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Solar desalination using humidification dehumidification processes.

Part I. A numerical investigation

Article in Energy Conversion and Management · May 2004

DOI: 10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00151-1

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 Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261
www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Solar desalination using humidification

dehumidification processes.
Part I. A numerical investigation
a,*
A.S. Nafey , H.E.S. Fath b, S.O. El-Helaby a, A.M. Soliman a

a
Department of Engineering Sciences, Faculty of Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Suez Canal University, Suez, Egypt
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
Received 20 May 2002; received in revised form 28 December 2002; accepted 2 June 2003

Abstract
A numerical investigation of a humidification dehumidification desalination (HDD) process using solar
energy is presented. The HDD system consists mainly of a concentrating solar water heating collector, flat
plate solar air heating collector, humidifying tower and dehumidifying exchanger. Two separate circulating
loops constitute the HDD system, the first for heating the feed water and the second for heating air. A
mathematical model is developed, simulating the HDD system, to study the influence of the different system
configurations, weather and operating conditions on the system productivity. The model validity is ex-
amined by comparing the theoretical and experimental results of the same authors. It is found that the
results of the developed mathematical model are in good agreement with the experimental results and other
published works. The results show also that the productivity of the unit is strongly influenced by the air
flow rate, cooling water flow rate and total solar energy incident through the day. Wind speed and ambient
temperature variations show a very small effect on the system productivity. In addition, the obtained results
indicate that the solar water collector area strongly affects the system productivity, more so than the solar
air collector area.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar collector; Humidification–dehumidification; Mathematical model; Desalination; Theoretical and

experimental work

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +20-62-580-550; fax: +20-62-360-252.
E-mail address: asnafey31@hotmail.com (A.S. Nafey).

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00151-1
1244 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

Nomenclature

A cross-section area (m2 )

b width of solar air collector (m)
C specific heat (J/kg K)
d diameter (m)
Gr Grashoff number
h heat transfer coefficient (W/K m2 )
i enthalpy of air (J/kg)
J interval number of solar heater
K thermal conductivity (W/K m)
l length of pipe (m)
M mass flow rate (kg/s)
N number of intervals
Nu Nusselt number
q heat flux (W/m2 )
Re reynolds number
s solar flux (W/m2 )
Pr prandtl number
T temperature (K)
t time (s)
U overall heat transfer coefficient
V volume (m3 )
v mean velocity of fluid (m/s)
W moisture content of air (kgwater /kgair )
w aperture width (m)
x distance (m)
z thickness (m)
a absorptivity
b coefficient of thermal expansion
c reflectance
l viscosity
s transmissivity
r Stefan–Boltzman constant
q density (kg/m3 )
e emissivity
Dx interval of distance (m)
Dt interval of time (s)
Subscripts
a air
amb ambient
anu annuals
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1245

conv convection
calculated calculated value
d fresh water
e envelope
g glass cover
guessed guessed value
in inlet
ins insulation
loss loss to ambient
m mean
o initial value
out outlet
p pipe
pl absorber plate
s stainless steel
st storage tank
rad radiation
t at time t
t þ Dt at time t þ Dt
x distance
w water
wb wet bulb
w1 water inlet to water heater
w2 cooling water inlet to air cooler
Dx interval of distance (m)
Dt interval of time (sec)
1 inlet to humidifier
2 outlet from humidifier
3 inlet to dehumidifier
4 outlet from dehumidifier
5 outlet from dehumidifier

1. Introduction

Solar desalination is a suitable solution to supply some remote regions in Egypt and other
countries with fresh water. The standard techniques, like multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect
(ME), vapor compression (VC) and reverse osmosis (RO), are only reliable for large capacity
ranges of 100–50,000 m3 /day of fresh water production [2]. These technologies are expensive for
small amounts of fresh water and can not be used in locations where there are limited mainte-
nance facilities. In addition, the use of conventional energy sources to drive these technologies has
a negative impact on the environment. Solar desalination processes are a future promising
technology and have the following advantages [3]. (i) solar energy is an environmentally friendly
1246 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

energy source and (ii) it is suitable for a few families or small groups in remote areas. Solar de-
salination can either be direct or indirect [3]. The direct solar HDD process (solar still) was in-
vestigated by Nafey et al. [4–6]. The indirect solar HDD process has the advantage of separating
the heating surface from the evaporation zone, and therefore, the heating surface is relatively
protected from corrosion or scale deposits. HDD is more costly, however, than the conventional
basin still solar desalination process [7]. Because of the simplicity of design, a modest level of
manufacturing technology is needed.
Very limited configurations of the HDD process have been developed. Fath and Ghazy [8]
studied numerically a configuration that consists of a solar air heater, humidifier and dehumidifier.
The feed water was not heated, and hence, the effect of water temperature was not considered in
their work. Abdel-Monem et al. [7] experimentally and theoretically investigated the main para-
meters that affect the productivity of the HDD process. Indoor tests with constant input energy to
the system were performed. The considered configuration consisted of a humidifier, condenser and
heating equipments for air and water. The effect of weather conditions was not considered, and the
unsteady state performance of the system was not, therefore, examined. Darwish [9] suggested a
system consisting of a solar pond, a humidifying column and a dehumidifying stack. Darwish
reported that the air flow rate has a strong effect on the system, however, the feed water flow rate
has a weak effect on the productivity. On the other hand, Al-Hallaj et al. [10] reported that the feed
water flow rate has a strong effect on the system productivity, and the effect of the air flow rate is
weak. The main objectives of the present investigation are to: (i) develop a flexible numerical model
based on the mathematical model of the process that will be able to simulate all possible system
configurations; (ii) evaluate this model experimentally and with other published works; and (iii)
examine the effect of system configurations on the system productivity and the influence of different
weather, operating and design parameters on the system productivity.

2. System description

A schematic diagram of the HDD system is shown in Fig. 1. The saline water is heated using a
concentrating solar water heater (c). The hot water is sprayed into the air humidifier (b). The air
enters flat plate solar heater (a) and then enters the humidifier (b), where it contacts the falling
preheated saline water. The remaining water is collected in a storage tank (e) and recirculated to
the solar water heater. The humid air passes through a dehumidifier (d) for dehumidification using
a cooling water exchanger. Fig. 2 illustrates the change of state of the air stream through the
HDD process.

3. Mathematical models

For the energy balance and governing equations of the system components the following as-
sumptions are considered [4,8,11].

1. The temperature distributions of the water along the absorber tube of the solar water heater
and the air temperature along the absorber plate of the solar air heater are dependent on
the distance from the inlet axis x and the time t.
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1247

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of (HDD) process.

Fig. 2. Change of state of air stream through HDD process.

2. The effect of the heat capacity of the construction materials for each component is ignored.
3. The energy stored in air (within the annular space between the absorber and the envelope) is
neglected.
4. The leaving water temperature from the humidifier is equal to the leaving air wet bulb temper-
ature Tw2 ðtÞ ¼ Twb2 ðtÞ.
5. The air leaving the humidifier is at saturation condition Twb2 ðtÞ ¼ Ta2 ðtÞ.
6. The dehumidification process lies on the saturation line Twb3 ðtÞ ¼ Ta3 ðtÞ, Fig. 2.
7. The dry bulb temperature of the air outlet from the air cooler is equal to the condensate tem-
perature and the outlet temperature of the cooling water Ta3 ðtÞ ¼ Tw4 ðtÞ ¼ Tw5 ðtÞ.
1248 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

8. The temperature distribution inside the saline water storage tank is homogeneous.
9. The effect of salinity on the water properties is neglected.

3.1. Solar water heater unit

As illustrated in Fig. 3(a), the energy balance equations for the solar water heater are written as
follows:

Fig. 3. Heat energy balance of the heating equipments. (a) Solar water heater, (b) solar air heater.
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1249

For the absorber tube element,

oTp ðj; tÞ
qp
Cp
Ap
Dxw
¼ s
w
Dxw
cs
se
ap  qconvp-w  qconvp-e  qradp-e : ð1Þ
ot
For the envelope element,
oTe ðj; tÞ
qe
Ce
Ae
Dxw
¼ s
w
Dxw
cs
ae þ qconvp-e þ qradp-e  qconve-amb  qrade-amb : ð2Þ
ot
For the water element,
oTwm ðj; tÞ _ w1
Cw
½Tw ðj þ 1; tÞ  Tw ðj; tÞ:
qw
Cw
Aw
Dxw
¼ qconvpw  M ð3Þ
ot

3.2. Solar air heater unit

As shown in Fig. 3(b), the energy balance equations for the solar air heater are written as
follows:
For the absorber plate element,
oTplðj;tÞ
qpl
Cpl
Apl
Dxa
¼ s
b
Dxa
sg
apl  qlosspl-amb  qconvpl-a  qradpl-g : ð4Þ
ot
For the glass cover
oTg ðj; tÞ
qg
Cg
Ag
Dxa
¼ s
b
Dxa
ag þ qradplg  qconvg-a  qconvg-amb  qradg-amb : ð5Þ
ot
For an air element
oTam ðj; tÞ _ a
Ca
½Ta ðj þ 1; tÞ  Ta ðj; tÞ:
qa
Ca
Aa
Dxa
¼ qconvpl-a þ qconvg-a  M ð6Þ
ot

3.3. Humidifier and dehumidifier

Using Fig. 4(a) and applying the energy balance equation for the humidifier unit, the following
equations are obtained:
Ma
ðia2 ðtÞ  ia1 ðtÞÞ ¼ Mw1
Cw
Tw1 ðtÞ  Mw2
Cw
Tw2 ðtÞ: ð7Þ
Applying the previous assumptions, it is found

 
 
Mw1 Mw1
ðia2 ðtÞ  ia1 ðtÞÞ ¼
Cw
Tw1 ðtÞ   ðW2 ðtÞ  W1 ðtÞÞ
Cw
Ta2 ðtÞ: ð8Þ
Ma Ma
Also, for the dehumidifier unit;
Ma
ðia2 ðtÞ  ia3 ðtÞÞ ¼ Mw3
Cw
½Tw4 ðtÞ  Tw3 ðtÞ þ Md ðtÞ
Cw
Tw5 ðtÞ: ð9Þ
Applying the previous assumptions, the following equation is obtained:



Mw3 Md ðtÞ
ia2 ðtÞ  ia3 ðtÞ ¼
½Ta3 ðtÞ  Tw3 ðtÞ
Cw þ
Ta3 ðtÞ
Cw ; ð10Þ
Ma Ma
where Md ðtÞ ¼ Ma
½W2 ðtÞ  W1 ðtÞ.
1250 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

Fig. 4. Heat and mass balance of the humidifier, dehumidifier and storage tank. (a) Humidifier and dehumidifier unit,
(b) storage tank.

3.4. Storage tank unit

The energy balance equation of the storage tank shown in Fig. 4(b) is written as follows:
dTws ðtÞ
qw
V
Cw ¼ Mw2 ðtÞ
Cw
Tw2 ðtÞ þ Md ðtÞ
Cw
Tw0  Mw1
Cw
Tws ðtÞ  Qloss : ð11Þ
dt

4. Solution of the model governing equations

An implicit finite difference scheme is used for solving the model governing Eqs. (2)–(7) and (12)
numerically. Using the sequential modular approach technique [12], the temperature of the output
stream from each unit is calculated by knowing the input stream temperature taken from the
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1251

previous unit. For the iteration procedure, the inlet water temperature of the solar water heater
and the inlet air temperature of the solar air heater are guessed. The calculation procedure then
marches along the solar water heater, the solar air heater, humidifier, dehumidifier and storage
tank. The outlet temperature of each unit is taken as the input for the next one. Finally, the outlet
water temperature from the storage tank and the outlet air temperature from the dehumidifier are
compared with the guessed inlet temperatures of the solar water heater and solar air heater. The
iteration is continued until the following inequality is valid jTcalculated  Tguessed j 6 0:01. The water
and air physical properties are calculated as functions of temperature [13]. The values of solar
intensity, ambient air temperature and wind speed are measured through the day and used as
input parameters of the computer program.

5. Results and discussion

The validity of the present mathematical model is examined by comparing the obtained results
with the Fath and Ghazy model [8] and Al-HallajÕs model [10]. Fig. 5 shows that the agreement is
good between Al-HallajÕs model results and the present model results under the same operating
conditions for the same configuration that consists of a humidifier, dehumidifier and solar water
heater. Fig. 6 shows also the agreement between FathÕs results under the same operating condi-
tions and the same configuration that consists of a humidifier, dehumidifier and solar air heater.
The effect of saline water temperature on the unit productivity of FathÕs configuration [8]
(humidifier, dehumidifier and solar air heater only) is investigated. It is found that at 0.0003 kg/s
of feed water flow rate, the effect of water temperature on the productivity is insignificant. This
may be because the total energy of the water is very small compared to the air energy gained by
the air heater. On the other hand, Fig. 7(a) and (b) show the significant effect of water temperature
on the productivity at 0.003 and 0.03 kg/s of feed water flow rate, respectively, at constant air flow
rate. This is because the total energy of the water is high as compared to the air energy gained by
the air heater.

4
P resent work
A l-H alla j [9]
Accumulative productivity (kg/m2)

1 M w = 0.008 kg/s,
M a = 0.004 kg/s

8 12 16 20 24

Time (hr)

Fig. 5. Comparison between present work and Al-Hallaj et al. [10].

1252 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

4
Present work
Fath[7]

Accumulative productivity (kg/m2)

3

1 Mw = 0.0003kg /s,
Ma = 0.03 kg /s

0
8 12 16 20 24

Time (hr)

Fig. 6. Comparison between present work and Fath et al. [8].

8 40
0
Tw=30 C
0
Tw=30 C 0
Tw=40 C
0
Tw=40 C 0
Tw=50 C
Accumulative productivity (kg/m2)

0
Accumulative productivity (kg/m2)

Tw=50 C
6 30

Mw=0.03 kg/ s
Ma =0.03 kg/ s
4 20

Mw =0.003kg/ s
2 10
Ma =0.03 kg/ s

0 0
8 12 16 20 24 8 12 16 20 24

(a) Time (hr) (b) Time (hr)

Fig. 7. Effect of water temperature on unit productivity.

Different configurations have been proposed for the HDD system. These configurations are: (a)
using air heater only; (b) using water heater only; (c) using air heater and water heater (open
loop); and (d) using air heater and water heater (closed loop). Fig. 8 illustrates these configura-
tions.
The effect of the system configuration on the system productivity is illustrated by Fig. 9. In this
numerical study, all the weather and operating conditions were fixed while different configurations
were considered. The measured operating values of solar radiation, ambient temperature, cooling
water temperature and wind speed during a day in August (6/8/2000) in Suez City, Egypt, are
shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The productivity of the system is increased by 64% for the second
configuration (with 1 m2 solar water heater only) compared to the first configuration (with 1 m2
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1253

Fig. 8. Different HDD system configuration.

solar air heater only). The system productivity is increased by 27% for the third configuration
(with 1 m2 solar water heater and 1 m2 solar air heater open cycle for air and water) compared to
the second configuration (with 1 m2 solar water heater only). Also, the system productivity is
increased by 20% for the fourth configuration (with 1 m2 solar water heater and 1 m2 solar air
heater closed cycle for air and water) compared to the third configuration. Therefore, the fourth
configuration proved be the most effective one and is considered in this work.
Fig. 12 shows the obtained numerical results, experimental results by Monem et al. [7] and the
experimental results by the same authors [1] of the system productivity. The agreement between
the experimental and numerical results is good. The shift between the Monem et al. [7] results and
the present work results is mainly because MonemÕs results were deduced in indoor tests under
steady state conditions. In the real outdoor operation, a delay time was noticed between the start
of a run and the start of fresh water production. It was also noticed that most of the energy
received in the early hours is used as sensible heat to warm the large mass of the unit (about 200
kg). In the late hours of the day, the energy loss from the system increased. The effect of water
flow rate on the system productivity at different values of air flow rate is illustrated in Fig. 13.
1254 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

Fig. 9. Effect of system configuration on productivity.

800 36

34
Solar intensity(W/m2)

600 Ambient temprature(˚C)

32

400

30

200
Ambient temperature 28

Solar intensity

0 26

8 12 16 20
Time (hr)

Fig. 10. Measured variation of ambient temperature and solar intensity during the day (6/8/2000).

Increasing the water flow rate will decrease the water inlet temperature to the humidifier and
decrease the rate of vaporization of water and, thus, decrease the unit productivity. Fig. 13 shows
also that increasing the air flow rate increases the productivity. This may be due to the fact that
increasing the air flow rate increases the entrained water vapor and, therefore, increases the
productivity. In addition, increasing the air flow rate increases the mass and heat transfer coef-
ficients inside the humidifier, which increases the rate of vaporization of water and, hence, the unit
productivity. The same results are shown in Fig. 14. Fig. 15 illustrates the effect of cooling water
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1255

36 10
Cooling water temperature Wind speed

Cooling water temperature(˚C)

8
32

Wind speed(m/s)
6

28

24
2

20 0

8 12 16 20 24
Time (hr)

Fig. 11. Measured variation of cooling temperature and wind speed during the day (6/8/2000).

1.6

Theoretical work
Experimental work
Monem [6]
1.2
Productivity (kg/hr)

0.8

0.4 Mw = 0.019325 kg/s,

Ma = 0.0147 kg/s,
Mcw =0.0625 kg/s

8 12 16 20
Time (hr)
Fig. 12. The productivity variation along the day time (6/8/2000).

flow rate on the system productivity at different values of cooling water inlet temperature. As
would be expected, by increasing the cooling water flow rate and decreasing the inlet cooling
water temperature, the surface temperature of the air cooler (system heat sink) decreased. As a
1256 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

Ma = 0.004 kg/s
Ma = 0.01 kg/s
8
Ma = 0.016 kg/s
Ma = 0.022 kg/s
Ma = 0.028 kg/s
Productivity (kg/day)

0 0.02 0.04 0.06

Feed water flow rate (kg/s)

Fig. 13. Effect of feed water flow rate on the productivity.

8
Productivity(kg/day)

Mw = 0.005 kg/s
4 Mw = 0.011 kg/s
Mw = 0.017 kg/s
Mw = 0.023 kg/s
Mw = 0.029 kg/s

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

Feed air flow rate(kg/s)

Fig. 14. Effect of feed air flow rate on the productivity.

result, the condensation rate and the unit productivity are increased. Fig. 16 shows the effect of
solar intensity on the productivity with various values of ambient temperature. Increasing the
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1257

Fig. 15. Effect of cooling water flow rate on the productivity.

Fig. 16. Effect of solar energy incident on the productivity.

solar intensity increases the total energy gained by the system that increases the temperatures of
both the water and air inlet to the humidifier. This leads to increasing the rate of water vapor-
ization and the unit productivity. Within the range studied, the ambient temperature has, how-
ever, an insignificant effect on the productivity. The effect of solar collector area on unit
productivity is illustrated in Fig. 17. The solar water heater area has more impact on productivity
1258 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

Fig. 17. Effect of solar collector area on the productivity.

than the solar air heater area. This is because the water temperature and, therefore, heat capacity
has more effect on productivity than the air temperature.

6. Conclusion

A numerical computer package was developed to simulate the HDD distillation system.
Comparing its obtained results with those of other published and experimental works tested the
simulation validity. Different HDD system configurations were examined, and the most effective
one consists of a solar air heater, solar water heater, humidifier, dehumidifier and storage tank.
The system productivity was found to be strongly affected by the solar intensity, air flow rate,
saline water flow rate and cooling water flow rate. The ambient temperature has an insignificant
effect on the system productivity. The solar water heater area has a greater impact on the system
productivity than the solar air heater area. At a small water flow rate, the water temperature has
an insignificant influence on the system productivity and vice versa.

Appendix A

qconvp-w ¼ p
Dpi
Dxw
hconvp-w
½Tp ðj; tÞ  Tm ðj; tÞ;

qlosspl-amb ¼ b
Dxa
Uloss
½Tpl ðj; tÞ  Tamb ;
 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261 1259

qconvp-e ¼ p
Dp0
Dxw
hconvp-anu
½Tp ðj; tÞ  Tanu ðj; tÞ;

qradpl-g ¼ b
Dxa
hradpl-g
½Tpl ðj; tÞ  Tg ðj; tÞ;

qradp-e ¼ p
Dp0
Dxw
hradp-e
½Tp ðj; tÞ  Te ðj; tÞ;
qconvg-a ¼ b
Dxa
hconvg-a
½Tg ðj; tÞ  Tam ;
qconve-amb ¼ p
De0
Dxw
hconve-amb
½Te ðj; tÞ  Tamb ;
qconvg-amb ¼ b
Dxa
hconvg-amb
½Tg ðj; tÞ  Tamb ;

qrade-amb ¼ p
De0
Dxw
hrade-amb
½Te ðj; tÞ  Tamb ;

qradg-amb ¼ b
Dxa
hradg-amb
½Tg ðj; tÞ  Tamb ;
qconvpl-a ¼ b
Dxa
hconvpl-a
½Tpl ðj; tÞ  Tam ðj; tÞ:

A.1. Calculations of heat transfer coefficient

1. Heat transfer coefficient between the pipe and the fluid:

For laminar flow

q
vw
d
Re ¼ < 2300;
l
"  1:33 # !0:14
0:0677
Re
Pr
dl l
Nu ¼ 3:66 þ  0:833
;
1 þ 0:1
Pr
Re
dl lp
Nu
K
hconvp-w ¼ :
d

For turbulent flow

5000 < Re > 106

"
2=3 # !
 0:75
 0:75 0:42 d l
Nu ¼ 0:037
Re  180
Re  180
Pr
1þ
:
l lp
2. Heat transfer coefficients between the pipe and the envelope:

q
g
b
ðTp  Tanu Þ
l3
Gr ¼ ; Nu ¼ 0:18:Gr0:25 ;
l2
Kair
Nu r
ðTp2 þ Te2 Þ
ðTp þ Te Þ
hconvp-e ¼  ; hradp-e ¼   :
D
rp
ln rrpe 1
ep
þ Dpp0
e1e  1
i
1260 A.S. Nafey et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 1243–1261

3. Heat transfer coefficients between the envelope and the ambient:

For 100 < Re < 107 ,
"
4=5 #
0:62  Re0:5  Pr0:33 Re
Nu ¼ 0:3 þ h  2=3 i3=4
1 þ 28:2000 ;
1 þ 0:4
Pr

hrade-amb ¼ ee
r
ðTe2 þ Tamb

2
Þ
ðTe þ Tamb Þ:

A.2. Calculations of heat transfer coefficients for air heater

1. Heat transfer coefficients between the plate, the glass cover and air:


0:8

0:8
K Dx:va K Dx
va
hconvpl-a ¼ 0:0336

; hconvg-a ¼ 0:0336

:
Dx m Dx m
2. Heat transfer coefficient between the plate and the glass cover:
r
ðTpl2 þ Tg2 Þ:ðTpl þ Tg Þ
hradpl-g ¼   :
1 1
epl
þ eg
 1

3. Heat transfer coefficients between the glass cover and ambient air:
hconvg-amb ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8
vwind ; hrade-amb ¼ eg
r
ðTg2 þ Tamb
2
Þ
ðTg þ Tamb Þ:
4. Heat transfer coefficients between the plate and the ambient air:
1
Uloss ¼ ; hconvpl-amb ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8
vwind :
1
hconvpl-amb
þ zins
k

5. Heat transfer coefficients between the storage and the ambient air:
1
Uloss ¼ ; hconvs-amb ¼ 5:7 þ 3:8
vwind :
1
hconvs-amb
þ kzstst

References

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