IMPLICATION OF GOVERNMENT’S INTERVENTION PROGRAMME IN

COMMUNAL CONFLICT: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SHARE-TSARAGI AND

ZANGO-KATAF COMMUNAL CONFLICTS IN NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA

Ameen . A. Abdulkadir 1 and Abdullahi Alabi 2

1
PhD. Department of Politics and Governance, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria. P.M.B 1530.

Corresponding author: ameeniyi@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8832-1620

2
PhD. Department of Politics and Governance, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria. P.M.B 1530.

ABSTRACT
Conflict and communal conflict to be specific is not alien to heterogeneous society, particularly in

developing climes. In the case of Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf Crises in Kwara and Kaduna, North

Central Nigeria, the conflicts have become an occurrence that hardly get resolved but hibernated over

some periods. There were individual, communal effort, government as well as third party intervention

from the media to manage the conflict. Government however remains the most noticeable and

disconcerted considering its primary responsibility to provide security of lives and property for the

citizens, a fundamental clause in the social contract theory of state. To restore the evaded peace,

resources; human and material were mobilized, hence the threat facing development in the conflicting

communities and the state in general due to diversion of huge resources meant for other developmental

projects to conflict management. At different instances, huge amount of money that could have been

dedicated to other developmental activities like hospital development, schools, good roads networking,

electricity and human capital development were used for conflict management. It is against this backdrop

that this study seeks to; know the extent of government’s effort in resolving the communal crises;

understand the implication of government intervention efforts in the communal conflicts. The work adopts

descriptive analytical technique which rest on primary data (interviews of 30 respondents who were kept

anonymous for ethical consideration), participant observation method and other secondary data to arrive

at its Findings. Findings from the study show that government has been negatively affected in its effort to

bring sustainable peace to affected areas. The price that the government paid could cover the cost of

solving numerous social, economic and health needs of the entire citizens. Government is therefore

advised not to wait to manage conflict. All its resources should be mobilized to prevent conflict at all

times. This can be successfully achieved by joining forces with major stakeholders and platforms that

could be instrumental to peace building e.g. media and traditional institutions, so that the resources

however small or large is equitably benefited by all citizens.

Keywords: Communal conflict, Conflict management, Conflict implication, Cost of peace and

Comparative study

Introduction
Usually, the phenomenon of communal conflict is not alien to heterogeneous society, particularly

in developing climes. In the case of Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf Crises in Kwara and Kaduna

State respectively, there were individual, communal effort and third party intervention from the

media to manage the conflict. Government efforts however appeared to be the most noticeable

(Abdulkadir-imam, 2020). Apart from deployment of security personnel to restore peace

through the use of force, the most manifest effort of the government in managing the crises is

through judicial commission of enquiry. There were four major efforts by government at

managing the communal crises in Share-Tsaragi, however, only one judicial commission of

enquiry was set up to look into the Zango-Kataf crisis as the crisis got to an unprecedented

escalatory stage that attracted local and international attention, hence the setting up of Justice

Rahila Cudjoe Commission of Enquiry. The report of the commission was however, not released

in any form. The researcher was privileged to access the unpublished copy of the report at the

Centre for Historical Documentation, Arewa House, Kaduna but all efforts to reproduce the copy

in any form proofed abortive. The director of the centre informed the research team that,

government deliberately decided not to release the report because of security reason. Hence,

referred statement could not be made about the report like it will be done for Share-Tsaragi

crisis.

However, cost implications of conflict in the two states under study are based on estimate

because of weaknesses in the data. The findings as supplied by government officials are in

approximation but they could provide basis to show case the degree of the threat facing

development in the conflicting communities and the state in general due to diversion of huge

resources meant for other developmental projects to conflict management. At different instances,

huge amount of money that could have been dedicated to other developmental activities like
hospital development, schools, good road networking, electricity and human capital development

were used for conflict management.

Around 5 billion naira was adjudged to be expended in Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf crises to

restore peace in the area (MRG, 2013, UCDP, 2013). Greater portion of the said amount falls

under security vote; an amount that is particularly devoted to state security under the discretion

of the state governor as spelled out in the Nigerian constitution. The discretionary nature of the

disbursement of fund meant to consolidate state security naturally makes it difficult to come up

with exact figure(s) spent on the conflict by government. It is against this shortfall that the

researcher broke down the cost to; tangible and intangible cost not neglecting social, health and

economic implications of government’s intervention programme in the communal crises.

Conceptual Analysis

Conflict occurs when there is disagreement between at least two parties whose paramount

objectives differ (Saliu and Aremu, 2013). Conflict is also conceptualized as a struggle over

values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the intention of the opponents is

to injure or eliminate their rivals (Coser, 1956). According to Nwosu, (2004) conflicts stem from

unsatisfied human needs, and in conflicts, people represent their interests, but not their original

needs. Thus, power and coercion will be used to arrive at those needs.

Suberu (1996) submitted that conflict is a structural violence rooted with inequalities in social

structures thereby leading to violence and conflict and unless those inequalities in issues like

resource control, federal character and ethnic identity are solved, violence will continue. Holmes

(2007:1) noted that conflict comprises three elements, which must all be present in order for
conflict to exist. Firstly, there is a specific perception by one or more of the people involved in

the conflict which may or may not be accurate, but it is believed by the conflicting parties.

Secondly, the perception is generally negative; one party believes the other party is interested in

doing something that will have a negative impact in some direct or indirect way. Thirdly, the

issue surrounding the conflict must be something that borders both parties and what they care

about. These three elements were present in the case of Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf crises.

There are two kinds of conflicts namely; functional and dysfunctional conflicts (Horgath, 1981).

i. Functional Conflict

This is when conflict and the goals of a work group, department, organization or

community do not necessarily lead to violence. The conflict situation here could have a very

positive impact on work quality and productivity (Horgath, 1981:6). It could lead to problem

solving. This is because the parties involved in conflict are still willing to work together,

functional conflict can bring about different but relevant ideas which subsequently lead to the

accommodation of more options develop creativity in the problem solving process, get people

interested in addressing the issue at hand and ultimately lead to better resolutions.

ii. Dysfunctional Conflict

This refers to disputes, disagreement and conflicts that hinder group performance. This type of

conflict which unfortunately is much more prevalent involves people who are not willing to

cooperate to bring about mutually advantageous solutions (Freud, 2016:2). In this type of

situation, conflict can grow very rapidly. That is why scholars of conflict management advocated

that conflict should be nipped at the bud once it arises. Dysfunctional conflict can bring about

many negative outcomes within an organization or community including poor communication,

discontent, impaired relationships, decreased productivity, reduced group cohesiveness and

absolute break down of law and order (Freud, 2016).

Irrefutably, communal conflict depicts a situation where two or more communities confront and

battle one another in competition for resources that they attach great importance to or value and

security of their people which have consequential effect on the communities expressed in terms

of loss of lives and property. Attempt to halt the continuous trend of the conflict usually

necessitate conflict management; an institutional framework put in place to control a situation of

unrest between two or more groups with contrary interest. Conflict management involves

embarking on negotiation, round table discussion and settlement. This is because numbers of

conflicts are put to a halt through this option after parties might have come to realize the futility

of military options, so conflict management must occur in polite atmosphere and context.

Findings and Discussion

Apart from deployment of security personnel to restore peace through the use of force, the most

noticeable effort of the government in managing the crises is through judicial commission of

enquiry. There were four major efforts by government at managing the communal crises in

Share-Tsaragi, however, only one judicial commission of enquiry was set up to look into the

1992 Zango-Kataf crisis as the crisis got to an unprecedented escalatory stage that attracted local

and international attention, hence the setting up of Justice Rahila Cudjoe Commission of Enquiry

in 1992. The report of the commission was however, not released in any form. The researcher

was privileged to access the unpublished copy of the report at the Centre for Historical

Documentation, Arewa House, Kaduna but all efforts to reproduce the copy in any form proofed

abortive. The Director of the Centre informed the research team that, government deliberately
decided not to release the report because of security reason. Hence, referred statement could not

be made about the report like it was done on Share-Tsaragi crisis.

Implication of Government intervention programmes in Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf

Cost implications of conflict in the two states under study are based on estimate because of

weaknesses in the data. The findings as supplied by government officials are in approximation

but they could provide basis to show case the degree of the threat facing development in the

conflicting communities and the state in general due to diversion of huge resources meant for

other developmental projects to conflict management.

Around 5 billion naira was adjudged to be expended in Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf crises to

restore peace in the area (MRG, 2013, UCDP, 2013). Large percentage of the said amount falls

under security vote; an amount that is particularly devoted to state security under the discretion

of the state governor as spelled out in the Nigerian constitution (Respondents 25 and 26). The

discretionary nature of the disbursement of fund meant to consolidate state security naturally

makes it difficult to come up with exact figure(s) spent on the conflict by government. The

researcher therefore, breaks down the cost as follows;

Economic implication

The economic costs of conflict management by government correspond to lose of resources that

could have been invested in projects that could benefit the citizens and the aggregate economy.

Total income of government and that of households decrease during the period of conflict. The

collection of taxes drops down due to losses in taxable production, tax evasion and squat

administrative capacity which in turn lead to accelerated inflation and budget deficit. The

economic cost can equally be subdivided into three;

Direct Economic Cost; caused by conflict and includes actual expenses.

Indirect Economic Cost; corresponds to lost resources and financial opportunities;

Intangible Economic Costs: do not have an exact price tag but basically affect people’s lives and

their aptitude for development.

Table 1: Implication of the Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf Communal Conflicts on the Economy

Direct costs Increase in military expenditure

Increase Funding for Policing

Allocation of fund to Judicial Commission

of Enquiry

Cost of care for refugees and displaced

people

loss of infrastructure and livelihood assets

Medical/rehabilitation costs due to

casualties

Indirect costs Reduced economic activities as a result of

insecurity.Reduced mobility of persons and

goods

Reduced workforce (due to high casualty

and eventual brain drain)

Capital flight to other states where there is

Direct costs Increase in military expenditure

Increase Funding for Policing

Allocation of fund to Judicial Commission

of Enquiry

Cost of care for refugees and displaced

people

loss of infrastructure and livelihood assets

Medical/rehabilitation costs due to

casualties

peace.

Macroeconomic impacts: reduced

investment, low savings, high inflation,

increased debt. Wealth transferred to illicit

economy like arm trade

Diminishing quality of life; Health and

Psychological wise.
Intangible costs

Reduction in job opportunities

Inability to access schools and other public

services

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2018)

Table 1 represents the broad categories of economic implication of government’s effort at committing

resources to conflict management in Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf. All the monies that should have

been used to attend to other pressing developmental demands were being used by government to respond

to the challenges posed by the conflict.

Health Implication

A study conducted by (Collier, 1999: 168, Jeremy & Ismail 2005: 9) affirms that the amount of

state expenditure diverted into conflict-related actions like military spending and conflict-related

health care is likely to rise at the expense of investment in basic services needed by people.

Citing the example of Zango-Kataf communal crises, respondent 21 noted that at household

level, families spend more money on healthcare to treat injuries, which in most instances

hindered them from sending their children to school. The same is applicable in Share-Tsaragi

where a typical household in the community are forced into debt to pay medical bills of injured

patients during the conflict. A typical example is one Akande Shazili that recorded a head injury

in the 2016 Share-Tsaragi crisis(respondents 22-24) but later gave up the ghost at Obafemi

Awolowo University, Ile-Ife after all efforts by his family to ensure his well being proofed

abortive due to poor funding of his medical needs.

A Consultant Plastic Surgeon at the Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital Zaria, narrated

the story of a 14-year old Kataf boy whose lower jaw was broken by a bullet during the Zango-

Kataf Crisis.

It took the boy more than one year to raise half of the money from friends

and family to correct the defect before government intervened and sponsored

his medical expenses. Within this period, he kept his shattered mouth

covered and had to cover a journey of about 4000 kilometer from his village
 to Zaria with his poor father who is a peasant farmer for the operation to

insert a plastic plate into his jaw, which took nine hours and cost

approximately 1,000,000 naira. In dissection, the cost implication of the

money spent by government on the operation could be equivalent to a year of

primary education for 100 children in public schools or money used for full

immunizations of 200 children against vaccine preventable diseases like

polio or full sponsorship of a student in medical school or human capital

empowerment for five petty traders and peasant farmers. (Respondent 30).

It is equally worthy to note that during conflict, the health impact could also lead to higher rates

of disease and infection due to forceful migration, poor nutrition, water pollution and sanitation

related problems. Government will therefore, need money to address all these problems.

Social Implication

The Share-Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf communal conflict have negatively impacted young boys

and men whose futures are promising. Some of the youths in the community venture into hard

drug sales and consumption. For instance, a visit to the controversial Zango-Kataf market during

the field work stage of this researcher was a conviction that many of Kataf youth

indiscriminately abuse hard drug. The market space was occupied by flame of Indian hemp and

perhaps Marijuana. It was my tour guide in the community that actually talked to the youth

before they allowed me into the market. Although, traders were not present because it was not a

market day as the Zango-Kataf community market is usually ran fortnightly (Alternate

Thursday), one would have mistaken the market for a hemp or marijuana trade fair.

Likewise in Share-Tsaragi some of the youth were found guilty of homicide before the Judicial

Commission of Enquiry while majority have turned manufacturing of local arms as well as
distribution and consumption of hard drugs to their job. The value system was equally eroded. A

high chief in Tsaragi confirmed that in the past youth listen and took instructions from

community elders, but now a day, it is the youth that dictate what to do for the elders, noting that

most of them are either under the influence of fire arms in their possession or hard drugs

(Respondent 5).

Studies show that although women are often not targeted in conflict as directly as men, women

experience as much mortality in the long run (Philips, 2000, Lawal, 2011). Women also suffer

seriously from lack of maternal health care due to protracted communal conflict. Also, recorded

in conflict times is significant numbers of rape, hence HIV infection will be more pronounced.

Reduction in individual opportunities and cutting down on potential actualization. When there

is no peace, people can hardly organize any forum to tap raw talents or benefit from the

grounded ones. Services such as tourism and transport are also affected. All these have

devastating effect on government’s agenda as it seeks all human and material resources to arrest

the distasteful situation. This would naturally cost huge amount of money that could have been

dedicated to other developmental activities like hospital development, schools, good road

networking, electricity and human capital development.

The exposure to violence and subsequent displacement leave individuals psychologically

disorganised. In some cases, the situation ends up in communal trauma. Some times when the

heat of communal conflict is high, institutions of civil societies, family, community and inter-

community links are severed and a culture of violence spreads. The destruction of trust leads to

more opportunistic or predisposing causes that are more likely to make the conflict resurface in

the future. Communal conflict based on ethnic or religious divide is particularly detrimental,
since hatred and mutual suspicion deepen among the divides. People are naturally waiting for

another conflict day to revenge previous affront on their part or loved ones. The impacts on

children can be severe, it could lead to poor socialization or loss of societal value and lost

educational opportunities for children, as it destroys education infrastructure, reduces spending

on schools, teachers and prevents children from attending classes.

In conclusion, prevention is always cheaper and better than cure. The monies that the

government spends on these conflicts are avoidable and could be used for other appealing

societal needs. The price that the entire country is paying could cover the cost of solving;

numerous primary health care problems, provide quality education, potable water, well equipped

schools, good roads and other needed infrastructure that could positively affect millions of

citizens. Government therefore needs not to wait to manage conflict. It should mobilize all its

tangible and intangible resources to prevent conflict at all times. This it can effectively do by

collaborating with major stakeholders that are more interested in peace building as well as

platforms that could facilitate societal peace like the media, so that the resources however small

or large is equitably benefitted by all citizens.

Communal Efforts at Managing the Conflicts

The findings from interview granted by respondents 5-19 indicates that there were community

meetings organised from time to time but the meetings are usually intra communal limited to the

indigenes of same community. It hardly cross boundary. According to a community leader from

Tsaragi;

The people of Tsaragi community have meeting day (the last

Saturday of every month). We also have a group which is a socio-

 cultural organization responsible for peace and development of this

community. But it has been difficult to have meetings with the

Share people because there was no intermediary, in fact we do

appeal and educate our people to be patient when conducting

businesses with them (Respondent 10).

The respondents resident within the communities explained that each community

organized meetings separately and the community elders frequently called for peace, but for both

communities in conflict; Share-Tsaragi or Zango-Kataf to be in a hall for a meeting on common

ground hardly happened. What is rather similar to communal effort at mediating the conflict is

when the government either local or state invited the community stakeholders to joint

community meeting (Respondents 9 and 18). The result shows that the traditional institutions

were not able to stage joint town hall meetings to stimulate peace in both communities and the

situation has affected the socio-economic development of the conflicting communities.

Efforts to Resolve the Conflict by Third Party

The interview finding reveals that what could be described as the reconciliation efforts by third

party(s) was the judicial commission of enquiry set up by government. Government usually

constitutes panels of inquiry largely as fact finding mission to understand the cause(s) of the

violence.

As put by a community leader from Kataf;

The Atyab Development Association wrote series of letters to

communicate to government on the need for them to set up a

committee to address the foreseen crises but government did not

 respond. The effort proved abortive, hence the unfortunate

incidence of 1992. All we saw after that was the Cudjoe

Commission of Enquiry (Respondent 13).

A high chief from Zango expressed similar view;

“The reconciliation efforts I know was the panel set up between our community and theirs

to find out the causes and way forward to resolve the crisis, that is all” (Respondent 11)

However, it was acknowledge that organization like the media was on ground to reconcile the

people of Share and Tsaragi following the 2015/2016 crises. A respondent from Share observed:

We are happy to see some people, they said they are from

Radio Nigeria, they have been working with us and our

leaders as well as the chiefs from other community based on

the last crisis that happened, we are now trying to look at

how to build up our relationship and discuss more on how to

avert crisis in the future (Respondent 18).

In an attempt to address the primary objective of this research; to know government’s

effort in resolving the crises, findings show that the fact-finding committee constituted by

government is what the majority of respondents viewed as the reconciliation efforts

(Respondents 6 to 15 ). Also according to the interview conducted with some of the informants,

the position of the government on the issue was not acceptable to most of the communities. For

instance the water works constructed by the Kaduna state government was believed to have

favoured one community. In Kwara state, finding reveals that there exists ill feeling between the

conflicting communities on certain issue, especially the core problem (land issue) and structural
violence caused by the creation of local government headquarters in Share, Ifelodun local

government at the expense of Tsaragi in Edu.

Appraisal and Comparative Analysis of Government’s Effort at Resolving the Share-

Tsaragi and Zango-Katat Communal Crises

As earlier advanced, there were individual and communal efforts to manage the Share-

Tsaragi and Zango-Kataf Crisis but government’s effort remains the most noticeable owing to

the fact that government is primarily charged with the responsibility of suing for peace in any

society. Therefore, government retreats to setting up commission of enquiry to mediate the issue

of unrest in the affected communities. The commissions at the end of their proceedings came up

with vital recommendations. Usually on the lead among the recommendations include;

permanent boundary demarcation and establishment of joint committee for the communities to

meet regularly and facilitate peace talk among themselves. The ideas remain savvy, because

there is no how the committee will be established and meet regularly that the attitude of the two

parties towards managing the conflict will not change from negative to positive if the committee

is well coordinated.

Meanwhile, apart from deployment of security personnel to restore peace through the use of

force, the most noticeable effort of the government in managing the crises is through judicial

commission of enquiry. There were four major efforts by government at managing the communal

crises in Share-Tsaragi, however, only one judicial commission of enquiry was set up to look

into the 1992 Zango-Kataf crisis as the crisis got to an unprecedented escalatory stage that

attracted local and international attention once, hence the setting up of Justice Rahila Cudjoe

Commission of Enquiry in 1992. It is instructive to note that the report of the commission was
not released in any form. The researcher was privileged to access the unpublished copy of the

report at the Centre for Historical Documentation, Arewa House, Kaduna but all efforts to

reproduce the copy in any form proofed abortive. The Director of the Centre informed the

research team that, government deliberately decided not to release the report because of security

reason. Hence, referred statement could not be made about the report like it was done on Share-

Tsaragi crisis.

Unlike the Zango-Kataf Crisis that witnessed only one judicial panel of enquiry as part of

government’s efforts at resolving the crisis, there were four major efforts by government at

managing the communal crisis in Share-Tsaragi in 1972, 2000, 2008 and 2015. Findings

however show that, there were failure by successive Government to implement the reports of

previous Commission of Inquiry and Administrative Panels established to investigate past

boundary disputes between the two communities. This has made the Tsaragi people to boycott

the last peace effort initiated by government in the community. When the researcher asked a

senior government official reason why the government as the chief mediator failed to implement

the reports of the commission, the official couldn’t place a definite reason before the researcher

but noted that it could be because of sensitive reason connected to state security. He equally

noted that government was working on permanent demarcation of boundary between Share and

Tsaragi to prevent frequent conflict between the two communities. Even in Zango-Kataf where

there was only one commission of enquiry set up to look into the Zango-Kataf carnage, similar

problem was encountered as government also refused to accord implementation of vital

recommendations of the commission priority. In fact, in the case of Zango-Kataf, report of the

commission of enquiry was not released. Reason why the report was withheld was also premised

on security concern as it was recorded in Share-Tsaragi case. Findings however reveal that, the
Kaduna State government despite refusal to release report of Judicial Commission of Enquiry,

later implemented the most vital recommendation of the commission which is permanent

boundary demarcation unlike the Kwara State government that has never withhold any report of

Judicial Commission of Enquiry but yet to see the need to implement permanent land

demarcation as an everlasting effort that can be made by government to restore permanent peace

to the area.

Conclusion

One other important thing to note is that government has been negatively affected in its effort to

bring sustainable peace to these areas. For instance, the monies that the government spends on

these conflicts are avoidable and could be used for other appealing societal needs. The price that

the entire country is paying could cover the cost of; solving numerous primary health care

problems, provide quality education, potable water, well equipped schools, good roads and other

needed infrastructure that could positively affect millions of citizens. This is attested to by a

study conducted by (Collier,1999: 168, Jeremy & Ismail 2005: 9).They affirmed that the amount

of state expenditure diverted into conflict-related engagements like military spending and

conflict-related health care is likely to rise at the expense of investment in basic services needed

by the people. Government therefore needs not to wait to manage conflict. It should mobilize all

its tangible and intangible resources to prevent conflict at all times. This it can effectively do by

collaborating with major stakeholders that are more interested in peace building as well as

platforms that could facilitate societal peace e.g media and traditional institutions, so that the

resources however small or large is used to advance development of the society and the citizens.

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