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the expulsion of air from the lungs.

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Q/ Explain the respiration mechanism in humans.

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a. During inhalation:
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i. The diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened and intercostal muscles

found between the ribs contract.
ii. The inner pressure of the lung decreases and the volume of the chest cavity
increases.
iii. At the end, the air passes through the respiratory organs and enters the
lungs.
b. During exhalation:
i. The diaphragm and ribs return to their normal position (diaphragm relaxes
and intercostal muscles relax).
ii. The inner pressure of the lungs increases and the volume of the chest cavity
decreases.
iii. At the end, the expulsion of air from the lungs to the outside happens.

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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport

#Q/ Explain the oxygen and carbon dioxide transportation in humans.

A/ The average daily oxygen requirement of a human is approximately 300 litres, and the
amount may increase 15-20 times depending on the physical activities. Carbon dioxide and
oxygen are transported in all organisms except insects.

Q/ The tracheal system is involved in the gas exchange of insects? / The blood in insects
does not function in respiration?

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A/ Because the blood of insects contains no respiratory pigments. Therefore, it performs no
function in respiration.

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Q/ What’s the most unique feature of blood?
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A/ One of the most unique features of blood is its high oxygen-carrying capacity, which is 6
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times greater than that of water.

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(P.36)
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**Gas exchange occurs between organisms and their environment. Oxygen is used and
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carbon dioxide is released.

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*Q/How do unicellular organisms provide gas exchange?

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A/ Unicellular organisms provide gas exchange through their plasma membrane by

diffusion.

*Q/How do multicellular organisms provide gas exchange?

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1. Small-sized multicellular organisms provide gas exchange through the body surface
by diffusion.
2. Big-sized multicellular organisms need a complete system to provide gas exchange.

*Metabolism: Is the sum of biochemical reactions that take place in cells.

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*Internal respiration: Is the gas exchange between blood and body cells.

*External respiration: Is the gas exchange between blood and the environment.

(P.41)

** A kind of frog called Rana has 20 cm2 area for each cm3 of air, while the human body has
300 cm3 area for each cm3 of air.

(P.43-44)

*Barn owls: Are owls that live in abandoned buildings, and they feed on small rodents.

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*Q/ What’re the functions of the feathers in barn owls?

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1. Large flight feathers: reduce the flapping sound of the wings.
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2. Short head feathers: help guide soundwaves towards the owl’s ears.
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*Q/ Barn owls have hooked beaks?

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A/ Barn owls’ hooked beaks help them tear meat.

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*Q/ Smoking shortens lives. Explain.

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A/ Many people could’ve lived 10, 20 or even 30 more years if they hadn’t smoked. Among
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1000 young people who smoke, about 6 will be killed on the roads, but about 250 will be
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killed before their time by tobacco.

*Q/ What’s the effect of smoking on pregnant women?

A/ Pregnant women who smoke run a greater risk of miscarriage and of their baby being
born premature or underweight.

(P.46)

*Hemoglobin: Is a pigment that consists of 5% iron (Fe) and 95% colorless proteins. It gives
red color to the blood and transports O2 and CO2.

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