Kurdistan Regional Government

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Soran University Faculty of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

Environmental impacts of wastes

Prepared by:

Hadi Haji Hussein

Supervised by:

Dr.Karzan M. Khalid

Jan.- 2024
Contents
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................................1
1.Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................1
2.Classification of wastes ..............................................................................................................................................2
2.1.Non-hazardous waste ..........................................................................................................................................2
2.2.Hazardous waste ..................................................................................................................................................3
2.2.1.Classification of hazardous wastes...............................................................................................................4
2.3.Characterustics of hazardous waste .....................................................................................................................5
2.4.Categories of dangerous wastes ..........................................................................................................................6
2.4.1.Radioactive waste ........................................................................................................................................6
2.4.2.Chemical waste ............................................................................................................................................7
2.4.3.Flammable wastes ........................................................................................................................................7
2.4.4.Explosives ....................................................................................................................................................7
2.4.5.E-waste.........................................................................................................................................................7
3.Impact of wastes on environment and human health ..................................................................................................9
4.Waste management ................................................................................................................................................... 10
4.1.Early waste disposal .......................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2.Development in waste management .................................................................................................................. 11
4.3.Treatment, storage, and disposal ....................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.1.Treatment ................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.2.Surface storage and land disposal .............................................................................................................. 12
4.3.3.Secure landfills........................................................................................................................................... 13
4.3.4.Remedial action ......................................................................................................................................... 14
5.Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................ 15
References ................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Table of figure
Figure 1/hazardous waste identification process........................................................................................... 3
Figure 2/E-waste ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3/ Cycle of E- waste impact on environment and human health. ...................................................... 9
Figure 4/Schematic diagram of a secure dangerous-waste landfill with a double leachate series device... 14
Abstract
This report explores various aspects of waste management, including the classification of
wastes, the impact of wastes on the environment and human health, and the development in
waste management practices over time. It highlights the importance of properly managing waste
to protect public health and mitigate environmental pollution. The report also discusses the
different categories of dangerous wastes, such as hazardous waste, radioactive waste, chemical
waste, flammable wastes, and e-waste. It outlines the characteristics of hazardous waste and the
criteria for their classification. The report concludes by emphasizing the need for effective waste
management strategies, including treatment, storage, and disposal methods, to ensure a
sustainable and healthy environment.

1.Introduction
Most human activity generates waste. Despite this, the generation of waste remains a major
concern, as it has always been since ancient times. Recently, the amount and rate of waste
generation have also risen. As the volume of waste increases the diversity of the waste also
increases. Unlike the pre-Age period, in which waste was just a source of inconvenience that
ought to be thrown away. This was not a big issue, as the population itself was small and there
was a huge amount of land available to them. Population at that time. At that point, the
atmosphere readily absorbs the amount of waste generated. Any form of degradation. Starting
in the sixteenth century, great growth in waste production volumes occurred because, by that
time, people began to migrate. As a result of the industrial revolution, people have moved from
rural areas to cities. This migration of people to cities has resulted in a population explosion,
which has resulted in an increase in the amount and form of waste produced in cities. From that
time onward, new materials, such as metal and glass, came forth in considerable volumes with
municipal activities. Waste stream. Urban and community centers have a large population.
Indiscriminate littering and open dumps. In turn, these dumps became home to rats and other
pests. This poses serious risks to public health. This has resulted in several outbreaks owing to
unhealthy waste management practices. High mortality rates during epidemics. As a result,

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during the nineteenth century, public officials began dumping waste under controlled conditions
to protect public health.

Most developed nations have gone through a stage in which they are evolving in an
environmental way. Today, however, in many of these countries, most health and environmental
pollution problems are adequately managed. Associated with waste generation. On the flip side,
urbanization and economic growth in emerging-widespread countries are now causing a
recurrence of the same historical problems with which developed states have been faced.in the
past.[1]

An important question in modern day waste management is what precisely is waste? Waste is
a commodity or material that has lost its utility. In contrast to natural ecosystems, where waste
products (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic matter) are food or reactants, in human activities,
the wastes that result from them tend to be very persistent with a long decomposition period.
Legislators and governments should also define waste depending on risks related to the
environment and human health so that they can manage it well. It is necessary for the producer
or holder to determine whether the material has been regarded as waste. Waste data collection
and analysis, as well as domestic and international reporting requirements, also require
definitions.[11]

2.Classification of wastes

2.1.Non-hazardous waste
According to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, non-hazardous industrial
waste refers to the waste generated from
processes associated with the production of
goods, such as processing and manufacturing
products and electricity generation power plant
materials, including pulp, paper, iron steel
glass, and concrete. [6]

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2.2.Hazardous waste

Thus, by implication, waste is defined in terms of its properties that make it hazardous or
capable of adversely affecting human health and the environment. The sources of hazardous
waste include industrial manufacturing process wastes and batteries, which are available in
various forms such as liquids, solids, gases, and sludges.

The EPA designates a regulatory definition and approach that identify some particular
substances recognized to be hazardous, along with criteria for including other materials in the
universe of regulated hazardous waste. This identification process can be very complex, so the
EPA encourages waste generators to approach the issue using the series of questions described
below:

Figure 1/hazardous waste identification process.

For something to qualify as a hazardous waste material, it must first be solid waste. As a result,
the initial phase of identifying hazardous waste is establishing if an item constitutes solid waste.

The second step of this procedure looks into whether or not the waste is specifically excluded
from regulation as a solid or hazardous waste.

Once a generator makes the determination that their waste is defined as solid waste, they
proceed to check if this type of solid waste qualifies as hazardous. Lastly, some facilities
petitioned EPA to deregister their wastes under RCRA Subtitle C.[4]

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2.2.1.Classification of hazardous wastes

According to EPA greater than 450 listed wastes that are recognized to be hazardous are grouped
as F-List, K-List, P-List and U-List.[8]

1. F-list
The F-list list includes hazardous wastes originating from an indeterminate source that
comprises a number of industrial processes resulting in the formation of such waste.
Solvents used in degreasing, metal treatment baths, and sludge's waste waters from
plating operations that contain dioxin or their precursors comprise the list. The F-list is
distinguished based on the industrial activities that produce the waste. Based on the
nature of manufacturing or industrial processes emitting waste, they can be classified
into seven groups.
• Waste materials containing solvents
• Waste polluted with dioxins
• Waste from metal finishing processes
• Production of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons.
• Waste materials from the preservation of wood.
• Refinery waste
• Leachate from many sources

2. K-list
The K-list has dangerous wastes produced by particular industries.
processes and are classified as point-source wastes. The classification
K-listed hazardous waste needs to belong in any of the 13 categories mentioned.
Below:

Preservation of wood

• Manufacturing of organic chemicals

• Manufacturing of pesticides
• Refining of petroleum
• Manufacturing of veterinary pharmaceuticals

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 • Manufacturing of inorganic pigments
• Manufacturing of inorganic chemicals
• Manufacturing of explosives
• Production of iron and steel
• Production of primary aluminum
• Processing of secondary lead
• Formulation of ink
• Processing of coal to produce coke (coking).

3. P and U lists
components of pure and commercial formulations that remain unused.
disposed items come under P and U list. It needs the following for a P- or U-listed waste:
three criteria:
• The waste should have one of the chemicals found on either the P or U list.
• The chemicals in the waste used must be unused.
• The chemical in the waste has to be present as a commercial substance.
product.

2.3.Characterustics of hazardous waste

A hazardous waste characteristic is a property that, when found in any trash, should imply the
need for regulation. The EPA established four hazardous waste characteristics: ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity. [4]

1. Ignitability If the flash point of a waste is less than 60 degrees Celsius, then it will be
regarded as an ignitable hazardous waste. over 60°C, easily ignites and burns
aggressively as a hazard, or is available compressed gas or an oxidizer. Ex: Naphtha,
lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, and adhesives. And oil-based paints, etc.
2. Corrosivity
All kinds of wastewater whose pH is below 2 or over it. 12.5 is considered to be a
corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide In many industries, high pH and

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 hydrochloric acid (low pH) are used to clean. or degrease metal parts. Before painting,
leave waste solvents untreated. Contributes to corrosive hazardous waste.
3. Reactivity
When a material is unstable and reacts readily with water, it will be considered reactive
hazardous waste. water, and produces poisonous gases when in contact with the liquid
or attacked by corrosion perishable, or ignites in the presence of heat or a flame.
Reactive wastes would include waste powder, sodium metal, or the respective chemicals
in the form of waste. containing cyanides or sulfides.
4. Toxicity
A representative sample can be used to determine the toxicity of a hazardous waste.
Sample of the material tested in a certified laboratory. And toxic properties can be
established.

2.4.Categories of dangerous wastes

2.4.1.Radioactive waste

Radioactive waste may be referred to as a product of nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants,
hospitals, and research facilities. There is also radioactive waste present when nuclear reactors
and other facilities are decommissioned. There are two broad classifications: high-level waste
and low-level waste. The total high-level waste is primarily spent fuel that has been removed
from reactors after they have produced electricity. Low-level wastes derive from reactor
operations and also from medical, academic, industrial, and other commercial uses of
radioactive materials.[3]

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2.4.2.Chemical waste

Hazardous waste is a dangerous graft that arises as a result of the use of toxic chemicals in
health institutions, leading to human, animal, and environmental abuse. It ranges from
chemicals used for diagnosis, therapy, experiments, and research work in the lab, as well as
wound cleaning. The environment can be protected through recycling and minimizing the
consumption of waste. Other approaches include chemical treatments such as ion exchange,
rain, oxidation, or thermal methods that kill toxic particles when subjected to high temperatures.
Other physical treatments, such as sedimentation, evaporation, hardening floats, and filtering,
can be used, but these methods can contribute to air pollution. Some organic wastes also
undergo biological treatment methods.[2]

2.4.3.Flammable wastes

The category of hazardous waste also includes flammables. This classification is essential due
to the dangers associated with the storage, recovery, and disposal of flammable waste. The
flammable wastes would be either solid, liquid, or gaseous in nature. The types of flammable
waste include organic solvents, oils, plasticizers, and organic sludge. [9]

2.4.4.Explosives

The principal types of explosive hazardous wastes include ordnance (artillery) materials. The
explosives even have a high possibility of hazard when stored, collected, and discarded. These
kinds of wastes can be solid, liquid, or gaseous in nature.[9]

2.4.5.E-waste

E-waste describes the process of disposing of used or unwanted electronic equipment when it
becomes useless, replaced by something else, or disintegrated. It encompasses white goods,
such as refrigerators, and brown products that comprise televisions, radios, computers, and
mobile phones. The revolution in information and technology has resulted in a large number of
outdated products; hence, e-waste is among the fastest-growing waste categories on earth. E-
waste is a type of waste that differs from ordinary municipal waste and constitutes more than
5% of all solid waste produced in communities. The majority is recycled in developing countries
where informal and hazardous metal extraction and sale are prevalent. Recycling industries in
developed nations have stringent environmental laws and higher disposal costs, making

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shipping to underdeveloped countries more fruitful than recycling at home. Illegal
transboundary movement is also observed, with profiteers taking advantage of weak
environmental legislation and corrupt officials.[3]

Figure 2/E-waste

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3.Impact of wastes on environment and human health
Different types of waste affect the environment in different ways based on their composition as
well as how they are disposed of. While no empirical researchers point to waste as being connected
with the deterioration of human health, it is implicitly understood that waste has a direct impact
on societies and their states. When chemical wastes are not managed properly, it pollutes water
and air quality, which affects human health seriously. Other dangerous wastes for the environment
are hazardous waste and municipal solid waste. Corrosive, radioactive, toxic, or flammable
products are known to produce hazardous waste. This waste poses highly negative effects on
human health and life for people in contact with land, water, or air is strictly protected by the
government. Another kind of waste that is associated with municipal solid waste is landfills, which
are the largest source of human-related methane emissions. Methane emissions are quite harmful
for the environment and lead to some very serious consequences with regard to climate change.
The severity is due to the management facility’s location, design, and practices, which result in
methane being released into the atmosphere along with man-made waste decomposition. Options
that lead to the mitigation of those emissions include recycling and changes in product use.[7]

Figure 3/ Cycle of E- waste impact on environment and human health.

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4.Waste management
Waste management refers to the collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of materials
designated as waste. Waste materials, which can be solid, gaseous, liquid, or even harmful, are
usually generated from human living activities. In the past, developed nations have managed
their waste by dumping it in landfills or burning it in incinerators.[5]

4.1.Early waste disposal

In old urban areas, refuse was discarded into unpaved streets and roads, allowing it to decay in
situ. The first known rule banning such acts was created in Athens around 320 BCE. The
garbage disposal system originated in Greece and the Greek-led towns of the Eastern
Mediterranean. In ancient Rome, property owners were obligated to maintain cleanliness by
ensuring the tidiness of the streets next to their homes. Nevertheless, the implementation of
waste management systems was limited only to sanctioned state-sponsored occasions, such as
the parade. The disposal techniques used were very rudimentary, including the utilization of
exposed excavations located at the outskirts of urban fortifications. The increase in population
prompted efforts to dispose of rubbish in more distant places from urban centers.

Following the Fall of Rome, garbage collection and city sanitation had a prolonged deterioration
lasting around 10 centuries. In the early 1400s, individuals were assigned the task of managing
waste disposal sites located outside the limits. However, this was not the situation in small
towns, where the majority of individuals continued to dispose of waste on the highways.
However, it was not until 1714 that each and every city in England had a designated scavenger.
In the late 18th century, municipal waste collection had begun in Boston, Philadelphia, and New
York City in the United States. However, trash disposal systems continued to be rudimentary.
The waste accumulated in Philadelphia, for example, was simply disposed of in the Delaware
River just underneath the city.[10]

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4.2.Development in waste management

In the late 19th century, a technical approach to the management of solid waste began to emerge.
During the first stages of waste management, America constructed impermeable garbage
containers and used more robust trucks to transport the rubbish. The establishment of the first
rubbish incinerator in England was a significant milestone in the management and elimination
of solid waste. During the beginning of the 20th century, incinerators were already handling 15
percent of the solid waste in large cities throughout the United States. In addition, the majority
of the larger cities persisted in using rudimentary methods such as land or water dumping.

Technological advancements persisted over the first part of the twentieth century with the
introduction of trash grinders, compaction vehicles, and pneumatic collecting systems. The
realization that open dumping and improper combustion of solid waste caused environmental
issues and endangered public health only occurred by the middle of the 20th century. Hence,
the notion of sanitary landfills arose as an alternative to open dumping and to reduce the need
on incineration. Waste in most nations is often divided into two distinct categories: hazardous
and nonhazardous. Each category is subject to its own set of rules governing proper disposal
methods. Landfills were specifically designed and managed to mitigate risks to the well-being
and security of the general population. The newly constructed incinerators were designed to
harness the thermal energy generated from garbage and outfitted with advanced pollution
control technology that adhered to more stringent air quality standards. The majority of
advanced nations have implemented contemporary waste management facilities that prioritize
recycling and reutilization at the origin, while reducing reliance on incineration and land
disposal.[10]

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4.3.Treatment, storage, and disposal

Several options are available for unsafe-waste control. The ultimate goal is to reduce the amount
of waste at its source or recycle the substances for a few other efficient uses. Nevertheless,
while reduction and recycling are suitable options, they may no longer seem like the very last
treatment to the problem of hazardous waste disposal. There will continually be a desire for
treatment and for the garage or disposal of a small amount of unsafe waste. [10]

4.3.1.Treatment

Hazardous waste may undergo treatment by chemical, thermal, organic, and physical means.
Chemical procedures include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and
neutralization. Thermal methods, including high temperature burning, may effectively
neutralize and destroy organic pollutants. Nevertheless, these technologies provide a potential
risk of air pollution.

The biological solution, known as landfarming, involves the blending of waste with topsoil and
the introduction of microorganisms capable of metabolizing it. This approach may also be used
for bioremediation, which involves the stabilization of hazardous wastes on previously polluted
locations.

Physical treatment, on the other hand, focuses on altering the state or reducing the quantity of
waste using methods such as evaporation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Solidification
may be achieved by enclosing garbage in concrete, asphalt, or plastic, resulting in a solid mass
that is resistant to leaching. Waste may be combined with lime, fly ash, and water to create a
robust material similar to cement. [10]

4.3.2.Surface storage and land disposal

It is necessary to properly dispose of hazardous materials that cannot be eliminated by

incineration or chemical methods. Land disposal is the final destination, however it is not
always a desirable procedure because to the underlying environmental hazards. There are two
primary ways for disposing of land: landfilling and subsurface injection. Surface storage or
containment systems are often used as a temporary method prior to land disposal.

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Temporary on-site waste storage facilities include exposed trash mounds and ponds or lagoons.
It is necessary to build new garbage heaps on a basis that does not allow liquid to pass through,
meet all legal standards, and protect them from being scattered by wind or eroded. Leachate
technology necessitates the use of monitoring and control systems. Only solid garbage that is
not contained and does not flow may be placed in a newly created pile. When the pile becomes
unmanageable, the waste should be disposed of at a landfill.

A commonly used method for temporarily storing hazardous liquid waste is via the use of an
exposed excavation or reservoir known as a lagoon. It is necessary to use impermeable clay
soils and flexible membrane liners to protect groundwater while constructing new lagoons. It is
necessary to install leachate collecting systems between the liners, and it is mandatory to have
groundwater monitoring wells. Aquifers used for public water supply are under danger due to
the presence of old, unlined trash heaps and lagoons, which poses significant threats to human
health and the environment. [10]

4.3.3.Secure landfills

Disposing of hazardous solids or containerized garbage in landfills is subject to stricter

regulations compared to the disposal of regular municipal solid waste. Secure landfills need a
minimum of three meters of separation between the waste and the underlying bedrock or
groundwater. These landfills should be equipped with impermeable liners and leachate
collection systems, where the upper component prevents leachate buildup and the bottom
component acts as a contingency measure. The collected leachate is sent to a treatment facility,
while a non-porous cap or covering is installed on the landfill to reduce any damage to the
environment. A groundwater monitoring device equipped with deep wells dug across the site is
also necessary for regular sampling and testing to identify any leaks or pollution. In the event
of a leak, the wells may be pumped to catch the contaminated water and transport it to the
surface for treatment.

Liquid hazardous waste disposal involves the process of deep-well injection, which entails the
pumping of liquid waste through a metal casing into a permeable layer of limestone or
sandstone. Elevated pressures force the liquid into the pores and cracks of the rock, where it is

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permanently stored. Despite being very cheap and requiring little pre-treatment, it has the
potential of hazardous waste leakage and contamination of underground water sources. [10]

Figure 4/Schematic diagram of a secure dangerous-waste landfill with a double leachate series
device.

4.3.4.Remedial action

Disposing of hazardous waste in pits, ponds, or lagoons without lining them presents a risk to
both human health and the condition of the environment. Remediation is necessary for many
abandoned sites, often necessitating urgent intervention or the conduct of engineering
investigations. Off-site remediation is the entire extraction of waste material and its subsequent
transportation to a different place for treatment and appropriate disposal. This option is the most
costly. On-site remediation mitigates leachate generation and groundwater pollution by the
construction of a secure landfill and the substitution of the trash. Additionally, it may include
the remediation of polluted soil or groundwater. Remediated soil may be substituted in its

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original location, while remediated groundwater can be reintroduced into the aquifer by deep-
well injection.

An economically viable option involves implementing complete containment measures, such

as using an impermeable cover to seal the waste site and constructing subsurface cutoff walls
to prevent the lateral movement of groundwater. Cutoff walls are built along the site's boundary,
extending to a depth that reaches the impermeable layer, and then filled with a slurry made of
bentonite clay to avoid any collapse. The ditches are filled with a composite of earth and cement,
creating an impervious barrier. Cutoff walls function as vertical obstacles to the movement of
water, while the impermeable layer functions as a barrier at the bottom. [10]

5.Conclusion
In conclusion, waste management plays a crucial role in maintaining a clean and sustainable
environment. The increase in waste generation due to industrialization and urbanization has
posed significant challenges for waste management systems. However, with the development
of modern practices and technologies, waste management has evolved to address these
challenges. Proper classification of wastes, such as non-hazardous and hazardous waste, allows
for effective regulation and handling of different types of waste. The impact of wastes on the
environment and human health is undeniable, necessitating the implementation of proper waste
management practices to minimize pollution and protect public well-being. Treatment, storage,
and disposal methods have also evolved to ensure the safe and sustainable handling of wastes.
Overall, effective waste management is essential for creating a healthier and more sustainable
future for our planet.

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References
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