Engish Studdies

ENG1514/501/0/2024
Tutorial Letter 501/0/2024
Applied English Language for Foundation

Phase First Additional Language
ENG1514
Year module
Department of English Studies
This tutorial letter contains important information

about your module.
BARCODE
CONTENTS
Page
Unit 1: 7
Unit 2: 40
Unit 3: 103
Unit 4: 120
Unit 5: 151
Unit 6: 186
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Course Overview / Introduction

Welcome to ENG1514. This introductory module is designed to lay the foundation for the study
of the English language. It is a first-year module offered by the Department of English Studies
for Education students. The focus of the module is on content knowledge of English language,
NOT on the teaching of English.
In this introduction we outline the aims, outcomes, and content of the module, as well as how to
use the study material.
Aims
The module aims to
• lay foundations for the study of language by introducing students to the general
characteristics and functions of language and offering an overview of the basic levels of
language analysis.
• develop students’ knowledge of the four language skills, namely listening, speaking,
reading and writing, and the interrelationship between them.
• equip students with the conceptual knowledge that will help them to apply their language
competence and skills in various real-life contexts and domains; and
• enhance students’ language proficiency and literacy development.
Outcomes and Assessment Criteria

Outcome 1
Students can define language and discuss its characteristic features, functions, forms, and the
fundamental grammatical concepts necessary for them to achieve correct usage and
proficiency.
Assessment Criteria:
a) Students can explain language varieties, and the notion of register and appropriateness as
well as formal and informal language; and
b) Students know grammatical concepts such as number, tense, concord, case, gender, and
person and can use them in their writing and speech, and other real-life situations.
Outcome 2
Students can systematically identify and describe the different levels of language analysis and
their interrelationships.
a) Students can illustrate, with examples, the different sounds in English and phonological
features such as syllable structure, stress, intonation, and pitch.
b) Students are able to define words, and can explain what lexical and grammatical words
are and how words are formed.
c) Students can identify the different parts of speech; put words together to form phrases,
clauses, and sentences; deduce linguistic meanings from the sum total of the words that
constitute a sentence and can infer meaning from the context of situations.
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d) Students can distinguish between phonetics and phonology, phonology and morphology,
morphology and syntax, syntax and semantics, and semantics and pragmatics; and
e) Students are able to recognise how all the levels of analysis are interconnected.
Outcome 3
Students can identify and explain listening and speaking skills and relate these to
comprehension, speech, phonetics, and phonology.
a) Students can describe listening as a comprehensive receptive skill that can happen in
interactive and non-interactive situations.
b) Students can identify and discuss other skills such as recognising cohesive devices, word
boundaries, typical word order, stress, rhythm, and intonation patterns, they can recognise
distinctive sounds and reduced forms of words, as well as guess meaning from context.
c) Students can recognise speaking as an oral productive skill which takes place in
interactive, partially interactive, and non-interactive situations.
d) Students can discuss the various skills associated with speaking, such as pronunciation,
the use of intonation patterns and stress, the appropriateness of vocabulary according to
context, and distinguish between main ideas and supporting information; and
e) Students can demonstrate their understanding and mastery of phonemic awareness and a
complete phonetic code.
Outcome 4
Students can identify, discuss, and describe reading and writing as critical and productive life
skills that allow them to express themselves in different situations and for different purposes.
a) Students can identify and explain reading as a receptive and comprehension skill.
b) Students can identify different kinds of reading and recognise the importance of reading as
a life skill that supports writing, critical thinking, problem solving, analysis,
conceptualisation, and knowledge acquisition.
c) Students can develop and present their thoughts in a structured way and structure their
ideas logically using paragraphs and an appropriate style corresponding to the genre and
audience they are engaging with.
d) Students can use punctuation and spelling correctly; and
e) Students can apply and adapt their knowledge and competencies in real-life situations
(especially in the world of work) to solve problems, think critically and use language
appropriately and creatively to achieve different purposes.
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Module Layout
• There are six units in this module. Each unit is structured in the following way: Outcomes
of the unit; introduction; discussion of the major aspects of the topic; activities; feedback
and commentary; self-reflective questions (to ensure that you understand the content);
conclusion to the unit; references; glossary; self-assessment questions (that reflect the
outcomes of the unit); and feedback on the self-assessment questions.
• The various activities are intended to help you evaluate what you have learned after each
section of a unit. The self-reflective questions are particularly useful, because if you
answer ‘no’ to any of the questions, you are advised to revisit the sections concerned in
order to grasp the material fully. You are strongly advised to engage with, and complete,
the activities and self-assessment questions before checking your answers against the
feedback and comments. More comprehensive and extended feedback can also be
obtained from your e-tutors and face-to-face tutors.
• Numerous examples are provided in each unit to illustrate challenging linguistic concepts.
• Unit 1 deals with understanding language as a human phenomenon. It presents different
varieties of language and highlights critical language awareness. The unit ends with an
explanation of the basic grammatical concepts that are important for understanding the
structure and elements of the English language.
• Unit 2 is an important unit. It deals with the structure of the English language and how
words are built up to form phrases, phrases to form clauses, and clauses to form
sentences. It is a technical unit which has been written with detailed analyses and
examples. You are advised to read each section thoroughly before proceeding to the next,
as the sections build on one another.
• Unit 3 deals with speech and comprehension. A distinction is made between the receptive
and productive skills of language, while the different types and stages of listening are
highlighted.
• Unit 4 focuses on reading comprehension, the importance of reading, different reading
stages, reading strategies and their application, as well as the relationship between
reading and writing.
• Unit 5 deals with writing and comprehension. It explains the purpose and function of
writing, the different writing stages, the application of other language skills in the process
of writing and what is required to write for different purposes. Practical examples are
provided to help you navigate through the writing process.
• Unit 6 is a very practical unit that helps you develop important language competencies
such as dictionary and thesaurus skills, vocabulary building, spelling, the construction of
grammatically correct sentences, and how to identify common errors and self-correct
them. It is a unit that will enrich your academic writing skills.
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Prescribed Textbooks
There are two prescribed textbooks for this course. Each student is required to buy these
books. They will be available at a discounted price at all Unisa official booksellers. The
textbooks are:
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. 4th ed. London:
Routledge. ISBN 9780367001780
Wyse, D., Jones, R., Bradford, H. & Wolpert, M.A. (2013). Teaching English, Language and
Literacy. 3rd ed. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780367001773
Recommended Reading
Horne, F. & Heinemann, G. (2003). English in Perspective. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
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Unit 1: Understanding Language

Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
• define language, its features, and functions.

• make a distinction between formal and informal, and standard and non-standard language,
particularly in a multilingual context.
• define the importance of critical language awareness.
• explain the concepts of register and genre.
• explain basic grammatical concepts; and
• distinguish between oral, written, and visual communication.
Introduction
In this introductory unit, we will be looking at language as a means of communication that
distinguishes human beings from all other species. We will start by defining language using
several definitions that have been provided by linguists. This will help us to understand certain
characteristic features that will be discussed further in the unit, as well as the distinct functions
of language. Thereafter we will distinguish between formal and informal language, and between
standard and non-standard language. In addition, we will be explaining what it means to be
critically aware when we engage with language in either its written or its spoken form. We will
also define and explain register and genre. In preparation for our study of the structure of the
English language (discussed in Unit 2), we will define and explain basic grammatical concepts.
We will conclude the unit by considering the differences between oral, written, and visual
communication.
Read Chapter 4 in Wyse et al. (2013).
When we think about what language is, we can easily provide many definitions of, and uses for,
language. Can you imagine what our lives would be like if we did not have language? I imagine
it would be challenging to ask people to do certain things for us, or for other people to instruct
us to do certain things for them. Without language, it would be almost impossible to
communicate or interact with one another. It is therefore important to understand what language
is, and how and why we use it. Let us look at a few definitions of language, as provided by
linguists.
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Defining Language
“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
cooperates” (Bloch & Trager, 1942:5). What we can see from this definition is that language is
represented by symbols that are both arbitrary and vocal. Perhaps you are asking yourself what
that means. The arbitrariness of language simply means there is no predictable relationship
between symbols and what they represent. Furthermore, there is mention of group cooperation
in the definition. Already we can see that a language belongs to a group and is used to facilitate
cooperation.
Henry Sweet (1964:6) further unpacks the meaning of language when he writes: “Language is
the expression of ideas by means of speech sounds combined into words. Words are combined
into sentences, this combination answering to that of thought and ideas.” What stands out in this
definition is the mention of speech sounds, which on their own may not make sense, but when
they are combined into words that can also be developed into sentences, they enable us to
express our thoughts and ideas. In both definitions, the emphasis is on the use of speech
sounds and vocal symbols.
“Language is a set of a finite number of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a
finite set of elements” (Chomsky, 1957:13). In other words, according to Noam Chomsky, all
languages have a finite number of letters in their alphabet. Each sentence that is produced in a
language is made up of letters of the alphabet. For example, the sentence: I like you is made up
of the letters: I-L-I-K-E-Y-O-U. Even though languages have a set number of letters of the
alphabet and speech sounds, we can come up with endless combinations of these speech
sounds and letters to create new words and sentences when we communicate. In other words,
this definition adds to that of Sweet in the sense that it makes us aware of the fact that the
number of words or sentences we can create in a language is unlimited.
These three definitions lead us to the features or properties of language. Our discussion of the
features of human language will primarily be based on the well-known design features
provided by Hockett (1960) and modified over the years by other linguists such as Yule (1985,
1996) and Lyons (1981). These features are presented as follows:
1. Arbitrariness: as we have seen in the definition provided by Bloch and Trager (1942), there
is no predictable relationship between the words of a language and their meanings or the
ideas they convey or represent. In other words, a word that is chosen to name a thing or
idea is purely random. However, once a word has been chosen to label something, it
remains as such. For example, there is nothing in the word ‘h-a-n-d’ that links it to a hand
as we know it, but all English speakers have accepted what the word ‘hand’ refers to. This
is applicable to all languages. For instance, other languages (including our own) have
different words for the same concept. That is why ‘hand’ is referred to as isandla in isiZulu,
iletsogo in Sesotho and mkono in Swahili. Now think of words in your own language and
note that there is no link between the letters that form them and what they mean or refer to
in our physical world. The arbitrariness of language allows different languages of the world
to refer to the same thing (e.g., ‘dog’), using different names. This feature also explains
why language is referred to as conventional: once a speech community agrees on what
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words to call certain objects/ideas/thoughts, those words become accepted by everyone

and therefore become correct standard usage that is expected of all members of that
society. The arbitrariness and conventional nature of language also explain why there are
as many languages as there are different societies in the world. Without this feature,
everybody in the world would speak only one language.
2. Language is symbolic: this feature is also related to the arbitrariness of language, as
discussed earlier. When a child is born, s/he acquires the ability to use symbols that
include sounds and gestures. All languages consist of various sound symbols and their
written counterparts that are used to refer to (or label) objects, occurrences, or meanings.
Again, these symbols are chosen randomly and are conventionally accepted and used.
This means that words in a language are not mere signs or figures, but symbols of
meaning. That is why we can only understand a language if we know what its signs stand
for. A good example of this is the use of sign language by the deaf, or our understanding
of traffic signs and what they mean. This feature also helps us to understand that meaning
can be conveyed by means other than words. This explains why we use body language
(e.g., eye and bodily movements, gestures, facial expressions, posture and even clothing)
for non-verbal communication, and why communication can also be conveyed through the
arts, dance, and theatre.
3. Duality: this characteristic refers to the organisation of language at two levels. The first
level relates to humans’ production of speech sounds. For example, the human mouth can
produce single sounds such as l, b, a, l. On their own, these sounds do not mean anything.
However, as soon as we combine them in a particular way, we are moving to the second
level of language organisation. At this level, we combine sounds to produce meaning, as in
the word ‘ball’. This feature, which makes it possible to combine a finite number of speech
sounds and letters of the alphabet, enables us to produce hundreds of thousands of words
in various languages, and to use those words to form an infinite number of sentences with
which we can express as many thoughts and ideas (and as much information) as possible.
That ability is reflected in the innumerable volumes of books and dictionaries that have
been written in the different languages of the world. Think of words such as ‘Facebook’,
‘cell phone’ and ‘WhatsApp’, which have been created in the English language to
accommodate recent advances in technology. This is also applicable to other languages.
Think, for example, about the words that have been created in your own language to talk
about an airplane, a computer, and a motor car. In Siswati, for example, an aeroplane is
indizamshini (a machine that flies), a computer is ngcondvomshini (a brain machine) or
ikhompyutha, and a motor car is imoto (a motor). Clearly, as humans advance, the need
arises to create words that will be used to name and identify some of the latest
developments. As a result, dictionaries are reviewed almost annually to accommodate new
words.
4. Structure dependence: this property of language relates to the way in which words have to
be structured or arranged in an acceptable and meaningful manner in sentences, to make
sense. This means that words in a language are not put together haphazardly, randomly,
or without logical reasoning. As language users, from an early age we acquire acceptable
ways of arranging words in sentences so that what we say is meaningful. For example,
people who use English know that the combination of the words: *town I going am to is not
acceptable as a sentence. An acceptable and meaningful combination of the words would
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be: I am going to town. The words used in the sentence can be replaced with other words
from the same categories. For example, we can have the sentence: Thembi is going to
town, or She is driving to Namibia. This feature of language informs our knowledge of how
words are classified into different categories by the fact that they belong together and
perform the same function in a sentence. For instance, we see from our examples above
that ‘I’, ‘she’ and ‘Thembi’ occur in the same position in the sentences, and therefore have
something in common: each of them functions as the subject of a sentence. In the same
way, ‘am going to town’; ‘is going to town’ and ‘is driving to Namibia’ also have a similar
structure and function as the predicate (indicator of the action) of the sentences. This
dependence on structure, as a feature of language, will become more obvious to you when
we discuss the structure of the English language in Unit 2.
5. Cultural transmission: this feature of language relates to its role as a carrier of culture and
the ability of language to be transferred from one generation to the next. Unlike the
physical features and characteristics, we inherit from our parents because we share their
DNA, being born of those parents does not mean we will also inherit the language(s) they
speak. A child must be immersed in a social environment, so that s/he can interact with the
people and acquire their language and culture. As a result, a child may have isiXhosa-
speaking parents, but if s/he is immersed in the culture of English speakers, s/he will learn
to speak English. The importance of this feature of language is underscored by the fact
that a child who is not exposed to language will not speak any language. Chapter 4 of your
recommended textbook English in Perspective (Horne & Heinemann, 2003), focuses on
the development of language. On page 75, the authors cite studies that support the fact
that there is a relationship between the amount of conversation that takes place around a
child and the rate at which a child acquires a language. Unlike animals, which use signals
that are instinctive and not learned, human beings are not born with the instinctive ability to
speak a specific language.
6. Displacement: this feature is unique to human language as it “allows the users of language
to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment” (Yule, 1996:21).
In other words, by using language we can talk about what happened 20-odd years ago (I
visited his family in 2008), yesterday, or is happening now (I am visiting his family). We
can also talk today about things that are going to happen tomorrow, in a month’s time, in
the next five or ten years (I will be visiting his family next month, in the next five years), for
example. Furthermore, we can talk about locations other than the environment in which we
find ourselves (I will visit his family in Russia next month).
7. Creativity: this feature of human language is otherwise known as productivity. It can be
defined as the human ability to spontaneously generate, construct, and understand a
limitless number of sentences – some of which might be completely new – from a finite
number of rules, based on our knowledge and use of language. For this reason, it is also
referred to as openness, which is the most unique feature of human language when
compared to animal communication. Thanks to the creative property of human language,
we can express ourselves in various ways when reacting to situations, events, or ideas. It
is this feature that authors of creative writing use to produce numerous genres/styles of
literature. It is the same property we can use to explain why journalist and reporters might
write about one specific event or situation in very different ways. As human beings, we
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have endless and immense possibilities to express ourselves and our world. It is the most
unique attribute we have.
8. Prevarication, reflexiveness and learnability: Hockett added these three aspects to his
original design features. The first, prevarication, refers to our ability as human beings to
use language falsely – either to lie or to deceive. The second refers to the fact that
language can be used to talk or write about itself. In other words, language can be used to
talk about language. The third refers to the fact that language can be taught and learned,
which explains why we can learn languages that are different from our own and why
teachers can teach languages that they have learned.
9. Other features of language: in addition to the features discussed above, four other
characteristics are often mentioned in the literature on language study. These are
semanticity, turn-taking, spontaneous usage and the use of the vocal auditory channel.
Semanticity simply refers to our ability to extend meaning to cover things that can be
associated with one another, either by size or shape or thought. For example, the word
‘fruit’ is commonly used to refer to all types of edible sweet, fleshy and/or seeded plant
produce, such as apples, pears, pineapples, guavas, mangoes, etc. The next two aspects,
turn-taking and spontaneous usage, relate to language as a social phenomenon. Turn-
taking refers to what takes place when we interact with others, especially when talking. It is
a social convention that dictates that we give one another turns to talk when in
conversation. This means that we allow other people to talk and finish what they are
saying before taking our own turn to talk. In the same vein, we expect others to respect our
turn when we are talking, so that we are not interrupted. This feature of language brings
about orderliness, respect for self and others, and social decorum. The spontaneous use
of language is what we do every day and every time we use language to interact. It is the
freedom to express ourselves without inhibition. The final feature refers to the fact that
language is produced by vocal organs of speech, such as the throat, lungs, lips, tongue,
and teeth, and perceived through hearing (auditory, the ears) as the primary means of oral
communication. You should note that this feature of language does not extend to writing
and sign language, which make use manual–visual channels and are therefore secondary
means of communication.
Self-reflective Questions
In ending this section of the unit, reflect on the following questions and jot down your answers to
test your understanding of what language is and what its features are.
• Which languages do you speak?
• Are you able to identify the features of language in your own language?
• Can you give examples of these features in your own language?
Activity
Write down five innovative words that have been created in English in recent years because of
developments in the social media space.
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Feedback on Activity
Many new words have been created in the English language in recent years. For example, in
social media we have words such as ‘blog’, ‘influencer’ or ‘content curation’. In online marketing,
new terms include ‘multichannel marketing’, ‘search-engine marketing’ and ‘traffic’. Think of new
words in your own language that have been created to speak about developments in
technology, for example.
From our earlier discussion of the features of language, you noted that language is very
important to human communication and existence. We learned that, without language, it would
be impossible to share information; to express certain ideas, thoughts, and feelings; or to give
instructions. In this section, we will look at the functions of language in more detail.
Functions of Language
1. The informational function: this is the most obvious function of language that is apparent
to everyone, because it is mainly based on facts and truths. Language can be used to
communicate information, either verbally or in writing. For example, if a shopkeeper
wants to inform the public that her shop is closed, she can communicate this information
verbally (by running a radio advertisement) or in writing (by putting a sign on the door of
the shop).
2. The expressive function: we use this function of language to express our feelings and
attitudes. Contrary to the informational function of language (discussed above), there is
no information being communicated, but we express our feelings and attitudes to the
listener. For example, if we swear at someone, we express feelings of anger or
annoyance. If I utter a sentence such as: I love this song, I am not communicating any
information about the song, but I am expressing my attitude towards, or my feelings
about, the song. The tone of our voice in spoken language and the choice of words when
we write reveal our attitudes and feelings. We can tell from the tone of voice when
someone is expressing anger, disappointment, happiness, or appreciation. Similarly, in
written language, a writer will choose specific words to express certain feelings. In Wyse
et al. (2013:84), the authors describe in more detail how people express themselves.
They mention the use of non-verbal language in the form of effective eye contact,
posture, gestures, and facial expressions.
3. The directive function: this language function is commonly used to give instructions and
make requests. Sometimes one expression can function as both a request and an
instruction. For example, I am thirsty could be used to request a glass of water or be a
polite hint to the listener to offer the speaker something to drink. The reaction of the
person we are talking to becomes important, as it will indicate whether s/he has received
and understood the message we were trying to put across, as intended.
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4. The aesthetic function: according to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, aesthetics
is “concerned with beauty and art and the understanding of beautiful things” (Hornby,
2015:24). When language functions aesthetically, it is used in an artistic manner to show
its beauty. We mainly find this function in literary texts, such as novels and poems. This
function, which can also be used in normal everyday communication, speeches, and
music, relates to the creative and reflexive features discussed earlier.
5. The phatic function: this function is related to social interaction. The focus here is on the
use of language for general purposes, such as greeting, starting a conversation, or just
recognising the presence of others. The aim is to be sociable, not to convey any
information or ask a question. For example, if two strangers want to start a conversation,
they could refer to the weather as a way of ‘breaking the ice’. This could then lead to an
extended conversation. This function can also be used to indicate to the other participant
that you wish to end the conversation.
The four main functions of language can overlap. For example, a creative work that is used to
perform the aesthetic function of language can be informative as well as expressive, if the
author’s aim is to convey certain facts and express his/her opinion about those facts. The
expressive function of language can also overlap with the directive function, as we have seen
from our earlier example of ‘I am thirsty’, which can be interpreted as expressing what the
speaker feels, but at the same time can be a subtle directive of asking for water or politely
requesting a cold drink. The same example can also be understood to be informative, as it
conveys a fact about how the speaker is feeling.
The functions of language are often guided by the context, which determines whether we should
use formal or informal language. In the section that follows, we explore the differences between
formal and informal language.
Formal and Informal Language

According to Labov (1972:210), a formal language is used when an individual speaks or writes
a language and pays “attention to form”. The speaker or writer tries, as far as possible, to use
the standard form of the language or the variety that is found in grammar books. Formal
language is associated with formal contexts and audiences. The context might, for instance, be
a speech in parliament, a lecture, a court judgement, or a formal speech by the president of a
country. The advantage of formal language, according to Heylighen and Dewaele (1999:8), is
that more formal messages have less chance of being misinterpreted by others who do not
share the same context as the sender. One example is written language, where there is no
direct contact between a sender and a receiver – as a result, there is a much more limited
sharing of context than would be the case in speech. From the points made earlier, we can see
that formal language is guided by the context in which, and the audience for whom, something
is said or written.
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Informal language, on the other hand, while also guided by the context and audience, is spoken
or written without paying particular attention to form or grammar. The speaker or writer is at
liberty to use the non-standard form of the language. The context could be a family gathering, a
personal message or email, or a conversation among friends. We can see from the definitions
of formal and informal language that, depending on the context and audience, a writer/speaker
could choose (or in some cases is expected to use) either formal or informal language. For
example, in professional contexts such as academia, formal language is required. The
difference between the two is that formal language is less personal than informal language.
Let us look at the following examples:

This letter serves to inform you that your application for a home loan has been declined.
You know that home loan I applied for? Well, the bank said ‘no’.
Even though the two sentences convey the same message, the first does so formally, and the
second informally. The style of writing and the words chosen result in sentences being either
formal or informal. This could also apply to the grammatical structure of a language, which
follows certain rules and indicates whether a standard or non-standard variety is used. In the
next section, we will look at standard and non-standard varieties of language and highlight their
relationship with formal and informal language.
____ Can you think of situations in which you would find yourself using your language formally?
____ Which words are you able to use with friends, yet unable to use when speaking to an older
person?
Read Chapter 5 in Wyse et al. (2013:88–92).
Standard and Non-standard Language

Most languages have different varieties. People might speak the same language, but because
of their unique geographic locations, they might speak different varieties of the same language.
For example, isiZulu, one of South Africa’s official languages that is dominant in KwaZulu-Natal,
is also spoken in other regions, such as Gauteng. However, the varieties spoken in these areas
are different.
Similarly, there are variations in the Englishes spoken in different countries. For example, there
are differences between British English, American English, and South African English. Each of
these varieties of English has a standard form which may be used across the globe. Speakers
of any variety of English understand one another. Among these varieties, one variety becomes
the standard form, of which the vocabulary and grammar are recognised as official. In your
prescribed textbook, standard English is defined as “a distinct form of the language that differs
from other forms in some of its vocabulary and grammar” (Wyse et al., 2013:89). The standard
variety therefore becomes the formal language of government communication, education, the
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media, and international communication. What we need to know is that the standard language
(for instance, English) assumes the position of being the standard language not because it is
better than the other languages, but because of factors such as widespread use and cultural
influence.
Activity
Which of the following sentences are formal (standard) and which are informal (non-standard)?
What makes each sentence either formal or informal?
1. Chap, do you wanna come over to my house to watch movies later?

2. Would you be interested in watching a movie later?
3. Do you want a warranty for your new phone?
4. I can’t be sure.
5. Can I order a cheeseburger and chips?
1. Informal, because of the use of colloquial words such as chap and wanna.
2. Formal, because there is no evidence of colloquialisms or contractions in the sentence.
4. Informal, because of the use of the contraction can’t.
So far, we have looked at the functions of language, formal and informal language, and
standard and non-standard varieties. In the section that follows, we will consider critical
language awareness and its importance for understanding language as a social phenomenon.
Critical Language Awareness

Critical language awareness involves looking at the broader social context in which language is
used. It is about being aware of the socio-political and ideological aspects of language. More
specifically, critical language awareness entails looking at how we use the words in a language
to support, promote and question certain beliefs or power relations in society. For example, if
we analyse the language of an advertisement, we will see that many of the words used are
aimed at persuading the audience to decide to buy the product being advertised. This will be
different from the language used, for example, in a poster that aims to raise awareness about
HIV/Aids. The language used in an advert for detergent, for example, will most likely contain
words such as ‘whiter’ and ‘brighter’ when referring to recently washed clothes. Consumers are
not likely to ask: brighter than what? However, a poster that aims to raise awareness about HIV
is likely to feature the sentence: Stop Aids, condomise.
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Janks (1993:2) notes that
the word ‘critical’ has two meanings. The first one refers to critical thinking, which is an
ability for people to examine and analyse texts to see if they are well argued. Are the
points substantiated? Is there evidence to support the claims? How convincing is the
evidence? Is the argument logical and based on reason? Does it rely on fact or opinion?
In the second instance, the word ‘critical’ relates to critical literacy, or how language is used to
show (and sometimes maintain) power relations in texts. For example, a sentence such as:
Women face many challenges in the engineering field, can show power relations and male
dominance in the field of engineering. Janks (1993: iii) explains this rather complicated
relationship by stating that power matters, both to those who have it and those who do not,
arguing that “in any unequal relation of power there are top dogs and underdogs. How people
get to be on top in a society has to do with what that society values. It may be age or maleness
or class or cleverness or a white skin.” According to Janks, once people have power it becomes
easier to retain that power, and to make others believe that they deserve to be in power. Using
language, they convince the ‘underdogs’ that things are the way they are because that is how
things should be. All of this is achieved through language. It is therefore important to be aware
that when people produce texts, whether spoken or written, they choose certain terms from a
range of words to convey their intention.
An understanding of the relationship between language and power can be illustrated using the
following scenario: think about situations in your life when you were in a position of power, such
as being popular at school, being the best dressed at a party or being with your younger
siblings. Do you think the language you used in those situations was like the language you used
in the principal’s office when you were in trouble, or at an office where you were applying for a
bursary?
Perhaps a further scenario we can explore is in the way we use the word ‘our’. Think about a
sentence such as: We don’t want them in our country because they take our jobs. You will
notice that this is a clear example showing the link between language and power; the language
in this sentence is used to exclude certain people.
Janks (1993) also highlights the importance of scrutinising the texts (oral and visual) used in
advertisements, magazines, and newspapers, in television programmes or at press
conferences, for hidden meanings and agendas. For example, we must continually ask
ourselves: What is the speaker or writer trying to achieve with this text? Who is the text
targeting? Why have certain words been chosen, instead of others? Who will benefit from the
text being understood in the way it is intended?
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____ Are there examples, in your own language, of where language is used to maintain
power relations and exclude other people?
____ What are the reasons for such language usage?
Activities
1. Critically look at the following sentences and write a short paragraph on what you think
they mean:
a) Black is beautiful.
b) We will get our land back.
c) These people are taking over everywhere.
d) That one is a coconut.
e) You can tell that she went to a private school.
2. In a magazine of your choice, look at the language and images used. Now select one
image or article and write a paragraph about any power relations that are portrayed.
Feedback on Activities
1. As you analyse these sentences, think about the following questions:
a) Who might be making this statement? Why would it be necessary to make this
statement?
b) Who might ‘we’ be, and who might have taken the land?
c) Who might ‘these people’ refer to?
d) What does a real coconut look like?
e) What are the perceived differences between private and public schools?
2. The answer to this question will depend on the magazine you chose.
In the following section, we will look at register and genre.
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Register and Genre
Register is a language variety that is associated with a topic, subject, or activity. In English,
registers are mostly characterised by the vocabulary that is used; however, grammatical
features may also be involved. Any activity may have a specific register that is associated with
it. For example, the vocabulary which medical doctors use is different from the vocabulary chefs
in a hotel kitchen use. Doctors may refer to ‘prescriptions’, ‘symptoms’, ‘diagnoses and
‘medication’. In contrast, the chefs’ register will include words such as ‘bake’, ‘grill’, ‘salad
dressing’ and ‘dessert’. When speaking or writing, people are expected to use the appropriate
register in appropriate contexts. For example, it would be inappropriate to use the language and
vocabulary normally used with friends, when presenting a lecture or writing an academic essay.
The appropriate register depends on the audience, the topic, the purpose, and the location.
Genre, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Hornby, 2015), is formally used
to refer to a particular type or style of literature, art, film, or music, that one can recognise
because of its special features. In other words, it is discourse or a text that can be identified
because it has specific language characteristics. For example, in music we can distinguish
between classical, rap, hip pop, country music and jazz, or highlife and instrumental. In the
same vein, there are differences between a speech and an advertisement, a love letter, and a
sermon. The three basic genres of literature are drama, prose, and poetry. Each has
subgenres, for instance, tragedy, comedy, and tragicomedy are examples of the subgenres of
drama; while fiction and non-fiction can be classified as subgenres of prose; and sonnets, epic
and lyric poems are subgenres of poetry.
Thus far in this unit we have defined and explained the characteristics and functions of
language as well as different varieties of language based on context, style and audience. In the
next section, we will be looking at the basic grammatical concepts that are essential to our
understanding of English language structure, in preparation for our discussion in Unit 2. Before
we continue, I want you to reflect on the following questions in order to test your understanding
of what we have discussed so far.
Answer yes or no to the following questions. If you answer no to any of them, review the part of
this unit that deals with that topic, to deepen your understanding.
____ I can define language.

____ I can make a distinction between the different functions of language.
____ I can explain each of the features of language.
____ I can explain the difference between standard and non-standard language.
____ I can apply critical language awareness skills to texts.
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Basic Grammatical Concepts
In this section, we will define and give examples of the grammatical concepts that are used to
describe specific features or characteristics of a word, that can bring about a change in its form
for different grammatical reasons. These grammatical concepts will help you understand the
structure of the English sentence, and how a word or related word can change form due to its
occurrence with another word in a sentence. This will help you understand some of the
relationships between the words that are used to construct sentences in English. We begin with
number.
Number
As a grammatical concept, number refers to the distinction that is made between singular and
plural nouns in English. This distinction is achieved by adding the suffix –s to regular nouns to
show their plural form; meaning that the nouns so referred to denote more than one entity.
Examples include:
Singular Plural
chair chairs
cat cats
bottle bottles
Number distinction is also done in English with the verb form in the third-person singular, in
the present tense. In this instance, the suffix –s is added to the verb. Note that only third-
person singular verbs take –s, while first- and second-person verbs, as well as verbs related to
the plural, remain in their basic form. For example:
PRESENT TENSE
Third-person singular 1st and 2nd-person singular, and plural
He runs I run
She sings You (singular and plural) sing
It comes They come
Ntombi dances Ntombi and Themba dance
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The examples used are in the present tense. However, the sentences on the left-hand side
have as their subject the third-person singular pronouns ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘it’, as well as the third-
person noun ‘Ntombi’. As a result, their verbs are in the singular, meaning they take the –s form.
In contrast, the plural verbs in the sentences on the right-hand side are in their base form (no
suffix is added), because their subjects are either the first-person singular: ‘I’, the second
person singular ‘you’ (singular), or the third person plural ‘they’ or plural nouns ‘Ntombi and
Themba’.
The use of the suffix –s to mark plurality in nouns (chairs, cats, bottles) and singularity in the
third person singular (he, she, it, Ntombi) is very confusing for second-language users of
English, which explains why there are so many concord errors in our writing. Understanding
these basic rules will help us overcome such errors. It is therefore very important to be
consciously aware of this distinction, and to use the suffix –s correctly and appropriately with
nouns and verbs. This fact will become more apparent when we explain the grammatical
concept of concord later in this unit, and also in Unit 6 when we look at the common errors we
make in our written expressions.
Apart from nouns and verbs, English pronouns also make number distinctions, as can be seen
from the following examples:
Singular Plural
I we
you you (plural)
he, she, it they
me us
him, her, it them
We will examine pronouns in more detail in Unit 2.
Before we move on to the next grammatical concept, it is important to note that the English
language has other ways of reflecting plurality with irregular nouns. The following are some
examples:
Singular Plural
• Latin plural
Syllabus syllabi
• Replacive morpheme
tooth teeth
• Zero morpheme
fish fish
• -en and -ren morphemes
ox oxen
child children
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____ Can you think of other irregular means of marking plurality in English, apart from the
ones mentioned above?
____ Give examples of such irregular plural nouns.
____ How is plurality expressed in your home language?
____ How is the expression of plurality in your language different from that of the English
language?
Person
The concept of ‘person’ in the English language is shown in the pronoun system, as
demonstrated in the table below. The concept is expressed as the first, second and third
person. Let us study some examples:
I teach the class – 1st person (used for the speaker or a group of people that includes the
speaker)
You teach the class – 2nd person (the person being spoken to or addressed)
He teaches the class – 3rd person (the people or things we are talking about)
These sentences show the communicative roles assigned to specific persons. The table below
shows the personal pronouns in English, in relation to the concept of person.
English Personal Pronouns

Person Singular Plural
1st person I/me We/us
2nd person You You
3rd person He/she/it/him/her/it They/them
From this table, we can see how personal pronouns are distinguished in terms of person. In
addition, we can see that the different pronouns differentiate between gender, case, and
number. Let us look at the concept of gender, and how it is differentiated in English.
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Gender
In English, gender as a grammatical concept is strictly marked for third-person singular

pronouns only (he, she, him, her). This means there is no distinction of gender for the third-
person plural pronouns ‘they’ and ‘them’, or the first-person pronouns ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘we’ and ‘us’, and
the second-person pronoun ‘you’. Gender distinction in English is represented as masculine,
feminine or neuter. This differentiation incorporates natural gender, as shown in the following
examples:
He bought a car.
She is in Cape Town.
It is resting under a tree. It is under the table.
In the first sentence, the third-person singular pronoun he indicates to us that the person who
bought a car is masculine (male). The person who is in Cape Town in the second sentence is
feminine (female). The thing (it), that is neuter (we don’t know whether it is male or female) is
resting under a tree – it could be a dog. The object under the table could be a shoe (neither
male nor female).
Apart from the third-person singular pronouns, in English gender can be indicated in two other
ways. The first is by changing the end of particular words. For example:
duke – duchess
prince – princess
actor – actress
waiter – waitress
emperor – empress
The second is by modifying the basic word with the addition of other words. For example:
he-goat – she-goat
peacock – peahen
landlord – landlady
Some nouns in English can also be classified as masculine or feminine. For example:
man – woman
boy – girl
bachelor – spinster
uncle – aunt
stallion – mare
rooster – hen
bull – cow
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Another grammatical concept that indicates the function of nouns in sentences is case.
Case
The concept of case shows how a noun or pronoun is related to the other words in a sentence.
Three forms are identified in English: the subjective, the objective and the possessive case.
The subjective case: in a sentence, the subjective case is the word that is the subject of the
sentence. For example:
She bought a car.
In this sentence, the pronoun she is the subject of the sentence.
The objective case: this is either a noun or a pronoun which indicates the person to whom an
action is being done, or the thing that receives the action described by the verb. For example:
I hit Jack.
In this sentence, Jack is the person (object) who receives the action (verb: hit).
The possessive case: this indicates possession and is realised by using possessive pronouns.
With the possessive case, the pronoun is used as modifier of a noun and can, therefore, not be
used independently on its own, because it functions as a modifier and not as a noun or a noun
phrase. For example:
Her uncle left home.

In this sentence, the possessive pronoun her is used to show possession, but it functions as a
determiner or modifier of the noun uncle.
Activity
Name the noun case of the words written in bold.
1. Frank will watch the rugby match next Sunday.

2. Florence divided the cake.
3. This is Sharon’s new car.
4. I visited John in hospital.
5. Kevin loves her.
6. Their van was stolen.
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1. Subjective case
2. Objective case
3. Possessive case
4. Objective case
5. Objective case
6. Possessive case
In the following section, we will look at the concept of tense, and how time is reflected in the
English language.
Tense
This is a central concept in the English language because it is used to show the different ways
in which our thoughts can be expressed in relation to time and modality. Tense is a compulsory
element of the auxiliary in the verb phrase, as we will see in Unit 2. The other elements of the
auxiliary which are not compulsory are modals such as ‘shall’, ‘will’, ‘should’, ‘might’; the
perfective aspect marked by the form ‘have’ plus the past participial morpheme –en, and the
progressive or continuous aspect marked by the form ‘be’ plus the present participial morpheme
–ing. We will explain all of this in great detail at a later stage.
The three basic tenses of the English language are the present, past and future, but technically
tense in English is either present or past, with progressive or perfective variations – depending
on what actions are being expressed and the time in which they are expressed. Let us begin by
looking at the different types of tense in English.
• The present tense: this is used to express states that are permanent or likely to remain as
they are for an indefinite period of time. For example:
The world is round; The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
The present tense can also be used for actions that are habitual, as in:
She goes to Canada every year; The people celebrate this festival once a year.
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• The past tense: this is generally used for actions or events which took place, and/or were
completed in the past. Examples are:
Zodwa took the dress last month; I was in the kingdom of eSwatini last weekend.
• The future tense: this is used for actions occurring in the future, and is conventionally
expressed using the modal ‘will’ or ‘shall’, as in:
My niece will travel to Cape Town next week; We shall see the students next semester.
Apart from these three basic tenses, two other forms of tense are expressed in English as a
result of the two aspectual elements of the auxiliary (optional, as mentioned earlier): they are
the progressive/continuous and the perfective aspects. Both these tenses can either be present
or past, as demonstrated below:
• The present progressive/continuous tense: this is typically used to describe present

actions or events which are only temporary. For example:
We are reading three novels this semester.
It may also be used to describe actions or events which are actually taking place at the present
time. For example:
I am teaching English grammar now.
• The past progressive/continuous tense: this is normally used to refer to past

actions or events which were temporary, or actions/events which were actually taking
place at some point in the past. For example:
Students in West Africa were reading Peter Abraham’s ‘Tell Freedom’ in the 70s.
Many black South Africans were living in exile during the apartheid era.
The first sentence expresses a temporary past event, while the second expresses an event of
longer duration.
• The present perfect tense: this is mainly used to describe actions or situations which
started in the past and have continued to the present (and may still be continuing). For
example:
I have been a lecturer for more than 30 years.
25
This means that I was a lecturer at some stage in the past, and I am still a lecturer now and will
or may continue to be a lecturer beyond this point in time.
The present perfect tense is also used to refer to actions or events which took place in the past,
but whose consequences are still being felt. For example:
Since the 9/11 terrorists’ attacks, the world has known no peace.
• The past perfect tense: this is commonly used to express actions or events that took place,
or situations that existed before a later period which is in the past. For example:
The president had already left the meeting when the minister collapsed
The petrol price had not increased by the time I went to the garage last week.
As we see from our examples of different tenses, certain time references are typically
expressed by particular tenses, but it is important to stress that tense in English is strictly
grammatical. This means that the time references of tenses are not limited or restricted to those
typical ones. For instance, even though the past tense is typically used to express an action that
took place in the past, it is also often used to express future or present actions. For example:
If I were you, I would not sign the contract.
This example is marked formally for the past tense, but it is used hypothetically to express
present action.
Activity
Correct the tense errors in the following sentences and explain why each sentence is
grammatically incorrect. The asterisk (*) is there to remind you that the sentence is not correct.
1. *At this present time, I was in the kitchen.

2. *We have a group discussion throughout that night, and when the prep is over I
go to my hostel.
3. *My sister bought a new phone very soon.
4. *I had knew that school life was not the best.
5. *I have to thank you for the contributions you have gave us in the past.
6. *The state has be congratulating you.
7. *I am plan to become a nurse.
8. *My people are happy because of what you done for them.
9. *Your council has been done very well in providing maternity care to new mothers.
10. *I have determining to be on the Nigerian volleyball team.
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1. At the present time, I am in the kitchen.
The error lies in the use of ‘was’ (past tense form of the verb ‘be’), instead of the present tense
form ‘am’. The sentence describes a state prevailing at the present time, as shown in the
adjunct ‘at the present time’, and should be expressed in the present tense, rather than the
past.
2. We had a group discussion throughout that night, and when the prep was over I went to
my hostel.
The error was in using the present tense of the verbs ‘have’, ‘is’ and ‘go’, rather than the past
tense. The phrase ‘that night’ indicates that the actions took place in the past and are being
reported.
3. My sister will buy a new phone very soon.
The original sentence was wrong because the past tense was used to express a future action.
The action expressed in the sentence is yet to take place (‘soon’) and should thus be
expressed in the future tense.
4. I had known that school life was not the best.
The sentence is wrong because the verb ‘knew’ (past tense form of the verb ‘know’) is used
instead of the perfective form ‘known’. In English, the perfective tense always occurs with the
form of the auxiliary verb ‘have’ and the past participial form of the verb, as mentioned earlier.
5. I have to thank you for the contributions you have given us in the past.
Here again, the original sentence was wrong because ‘gave’ (the past tense form of the verb
‘give’) was used instead of the perfective form ‘given’.
6. The state has been congratulating you.
The original sentence is wrong because the verb ‘be’ should have been in its perfective form
“been” as shown in the correction instead of its base form “be”. This sentence demonstrates the
use of the present perfect tense to describe actions or situations which started in the past, have
continued to the present, and may still be continuing.
27
7. I am planning to become a nurse.
The original sentence was wrong, because ‘planning’ (the progressive form of the verb ‘plan’)
should have been used instead of its base form. The progressive form is marked in English by
the form of ‘be’ and the –ing form of the verb.
8. My people are happy because of what you have done for them.
The original sentence was wrong, because the first constituent of the perfective aspect ‘have’
was omitted. Always remember that the perfect tense is made up of the form of ‘have’ and the
perfective form of the main verb.
9. Your council has been doing very well in providing maternity care to new mothers.
The original sentence was incorrect because ‘done’ (the perfective form of the verb ‘do’) was
used instead of its progressive form ‘doing’. In this sentence, both the perfective and
progressive tense are present. Thus, the verb phrase is made up of present tense (a
compulsory element of the auxiliary), then the aspectual element (have + en) and the
progressive aspect (be + ing + the main verb ‘provide’). Because the tense is present, the first
element of the perfective aspect becomes ‘has’. The second element, –en is joined to the first
element of the continous aspect ‘be’, thus becoming ‘been’, while the second element of the
progressive aspect –ing joins with the main verb ‘provide’ to give us the continuous form of the
verb.
10. I am determined to be on the Nigerian volleyball team.
The error in the original sentence occurred because the wrong form of the verb ‘determine’ has
been used. In adddition, the auxiliary verb should have been ‘am’ instead of ‘have’.
Hopefully, the explanations provided in this feedback have helped you understand the different
tenses used in English, and how they are used in sentence construction.
Apart from tense, another grammatcal concept that is central to our understanding of the
structure of the English language is concord. We conclude this section by discussing the
concept.
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Concord
This concept is problematic for second-language learners of English, because it is slightly more
complex than all the other grammatical concepts we have discussed so far. First, we will
discuss this concept by defining what it means, before showing the different kinds of concord
that exist within the structure of the English language, using examples to illustrate each type.
Many of these rules simply have to be learnt.
Let us start with the meaning of concord.
Concord can be defined as the formal relationships that exist between words in a sentence.
Simply put, concord or agreement means that a form of one word requires a corresponding form
of another. There are different kinds of concord in the English language, because the principle
of agreement between forms of words is central to correct sentence formation.
• Types of Concord
1. The Verb ‘to be’
The verb ‘to be’ is a good example to use, to illustrate the concept of concord or agreement.
This is because the verb changes its form based on the personal pronoun/subject it occurs with;
as well as whether the personal pronoun is singular or plural or first/second or third person. The
form of the verb is also realised based on the use of the present or past tense. In other words,
there is some form of agreement between the type of personal pronoun selected as subject and
the form of the verb that goes with it. Let us look at the concord that occurs with the verb ‘to be’
in the present tense:
If the subject is the first-person singular pronoun, ‘I’, the form of the verb ‘to be’ becomes ‘am’.
For example:
I am singing. I am grateful. I am a doctor.
If the subject is the second-person (singular or plural) pronoun ‘you’, the form of the verb ‘to be’
changes to ‘are’, as in:
You are dancing. You are grateful. You are a student.
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If the subject is a third-person singular pronoun (‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’), the verb ‘to be’ changes its
form to ‘is’, as in:
He is singing. She is singing. It is our mascot.
If the subject is a plural pronoun, ‘we’, ‘they’ or ‘you’, the form of the verb ‘to be’ becomes ‘are’.
For example:
We are singing. You are dancing. They are leaving.
Let us look at the concord that occurs with the verb ‘to be’ in the past tense:
If the subject is singular (no matter whether it is a first- or third-person pronoun), the form of the
verb ‘to be’ becomes ‘was’. For example:
I was dancing. He was a doctor. She was happy. It was too late.
When the subject is plural, the form of the verb ‘to be’ becomes ‘were’, irrespective of the type
of pronoun selected as subject. For example:
We were singing. They were watching. You were still youngsters then.
As second-language users of English, it is very important to know the different types of concord,
by learning which personal pronoun subject agrees with which form of of the verb ‘to be’.
2. Subject / Verb Concord in Terms of Singular/Plural (Number)
We briefly referred to this type of concord while explaining the grammatical concept of number
earlier on in the unit. Since it is typically used to define and explain concord as a grammatical
concept, it is very important. The agreement/concord that occurs can be explained as follows:
i. A singular subject takes the singular form of the verb. For example:
The man travels to George. A tap leaks when it is not properly closed. The graph is
clear.
ii. A plural subject takes the plural form of the verb. For example:
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The enemies fight at night. Pizzas sell quickly in summer. The men travel to George.
The graphs are clear.
With this type of concord, it is important to know and master the following rules:
If two or more nouns are joined together as the subject of a sentence, using the conjunction
and, a plural form of the verb is used. For example:
The man and his pet have gone for a walk.

The secretary and the accountant are here.
However, when the two or more nouns functioning as the subject of a sentence refer to the
same person, the singular verb is used. For example:
Our secretary and scribe is here.
In this sentence, the secretary will also act as the scribe for the meeting, it is one and the same
person.
Bread and butter is my favourite breakfast.
In this example, ‘is’ (the singular form of the verb ‘to be’) must agree with the subject “bread and
butter” even though the two subjects are joined together by the coordinate conjunction ‘and’.
This seems a violation of our earlier rule that compound subjects should take the plural form of
the verb. This rule does not apply in this sentence, because bread and butter are eaten together
as one meal and therefore singular. This explains why the singular verb is correct here.
In addition to the examples above, we have other peculiar situations in which the rule of
concord is differently realised between subject and verb. Here are two of those instances:
When two nouns function as the subject of a sentence, but are joined with correlative
conjunctions such as with, as well as, together with, along with, the verb agrees with the subject
furthest away from the verb (see the words which are underlined). For example:
The engineer, as well as his trainees, is here.

The trainees, with their engineer, are here.
The advocates, together with the magistrate, are here.
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In these three examples, the verb agrees with the first subject of each sentence. The first
sentence means that the engineer is here with his trainees. The second sentence means that
the trainees are here with their engineer while the third sentence means that the advocates are
here with the magistrate.
3. Concord Relating to the Nature of Certain Nouns
Certain nouns in English are in actual fact singular, but they typically denote a collection or
group of individuals. These nouns, which are singular in form but plural in meaning, are referred
to as collective nouns. Examples include: government, people, army, team, staff and committee.
These types of nouns differ from common nouns such as book, table and baby because the
latter nouns refer to a single entity. The notion of number inherent in collective nouns implies
that the concord relation between the subject and verb involves the idea of number, rather than
the actual presence of the number marker for that idea. Often, collective nouns function as
subjects which can take both a singular and a plural form of the verb. For example, both these
sentences are correct:
The government has failed the electorate. The government have failed the electorate.
In the first sentence, the singular is used because ‘government’, is perceived as a single body,
whereas the selection of the plural form of the verb in the second example implies that the noun
‘government’ refers to the individuals that make up the government. Other collective nouns with
the same notional concord are family, group, crew and company.
4. Concord between Subject and Complement of a Sentence

This type of concord is related to the type discussed in (2) above. The rule here is that if the
subject of a sentence is singular then the complement must be singular. If it is plural, the
complement must be plural. For example:
That man is a prince. Those men are princes.

An elephant is a huge animal. Elephants are huge animals.
5. Concord Involving the Principle of Proximity
This type of concord is a source of difficulty for second-language learners. The problem arises
in sentences where a structure comes between the subject and the verb. For example:
The soccer player (with many national awards) was elected president.
One (of the professors) has been invited to address the press.
In both sentences, the subjects ‘soccer player’ and ‘one’ are singular, therefore the verb is
singular in spite of the proximity of the plural nouns ‘awards’ and ‘professors’ to the verbs in the
sentences. Other examples include:
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The behaviour (of these ladies) is shocking. The register (of all the pupils) was compiled.
The leader (of the rioters) has surrendered.
Clearly, the rule in this kind of sentence construction is that a singular subject followed by a
plural modifier will require a singular form of the verb, even though the verb may be immediately
placed next to a plural noun that functions as a post-modifier to the subject of the sentence.
This fact will become clearer when we look at the structure of the noun phrase in Unit 2.
As discussed before, a different but related consideration of the rule of proximity involves those
cases when two or more subjects are connected by the coordinating conjunctions ‘or’/‘nor’ and
are differently marked for number. For example:
The children or their father is washing the floor.

James or his friends are here.
Neither the rebels nor their leader has been arrested.
Either the teacher or his students are leaving.
In all four examples the subject in the closest proximity to the verb determines the number
marker for the verb.
6. Concord between Determiners and the Nouns They Modify

Determiners are pre-modifiers which must always occur with nouns. They include ‘the’, ‘his’,
‘that’, ‘your’, ‘several’, ‘all’, etc. For example:
The man
Many people
These individuals
Some determiners, such as nouns, have singular and plural distinctions. For example:
Singular Plural
this these
that those
each some
every several, most, many
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As a result of the singular and plural distinction, when determiners occur with nouns they must
agree in number with the noun that is being modified. For example:
These politicians
This book
All these bottles
All those little toys
Sentences three and four show that two or three determiners can be used to modify a single
noun. When this is the case, the determiners also have to agree in terms of number. It is
therefore necessary to know the order in which determiners can co-occur.
7. Concord Involving Personal Pronouns in the Third Person

As you saw from the different examples we used, pronouns are closed sets of items which can
be used to substitute a noun or a noun phrase. For example:
If Thuli comes today, I will give her the money.
In this sentence the pronoun ‘her’ has been used in place of ‘Thuli’. The concord rule
concerning the personal pronouns requires that the third-person personal pronouns (he, she, it
and they) must agree with their antecedents (the nouns they refer back to), both in number and
gender. For example:
The students went to the University of Cape Town, but they did not visit Table Mountain.
I saw Thobani and she gave me the book.
Sibusiso went to school; he was there to submit his assignment.
In these examples, the pronouns ‘they’, ‘she’ and ‘he’ refer back to their antecedent noun
phrase or the nouns ‘the students’, ‘Thobani’ and ‘Sibusiso’ respectively.
Activity
Correct the concord errors in the following sentences:
1. *Music soothe me.
2. *Matthew bake cakes every Christmas.
3. *Musa and Grace is arguing again.
4. *Elsie never take the bus to work.
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5. *The people who own that house has no dogs.

6. *One of the mechanics have been injured.
7. *Caleb and Edmund is fixing the car.
8. *Both my assignments has been submitted.
9. *One of my uncles live in Namibia.
10. *James and John has gone to the concert.
1. Music soothes me.
2. Matthew bakes cakes every Christmas.
3. Musa and Grace are arguing again.
4. Elsie never takes the bus to work.
5. The people who own that house do not have dogs.
6. One of the mechanics has been injured.
7. Caleb and Edmund are fixing the car.
8. Both my assignments have been submitted.
9. One of my uncles lives in Namibia.
10. James and John have gone to the concert.
You will recall that when we discussed formal and informal language, we highlighted the
differences between these forms, and how they can be expressed in speech and writing. In the
last section of this unit, we will look at the differences between oral, written and visual
communication.
Read pages 263 and 264 in Wyse et al. (2013).
Differences between Oral, Written and Visual Communication
As indicated earlier in the unit, among other things, language is used to communicate
messages and information. Communication can be oral (verbal), written, visual or multimodal (a
combination of the three).
Verbal/oral communication is the transfer of messages and information by word of mouth. It is

the most widely used form of communication in the world. Written communication, on the other
hand, involves the transmission of information through the written word. In recent times, writing
has evolved to include digital media in the form of emails, the short message service (SMS) and
WhatsApp messages. For a closer look at the differences between oral and written language,
see Wyse et al. (2013:264), as it features a table which outlines the differences between speech
and print.
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Visual communication refers to the use of images to express thoughts and ideas, and convey
messages. This kind of communication appeals to our sight; it includes things we can see.
When we interact with others verbally, for example, eye contact can be considered a form of
visual communication, as we knowingly or unwittingly observe the gestures and facial
expressions of the people we interact with. The written form includes a wider range of examples
than spoken language (e.g., graphic books, maps, charts, road signs, animation, paintings,
illustrations, advertisements, and movies). Clearly, it is possible for oral, written, and visual
communication to take place simultaneously, for a message to be conveyed in a clear manner.
For example, advertisements and movies often make use of multimodal communication with
graphic images that may be accompanied by sound and/or voice.
Conclusion
In this unit, we learned that language has many features and functions. We also came to
understand that when speaking or writing, individuals may choose to use formal and/or informal
varieties of language. We also showed that the register someone chooses depends on the
topic, subject, or activity. We also focused on the genre of texts and highlighted that it is
characterised by certain cultural and linguistic features. The importance of critical language
awareness (being aware that texts are not neutral) was briefly discussed. We also defined and
explained (with examples) the basic grammatical concepts of gender, case, person, tense, and
concord. We also learned about the differences between oral, written, visual and multimodal
communication. In the following unit, we are going to focus on the structure of language.
References
Bloch, B. & Trager, G.L. (1942). Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of
America.
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Heylighen F. & Dewaele, J. (1999). Formality of Language: Definition and Measurement – An
Internal Report. Belgium: Free University of Brussels.
Hockett, C.F. (1960). The Origin of Speech. Scientific American, 203, 88–96.
Hornby, A.S. (2015). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Press.
Janks, H. (ed.). (1993). Critical Language Awareness Series. Johannesburg: Hodder and
Stoughton and Wits University Press.
Janks, H. (2009). Critical language Awareness: Teaching the Relationship between Language
and Power. In Teaching Language in the South African Classroom. Braamfontein:
Macmillan.
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Labov, W. (1972): Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press.

Lyons, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Sweet, H. (1964). The Practical Study of Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wyse, D., Jones, R., Bradford, H. and Wolpert, M.A. (2013). Teaching English, Language and
Literacy. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.
Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Glossary
Arbitrariness is the unpredictable relationship between the words of a language and their
meanings or the ideas they convey.
Formal language is the language used in formal setting such as in academia. This language
does not include slang or colloquialisms.
Informal language is the language used in informal settings, such as when speaking to friends
and/or family. It is more personal and can include contractions and colloquialisms.
Standard language is a variety found in grammar and academic books. It is used as the norm
in English-speaking countries, in government documents and in education, for example.
Non-standard language is a variety of a language that is not standard.
Critical language awareness entails looking at the broader context in which language is used.
It is about being aware of the sociopolitical and ideological aspects of language, linguistic
variation and discourse.
Register refers to the use of styles or varieties depending on the purpose, topic, audience and
context. For example, we can refer to the register or specialised vocabulary used by medical
doctors, which differs from the register used by civil engineer.
Genre involves the categorisation of discourse or text according to specific language
characteristics.
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Self-assessment Questions
The following questions are meant to test your understanding of the outcomes of the unit. The
maximum mark for each question is indicated in brackets. This will tell you how much you
should write for each answer.
Answer these questions to assess your mastery of the material in this unit. You can find
suggested answers to these questions in the feedback guide to the activities – it can be
accessed through your e-tutors and face-to-face tutors.
1. What is language? (2)

2. Using examples, describe any four features of language. (8)
3. Describe any three functions of language. (3)
4. What is the difference between formal and informal language? Give two examples of each.
(4)
5. Distinguish between standard and non-standard English. Give examples to explain the
distinctions. (4)
6. What do you understand by ‘genre’ and ‘register’? Provide examples to explain each.
(4)
7. What is meant by the terms ‘singular’ and ‘plural’? (2)
8. Using examples, explain the concept of gender in the English language. (2)
9. What is the difference between oral, written, and visual communication? Use examples to
illustrate your answer. (3)
10. In your understanding, what is critical language awareness and why is it important?
(4)
11. Write an essay explaining, in your own words, the different grammatical concepts
discussed in this unit. (25)
12. Explain how the topics covered in this unit have improved your knowledge of language,
and where gaps remain. (25)
Feedback on Self-assessment Questions

1. Look at how linguists have defined language, then write your own definition of language.
2. You can select from any of the features of language discussed in this unit and provide your
own examples.
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3. Choose any three of the functions that were discussed in this unit. You can even give
examples in your own language.
4. One of the distinctions between formal and informal language is that the former does not
use contractions and colloquialisms. Give examples and explain those parts of your
sentences that are formal or informal.
5. Standard language is a variety which is found in grammar and academic books. It is used
as the norm in English-speaking countries, in government documents and in education, for
example. Non-standard language is any variety of a language that is not standard.
6. Register is the use of styles or varieties, depending on the purpose, topic, audience and
context. Genre entails the categorisation of discourse or text according to specific
language characteristics.
7. Singular refers to one (1) and plural means more than one (1) or many.
8. Revisit that section of the unit which discusses male, female, and neuter gender.
9. All these are forms of communication. The examples you gave must indicate the
differences between them.
10. Read the section of the unit on critical language awareness and try to formulate an answer
in your own words.
11. This is an essay on grammatical concepts. You should first determine the structure of your
essay, which must contain an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Determine
beforehand what information you want to convey in your essay, then write down your
thoughts to visualise what information would apply to the different parts of your essay. The
emphasis should be on all the grammatical units we discussed, but you must explain these
in your own words, using your own examples. Your essay should comprise at least five
paragraphs.
12. This is a self-reflective question in which you critically examined how the various topics
covered in this unit have expanded your understanding of language. You may wish to
indicate those aspects of the unit in which you learned new things, or aspects you found
interesting. You should also explain the challenges you encountered while reading through
the unit and outline how you hope to overcome such challenges.
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Unit 2: Language and its structure
Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• explain grammaticality, word order, meaning, forms and function in relation to word
classes and the formation of sentences in English.
• identify content/lexical words as opposed to functional/grammatical words.
• discuss the differences between content/lexical words and functional/grammatical words.
• make a distinction between different phrases, clauses, and a sentence.
• distinguish between the letters of the alphabet and the sound system of English; and
• explain the differences between semantics and pragmatics.
Introduction
One of the features of language that we discussed in Unit 1 is structure dependence. In this
unit, we will be identifying and explaining the different structures of the English language and
how they are systematically related. We will be looking at the constituent structure of words,
phrases, clauses, and sentences. In addition, we will examine phonemic awareness as a means
of showing the differences between the letters of the alphabet and the sound system of English.
The unit will end with a discussion of semantics and pragmatics, and the differences between
them.
Read the first two paragraphs of Chapter 21 in Wyse et al. (2013:257).
The chapter you have been referred to focuses on grammar. In this chapter, grammar is
described as:
an account of the relationship between words in a sentence. In the light of this definition,
what the grammarian must do is to look for regular patterns of word use in the language
and give labels to them. (Wyse et al., 2013:258)
Our purpose with this unit is to explain the grammar of the English language in a
comprehensive manner. To adequately achieve our aim, we will briefly look at five basic
concepts that are essential to a thorough understanding of words, phrases, clauses and
sentences, and the relationship that exists between them. These concepts are grammaticality,
word order, meaning, form and function. Let us briefly examine each of these in turn.
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Grammaticality
This concept has to do with how well-formed sentences are. In other words, it is about whether
a sentence is constructed in accordance with the rules and constraints that govern how words
are put together to form sentences, to express meaning in each language. This concept helps to
determine whether a sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical in respect of its adherence to,
or violation of, the rules of sentence construction. For example:
The children found the movie.
This example has the string of words that follow the rules of English syntax, namely:
Subject – the children
Predicate – found
Object – the movie
Apart from this conformity, the words have been linearly joined together according to a word
order which is permissible in the English language. For example:
The + children + found + the + movie, as opposed to:

*children + the + movie + found + the.
There is a current move away from the notion of grammaticality to acceptability. This is because
modern linguists are more interested in the actual use of language in real-life situations, than in
how language should be used based on the rules of grammar. For this reason, the notion of
acceptability over grammaticality is being advocated, especially because of the global variation
in new Englishes. In Nigerian English, for instance, the phrase me and my sister is deemed
grammatical and acceptable in certain quarters (depending on the context), but it would be
deemed ungrammatical in Standard English and unacceptable in formal academic writing. The
acceptable and grammatical equivalent in Standard English would be: My sister and I.
Word Order
This concept is connected to grammaticality. It simply refers to the sequential way in which
words are arranged in relation to one another, to achieve meaningful expression either at the
level of a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. In every language, there are rules that govern the
way words should be combined to form acceptable strings which are larger than one or two
words. Here are examples to help you understand this concept:
The teacher screamed at the student.

The student screamed at the teacher.
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But not
*Scream the student at the teacher

*At the teacher screamed the student
The word order in English is typically subject, verb, object (SVO). Think about your own
language: what is the typical word order? Is it the same as in English, or is it different?
Meaning
This concept is commonly employed by traditional grammarians. It is used to define parts of

speech (which in this unit we call word classes) based on their meaning. Based on its meaning,
a noun is defined as a naming word, since it refers to a thing, place, or person. A verb, by
contrast, is described as a doing word or an action word. The limitation of solely defining a word
class on meaning is one of the strongest criticisms to plague traditional grammar, since
meaning cannot adequately account for all words and their classes.
Form
This refers to the structure of a particular word. The form of words in the English language is
closely connected to inflectional morphology. That is, the word formation process in which
suffixes are added to words to express their grammatical functions. Let us look at examples of
forms in word classes. Nouns in English take three forms – singular, plural, and possessive. For
example, boy – singular, boys – plural and boy’s – possessive. They can also co-occur with the
definite article ‘the’, or the indefinite articles ‘a’ or ‘an’. Adjectives have comparative and
superlative forms, while verbs have present, past, progressive/continuous, and perfective forms.
Function
This is the third criterion (apart from meaning and form) that helps us to adequately account for
words and their respective classes. Function refers to the role grammatical units play within a
sentence structure. It helps us to determine how a word is used in relation to other words in a
sentence. It also enables us to label words according to the role they play. A word or group of
words may therefore be the subject (labelled as S), another word or group of words may be
termed the object (labelled as O). For example:
Zuma laughed – the underlined noun functions as a subject (S)

Zuma married a new wife – the underlined word functions as an object (O).
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When we look at words according to the role they play in a sentence structure, we can account
for why words such as humility, singing and fairness, which could not be classified as nouns
based on meaning and form, can now qualify as nouns. For example:
Humility is my watchword.
Singing is a popular hobby.
Fairness is a virtue.
The words underlined function as subjects in each of the sentences, therefore they qualify to be
called nouns according to the rules of the English language.
Our discussion and examples regarding meaning, form, and function, show that an adequate
classification of words into classes can only be achieved when we consider all three concepts.
We will now discuss word classes using these three concepts.
Defining ‘Word’
Words are the essential and basic elements of any verbal language. They enable us to express
our thoughts when we join them together to make sentences. This explains why Kosch (2006:4)
defines a word as a unit of expression with its own independent meaning. In every language,
words are formed from a limited number of sounds, letters, or symbols. So, for example, all
English words are formed from 26 letters, 24 consonants, 12 simple vowels and eight
diphthongs. There are different ways in which a word pattern (formed with other words) enables
us to transmit messages meaningfully, in an unlimited number of ways. Words are therefore
fundamental to our use of language. They can be classified into either content or function
words. Let us look at each category in more detail.
Content or Lexical Words
Content words or lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are the main
lexical items of any language, and they are more than grammatical or functional words because
more lexical words can be developed to express new technologies and ideas. This explains why
dictionaries are upgraded from time to time to include new content words. Content words such
as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs have dictionary meaning. This mean that you can look
for their meaning in the dictionary and can use them independently on their own. Content
words are described as ‘open class’ words because new nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
can be created as mentioned earlier to express new developments and usage. We referred to
this fact in Unit 1 and gave examples of new words that have been created from the field of
technology.
Grammatical or Functional Words
Grammatical or functional words are pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

These words are different from content or lexical words because they do not have dictionary
meanings. They also cannot be used on their own. Therefore, they are called function or
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grammatical words. We can define grammatical or function words as words that are used to
indicate the grammaticality of sentences. Grammatical or function words in any language are
limited in number because new words cannot be added to them. This explains why we can
count the number of pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions in English, but cannot count how
many nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs. It is for this reason that grammatical words are
described as ‘closed-class’ words as they cannot be expanded like content or lexical words.
Some examples of grammatical words are you, it, and, but, Oh, of, to and across.
If you look at these words, you will see that until we use them with content words such as
nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, they do not have meaning of their own. Therefore, they
are called function words. For examples: You look beautiful, it is a book, I love meat and egg,
Oh! She won! The content of the book, I went to the market, The pen is across the table.
In all these examples, you can see that the grammatical words in bold function in relation to the
content words in the sentences to convey complete sense. On the other hand, all the content
words can be meaningfully used on their own without the grammatical words. We will now look
at individual word classes, starting with nouns.
Nouns
As mentioned earlier, defining nouns purely based on their meaning as a word that is used to
name things – a place, an invention, a person, an animal or even an abstract idea – is not
adequate for explaining what nouns are. In our explanation of form as a grammatical concept,
we demonstrated (with examples) how to identify a noun by its form as either singular, plural, or
possessive, and by the fact that it can occur with the definite article ‘the’ and the indefinite
articles ‘a’ or ‘an’. Singular nouns represent one, while plural nouns denote multiples.
For example:
Singular Plural
boy boys
child children
man men
lady ladies
thief thieves
cattle cattle
From these examples, we can see that the plural forms of nouns can be represented in different
ways. Most nouns in English are regularly marked for the plural form by the addition of the suffix
–s to their singular form (as in boys). Those nouns whose plural forms are marked differently
are called irregular nouns, and they include words like child, man, lady, thief, and cattle.
The possessive form of the noun is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people,
countries, and animals. This form is used to show ownership or a relationship of belonging. The
possessive form is marked by ’s (apostrophe ‘s’) for singular nouns. For example: Thando’s
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homework (the homework belonging to Thando); the teacher’s textbook. For plural nouns
already ending in –s, the possessive form is marked by adding only the apostrophe (’), as in
boys’ shirts, teachers’ staff room. For irregular nouns whose plural forms are not marked by the
suffix –s, the apostrophe ‘s’ (’s) is used, as in children’s playground, men’s clothing. When
personal names end in an ‘s’, as in James, you can either add an apostrophe (James’
homework) or an apostrophe and an ‘s’ (James’s homework) – both forms are acceptable. Can
you think of any other way of reflecting the possessive form in English? What of the possessive
form of the neuter third-person singular pronoun ‘it’? Is the possessive form it’s or its? For this
pronoun, the possessive form is formed by simply adding an ‘s’. For example:
The cat licks its paw.
When an apostrophe ‘s’ is added to the pronoun, it means ‘it is’. For example:
Thank goodness it’s Friday.
As second-language users of English we often confuse the two forms.
As demonstrated earlier, defining nouns in terms of their meaning and form is inadequate for
nouns such as humility, singing and fairness. These types of nouns can only be accounted for
by considering their function in a sentence structure, as shown earlier. The three nouns can
also function as objects. For examples:
The principal demonstrates humility in his actions.

Bongani practices fairness.
Likhwa enjoys singing.
In these examples, the nouns function as direct object of the verbs demonstrates, practices, and
enjoys respectively. In the following sentences, however, the nouns function as indirect object of
the verbs, because the underlined nouns are indirectly affected by the actions of the verbs:
The government gave students free education.

Richard bought his student a laptop.
Note that the nouns which are underlined are not the things which were given or bought. In
addition to functioning as subject or object of a sentence, nouns also function as complements
and adverbials in sentences. The following examples show the complement function of a noun:
Cyril Ramaphosa became president.

He is intelligent.
South Africans consider Winnie Mandela to be the mother of the nation.
The president appointed him as a minister.
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In the first two examples, the underlined nouns serve as subject complement because they are
linked to the subject of the sentences by the verbs became and is. Such verbs are called linking
verbs. In the last two examples, however, the underlined nouns function as object complement
because they directly follow the direct object of the sentences.
Apart from the three functions we have already discussed, nouns also function as adverbials in
sentences. For example:
Richard married her last December.

She will divorce him next year.
The noun underlined in the first sentence provides additional information about when the action
took place, while in the second sentence it indicates when the action will take place.
Types of Nouns
There are different types of nouns (apart from their general classification into regular and
irregular forms), namely:
Proper nouns – these refer to the specific names of persons, places or things. For example:
Sibusiso, Woolworths, Black Panther, Cape Town, Kilimanjaro. Proper nouns always start with a
capital letter.
Common nouns – these refer to the general names of persons, things or places. For example:
shop, boy, man, school, father, teacher, student, dog.
Concrete nouns – these refer to things you can perceive through the five senses. For example:
chair (something you can touch), food (can be tasted), fur (can be stroked), music (can be
heard).
Abstract nouns – they are the opposite of concrete nouns; they cannot be perceived through
the five senses. For example: joy, perception, rage, hate, love.
Count nouns – these refer to nouns that can be counted. They can be singular or plural. For
example: one table, three boys.
Non-count nouns – these are nouns that cannot be counted. For example: sugar, cutlery. You
cannot count the grains in a heap of sugar.
Collective nouns – these refer to a group or collection of the same thing, usually either people
or animals. For example: a herd of cattle, a swarm of bees, a flock of sheep, a crowd of people,
a board of directors, a team of players, a bouquet of flowers.
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this unit that deals with that topic and deepen your understanding of it.
____ I can define nouns using the three grammatical concepts of meaning, form and function.
____ I know what regular and irregular nouns are.
____ I can identify the different types of nouns.
____ I can identify the three forms of nouns.
Verbs
The verb is the heartbeat of a sentence because it is the fundamental element of any sentence
in English. This means that a verb is not only essential but compulsory in the formation of
sentences. Traditionally, a verb is defined as an action word, or a word that expresses the
action in a sentence. Let us use two earlier examples:
The government gave students free education.

Richard bought his student a laptop.
The underlined words gave and bought are the verbs, because if we remove them the
sentences will become ungrammatical. For example:
*The government students free education

*Richard his student a laptop
Neither example can be called a sentence because they do not express complete thoughts. The
verb is also the element in a sentence that conveys the tense. Therefore it is used to denote an
action or an occurrence that takes place in the present, took place in the past or will take place
in the future. Like nouns, verbs have regular and irregular forms. The regular forms of verbs in
English can be shown in the following table:
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Regular Verb Forms
Base Form Third-person Past Tense Progressive or Perfective
Singular Form Form Continuous Form
in the Present Form
Tense
walk walks walked walking walked
follow follows followed following followed
dance dances danced dancing danced
The base form of the verb is also known as the bare form. It is the form that we find in the
dictionary. The base form of the verb is the one from which all other forms arise through the
addition of appropriate suffixes. From the base form walk, we have the forms walks (by adding
the suffix –s), walked (by adding the suffix –ed) and walking (by adding the suffix –ing). The
base form of the verb is also used to form the infinitive, either with or without to. For example:
She really wants to go with them (‘to’ has been added)

I want to see the movie (‘to’ has been added)
He cannot come now (‘to’ has not been added)
Third-Person Singular in the Present Tense Form
This is marked by the addition of –s or –es, depending on the base form. It is the form of the
verb taken by the third-person singular pronouns he, she, and it. We discussed this form of the
verb in relation to tense and concord in Unit 1, with several examples.
The three primary verbs do, be and have, take different forms in the third-person singular
present tense, when functioning as main verbs. For example:
She does swimming. (As a sport – beware, this is not the continuous tense, another example is:
she does needlework)
It is late.
He has ten cars.
Past Tense Form
This is formed by adding –ed to the base verb. For example:
Mfundo climbed the tree yesterday. My son called me last week.
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Progressive or Continuous Form
This is formed by adding –ing to the base form of a regular verb and is used to show the
continuous or progressive tense along with the auxiliary verb be, as mentioned in our discussion
on tense in Unit 1. For example:
I am writing Unit 2 now. (present)

The students were working on the computer. (past)
Perfective Form
The perfective is formed by adding –ed to regular verbs, as in the past tense form. The
difference is that this form of the verb co-occurs with the auxiliary have, as we explained in Unit
1 in our discussion on tenses. For example:
Mary has studied geometry (third-person present participle)

The teachers have followed the syllabus. (present participle)
The students had travelled before she came. (past participle)
Irregular verbs are different from their regular counterparts because they differ in respect of
their past and perfective forms. The forms that irregular verbs assume vary, depending on the
verbs themselves. There are not many irregular verbs in English, and they are usually listed
under an appendix in any standard dictionary of English.
Irregular Verb Forms

Base or Infinitive Form Past Tense Form Perfective Form
become became become
draw drew drawn
Forget forgot forgotten
Go went gone
eat ate eaten
let let let
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Consult a dictionary for the different forms of irregular verbs in English.
Other types of verbs (apart from the regular and irregular) include:
Transitive versus Intransitive
This has to do with the presence or absence of an object in a sentence. For example:
Grace smashed the car. (transitive)

Grace cried. (intransitive)
The dog barked. (intransitive)
He kicked the ball. (transitive)
The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs is that the first and fourth sentences
above would not make complete sense without the noun car and the noun phrase the ball
functioning as objects. On the other hand, the verb cried in the second sentence and barked in
the third do not require an object for the sentence to make complete sense. All verbs that
require a direct object to complete the meaning of a sentence are referred to as transitive verbs.
Verbs such as cry and bark, which do not need an object, are called intransitive verbs.
Active versus Passive Voice
Voice is a verbal category that expresses how sentences may alter the relationship between the
subject and the object of the verb, without changing the meaning. In English, voice is expressed
as either active or passive. Active voice is realised when the subject of a sentence performs the
action expressed by the verb. On the other hand, in the passive voice the subject is the receiver
of the action expressed by the verb. This means that the action that is performed is the focus on
the sentence and not the person performing the action. Let us look at the following examples:
The principal (subject) addressed (verb) the learners.

John (subject) sent (verb) the email.
Caleb (subject) bought (verb) the car.
All three sentences are in the active voice, because the subjects – the principal, John, and
Caleb – performed the actions expressed in the verbs – addressed, sent and bought. The same
sentences will be in the passive voice if we change their structure so that the subject receives
the action of the verb. For example:
The learners were addressed by the principal.

The email was sent by John.
The car was bought by Caleb.
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In the passive voice examples, the main verb is inflected to show the passive form using were
and was. In addition, the verb may or may not be followed by the performer of the action. For
example:
The learners were addressed.

The email was sent.
The car was bought.
This shows that we use the passive voice when we are more interested in the action performed,
than in the person who performed the action (and who may be known or unknown). By contrast,
when we use the active voice, we are interested in specifying which person/animal performs the
action.
Finite versus Non-finite Verbs
Finite verbs are verbs whose base forms can change to show the distinction between present
and past tense. For example:
He danced vigorously. (past)

She smiles warmly. (present)
Non-finite verbs, by contrast, are verb forms that do not show tense, number, or person
distinctions. In other words, a non-finite verb is a verb which has the infinitive or progressive
(continuous) or perfective form. They are therefore not essential verbs in sentences. The non-
finite verb forms in English are:
a) The infinitive forms with to or without to

b) The –ing participle
c) The –ed participle
Here are a few examples:
to sing the song, I bought a tambourine -Infinitive forms

On getting a flight ticket, he travelled home - ing participle (progressive/continuous form)
Having bought my food, I waited for an hour – ing and ed participle (Progressive and perfective
forms)
Beaten by the bee, he became sick – ed participle (perfective form).
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Dynamic versus Stative Verbs
The distinction between dynamic and stative verbs lies in whether or not they can be used to
show progressive or non-progressive actions or states. Verbs which can be used to indicate
progressive actions are dynamic, while those that cannot be used to show progressive actions
or states are stative. For example:
It was walking.
She is dancing.
They were swimming.
Dynamic verbs tend to indicate a given period of time within which an event occurs, as can be
seen from the sentences. Stative verbs, on the other hand, tend to indicate habits or states.
Examples include the verbs ‘be’ and ‘know’ in the following:
He is an actor.
She knows.
as opposed to
*He is being a teacher.

*She is knowing.
The two sentences above are not grammatically well formed.
Another way to look at stative/dynamic verbs is to see the former verbs as referring to a state or
condition which is static, that is, unchanging or not likely to change. In other words, stative verbs
are devoid of physical action or activity. They express the things in our minds or express
relations. For example: love and hate are verbs of perception or cognition, in the following
sentences:
I love mangoes.
I hate horror movies.
The verbs contain and have, as in:
The bottle contains six liters of oil.

I have a silver car (i.e., I own it).
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Dynamic verbs, on the other hand, describe action or physical activity as in, for example, run,
eat, walk.
Lexical versus Auxiliary Verbs

In English, a distinction is made between lexical and auxiliary verbs. This distinction is based on
meaning, rather than on form or function. Lexical verbs (otherwise known as main verbs) are
independent verbs that can be used on their own, as the only verb-element in a sentence. They
have full dictionary meaning. Auxiliary verbs, on the other hand, are helping verbs. They do not
have full dictionary meaning and function to support the main or lexical verbs, to express
different shades of meaning and tense. For example:
Jesus wept.
The police captured the terrorist.
President Pohamba has won the Mo Ibrahim prize.
He may go now.
In these examples, the verbs wept and captured are lexical or main verbs, while has and may
are auxiliary verbs. Has in the sentence helps to express the fact that the winning of the prize at
some point in the past is a continued reality in the present. Has is therefore used to help the
main verb won, to express the present perfect tense, to show that the effect of winning the prize
has continued to be a reality. In the sentence He may go now, the modal auxiliary verb may
express possibility.
Other auxiliary verbs in English are the modals such as can/could, will/would, shall/should,
must, ought to, used to, need, may, might. They are used to express different meanings,
including promise, obligation, probability, possibility and ability. The modals will and shall are
both used to express the future tense.
Apart from the modals, the auxiliary verbs include what is referred to as primary verbs (non-
modal). These are: to be, have and do. These three combine with the main verb to express time
(tense) and voice (active/passive). Note that the forms of ‘be’ are used to express the
continuous tense, while the forms of have help to form the perfective tense, as indicated in our
discussion of tense in Unit 1. These three verbs are the most important in English. They are
very irregular and take the following forms:
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Be: am, are, is, was, were, being, been
Have: has, had (past), having, had (perfective)
Do: does, did, doing, done
They can each function as either auxiliaries or as the main verb. This is particularly the case
with do and have, which can function as lexical or main verbs in some sentence constructions.
For example:
Raphael did the work today.

They have an apartment on the second floor.
Linking Verbs
These types of verbs are also called corpula verbs (or simply corpulas). They show a
relationship between the subject of the sentence and the noun or adjective being linked to it. For
example:
The dog is a Beagle. (Dog and Beagle are linked because they are the same thing)
His cat is very fluffy. (Cat and fluffy are linked because ‘fluffy’ describes the cat)
Linking verbs have the following characteristics:
• They point out relationships between the subject and the sentence complement (the part
of the sentence following the verb).
• They connect or link the subject with more information that further identifies or describes
the subject; and
• They identify existing conditions.
As a way of describing the nature of these verbs, they are sometimes described as performing
the function of an equal sign (=), because they provide the connection between a subject and a
certain state.
There are two types of linking verbs: true linking verbs, and others which can be used either as
action verbs or linking verbs. True linking verbs always connect the subject of a sentence to
additional information. These types of verbs do not describe an action, they only link. The most
common types are the forms of the verb ‘to be’: am, is, are, was, were, being, been. The forms
of the verb become: become, becomes, becoming, became and the forms of the verb seem:
seem, seems, seemed, seeming.
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In addition to true linking verbs, there are many verbs that can exist either as action verbs or
linking verbs. These types of verbs relate to the five senses. Common verbs that can function
either as action words or linking verbs include appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem,
smell, sound, stay, taste, turn, prove, get.
Phrasal Verbs
So far, the verbs we discussed have appeared on their own in sentences. However, English
also has phrasal verbs. These verbs, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
(2010), are sometimes called multi-word verbs. Phrasal verbs consist of two or three words. For
example:
She broke down at the funeral.

I will make up for my mistakes.
She has come down with the flu.
The first word of the phrasal verb, as we can see from the first example, is a verb followed by an
adverb. Phrasal verbs can also occur in the form of a verb followed by a preposition, as in look
into. Another possibility is a combination of a verb, adverb, and preposition, as in put up with.
The adverbs and prepositions that are used with phrasal verbs are referred to as particles.
The meaning of some phrasal verbs can be easily understood within the context in which they
are used, but many phrasal verbs have idiomatic meanings that we must learn. For instance,
our earlier example put up with means to tolerate, but this meaning cannot be discerned from
the separate meanings of put, up and with.
The final point to make about verbs in English is how they function. The main verbs on their
own (or together with auxiliary verbs) constitute a verb phrase, as we will see later in this unit.
The main verb and other word class (such as the noun, adverb, or preposition) that comes after
it in sentences, function as the predicate of sentences.
Adjectives
Adjectives describe or modify a noun or a pronoun. Because adjectives tell us more about a
noun or pronoun, they usually appear before them. It is possible for a sentence to contain two or
more adjectives. In the following examples, the words underlined are adjectives that modify the
noun they precede:
She married an educated man.

On her first day, she was very shy.
The girl ordered sparkling wine.
The chef cooked a delicious meal.
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From the examples above, we can see that an adjective modifies a noun either by describing it
or making it more specific. Adjectives are easily identifiable when they are used in a certain
context or situation but may be difficult to identify in isolation. Here are other characteristic
features that can help you identify adjectives.
Adjectives can be identified by their comparative and superlative forms, created by the addition
of the inflectional suffixes –er and –est respectively. For example:
big bigger biggest

fast faster fastest
strong stronger strongest
You should note, however, that not all adjectives take these suffixes to mark the comparative
and superlative, as is evident from these exceptional cases:
good better best

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
A third characteristic of adjectives is that some end with the suffix –ous, as in dangerous,
rebellious, outrageous, marvelous, and courageous. A fourth characteristic concerns their
position in a sentence. In this respect, adjectives can be used attributively or predicatively. An
adjective is attributive if it comes before the noun it modifies – in other words, when it pre-
modifies the noun. For example:
Rich boys are lazy.

The rich boy has travelled.
In a predicative position, adjectives are detached from the nouns they modify by verbs, as in:
The news is exciting. (predicative)
Contrast this with:
The exciting news came via email. (attributive)
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There are also different types of adjectives. The common types are:
Demonstrative adjectives, which point out things. They answer the questions: which? or
what? Examples are this, that, those, and these, as in this teacher, that novel, those students,
these assignments.
Quantitative adjectives, which state how many or how much. They are used to indicate
quantity, as in many songs, much love.
Possessive adjectives, which are commonly expressed by possessive pronouns. They denote
possession, as in their farm, our lecturers, his wisdom.
Descriptive adjectives, which are used to describe the quality of something, as in: a clever
politician, an enthusiastic student, a brave veteran, a patriotic citizen.
You may have noticed that some of the words we referred to as determiners are also used in
the examples above as adjectives, but in a different context. Determiners are not the only word
class that may be used as adjectives, as can be seen from the use of nouns and pronouns
(especially possessive pronouns) in these examples: She went to the kitchen tea (also known
as a kitchen party); This is my dream house.
In terms of function, the adjective is the head of an adjective phrase; it also functions as a
modifier in a noun phrase. The adjective can also function as a complement in a clause. For
example:
He sounds clever. (The adjective clever in this sentence functions as a subject complement)
Adverbs
Adverbs commonly end with the suffix –ly, and mostly describe a verb. Adverbs explain how or
when an action took place. For example, in the sentence I will quickly run to the garage, the
adverb in the sentence is quickly as it tells us how the person will run.
Apart from verbs, adverbs can also modify adjectives or other adverbs. For example:
She played skillfully. (Modifying a verb)

Barack Obama is extremely popular. (Modifying an adjective)
He drinks very heavily. (Modifying an adverb)
In these examples, played, popular and heavily are the verb, adjective and adverb respectively.
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Adverbs answer questions about how, when, where, how often and to what extent something
happened. The following types of adverbs can be identified in English:
Adverbs of manner – this type tells us how something is done or happens, as in: He smokes
sparingly.
Adverbs of time – these adverbs tell time, specifying when something happened. For example:
He married last year.
Adverbs of frequency – these adverbs tell us how often something happens or is done. For
example: Rain rarely falls in Namibia.
Adverbs of place – this type of adverb tells us where the action (expressed by the verb)
happens. For example: She lives here.
Adverbs of degree – they reveal the degree or extent to which something happens or is done.
For example: They are seriously annoyed; Zuma is very angry.
As second-language learners of English, we often struggle to distinguish between adverbs,

adjectives, and prepositions. For example: His fatherly love; It was a friendly game. In these
examples, it is quite easy to assume that fatherly and friendly are adverbs because they end
with the suffix –ly, but in fact the two words are adjectives because they modify the nouns love
and game respectively.
Adverbs function as adverbials in a sentence. They are optional elements, because all they do
is to provide additional information about how, when, where and to what degree something
happened. This means that their absence from a sentence does not affect the grammaticality of
the sentence. Adverbs also function as the head of an adverb phrase, as we shall see shortly in
this unit.
The following activity should test your understanding of, and ability to apply, what you have
learned about nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Activity: Nouns
Identify all the nouns in these sentences, and state whether they are countable or uncountable:
The water is cold.

There is not much oil left in the bottle.
I bought baby biscuits.
Wanja travelled from Windhoek.
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The water is cold. (uncountable)
There is not much oil left in the bottle. (Oil is uncountable, but bottle is countable because it can
take the plural form, bottles)
I bought baby biscuits. (Countable, it is in the plural form; baby in this sentence functions as an
adjective modifying/describing the type of biscuit, even though it is ordinarily a noun)
Wanja travelled from Windhoek. (Not countable, they are personal nouns)
Activity: Verbs
1. Identify the type of verb underlined within the context of its usage:
a) Emmy has a big house.
b) Carla was cycling all day long.
c) He may have been swimming.
d) He gave a toy to the boy.
e) Mphaso seems happy.
f) Locking the gates, the woman went inside.
g) Dora had her apartment cleaned.
h) He is handsome.
2. State whether the following verbs are dynamic or stative:

play, know, understanding, drive
1 Verb type:
a) Main verb
b) Intransitive verb
c) Auxiliary verb
d) Transitive verb
e) Linking verb
f) Non-finite verb
g) Non-finite verb
h) True linking verb
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2 Drive and play are dynamic verbs, while know and understanding are stative verbs.
Activity: Adjectives
Isolate the adjectives in the following sentences:
The expensive holiday was not approved.

The slim, beautiful woman told a fascinating story.
Wooden tables are better.
The brilliant drummer is black.
We had an adventurous Easter weekend this year.
The expensive holiday was not approved.
The slim, beautiful woman told a fascinating story.
Wooden tables are better.
The brilliant drummer is black.
We had an adventurous Easter weekend this year.
Activity: Adverbs
Identify the adverbs in the following sentences:
We will be going soon.

They have not seen her lately.
The local team often wins the game.
He sings gloriously.
It was a rather poor movie.
Feedback on Activity – Dictionary Usage

Do this yourself. Use a dictionary to find the correct answers. It is the only way you can learn on
your own. It will also give you the opportunity to form the habit of using a dictionary.
To conclude our discussion on content/lexical words, read the following sections of your
prescribed book for more academic examples that will help you as a student.
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Read units 3.3 and 3.4 of your prescribed text, Bailey (2015:165–171).
In these two units of the text, you will find further examples of the nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs that are used for academic writing, as well as how they are used. There are also
practical exercises that you can attempt to test your mastery of content words. The answer key
to the questions is provided in the textbook.
In the following section, we will discuss functional or grammatical words.
Grammatical Word Classes
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that can be used in the place of a noun or noun phrase. For example:
Professor Phillips is the Dean. He is a theologian.
In this sentence, the pronoun he has been used to avoid repeating ‘Professor Phillips’.
Pronouns therefore take the position of nouns in sentences. If there were no pronouns, for
instance, we would have to repeat nouns and noun phrases in sentences to refer to the same
thing. There are several types of pronouns, some of which we have already discussed in Unit 1.
The major ones are defined and explained with examples below.
Personal pronouns: this type is discussed in Unit 1. Personal pronouns, as you will recall,
require different forms to express grammatical concepts of person, number, gender and case.
The following are examples: I, you, he, she, it, they, we, me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
Possessive pronouns: this type of pronoun was mentioned when we discussed case as a
grammatical concept. Possessive pronouns are used to show ownership, and include examples
such as: my, their, our, mine. They can be used as modifiers in sentences. For example:
Your car is new.

His/her house is old.
Their donation helped the poor.
In all three sentences, the possessive pronouns your, his/her and their, are used to pre-modify
the nouns car, house, and donation respectively. In the following sentences, however, the
possessive pronouns are used to indicate ownership/possession or a sense of belonging. For
example:
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It is hers.
The car is yours.
The books are theirs.
Mine is new.
Demonstrative pronouns: these resemble demonstrative adjectives in form, and include this,
that, these and those. They function as pronouns when used in the place of nouns. When they
function as adjectives, they are used as determiners to pre-modify nouns. As pre-modifying
adjectives, they occur before the nouns they modify. This distinction is very important to know,
as they function differently even though they take the same forms. The only difference between
demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives is that the latter are followed by nouns,
while the former are not. The difference is therefore in the sentence structure. The
demonstrative pronoun takes the place of the noun phrase, while the demonstrative adjective is
always followed by a noun. For example:
The cake you are baking smells delicious = That smells delicious.
The physical move in yoga really hurts = This really hurts.
What is the shiny, multicoloured billboard mounted at the mall for? = What is that for?
The rats currently giving birth in the garage are disgusting = Those are disgusting.
The three assorted muffins on my plate are my favourites = These are my favourites.
We can see that the subject of the sentences above are noun phrases, which have been
replaced with the appropriate demonstrative pronouns. Now compare this set of sentences in
which demonstrative adjectives have been used:
Is this jacket yours or mine?

Did you finally throw away that old T-shirt?
These cookies smell delicious.
He told them those old magazines were a fire hazard.
In these examples, you can see that the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these and those all
function as pre-modifiers.
Demonstrative pronouns are mostly used in speech, because the speaker needs to indicate
what s/he is talking about by pointing or gesturing towards it. Alternatively, the person/people
s/he is speaking to, need to be looking at what they are talking about. In writing, demonstrative
pronouns are used only if the context clearly indicates what the demonstrative pronoun refers
to, as shown in our first set of sentences.
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Reflexive pronouns: these are pronouns ending in –self/selves, depending on whether they
are singular or plural. Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject of a sentence is the same
person or thing as the object of the sentence. For example:
I bought myself a new car on my birthday.

He hurt himself with a knife.
She made herself a bowl of soup.
Teachers often blame themselves for their students’ failures.
We locked ourselves out.
They enjoyed themselves at the party.
Relative pronouns: these are used to join subordinate or dependent causes to main or
independent clauses. Relative pronouns refer to nouns or pronouns in main clauses. They
introduce relative clauses. Relative pronouns in English are who, whom, which, whose and that.
For example:
The lecturer who teaches Introduction to Linguistics is Zimbabwean.

The house that he bought has been repossessed by the bank.
The actress whose mother is a consultant is brilliant.
The car which the couple has, was given by the father of the groom.
Interrogative pronouns: these pronouns are used to introduce wh- questions. They include
what, who, whom, which, when, whose. For example:
What is the time?

Who took my keys?
Whom did she address?
Which car is yours?
When will you travel?
Whose books are these?
In terms of function, pronouns are like nouns. They function mainly to replace nouns or noun
phrases in a sentence. Like nouns, pronouns can perform the following four functions:
Subject of the verb – We love basketball. They voted for Barack Obama.
Object of the verb – Richard loves her a lot. The hunter shot it.
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Complement of the verb – It was I who called you last night. It was you.
Object of the preposition – I bought the book for her. I took a picture of him.
The next functional word that we will focus on, is the conjunction.
Conjunctions
In Unit 3.5 of your prescribed text (Bailey, 2015), conjunctions are described as words and
phrases that join parts of a sentence together or link one sentence to the next. When people
first learn to write, they usually begin with short, basic sentences such as these:
1. My name is Joseph.
2. I like dogs.
A conjunction connects short sentences, so that a person’s writing can flow. For example, the
two short sentences above can be joined to read as follows: My name is Joseph and I like dogs.
‘Conjunction’ as a word literarily means ‘the act of joining or combining’. Conjunctions include
words such as and, but, for, because, yet, etc. There are three types of conjunctions in English:
coordinating, correlative and subordinating conjunctions. They function as signposts in
sentences and between paragraphs to help readers follow the ideas that is being expressed or
written. Let us start with coordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS): these are conjunctions that join equal elements
together. That means they join words to words, phrases to phrases, and clauses to clauses.
These conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so – the acronym FANBOYS is used to
help us remember them. For example:
You are not going to the mall, nor will you go to the cinema!
I am angry, but I will not fight with him.
Most students like bread and butter.
The ball is hidden behind the tree or by the swimming pool.
What you intend and what you say are two separate things.
Correlative conjunctions: these are either ... or, both ... and, neither ... nor, whether … or, not
only … but (also). For example:
I spoke to both the lecturer and the student.

He has neither the money nor the fame.
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Either you study or you will fail.

These types of conjunctions make sentences stronger and clearer. They are also used to write
concise sentences and for emphasis.
Subordinating conjunctions: these conjunctions are used to introduce dependent clauses. For
example:
He performed poorly in the examination because he did not study hard.

Although she studied hard, she failed the test.
Subordinate conjunctions can also be used to join dependent and independent clauses. For
example:
Unless you pay attention in class, you will not understand.
They are also commonly used to express relationships of time, manner, cause, condition,
comparison, or purpose. For example:
Time: after, as long as, as soon as, until, when, etc.

Manner: as if, as though
Cause: because
Condition: although, even if, even though, if, provided that, unless, though, etc.
Comparison: as, then
Purpose: in order that, so that, that
Subordinating conjunctions demonstrate the relationship between clauses often showing cause
and effect or contrasting relationship.
Conjunctions have an important function because they join words and phrases. Conjunctions
allow us to form compound and complex sentences without which our expressions would only
be made up of simple sentences.
Activity
Use the correct conjunction in each of the following sentences:
I am cooking food. I am hungry.

He could not visit him. He sent an apology.
I will not marry him. I love him so much.
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I only talk to him. He is your brother.
I am cooking because I am hungry.
He could not visit him, so he sent an apology.
I will not marry him, even though I love him so much.
I only talk to him because he is your brother.
In the next section, we will look at prepositions.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word that expresses a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another
word in a sentence. In other words, a preposition describes the relationship between other
words. Examples are: in, under, across, to, at, on, below, etc. As you can see, prepositions are
meaningless on their own, and are difficult to define. By their nature they are always combined
with other words in a sentence. A preposition is a very difficult word class to understand,
because prepositions with the same forms are used differently to pattern with specific words or
expressions. This explains why even the most advanced second-language learners and users
of English still have moments when they are anxious about whether or not they have chosen the
correct preposition. For example, the prepositions at, on and in can easily be referred to as
prepositions of time, but the same words are used as prepositions of place and location. To can
be referred to as a movement preposition, while for and since are also used as prepositions of
time.
Some prepositions pattern with nouns, adjectives and verbs, so much so that they are almost
perceived as one word. Here are a few examples:
Nouns with prepositions: respect for, success in/at, understanding of, confusion about, desire
for, hatred of, hope for, interest in, etc.
Adjectives with prepositions: interested in, jealous of, made of, careless about/with, familiar
with, angry at/about, similar to, sorry for, sure of/about, etc.
Verbs with prepositions: apologise for, ask about, grow up, look for, look forward to, worry
about, prepare for, study for, talk about, make up, care for, etc. These combinations of verbs
with prepositions are known as phrasal verbs, as mentioned earlier in our discussion on verbs.
Remember that prepositions that are joined to verbs are called particles.
Here are a few examples of preposition usage:
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Preposition of place: at, on and in
At is used for specific addresses, as in: Ingrid lives at 5 John Ya Otto Street in Avis.
On is used to refer to names of streets or avenues, as in: Her house is on Storer Street.
In is used for the names of land-areas (towns, countries, states and continents), as in: He lives
in Pretoria, Pretoria is in Gauteng, Gauteng is in South Africa.
Preposition of location: in, at and on, as in:
In At On
(the) bed* class* the bed*
the bedroom home the ceiling
the car the library* the floor
(the) class* the office the horse
the library* school* the plane
school* work the train
*Different prepositions may sometimes be used for these places.
Preposition of time: at, on, in, for, since:
At is used to show specific times, as in: The plane arrives at 13:30pm.

On is used to show days and dates, as in: My daughter is coming on Friday; They are staging a
play on 12 June.
In is used for expressing non-specific times during a day, month, season or year, as in: She
likes to walk in the evening; It is too hot in summer to walk outside; He took up the appointment
in 2012; She is going to resign in March.
For is used when time is measured in terms of seconds, minutes, hours, days, months or years,
as in: He took her pulse for five minutes; She has worked there for four years; The British and
Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
Since is used with a specific date or time, as in: He has lived there since 1997; We have been
standing in the queue since five o’clock.
Preposition of movement: to, toward, towards:
To is used to express movement toward a place, as in: He was cycling to work twice a week;
Bongani is going to the doctor this afternoon.
Toward and towards: these are also used to express movement. They are the same word, with
two variations in spelling. You can use whichever you prefer: I am moving toward the stage;
This is a big step towards achieving our dreams.
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Preposition usage is not very easy, and you can only learn to master the different and
appropriate uses as a learner of English through practice and observation of how prepositions
are used in speech and writing.
As second-language learners and users of English, we find it difficult to differentiate between

prepositions and adverbs, as many words in the English language can be either prepositions or
adverbs, depending on the context in which they are used. When in doubt, ask whether the
word is folowed by a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun. If your answer is ‘yes’, then it is a
preposition. If it is ‘no’, then it is an adverb.
Interjections
This is not as central to English grammar as all the other word classes. Interjections are
expressions like Ugh! Oh! Ouch! Ah! and Phew! Can you think of any other such expressions in
English or in your own language? According to Leech et al. (1982:53) interjections are
linguistically somewhat primitive expressions of feeling, only intergrated loosely into the
linguistic system. Leech et al. (1982) further state that swearwords (e.g., Damn!) can be
regarded as interjections, as can greetings (e.g., Hello!) and other words used in greeting, such
as goodbye, okay, yes and no. Other forms that could pass for interjections are Alas! Help! and
Wow! Interjections are followed by exclamation marks. They are used to express emotions and
feelings such as fear, surprise, joy, sorrow, regret or disappointment.
Activity – Dictionary Usage

In the following sentences, identify the
a) prepositions
b) pronouns
c) conjunctions and
d) interjections
1. Wow! I made the dean’s list.

2. Help! There is a thief in the hostel.
3. They are spending more than I can afford and I am worried about it.
4. But she is the lady I have been speaking to you about.
5. Even though there is clear medical evidence, some people still refuse to believe that
smoking is dangerous.
6. Hey! Could you stop that man from staring at them like that?
7. This is Maswazil, he graduated from Harvard last year.
8. She gave herself a treat.
9. The girl who won the prize is beautiful.
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10. Neither the principal nor the teachers understand the new language policy for education.
The first thing you should do is to isolate all the words you are sure you can identify correctly.
After that, use the dictionary for any words you cannot identify. Take your time to find each
word. Once you have identified the word class, write it down and reflect on why the word has
been so identified. In addition, read the sentence in which the word is used and the note on its
usage, as provided in the dictionary.
Phrases
A phrase in any language is a group of words with no finite verb. You might want to go back to
page 51 of this study guide to look at what finite verbs are. Let us look at the following
examples: The Vice-Chancellor (noun phrase), in the garden (prepositional phrase), very
large (adjective phrase), too quickly (adverb phrase), is singing (verb phrase).
In all these examples, you will notice that there is no complete thought that is expressed
because there is no finite verb whose base can be changed to show the difference between
present and past tense.
English Phrases
There are five phrases in English. These are:
1. The Noun Phrase
2. The Verb Phrase
3. The Adjective Phrase
4. The Adverb Phrase
5. The Prepositional Phrase.
From 1-4, you can see that the content words we referred to earlier can be formed into phrases
and 5, shows that it is only preposition that can be formed into a phrase from the list of
grammatical words earlier explained.
1. The Noun Phrase (NP)
Definition
Taking a clue from our definition of what a phrase is, we can define a noun phrase as a group of
words made up of a noun and noun modifiers.
The Form of the Noun Phrase
The noun phrase is formally represented as NP in most grammar textbooks.
The Noun phrase is structurally made up of three forms. These are:
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i. a head which is compulsory,
ii. a pre-modifier which is optional
iii. a post-modifier which is also optional.
Let us explain these concepts further. Head means the core part of the phrase. The essential
element that should be present before we can identify a group of words as a noun phrase.
The head of a noun phrase must always be a noun, it is the only element that must be
present in a noun phrase. In other words, a group of words can only be described as a noun
phrase because the group of words has as its head a noun. This explains why the “Head” is
always compulsory. The head is represented as H in the analysis of Noun Phrase (NP).
Pre-modifier means the group of words that come before the head of a noun phrase. This
group of words is optional. This means it may or may not be present in a noun phrase.
Post-modifier refers to the group of words which may or may not occur after the head noun.
This element of the NP is optional like the pre-modifier.
Now that we have explained the three elements that constitute the structure of the Noun Phrase
in English, let us illustrate the structure with some examples:
The handsome actors with long hair …
This is an example of a noun phrase (NP) because it is a group of words with no finite verb.
The Head (H) is the noun “actors” written in bold. The Pre-modifier is “the handsome”. That
is, the group of words before the head noun (actors). The Post-modifier is “with long hair”.
This group of words comes after the head noun (actors).
Now let us look at what part of speech makes up the pre-modifier and the post modifier in this
example.
The pre-modifier is made up of the definite article “the” and the adjective “handsome”. Both
words describe the head noun actors meaning that the actors referred to are specific actors and
that they are handsome. The post-modifier is made up of the preposition with, the adjective
long and the noun hair. This group of words like the pre-modifier also describes the head noun
“actors”.
In this example, we see a full noun phrase (NP) that consists of all the three components –
pre-modifier, head, and post-modifier: NP→ (M H M). M is used to represent the modifiers
either pre or post.
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Remember that we said the pre and post modifiers of a noun phrase are optional. This means
that they may or may not be present in the composition of a noun phrase. For examples we
could have: The handsome actors … or … actors with long hair.
In the first example, we have NP→ (MH) the noun phrase consists of a pre-modifier and a head
noun. In the second example we have NP→(HM) the noun phrase consists of the head noun
and a post-modifier.
The noun phrase could also be in its simplest form. This means it can consist of only the head
noun as in:
Actors NP→(H). This example illustrates why the head of a noun phrase is the only compulsory
element and the other two components are optional.
The head of a Noun Phrase

The head of a noun phrase as we can see from the examples we have used above, is
commonly a noun, but it could also be a personal pronoun like it, they, she, or he.
The Pre-modifiers of an NP may be:

Determiners, for examples: all these chairs; what a girl
Enumerators, for examples: six boxes; the third boy
Adjectives, for examples: white envelope; younger actresses
Determiner + Adjectives for example: the beautiful girl
Determiner + Nouns, for examples: a kitchen tea; a silver shoe; a Soweto Shebeen
Nouns, for examples: silver plate, kitchen towel, Mamelodi Shebeen
Genitive phrase, for examples: Richard’s bicycle; someone else’s car
Adverbs in initial position, for example: quite a speech
The Post-modifiers of an NP may be:

Prepositional phrases, for examples: the best angle of the house; a father with ten siblings
Relative clause, for examples: the student who won the prize; the car which I admire
Non-finite clauses, for examples: dirt flying in all directions; a truck laden with apples; a room
to work in
Adverbs, for examples: the lecturer downstairs; the day before
Adjectives, for example: something stupid; something meaty
Noun phrases in apposition, as in: Professor Lephalala, the chairperson of the department; Dr
Graham-Smith, the curriculum coordinator
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The different examples above show that a Noun Phrase can take more than one modifier,
either before or after the head. In fact, an NP may become so complex that it can take up
to five or more pre-modifiers, while also taking an equal number of post-modifiers (or
even more). Here is a classic example provided by Leech et al. (1982:62), of how complex the
pre-modification of nouns can be:
Absolutely the last two unsold ripe juicy peaches.
The head noun in this Noun Phrase is peach. It is preceded by seven pre-modifiers. First there
is an adverb (absolutely), followed by a determiner (the), then two enumerators (last, two), and
these are followed by three adjectives (unsold, ripe, juicy).
The complexity of post-modification can be shown in the following examples (see Leech et al.
1982:62):
The girl by the table with the carved legs

The girl by the table with the sunburnt legs
The head of the two Noun Phrases is girl. In the first example, the head has been post-modified
by two prepositional phrases (We will explain the form of the prepositional phrase later) – by the
table and with the carved legs. In this example, the first prepositional phrase post-modifies the
head word girl, but the second prepositional phrase is subordinate to the first and post-modifies
table. In other words, it is the table that has carved legs, not the head noun girl.
In the second example, however, both prepositional phrases post-modify the head noun girl,
because the second prepositional phrase “with the sunburnt” refers to the legs of the girl who is
by the table.
Speakers and learners of English as a second or additional language it is very important to

understand the structure of the noun phrase for us to construct a variety of sentences to
express different situations.
So far, we have defined what a noun phrase is and have explained the different forms that the
structure of a noun phrase can take. We now turn to the function or role that the Noun Phrase
perform in the construction of English sentences.
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Functions of the Noun Phrase

Let us start by explaining what function mean within the context of language study. The word
function is used to refer to the roles perform by a word or phrase in the context of clauses or
sentences. The function of a word or phrase is determined by the position the word, or the
phrase occupies in a sentence and by what they do. The noun phrase like nouns functions
as subject, object, complement and adverbial (adjunct) in a clause. Let us use the following
examples to illustrate the different functions that the noun phrase performs:
As subject: The hotel was empty.

As object: Tlatso has bought the house.
As complement: Pinky is a professor.
As adverbial or adjunct: Richard cycled 45 kilometres last month.
In addition, it is possible for the Noun Phrase to act as post-modifier in another Noun
Phrase, as in this example:
Thabo Mbeki, the chancellor
2. The Prepositional Phrase (PP)

Definition
We can define a prepositional phrase as a phrase that has a preposition as its head and a noun
or a noun phrase as its completive element.
The Form of Prepositional Phrase (PP)

The Propositional Phrase is formally represented as (PP) in grammar studies.
It is structurally made up of Two Components. These are:
i. A head which is always a preposition
ii. A Completive Element which is either a Noun or a Noun Phrase
The form of the prepositional phrase can be represented as:
PP → P + N
PP → P + NP
OR
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PP →PN
PP → PNP
The Prepositional Phrase is always introduced by a preposition and completed with a noun, or a
noun phrase as mentioned in the definition above.
Let us look at the following examples
On the table (P + NP)
P = On (Preposition indicating place)
NP = the table (Definite Article “the” and noun “table”).
In some grammar textbooks, the definite article “the” can be described as Determiner.
This NP component of the prepositional phrase specifies an exact place thus answering the
question “on what”?
The completive element of the Prepositional Phrase can be changed while the preposition
remains the same. For example, we can have:
On the table
On the floor
On the mat
On the road
Most preposition phrases are made up of the form PP = P + NP.
The Prepositional Phrase of the form P + N is not so common. Here are some examples:
By road
In Italy
For R10
Across countries
To Australia
From January
In all these examples, you have the preposition followed by a single Noun. The single nouns are
written in bold while the prepositions are written in italics.
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Notice that the Prepositional Phrase is different from the Noun Phrase that we discussed earlier.
It is also different from the Adjective and Adverb Phrases. These differences will become
obvious when we discuss them.
What are the differences between the Noun Phrase and the Prepositional Phrase?
First, the Prepositional Phrase has two instead of three components.
Second, both components of the prepositional phrase are compulsory. This means that a
preposition alone cannot constitute a prepositional phrase as a noun or noun phrase must
always complete the preposition.
Third, it is the simplest of all the English Phrases because the structure is not complex like the
Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase. It is also simpler than the Adjective and Adverb Phrases.
Can you think of any other differences?
Functions of the Prepositional Phrase

1) The prepositional phrase function as adverbial (A) in the clause.
Example of a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial can be illustrated in the following
sentence:
By Sunday we had returned by air to Johannesburg.
There are three Prepositional Phrases in this sentence, but each has a different meaning. Can
you identify the three phrases as well as their meanings?
The first Prepositional Phrase, By Sunday is adverbial of time. It indicates when. The
second Prepositional Phrase, by air, is adverbial of manners, it indicates how or the way
something happens. The third Prepositional Phrase, to Johannesburg, is adverbial of place.
The first PP answers the question: when? The second: how? The third: where?
2) Prepositional Phrase functions as Post-modifiers in a Noun Phrase

We have seen this function of the prepositional phrase in the discussion and examples of the
structure of the Noun Phrase.
For example: The student in the class.
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This example is a Noun Phrase. The prepositional phrase “in the class” performs the role of the
postmodifier. It describes where “the student” is. The other components of this noun phrase
example is the definite article “the” functioning as the pre-modifier and the noun “student”
functioning as head of the Noun Phrase.
3) Prepositional Phrase functions as Post-modifiers in a Subordinate Prepositional

Phrase
Now, let us explain what a subordinate Prepositional Phrase is. A subordinate prepositional
phrase is a prepositional phrase that occurs underneath another prepositional phrase. Let us
illustrate this function of prepositional phrase using the two examples we earlier explained:
The girl by the table with the carved legs

The girl by the table with the sunburnt legs
In the first example, the prepositional phrase “by the table” post modifies the head noun
“girl”. On the other hand, the prepositional phrase “with the carved legs” is a subordinate
prepositional phrase because it is functioning as a post modifier in the first prepositional
phrase “by the table”. This explains why it does not describe the head noun “girl” in the
first prepositional phrase but, the head noun “table” in the second prepositional phrase.
Let us explain this further:
The example is a noun phrase which is made up of:
Pre-modifier = The (Definite article)
Head = girl (Noun)
Post-modifier = by the table (Prepositional phrase) made up of preposition “by” as the head
and the noun phrase “the table” as the completive element. This noun phrase is made up of
the definite article “the” and the noun “table.
The second prepositional phrase “with the carved legs” is subordinate (meaning that it is
subsumed under the first prepositional phrase), to the prepositional phrase “by the table” it
post-modifies “the table”. So, it is “the table” that has carved legs and not “the girl.”
This subordinate prepositional phrase is made up of the head “with” (Preposition), the
completive Noun Phrase “the carved legs”. This in turn is made up of two pre-modifiers “the”
(Definite article) and “carved” (adjective) and the head “legs” (noun).
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4) Prepositional Phrase also functions as Post-modifiers in Adjective Phrases
This function of the prepositional phrase can be illustrated with the following example:
Very little of the oil
The example is an adjective phrase. The preposition phrase “of the oil” is the post-modifier of
the adjective phrase. “Very” an adverb of degree is the pre-modifier while “little” an adjective, is
the head.
5) Prepositional Phrase also functions as Post-modifiers in Adverb Phrases

This function of the prepositional phrase can be illustrated with the example below:
More quickly for optimisation
This example is an adverbial phrase. The pre-modifier is the adverb of degree “more” the head
is the adverb “quickly” and the post-modifier is the prepositional phrase “for optimization”.
The post-modifier is made up of the head “of” (preposition) and the completive noun
“optimisation”.
The Adjective Phrase (AJP)

Definition
An adjective phrase is a word or group of words with an adjective as head.
The Form of Adjective Phrase
Technically, an Adjective Phrase has the same structure as a Noun Phrase – a compulsory
head and optional pre- and post-modifiers. However, in reality, Adjective Phrases often
consist of only the head. In addition, they are likely to have one pre- and one post-modifier. This
means that Adjective Phrases do not usually have multiple modifiers like Noun Phrases do.
The head of an Adjective Phrase is always an adjective, which may be simple (small),
comparative (smaller) or superlative (smallest). In some cases, the head of an Adjective
Phrase may be an adjectival element or unit, that is, a word or group of words which is
not an adjective as such but has been used to function in the position of an adjective.
For examples: A poisoned arrow; A well-to-do man.
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Adjectives Phrases are mostly pre-modified by adverbs of degree, such as very, extremely,
rather, too. Often, the adverbs very and too are reduplicated for emphasis, or to intensify the
degree of what is being talked about. This gives rise to expressions such as:
She is really, really slim.

He is very, very intelligent.
It is too, too hot.
The head words in the Adjective Phrases are slim, intelligent, and hot, while the pre-modifiers
are underlined.
The post-modifiers of Adjectives Phrases can be either adverbs such as indeed, enough, or
a Prepositional Phrase. For example:
Too hot indeed

Good enough
Rather too close for comfort
In these examples, “indeed” and “enough” function as post modifier of the adjective hot
and good respectively. The adverb of degree “too” is a premodifier in the first example.
This means that the example presents us with a complex adjective phrase with the form:
Pre-Modifier (adverb of degree “very”) + Head (Adjective “hot”) + Post-Modifier (Adverb
“indeed”).
The second example consist of a Head (Adjective “Good” + Post-Modifier (Adverb “enough”)
In the third example, you have a complex adjective phrase in which the prepositional phrase
“for comfort” functions or performs the role of the post modifier. The Head of the adjective
phrase is the adjective “close” while the pre-modifier is “Rather too”. Here we see two
adverbs “rather” and “too” functioning as pre modifier to the head “close”.
Functions of the Adjective Phrase

In a clause, Adjective Phrases function as complements, as in:
Our office is new.

The professor thinks he is brilliant.
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In the first example, ‘new’ is the adjective phrase consisting of only head, it describes “the
office” and functions as a complement because it tells us how the office is.
In the second example, the adjective phrase is “brilliant”, and it is made up of only the head
without any modifier. The adjective “brilliant” describes what the professor thinks of
himself, so the adjective complements the professor because it describes him.
In a phrase, Adjective Phrases function as pre-modifiers of Noun Phrases, for example:
A very small slice of cake.
In this example, we see that the adjective phrase “A very small” performs the role of a
premodifier in a complex Noun Phrase.
The adjective phrase as premodifier comes before the head noun “slice”. This adjective phrase
is made up of the indefinite article: “A” which in some textbooks may be referred to as
determiner, and an adjective phrase: “very small”. The adjective phrase is made up of an
adverb of degree “very” as the premodifier and the adjective “small” as the head.
We described the Noun Phrase in which the adjective phrase is occurring as a premodifier as
complex because the Noun phrase also has a post modifier “of cake” which is made up of the
preposition “of” as the head and “cake” as the completive noun.
The Adverb Phrase or Adverbial Phrase (AVP)

Definition
An adverb phrase is a word or group of words with an adverb as head.
The Form of Adverb Phrase or Adverbial Phrase
The structure of the Adverb Phrase is the same as that of the Adjective Phrase. An Adverb
Phrase therefore has an obligatory or compulsory head, and optional pre- and post-
modifiers. Like Adjective Phrases, Adverbs Phrases are mainly made up of the head alone.
They usually have one pre- and one post-modifier but can take two pre-modifiers. The head of
an Adverb Phrase is an adverb. The pre-modifiers are usually also adverbs, while the
post-modifiers are Prepositional Phrases, adverbs, or clauses. Leech et al. (1982:66)
provide these examples:
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Often rather too quickly for comfort
In this example, the head word of the AvP is quickly. The pre-modifiers are often, rather, and
too (All three are adverbs pre-modifying the head adverb “quickly”. The post-modifier is the
prepositional phrase “for comfort.”
Other examples are:

more quickly than last year; M (pre-modifier “more”) + H (quickly) + M (post modifier “than last
year”)
too hastily indeed, M (Pre-modifier “too” + H (Hastily) + M (indeed).
more slowly than I expected: M (Pre- modifier “more”) + H (slowly) + M (Post-modifier “than I
expected).
Note that the post modifier in the third example is a clause because it has a finite verb
“expected” and the subject I. It expresses a complete thought.
Functions of Adverb or Adverbial Phrase

Adverbial Phrases, like adverbs, function as adverbials in a clause by adding different kinds of
circumstantial information, ranging from time to location as well as the speaker’s attitude. For
more information about adverbials, revisit our discussion on adverbs as content words earlier on
page 53 of your study guide.
A distinguishing feature of Adverb / adverbial phrases is that they are flexible and can easily
be moved around in the structure of a clause. They can also be omitted without rendering
the clause incorrect, because all they do is add additional information.
The Verb Phrase

Definition
It is a group of words made up of auxiliaries (Aux) and a main verb (MV).
The Form of Verb Phrase
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The form of the VP can be represented comprehensively as: {Aux} {Aux} {Aux} {Aux} Mv.
The Verb Phrase, unlike the other phrases we have been discussing, is made up of four
auxiliary elements (Aux) and the main verb (Mv). The first auxiliary element is tense. This
can either be present or past. This element is a compulsory element of the verb phrase.
The second auxiliary elements are modals. These are auxiliary verbs like shall, should, will,
would, must, might, could, can, ought and ought to. Modals help us to express different shades
of meaning like ability, necessity, possibility, obligation, emphasis etc. Modal auxiliary verbs
are optional element of the verb phrase. The third element of the auxiliary is the form of
have + en. This is referred to as the perfective element. It is also an optional element.
This form of the auxiliary helps us to express the perfective tense either in the present or
in the past. The fourth element of the auxiliary is the form of be + ing. This element is
referred to as the progressive or continuous element of the auxiliary. It helps us to
express the progressive or continuous tense either in the present or in the past. It is an
optional element of the verb phrase. The main verb is a compulsory element of the verb
phrase, and it is made up of either a full lexical verb or one of the primary verbs be, have
or do.
The auxiliary elements and the Main verb have a complex and strict order in which they pattern
with one another to create the kinds of meaning expressed by the present, past, progressive,
and perfective tenses. For a reminder, see our discussion of tense and concord in Unit 1.
Our understanding of the Verb Phrase is dependent on our understanding of the strict
order in which auxiliary verbs pattern with main verbs, as well as the distinctions
between finite and infinite verbs, between transitive and intransitive verbs, and between
active and passive voice.
The following sentence can help you make sense of the interlocking patterns of relationship
between the elements of the auxiliaries and the main verb:
They could have been travelling.
This sentence represents all the elements of the VP, which can be represented as:
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Aux-tense (past) + Aux-Modal (can) + Aux-perfective (have +en) + Aux-Progressive (be + ing) +
Mv (travel).
This can be translated into:
Tense = past
Modal = can
Perfective = have + en
Progressive = be + ing
MV = travel
In this sentence, the past tense is shown by the modal could.
This is where the intricate pattern of relationship comes in. The sentence shows that all the
elements of the auxiliaries can be present in a Verb Phrase. When this is the case, the modal
comes before the other two elements (have + en and be + ing), strictly in that order. This
restriction on the order of occurrence will prevent ungrammatical combinations such as *have
could singing, *being could sing. Only one modal can occur at a given time. The tense (past)
converts the modal auxiliary can to could. No other elements of the auxiliary is thereafter in
the past tense form. This explains why the form of the verb following any modal in English is
never marked for tense. For example, you cannot have a sentence construction such as *She
may came; *she could came; *they might went, because the tense can only be shown in the first
element of the auxiliary (which happens to be a modal in this sentence). Now that we have
explained how we arrived at the modal could, let us proceed to explain the other relationships.
Could + have + en + be + ing + travel
The perfective form “have” remains in its base form as it follows the auxiliary could, the “en”
form of the perfective attaches to the “be” of the progressive form to become been. The “ing”
form of the progressive attaches to the main verb travel to become travelling, resulting in our
original VP: could have been travelling. Any other sequential order of these elements of the
auxiliaries and Main verb would have resulted in an ungrammatical sentence.
Function of the Verb Phrase

The VP always and only functions as predicator (P) in the clause.
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Main and Subordinate Phrases

In English, a distinction is made between main and subordinate phrases. This relates to whether
a phrase functions as part of a clause or as part of another phrase. A main phrase is a
constituent of a clause, while a subordinate phrase is a phrase within a main phrase. For
example:
The handsome actor with long hair walked into the theatre.
In this sentence, the underlined phrase is a Noun Phrase. It can be described as a main
phrase because it functions as the subject of the sentence which is an independent
clause and therefore a simple sentence. It is also a main clause because it functions as
subject element in a clause. Now let us look more closely at the Noun Phrase. The post-
modifier is made up of a Prepositional Phrase “with long hair,” which is a subordinate phrase
because it functions as post-modifier within the structure of another phrase (in this case, the
Noun Phrase). The possibility of phrases within phrases and the additional possibility of
subordinate phrases also containing further subordinate phrases demonstrates how extensive
and complex phrases in English can be – especially the Noun Phrase, as we saw earlier on in
our discussion of the post-modification of Noun Phrases.
Functions of phrases in a clause

The Noun Phrase can function as subject, object, complement and adverbial. By contrast,
the Verb Phrase only functions as predicator. The Prepositional Phrase functions as
adverbial, the Adjective Phrase as complement and the Adverb / Adverbial Phrase as
adverbial or adjunct.
In the next section, we will be discussing clauses in English. But first, an activity to test what you
have learned about phrases.
Activity
1. Explain the difference between a noun phrase (NP) and a prepositional phrase (PP).
2. What are the similarities between Adjective Phrase (Ajp) and Adverb Phrase (Avp)?
3. Construct sentences or phrases to fit into the following Verb Phrase structure:
a) I + past + modal +Mv
b) We + past + have + en +Mv
c) Present + have + en +be + ing +MV
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d) I + present + be + ing + Mv
e) Past + modal + have + en + be + ing + MV
4. Identify the phrases in the following sentences and state their kind:
a) Only a man with plenty of money can buy a car of such beauty and power.
b) The principal was an old man of friendly disposition.
c) He ran with great speed.
d) The student who won the prize came to the college.
1. A Noun Phrase is made up of an obligatory head and optional pre- and post-
modifiers, while the Prepositional Phrase is made up of a preposition and an Noun
Phrase as the completive element. The head of a Noun Phrase may be a noun, a
pronoun or an enumerator, while the head of a Prepositional Phrase is always a
preposition. Noun Phrases function as subject, object, complement and adjunct or
adverbial in a clause, but Preposition Phrases only function as adverbials. Prepositional
Phrases may be a post-modifier for a Noun Phrase, which means that Prepositional
Phrases can be subordinated in a Noun Phrase. The structure of the completive Noun
Phrase in Prepositional Phrases is the same as those of Noun Phrases, but they may not
be as elaborate as those of Noun Phrases because of the different functions they
perform.
2. Adjective Phrases and Adverb Phrases are similar in the sense that both have the
same structural forms as the Noun Phrase (optional pre- and post-modifiers and a
compulsory head). However, the head of the Adjective Phrase is an adjective, while the
head of the Adverb Phrase is an adverb. Both may be pre-modified by adverbs and post-
modified by a Prepositional Phrase, an adverb and clauses.
3. This question is meant to help you understand the sequential pattern of the
relationships between tense, auxiliaries and main verbs. The feedback consists of model
answers of the Verb Phrases that can be generated from the sequential patterns in the
question. You are free to make your own choice of main verbs.
a) I + past + can + go = I could go
b) We + past + have + en + speak = We had spoken
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c) Present + have + en + be + ing + dance = has been dancing

d) I + present + be + ing +sing = I am singing
e) Past + can +have + en + be + ing + sleep = could have been sleeping.
4. a) Only a man with plenty of money can buy a car of such beauty and power.
Both underlined phrases are Noun Phrases. The first is made up of the pre-modifiers
“only” and “a.” The head noun is man, and the post-modifier is a Prepositional
Phrase: “with plenty of money.” The first Noun Phrase functions as the subject of
the sentence, the second Noun Phrase functions as the object of the sentence and
is made up of the pre-modifier “a,” the head noun “car” and the Prepositional
Phrase “of such beauty and power” as post-modifier.
b) The principal was an old man of friendly disposition.

There are two Noun Phrases. The first has the pre-modifier “the” and the head
noun principal. This Noun Phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. The
second Noun Phrase is made up of two pre-modifiers “an” and “old,” the head noun
“man” and the Prepositional Phrase “of friendly disposition” as post-modifier. This
second Noun Phrase functions as the subject complement in the sentence.
c) He ran with great speed.

The phrase in this sentence is prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase is
underlined. It functions as an adjunct or adverbial because it tells us how the subject ran.
We can remove this phrase and still have the sentence He ran, which is made up of a
subject (He) and a predicate (ran).
d) The student who won the prize came to the college.
The first phrase in this sentence is a Noun Phrase, but it is a more complex Noun
Phrase. The pre-modifier is “the”, the head noun is “student”, but the post-modifier is a
relative clause “who won the prize.” This Noun Phrase functions as the subject of the
sentence. The second phrase, “to the college,” is a Prepositional Phrase which
functions as adjunct. It answers the question came where?
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In the following section we will look at English clauses. We will start by defining a clause, then
describe the elements and patterns, as well as the two major types of clauses in English.
Clauses
Definition
In traditional grammar, a clause is a group of words with a subject and a finite verb. This
definition (like all traditional definitions) is inadequate because it does not account for all types
of clauses. In terms of hierarchy, the clause is a grammatical unit larger than a phrase yet
smaller than a sentence. In modern grammar, clauses are identified by their elements, patterns
and functions.
Clause Elements
The major clause elements in English are Subject (S), Predicator (P), Object (O),
Complement (C) and Adverbial (A). All five elements are concepts that we have defined and
used in our discussion on words and phrases, so they are not new to us. The elements which
constitute the structure of the clause are referred to as SPOCA - S FOR SUBJECT, P FOR
PREDICATE, O FOR OBJECT, C FOR COMPLEMENT and A FOR ADVERBIAL. We will
briefly look at each of them in relation to the clause.
• Subject (S)
This is an obligatory element of the clause, except in imperative sentences (commands), as in:
Pick up the book or Go to the mall now. The subject normally comes before the predicator
(verb) in declarative sentences such as: The hunter killed the cat. In interrogative sentences,
the predicator may come before the subject, as in: Was he a member of the party? The
subject may also come between the two parts of the predicator, as in: Have they reunited? Do
you know the teacher?
The subject is always a Noun Phrase and can be substituted by a pronoun. In addition, the
subject can have a nominalised verb as its head word, as in: Driving is hard work. The subject
may also be a clause, as in: That he obtained his diploma (noun clause) surprised his
teachers.
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In terms of concord or agreement, the subject must always agree with its predicator in
person and number. Generally, the subject is used to refer to what we are talking about in
the sentence. It is the theme or topic of a sentence. The subject is represented as S for
analysis purpose and easy reference.
• Predicate (P)
This is the only obligatory element of the English sentence, which explains why it is the
most important element of the clause. The auxiliaries and the lexical or main verbs we
discussed in this unit are the two types of predicator in English. However, the predicator also
has many systems within the verb phrase, some of which are finite/non-finite, active/passive
voice, aspect marked by the primary verb be for the progressive, and the primary verb have for
the perfective, stative/dynamic and transitive/intransitive as well as linking verbs. The
predicator is represented as P for ease of reference and analysis.
• Object (O)
The object element has the same structural form as the subject, because it is also realised by
nouns, pronouns, nominalisations and clauses. However, it is different in the sense that
the object typically refers to the person or thing that is most intimately affected by the
action or state denoted by the predicator. The object element can be either a direct object
(Od) or an indirect object (Oi). The direct object (Od) is the most common. As explained
earlier elsewhere in this unit, an object is direct when it is directly affected by the action of
the subject, as in:
The student has bought a laptop (NP) what is bought is a laptop

Americans like burgers (noun) what Americans like is burgers
The pastor blessed them (pronoun) the pastor blessed a group of people
Thandeka wanted to know what I was reading (noun clause). What Thandeka wanted to know
is what I was reading.
An indirect object (Oi), on the other hand, is the benefactor or recipient of the action
undertaken by the subject. The indirect object always comes between the predicator and
the direct object. In other words, it always comes before the direct object, as in:
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The teacher bought him a computer. (the indirect object is ‘him’, while the direct object is ‘a
computer’)
The indirect object is normally optional. It can also be replaced by an adverbial element,
for example, a Prepositional Phrase introduced by the prepositions “to or for” coming
after the direct object. For example, our earlier sentence:
The teacher bought him a computer will become “The teacher bought a computer for him.”
• Complement (C)
The complement, as you will recall, defines the subject or the object. The position is usually
filled by nouns, pronouns, nominalisations such as gerund phrases, verbal phrases, noun
clauses and adjectives. For example:
The models are beautiful. (adjective)

Her normal duty is fetching water. (gerund)
The boy feels that he should win the prize. (noun clause)
There are two types of complement: subject complement (Cs) and object complement (Co).
The Subject Complement usually follows a predicator that is a linking verb (otherwise
known as a corpula). The Object Complement, on the other hand, normally follows a
Direct Object. This is the case in the sentence below:
Her director made her a hardworking woman.
In this sentence, the Object Complement refers to the Direct Object of the sentence. Here, the
Object a hardworking woman refers to “her”, the direct object of the verb “made”.
Note that there can only be one complement in a clause.
• Adverbial (A)
Adverbials, like adverbs and Adverb Phrases (see our earlier discussion) add circumstantial
evidence about degree, duration, frequency, time, place, condition, reason, and goal as extra
information. They are commonly realised by adverbs and Adverb/Adverbial Phrases. For
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example: He crawled slowly (adverb); The labourers worked as hard as they could (Adverb
Phrase); Semester one will start next month (Noun Phrase); She saw them in the hostel
(Prepositional Phrase); Gustav passed well because he was very hard working (finite
clause).
Adverbial elements are the least closely integrated into clause structure. There are no fixed
numbers of adverbials in a clause. For example, as is the case with noun modifiers, you could
have four or even more adverbials in a single clause. Adverbials (as mentioned before) are also
very flexible and more mobile in a clause than other elements, yet they can be optional
elements of a clause.
Work through this activity to ascertain what you have learned.
Activity
Identify the clause elements in the following sentences using S, P O, C or A:
1. My sister always has a good laugh over a joke.
2.That story about sharks in the river has been confirmed.
3. All of us were working on our own projects.
4. The farmer caught the intruder red-handed.
5. We will replay Makeba’s song once again.
6. On land policy, the leader of the party is being extremely careless.
7. No doubt, they will present us with the same agenda next month.
1. [S A P O A]
2. [S P]
3. [S P A]
4. [S P O C]
5. [S P O A]
6. [A S P C]
7. [A S P O O A]
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Clause Patterns
In this section, we show how the clause elements we have described can be arranged to
express different thoughts in terms of sentences. The major clause patterns serve as a
framework for sentence construction in English. What you must learn in this section is the order
of permissible arrangements, and how this can be extended. The major patterns of the English
clause are represented in the following table.
The Major Clause Patterns in English

[S P]: [He walks] [S P Od]: [He caught it]
Verbs: walk, die, work, come, run, Verbs: catch, hit, kiss, find, pull,
sleep, dream, eat, look, behave, work, run, dream, eat, look,
etc. behave, etc.
[S, P, Oi]: [She served him] [S P Oi Od]: [She sold him the
book]
Verbs: serve, tell, etc.
Verbs: sell, give, tell, send, buy,
This is not a common pattern in make, etc.
English
It is an important but limited
clause pattern in English
[S P C]: [He is kind/a nurse] [S P Od C]: [He proved her wrong/a
liar]
Verbs: be, become, seem, look,
appear and other linking verbs Verbs: prove, call, make, think,
enumerated in this unit. etc. It is a fairly limited clause
pattern
It is a limited yet important clause
pattern
[S P A]: [He is there] + [S P Od A]: [He put it there]
[ She thinks about it] [She tells him about it]
Verbs: be, stand, lean, live, Verbs: put, place, keep, tell,
reside, know, think, talk, grieve, inform, worry, etc.
worry, etc.
+ With S P A different verbs + With S P O A, as with S P A,
require different obligatory different verbs require different
adverbials obligatory adverbials
Source: Leech et al (1982:85
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Activity
Identify the clause pattern in the sentences we used for clause elements by deleting the
optional adverbials. The optional adverbials have been underlined, except for sentence ‘2’
where there is no adverbial element.
1. My sister always has a good laugh over a joke.

2. That story about sharks in the river has been confirmed.
3. All of us were working on our own projects.
4. The farmer caught the intruder red-handed.
5. We will replay Makeba’s song once again.
6. On land policy, the leader of the party is being extremely careless.
7. No doubt, they will present us with the same agenda next month.
[S P O]
[S P] It is a passive clause. The corresponding active clause pattern is [S P O]
[S P]
[S P O]
[S P O]
[S P C]
[S P Oi Od]
Types of Clauses
In English, there are independent and dependent clauses. In the section that follows, we will
look at the differences between these two.
Independent Clauses
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a complete
sentence. By contrast, a subordinate or dependent clause does not express a complete
thought and is therefore not a sentence. A clause that is independent will, in its simplest
form, have a subject and a predicate. In addition, it may contain one or more of the clause
elements we have been discussing. For example:
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He saw her. SPO
The girls drove home. SPA
Democracy comes with responsibility. SPA
Grammatically complete statements like these are sentences which can stand alone. When they
are part of longer sentences, they are referred to as independent (or main) clauses. There are
three major forms of independent clause:
1) the declarative mood,

2) the interrogative mood and
3) the imperative mood.
The declarative is used to make statements, the interrogative is commonly used to ask wh- and
‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions, while the imperative (otherwise known as a command) is used when the
speaker wants something done or when a listener is commanded to do something. Unlike the
declarative and interrogative, the imperative has a non-finite predicator and no subject. For
example: Go home.
Dependent clauses
A dependent clause cannot be used independently on its own. Also known as subordinate
clauses, dependent clauses are always subordinated or embedded in an independent
clause or phrase. For example:
If you pass the exam, he will buy you a camera.

The girl who won the prize is Kenyan.
In the first sentence, the subordinate clause is “if you pass the exam”, it is a clause that
cannot stand on its own. The clause only has meaning when used with the independent
clause – “he will buy you a camera”. In this example, the subordinate clause functions at
clause level with another clause. In the second example, the subordinate clause “who won
the prize” functions at phrase level, as post-modifier for the Noun Phrase that functions
as the subject of the sentence.
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Structurally, subordinate clauses can be divided into the clause elements: Subject, Predicate,
Object, Complement, Adjunct (SPOCA).
Apart from clause elements, subordinate clauses have three types of markers to introduce
their subordinate status. These are:
i. Subordinating conjunctions: if, when, that, because, although

ii. Wh- clause element: what, who, whoever, which girl, what time, how
iii. A non-finite predicator: infinitive form, -ing form and the en-form as the first
verb of their predicator.
For example:
Mante will look beautiful if she wears those shoes.
Mante will look beautiful whatever she wears.
Mante will look beautiful wearing those dresses.
Subordinate clauses are identifiable by their very first words which, in most cases, will
be any of the three markers highlighted above.
Dependent clauses include adverb, relative and noun clauses. For example:
Adverb clause: I am leaving because I cannot wait for the doctor.

Relative clause: She married a man who lived in Cape Town.
Noun clause: You bought the dress that you like.
Sentences
From our discussion on clause above, a sentence is an independent clause that expresses
a complete thought. We use sentences to make statements and to ask questions and
give commands among other things.
A sentence can consist of a single clause or several clauses. When a sentence has only
one clause it is called a simple sentence (and the clause is called an independent
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clause). A sentence must contain at least one independent clause. Below are the four
types of sentence structure:
A simple sentence has only one independent clause. For example: I will visit you
tomorrow; My car is clean. Simple sentences are formed using the various clause patterns
in English.
A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. For example: Tom is in
town and Cate is visiting her relatives. In a compound sentence two or more independent
clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so,
yet) or semicolons. Independent clauses of equal standing form a compound sentence.
The coordinating conjunction denotes a relationship between the contents of the two
independent clauses that make up the compound sentence. The coordinating
conjunction but indicates contrast, while the coordinating conjunction or indicates
alternation while the coordinating conjunction and indicates correlation. Compound
sentences can make writing more descriptive, interesting and fluid when used
appropriately and well.
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent

clauses. These clauses are linked together by subordinating conjunctions, such as: if,
when, that, because, although; wh-clause elements such as: what, who, whoever, how;
and non-finite predicators such as the infinitive and participial forms of the verb. For
example:
Since the bill has been paid, the electricity can be restored.
If you arrive on time, we can go to the mall.
They failed their exam because they did not study hard.
I can now fly since I have enough money and because the weather is good.
Mante will look beautiful wearing these shoes.
A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses with at

least one dependent clause. In other words, it is more than one independent clause linked
by conjunctions, and one or more clauses linked by subordinating conjunctions, such as: if,
when, before, until, etc. For example:
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Until he came, they could not leave the house or start any work.
We went to the mall and bought clothes because my son had to go back to school.
The subordinating clauses have been underlined to distinguish them from the compound
sentences. The following example further demonstrates the characteristics of this type of
sentence:
I do not know how busy she will be, but I understand that she should be able to go with us to
Centurion.
This sentence can be analysed as:
I do not know – independent clause

I understand – independent clause
How busy she will be – dependent clause
That she should be able to go with us to Centurion – dependent clause.
We have come to the end of his section. We discussed and showed (using examples) how
sentences are constructed from words, phrases and clauses. Here is an activity for you to
gauge what you have learned.
Activity
a) Identify the sentences below as either simple, compound or complex sentences.
b) Underline the independent clause and subordinate or dependent clause(s) in the
sentences.
c) Indicate the coordinating or subordinating conjunction.
1. When he left the hospital, he was still in great pain.

2. The job is difficult, but there is money in it.
3. After the game, she went home because the weather was bad.
4. The few learners who passed at the school left at the end of last year.
5. I cannot be seen with him, because he is a traitor.
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1a) Complex sentence
b. When he left the hospital (dependent), he was still in great pain (independent)
c. when (subordinating conjunction).
2. a. Compound sentence
b. The job is difficult (independent), there is money in it (independent)
c. but (contrasting conjunction).
3. a. complex sentence
b. After the game (dependent) she went home (independent) because the weather
was bad (dependent)
c. after and because (subordinating conjunctions).
4. a. simple sentence with a complex noun phrase as subject
b. The post-modifier for the noun phrase who passed at the school is the relative
subordinate clause that modifies the head noun learners. The few learners left the school
(independent)
c. who (subordinating conjunction).
5. a. complex sentence
b. I cannot be seen with him (independent), because he is a traitor (dependent)
c. because (Subordinating conjunction)
In the section that follows, we will look at the importance of phonemic awareness as part of our
understanding of the sound structures found in English.
Phonemic awareness
Phonemic awareness means ‘sound’ awareness. It is crucial to understand that words are made
up of sounds, and we rely on our ability to hear, recognise and manipulate the individual sounds
that make up a word. Phonemic awareness is therefore a primary auditory skill by which we can
distinguish and recognise the sound structure of a language. For example, phonemic
awareness means realising that the word puppy is made up of the sounds /p/ /u/ /p/ /ee/, or the
word shape is made up the sounds / ʃ/ /ei// p/.
As second- and third-language speakers of English, our ability to manipulate and recognise
sound structures in English is of the utmost importance, as it affects the way we pronounce and
spell words. If we are not aware of the sounds that make up individual words, it becomes
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difficult to speak and much more challenging to listen with comprehension, or to read and write
effectively.
Read Chapter 12 of Wyse et al. (2013).
This chapter is useful in guiding our understanding of English phonics. It shows the relationship
between sounds and letters of the alphabet (and, by implication, spelling). The English
language makes use of 26 letters of the alphabet, which represent approximately 44 phonemes
(see tables 12.1–12.4 in Wyse et al. [2013] for examples). A phoneme is the smallest distinctive
unit of sound. All the words in the English language are spoken by combining letters of the
alphabet. This is also true for other languages. In many African languages, for instance, the way
a letter of the alphabet is pronounced remains the same, as it represents the same sound
whenever you combine letters to produce different words. However, in English there is a
challenge because of a lack of consistency. Each sound in the English language is represented
by more than one written letter or by sequences of letters; and any letter represents more than
one sound or may even not represent any sound at all. For example:
1. the letter c has no sound equivalent as c. It is pronounced as /k/ in the words cup, cat,
cotton, bacon, etc.; /s/ as in cellar, receive, accent, access. Similarly, the letter s can be
pronounced as /s/ as in sat, sing, socks, etc.; as /z/ as in bosom, busy, cousin, easy,
feasible, hesitate, etc. These examples demonstrate that a single letter does not always
represent a single sound.
2. In the words keen, speaker, peak and keg, the letter k is pronounced as the sound /k/, but
that sound is also used differently in the pronunciation of other words. For example, by
pronouncing the letter c as /k/ in the words cut, cap, act, cattle; the double c in occasion,
according, occur, occupy; the ch in chemist, stomach and the ck in pack, back, black. In all
these examples, a specific sound is not always represented by the same letter of the
alphabet.
3. The letter b is silent in the words: limb, thumb, comb, numb, womb, debt, subtle, doubt,
plumb, dumb. The letter c is equally silent in words like muscle, scene, science. These
examples indicate that some letters are not pronounced at all.
4. Sounds are sometimes pronounced where no letters exist for them. This is the case with
the following examples: /j/ is pronounced before u in the following words: use /ju:z/, cute
/kju:t/, beauty /bju:ti/. These examples illustrate the fact that we pronounce sounds in
some places where there is no such letter in the word.
These inconsistencies between spelling and pronunciation in English may not exist in other
languages. As a result, it is important to know the complete phonetic code for consonants and
vowels, as well as the sample words used to exemplify them (see Table 12.1–12.4 in Chapter
12 of Wyse et al. [2013]). This chapter contains examples of phonemes, letters and sample
words that will enhance your phonemic awareness.
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Phonemic awareness includes the identification of phonemes in spoken words, recognising the
common spellings of each phoneme, blending phonemes into words for reading and
segmenting words into phonemes for spelling (Wyse et al., 2013:165).
In the last section of this unit, we will briefly look at semantics and pragmatics, two other levels
of language structure. These concepts take us beyond letters and sounds, to meaning.
Semantics and Pragmatics
Semantics simply refers to the study of how meaning in language is produced or created. The
linguistic study of meaning involves studying the meaning of words, sentences, and linguistic
expressions, without recourse to the situational context. It is a systematic interpretation and
understanding of words, sentences and linguistic expressions based purely on their linguistic
structures and environment. For example, semantics deals with the meaning relation between
words and the sense relation between sentences. It explores the general denotative and
connotative meaning of words, as well as sense relations (e.g., synonyms, antonyms,
homonymy, polysemy, and hyponymy). Sentence semantics, on the other hand, deals with the
truth condition of a sentence as the sum total of the meaning of the words that constitute it.
Semantics is therefore simply the study of how meaning in language is produced or created. It
is about how words, phrases and sentences come together to make meaning. This includes the
meaning attached to symbols. As a level of language analysis, semantics is intricately
connected with communication and the functions of language.
In contrast to semantics, pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning. In pragmatics, the

interpretation of meaning is based on a situational context. Context refers to the situation, the
environment and the circumstances that give rise to an utterance or writing, and within which
the utterance/writing can be interpreted or understood. In other words, context has to do with
our knowledge of the physical and social world, and how such knowledge helps us as hearers
and readers to make sense of what a speaker or writer means. The study of pragmatics
involves investigating how we can infer meaning from a situational context (Fasold, 1990). The
contextual study of meaning essentially involves interpreting what people mean in a particular
situation and how the context influences what is said. It is therefore about how speakers or
writers organise what they want to say in accordance with who they are addressing, where,
when, and under what circumstances – the situational context in which words and sentences
are used. The linguistic study of meaning is the core of semantic study, while the contextual
study of meaning is the core of pragmatics. This means that our knowledge of the external
world is used to ascertain the truth value of a sentence, and in that respect we can define
context as knowledge of the external world. The distinction between semantics and pragmatics
can be illustrated using this statement or utterance:
It is cold in here.
From the perspective of semantics, this sentence would literally be interpreted as providing
information about the weather and the temperature, nothing more. From a pragmatic
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perspective, however, this statement – apart from stating the obvious about the weather – could
be intended by the speaker to request that a window be closed, a heater be turned on, or a
warm beverage be provided. It could also be a complaint about the lack of heat in the room, or
the need to change the venue. The number of possible interpretations could be as varied as the
situational context in which the utterance is made. Pragmatics is therefore about what the
speaker intended his/her utterance to mean. In pragmatics, more is communicated than merely
what is said. The central focus in a study of pragmatics is on speech acts (what we do with
words in different situations).
Conclusion
In this unit we focused on language and its structure. We looked at lexical and functional words,
different types of phrases and clauses, the importance of phonemic awareness, and semantics
and pragmatics. In the following unit we will turn our attention to speaking and listening skills,
with a view to gaining an understanding of how we can improve those skills.
References
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic writing; A handbook for international students. 4th ed. New York:
Routledge.
Dairo, A.L. (1997). Elements of Modern English Grammar: An Introduction. Ibadan: Batapin
Associates.
Fasold, R.W. (1990). The Sociolinguistics of Language. Oxford: Blackwell.
Kosch, I.M. (2006). Topics in Morphology in the African Language Context. Pretoria: Unisa
Press.
Leech, G., Deuchar, M. & Hoogenraad, R. (1982). English Grammar for Today: An Introduction.
London: Macmillan.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – International Student’s Edition (2010). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Glossary
A word is a unit of expression that has independent meaning.
A noun is a word that is used to name something.
A verb is that part of a sentence that reflects an action.
An adjective describes or modifies a noun, pronoun or other words.
An adverb describes a verb.
A pronoun can be used in place of a noun.
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A conjunction is a word or phrase that joins parts of a sentence together, or links one sentence
to the next.
A phrase consists of a head word and any other words that modify it.
A clause is made up of units of information that are structured around a verb phrase.
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. It does not express
a complete thought; therefore it is not a sentence and cannot stand alone.
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a complete
sentence.
Phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are made up of sounds, and the ability
to hear, recognise and manipulate the individual sounds that make up a word.
The following questions are meant to test your understanding of the outcomes of this unit. The
maximum mark for each question is indicated in brackets, and will give you an indication of how
much you should write for each answer.
Answer the following questions to assess your mastery of the material in this unit.
1. What is a word? (2)

2. What is the difference between lexical and functional words? Give two (2) examples of
each. (4)
3. What is a simple sentence? (2)
4. Write sentences with the following: ( 4)
a) Two noun phrases
b) An adjective phrase
c) A prepositional phrase
d. An adverb phrase
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5. Write a sentence with one independent clause and one subordinate clause. (1)
6. What is a complex sentence? Provide two (2) examples. (2)
7. Provide two (2) examples of each, to illustrate the following problems of sound and spelling in
English:
a) The same letter does not always represent the same sound.
b) The same sound is not always represented by the same letter.
c) Some letters are not pronounced at all.
d) We pronounce sounds in some places where there is no letter. (4)
8. What is the difference between semantics and pragmatics? (2)

1. A word is a unit of expression that has independent meaning.
2. Lexical words have a dictionary meaning; they also have synonyms. Lexical words can be
classified into four categories: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Functional words do
not really have meaning. They are used to indicate the grammaticality of sentences.
Functional or grammatical words include conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions and
interjections. Sleep and write are two examples of lexical words. They and but are
examples of functional words.
3. A simple sentence has only one independent clause.
4. Here are examples of model answers:
a. The teacher and the students have left for Ghana.
b. An awfully painful experience (painful is the adjective, it is modified by the adverb awfully,
it is pre-modifying the noun experience).
c. She left his books on the windowsill.
d. Go more slowly on the slope (slowly is the head word and it is pre-modified by more and
post-modified by the prepositional phrase on the slope).
5. Here is a model answer:
I went to Nigeria because I needed a new passport.
I went to Nigeria (independent clause) because I needed a new passport (subordinate clause).
(The examples of sentences provided will vary. However, what is important is to make
sure that you know the difference between a dependent and an independent clause.)
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6. A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses. For example: She did not come home until after the graduation; If I go to the
movie, I will eat popcorn. The dependent clauses in the examples are underlined.
(The examples you give should indicate your understanding of dependent and
independent clauses.)
7.
• The same letter does not always represent the same sound: the letter c has no equivalent
sound and is realised as different sounds in words, for example as /k/ in cup but as /s/ in
receive.
• The same sound is not always represented by the same letter: the letter k is pronounced
as the sound /k/ in the word speak, but is written as ch in the word stomach.
• Some letters are not pronounced at all. Examples are comb and science: in comb the
letter b is silent, in science the letter c is silent.
• We pronounce sounds in certain places where there is no letter: beauty and use – neither
word has the letter j in it, but both words are pronounced with the sound /j/ before /u/.
8. Semantics is a field of study that deals with the meaning of words, without context.
Pragmatics, on the other hand, focuses on those aspects of meaning and language use
that depend on the intentions of the speaker, the context of any given situation (including
the relationship between the speaker and the listener), and the understanding of the
listener.
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Unit 3: Speech and comprehension
Outcomes
• explain speaking and listening as language skills.
• distinguish between receptive and productive listening and speaking.
• define what is meant by critical thinking and thinking ‘outside of the box’.
• relate speaking and listening skills to comprehension; and
• explain some of the causes of miscommunication.
Introduction
In Unit 1, we learned what language is, including its features and characteristics. In Unit 2, we
focused on language and its structure, specifically on the basic structure of a sentence, the
importance of making a distinction between the letters of the alphabet and speech sounds, and
deriving meaning from texts. In this unit, you will be guided to develop and improve your
listening and speaking skills. To begin, we will look at what has been written about speaking
and listening, how these skills are related, and how they are linked to comprehension.
Content
There are four language skills: speaking, listening, writing and reading. We also refer to these
as communication skills. Speaking and listening are the first two skills humans acquire when
they learn a language. Let us not forget that in Unit 1, we talked about the feature of language
that is referred to as ‘cultural transmission’, where we learned that human beings acquire a
language, and once a language has been acquired, someone can be taught to read and write.
Again, to go back to Unit 1, you will recall that we spoke about the arbitrariness of language
symbols. We established that it is important for someone to know written symbols before s/he
can read and write. For that reason, the skills or ability to read and write are called literacy skills.
By contrast, listening and speaking are called oracy skills.
Communication skills can be receptive and productive. When we talk about receptive skills, we
are referring to listening and reading. With receptive skills, we receive information and process
it. We can receive information by listening to conversations or motivational speeches, reading a
variety of texts or listening to music. Productive skills, on the other hand, refer to speaking and
writing. When we engage our productive skills, we use language to produce texts, such as
speeches, poems or essays.
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Read Chapter 6 in Wyse et al. (2013:94).
In Chapter 6 of Wyse et al. (2013:94), the authors state that “[p]lanning opportunities for talk can
broaden and enhance children’s command of language by providing them with a range of
different contexts in which to use their speaking and listening skills”.
Listening
Oracy skills Receptive skills
Speaking Reading
Productive skills Literacy skills
Writing
Figure showing the quadrant of language skills
Let us explore the skills of speaking and listening. We will begin by looking at speaking.
Speaking
Before you proceed, read Chapter 6 of Wyse et al. (2013). In this chapter you will notice that,
among other things, the authors state that opportunities for talk in the classroom should be
planned systematically across the curriculum.
Talking allows children to question, elaborate and reflect on a range of ideas. By planning lessons that offer
overt opportunities for different types of talk, children are, for example, given the experience of discussing
tasks with peers, exploring their thinking, presenting their ideas and working collaboratively to reach an
agreement. (Wyse et al., 2013:94)
The authors thus emphasise the importance of speaking in the development of language.
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When we speak, we produce language by using the mouth; we make sounds using many parts
of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal chords, tongue, teeth and lips. This takes us
back to the definition of language by Bloch and Trager (1942), who indicate that language is a
system that uses arbitrary vocal symbols. There are many situations in our daily lives where we
need to speak or say something, for instance when talking to a friend face to face, making a
telephone call, responding to questions from the media, asking for directions to a lecture hall,
asking about the prices of items in shops or talking to our friends. We spend a lot of time talking
to people. What you will see is that for each situation, a speaker requires a different register,
depending on how formal/informal the situation is. We find ourselves switching from formal to
informal language, or standard to non-standard language, depending on whom we are talking
to. Language, as we saw in Unit 1, is important in our lives and it performs a number of
functions.
Verbal communication can also be structured. A good example would be the speech delivered
by the president of a country, or a marketer’s PowerPoint presentation in the workplace.
When someone learns a language, s/he develops both receptive and productive skills.
Receptive skills enable us to understand what we listen and/or read. We receive the language
and decipher what it means. By contrast, we display productive skills when we use language to
speak and write.
Listening
Listening, which is the skill of understanding spoken language, is important for anyone who has
to carry out many tasks on a daily basis. We listen to a wide variety of sounds and messages:
for example, what someone says when we talk about a specific subject; the news; talk shows;
music and lectures; professional advice (at the doctor’s, in the bank); and a range of instructions
from loved ones or concerned parties (Lindsay & Knight, 2006:45).
According to Nunan (2001:23), there are six stages in the listening process: hearing, attending,
understanding, remembering, evaluating and responding. Let us look at each of these stages in
more detail, beginning with hearing.
Hearing is related to the response instigated by soundwaves in our ears. We do not necessarily
pay attention to every sound we hear. Our brains select and pay attention to what needs to be
focused on. Those are the things we feel we need to attend to, which is the second stage of
listening. For example, if you are a student who is sitting in a taxi listening to people talking
about different topics, and you hear another student mention that she is doing the same course
as you, you will find yourself paying attention if she mentions that the deadlines for assignments
have been moved. However, you may hear the taxi driver talking about his lunch, but you will
not necessarily pay attention. We hear a great deal of things, but we do not necessarily pay
attention or attend to everything that reaches our ears.
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Understanding, which is the third stage, is when we examine what we have heard and try to
make sense of it. This can include sounds (a baby crying, glass breaking, the screech of a
vehicle slamming on the brakes). Knowing the context and purpose of what we have seen or
heard enhances our understanding. The meaning we associate with sounds is dependent on
what we know about them, and the contexts in which they normally occur. Background
knowledge is important for us to interpret what we hear. If the same taxi you are travelling in
comes to a sudden screeching halt, you may want to understand what is happening. Your
background knowledge may suggest to you that the driver has suddenly braked to avoid
causing an accident or knocking down a pedestrian.
The next step, remembering, is an important aspect of listening, because it means that a person
has stored the message that was received and understood in his/her mind, so that it will not be
forgotten. However, because our attention can be selective, so can our memories. We do not
remember everything we hear and understand. As a result, no matter how many times we
attend a lecture on English grammar, we may not necessarily remember everything when
writing an exam, which means we are unlikely to pass with 100 per cent.
During the evaluating stage, the listener appraises the received message. At this point, critical
listeners can decide on the genre of the spoken text and critically evaluate the text. This takes
us back to what we discussed in Unit 1, about texts not being neutral. Critical language
awareness is crucial at this stage. You may listen to the text and ask yourself questions such
as: who is speaking? What authority does s/he have to pronounce on the subject? Is what s/he
is saying possibly a fact? The number of questions is endless. For example, as a student, you
would be taking a risk if you listened without critically evaluating what is said, if the taxi driver
suddenly announces that your assignment’s submission date has been postponed!
The final stage is responding. Depending on the response, a speaker is able to assess whether
the message was received as intended. During this stage, the receiver of the message
completes the process by giving feedback that is either verbal or non-verbal. This stage shows
that communication is a two-way process: a message is produced and received (Nunan, 2001).
This stage is related to the phatic function of language (see Unit 1). The purpose is to ensure
that the listener is following the conversation. If, for example, you speak to the passenger
seated next to you in a taxi, his/her verbal response will indicate whether your message has
been received. That person’s response (including his/her body language) will show you whether
she/he wants to continue the conversation.
According to Nunan (2001), listening is both a top-down and a bottom-up process. A top-down
listening process consists of understanding the overall meaning of an utterance, without
focusing on specific structures or words. By contrast, a bottom-up listening process is a
linguistic process in which we try to make sense of sounds. During this process, we mull over
speech sounds, words, phrases, and sentences, right up to complete texts that make sense.
This is related to the way in which we discussed language and its structure in Unit 2, where we
looked at the build-up of language from words to phrases, to complete sentences.
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As individuals we usually use the top-down and bottom-up processes simultaneously. For the
top-down process, we consider the context. It is not necessary to focus too much of our
attention on specific details, while in the bottom-up listening process, specific details are crucial
to our understanding of the whole meaning of an utterance. As listeners we pay attention to
individual words, phrases and sentences, and can understand by combining them to come up
with a whole.
Therefore, listening forms part of recognising and understanding the speech sounds of a
language, and being able to interpret those sounds. Listening comprehension requires us to be
able to understand the meaning of the many ways in which sounds combine in a language.
Phonemic awareness, as discussed in Unit 2, thus becomes a critical part of listening.
According to Lindsay and Knight (2006:46),
we listen for a purpose, but this purpose can be very different depending on the situation, such as listening
for specific details, listening for general meaning, listening for the general idea or gist. There is also a
difference between listening for, or to, exchange information; for enjoyment or social reasons, such as to
maintain contact; or to learn new language.
Before you continue, read Chapter 4 in Wyse et al. (2013). One of the main aspects discussed
in this chapter is that, to communicate effectively, individuals need to develop receptive skills to
become increasingly able to understand the language they hear. They also need to develop
expressive language skills to convey their own thoughts, feelings and desires. The chapter will
take you through some of the research that has been conducted on how children acquire
language by listening and interacting with adults. To become a fluent speaker of English, it is
important to have strong listening skills.
In the following sections, we will focus on the purpose of listening, after which we will look at the
stages of listening.
• Purpose of listening
There are many reasons why we may want to listen to spoken language. It could be to gain
information, to make certain distinctions between sounds, or to engage critically with a spoken
text. In the following section we discuss the purposes of listening.
Discriminative listening – this involves differentiating between different speech sounds. For
example, being able to tell whether the language being spoken is English or your mother
tongue. If what you hear sounds unfamiliar, it means you cannot understand what is being said.
For example, if a Chinese-speaker walked along the streets of Durban, in South Africa, where
people mainly speak isiZulu, s/he would instantly be able to tell that the language being spoken
was certainly not their mother tongue.
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Comprehension listening – comprehending or understanding meaning requires us to know the
vocabulary and rules of a language. We cannot comprehend spoken language if we do not
know how the system of that language is arranged, and what its words mean. This is related to
the feature of language that we discussed in Unit 1, namely structure dependence, i.e., all
languages being arranged in a systematic way. In the same unit, we looked at visual
communication. In this regard, it is important to state that someone may find it difficult to
comprehend what is being said if s/he cannot read body language. The structure of English was
explored further in Unit 2, when we delved into aspects such as clauses, phrases and
sentences. Our comprehension of spoken language requires an understanding of the rules of
that language, including how sentences are built or structured.
Let us turn our attention to the stages of listening.
• Stages of listening
According to Nunan (2001) there are three stages of listening: pre-, while- and post-listening.
Let us discuss each stage in detail.
Pre-listening stage – this is what you do before you listen to spoken language. You might, for
example, prepare yourself by activating your background knowledge of a text by conducting
research on the topic you are going to listen to. For example, let us say you are going to listen
to music being performed by a musician. It would be wise to find out information about the
musician, such as when s/he was born, where s/he comes from and what kind of music s/he
makes. In preparing to listen to a presentation on a weight-loss product, the weather forecast,
the budget speech in parliament, a play or a sermon, you might do background reading on the
topic(s) beforehand. Any budget speech will certainly involve big figures and financial
vocabulary, compared to a presentation on a weight-loss product, which is likely to use
vocabulary that will appeal to your emotions.
Activity
Look at the example of the following poem by Sipho Sepamla, Da same, da same in Horne and
Heinemann (2003:37).
Da same, da same
I doesn’t care of you black
I doesn’t care of you white
I doesn’t care of you India
I doesn’t care of you clearlink
if sometimes you Saus Afrika
you gotta big terrible, terrible
somewhere in yourselves
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I mean for sure now

all da peoples is make like God
an’ da God I knows for sure
He make avarybudy wi’ one heart
for sure now dis heart go-go da same
dats for meaning to say
one man no diflent to anadar
so now
you seea big terrible terrible stand here
how one man make anader man feel
da pain he doesn’t feel hisself
for surenow dats da whole point
sometime you wanna know

how I meaning for is simple
when da nail of say da t’orn tree
scratch little bit of da skin
I doesn’t care of say black

I doesn’t care of say white
I doesn’t care of say India
I doesn’t care of say clearlink
I mean for sure da skin
only one t’ing come for sure
an’ da one t’ing for sure is red blood
dats for sure da same, da same for avarybudy
so for sure now

you doesn’t look anadar man in de eye
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Imagine you were going to listen to the poem being recited, or, if possible, listen to it being read
on YouTube. Do a pre-listening exercise using the following questions to guide you:
1. What do you know about the genre of the text? How does a poem differ from other verbal
texts, such as presentations and sermons?
2. What language would you expect the poem to be written in, and why?
3. Do you know of any other poems that were written by the same poet?
4. Is there anything you need to know about the poet?
1. This is a poem. A poem differs from other verbal/spoken texts in the way it is structured. It
is written in stanzas, instead of paragraphs. The ideas of the poet are expressed in lines
that may or may not be sentences.
2. In an English lesson, the poem being studied will most likely have been written in English.
Furthermore, given the history of South Africa, there is a possibility that the poet wrote the
poem in English to make a point about writing it in poor English.
3. The Will, The Soweto I love, To Whom it May Concern, and the collection in Hurry Up to It.
4. His place of birth, where the poet grew up, and his role in the history of South Africa and
the struggle for equality.
You can find other suggested answers and commentaries to these questions in the feedback
guide to the activities – it can be accessed through your e-tutors and face-to-face tutors.
While-listening stage – this is what you do when listening to a text. The aim is to listen for
meaning – that is, to elicit a message from the spoken word. At this stage you would not worry
too much about being able to answer any questions that follow, but you might concentrate on
comprehension, on whether you understand the essential information you are hearing. That
means you will focus on listening, instead of worrying about catching every word and how it is
pronounced. When listening, it is also possible to see the ‘bigger picture’, but with one crucial
difference: information comes in an arranged way. In that arrangement of information, there are
content words (nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs) that can help you create a mental image
of what is being talked about. This is what we call the ‘gist’. For example, the words snacks,
family, bonding, picnic and summer have their own meanings, but when you hear the words
appearing together, they help to formulate the context of a picnic in your mind.
During the while-listening stage, it is important to aim to establish the ‘bigger picture’, that is, to
understand the gist of the text. While you may glean some details from listening to the text the
first time, the intention is to focus on the broader meaning first, so that you can obtain more/finer
details when you listen to the text several times.
Holistic listening means listening to the ‘whole’ text, while segmental listening involves listening
to segments or chunks of an utterance. Before you listen to specific segments, it is important to
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listen holistically. The aim of holistic listening is to help you develop strategies to use in
processing and understanding texts.
In language, certain words help us to follow what we are listening to. These words, which bring
cohesion to ideas, make it possible for us, as listeners, to follow what the speaker is saying or to
determine the intention behind the speaker’s utterance. For example, if a university lecturer
says: I am going to focus on three causes of global warming, it is an indication that you will hear
three factors being listed. Other words and phrases can function similarly, for example, to make
something clear (‘let me put it this way’, ‘to elaborate’); to give examples (‘to illustrate’, ‘for
instance’) and can direct your attention to a point that is being elaborated on.
Activity
Look at the poem by Sipho Sepamla, Da same, da same again. Imagine you were going to
listen to this text or, if possible, listen to it being read on YouTube. Do a while-listening exercise
using the following questions to guide you:
1. What is the gist of the poem?

2. What can you say about the voice of the poet?
3. What can you say about the language the poet used? In your view, why did the poet
choose to use this kind of language?
4. How does the poet maintain the attention of his listeners? Is there any use of body
language and facial expression?
1. The essence of the poem is: even though we may come from different races and cultures,
we share many similarities. We are all capable of doing good or evil. We can all get hurt,
emotionally and physically, in the same way.
2. The poem is written in the active voice. If you listen to the poem on YouTube, for example,
you will discover that the voice of the poet varies, to get a certain message across.
3. The language used in the poem is not formal language. It sounds like the language used
on social media networks, and it is not always grammatically correct. In a way the poet is
trying to indicate to the listeners that he is not a first-language speaker of English.
4. The use of body language and eye contact might be involved because the poet wants to
engage the audience and emphasise certain points. We imagine that the poet is very
passionate about his writing and will use his voice appropriately to draw the audience’s
attention.
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You can find commentaries in the feedback guide to the activities – it can be accessed through
your e-tutors and face-to-face tutors.
Post-listening – this is what you do after listening to a text. Some of the things you can do may
add to what you were doing during the pre- and while-listening stages. Post-listening allows you
to reflect on the text you have listened to; on speech sounds, how the language is structured,
and the words that were used. After listening, you can analyse, debate, or write down your
opinions. These activities might include writing a summary of the text you have just listened to;
answering factual questions about the text; or critically evaluating the context, purpose,
audience, and register.
___I can explain the difference between receptive and productive skills.
___I can explain the different stages of the listening process.
___I can give examples of the activities I can do during each of the stages of listening.
___I can explain the differences between comprehension listening and discriminative listening.
___I can make a distinction between critical listening and listening for information.
Activity
Look again at the example of the poem by Sipho Sepamla, Da same, da same. Imagine you
were going to listen to this text or, if possible, listen to it being read on YouTube. Do a post-
listening exercise using the following questions to guide you:
1. What is the poet trying to achieve through this poem?

3. What can you say about the kind of language he used? Is it formal or informal?
4. Why does he say all people are equal?
5. The last two lines appear to state the opposite of the message contained in the poem.
How do you understand them?
6. Re-write the poem using correct English.
1. The poet wants to make people aware that colour differences are only related to our skin
colour. He wants to raise the consciousness of black people. We imagine he does not
want them to believe that they are not equal to other races because of their skin colour.
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2. The language is informal and not always grammatically correct.

3. He bases this on the fact that underneath the skin of all human beings, they have the
same red blood.
4. The sentences may sound as though they contradict the message. He ends the poem by
inviting black people not to feel inferior, because there is no reason to do so. He is
deliberately saying after all we have heard in the poem, there is no reason for black people
to feel unequal to other human beings.
5. Re-write the poem in proper English.
I don’t care if you are black

I don’t care if you are white
I don’t care if you are Indian
I don’t care if you are clearlink
If sometimes you are in South Africa
You have a big problem
I mean for sure all the people are created by God

And the God I know for sure makes people with one heart
For sure this heart beats the same way
So the problem here is that

That means no man is different from another
Do things and feel the pain he does not feel.
For sure now that is the whole point
Maybe you want to know what I mean

It is simple: scratch a little bit of the skin
I don’t care if you are black
I don’t care if you are white
I don’t care if you are Indian
I don’t care if you are clearlink
For sure there is one thing under the skin
And that thing is red blood
That is surely the same for everybody.
For sure now you are afraid

To look another person in the eye.
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In the following section, we will look at critical listening and how we can enhance our ability to
evaluate utterances. We will focus on aspects such as using appropriate vocabulary, correct
pronunciation, and intonation and stress.
• Critical Listening and Thinking ‘Outside the Box’

Being a good listener will enable you to engage in what we call ‘critical listening’. Critical
listening involves analysing texts, thinking critically about them and making a judgement. While
the aim is to understand what the other person is saying, through critical listening it is important
to go beyond that, to assess what the person is saying and how they are saying it. For example,
if you want to understand the issue of global warming, it is important to listen to those who are
concerned about global warming, as well as global warming skeptics.
The goal of critical listening is to assess what is being said. Critical listening is no different from
critical reading, as both require us to analyse the information being received before aligning it
with our background information on the topic, and/or our beliefs. Critical listening is listening
aimed at evaluating and judging and forming an opinion. Being critically aware, as we saw in
Unit 1, is a skill that makes it possible for us to listen to what lies deeper than the words we are
hearing.
While informational listening may mostly be about getting facts and/or new information, critical
listening is about asking why the text has been produced by looking, for example, at who the
speaker is. This enables you to listen and scrutinise aspects such as the way words are
pronounced, the vocabulary that the author uses, and the tone of voice and stress patterns in
the pronunciation of words. Furthermore, in your analysis you should ask yourself questions
relating to what the speaker is trying to say. Is s/he stating facts? Does s/he have adequate
knowledge and authority to speak on the topic? What does s/he want to achieve? What is the
main argument being presented? How does what you are hearing differ from your own beliefs,
knowledge or opinions? These are some of the questions that we outlined in Unit 1, when we
discussed critical language awareness.
Have you ever been certain you heard someone say something, only to find out later that you
did not hear properly? In the following section we will look at factors which may cause
communication failure, and what we can do to avoid it.
Importance of pronunciation – when you talk to people in real-life situations, the first thing
they hear is how you pronounce words. In everyday communication, it is not always necessary
to use many big terms. It is often adequate to use simple words if your vocabulary is sufficient to
express yourself. Having a rich vocabulary is of no use if you are unable to pronounce words
correctly, so that you are understood. Furthermore, serious misunderstandings could occur if
you do not pronounce words correctly.
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Using appropriate vocabulary – you can study single words independently and know their
definitions without looking at the dictionary, but the important thing is being able to use the right
words in the right place in a sentence, for the right audience, at the right time. When we talk, it
is beneficial to have a rich vocabulary so that we can choose the appropriate words.
Understanding a speaker’s choice of words, and the appropriateness of his/her vocabulary will
help you understand what is being said. This is related to what we discussed in Unit 1 about
genre and register.
Use of intonation and stress – as speakers we have numerous ways of expressing ourselves.
Besides the actual words we use, we can vary our intonation and stress, which helps us to
indicate what is important in what we are saying. Intonation refers to changes in the sounds we
produce as we raise or lower our voices when we speak – particularly if it affects the meaning of
what we are saying. For example, the end of a sentence that is not a question is usually marked
by falling intonation. Stress is not only important in English: there are some words in other
languages that are spelt the same, but if certain syllables are stressed, they refer to one thing,
rather than another. In Siswati, for example, the noun litsanga can refer to a pumpkin or a thigh,
depending on which syllables are stressed.
To communicate clearly in English, it is important to know the stress patterns of the language.
This means you need to pronounce a specific syllable of a word (consisting of a number of
syllables) with greater emphasis (stress) than you would the other syllables in the word.
Watch the video at this link for a further discussion of stress on syllables. Copy the link and
paste in your browser to access the video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7H8_x5RSzCA – ‘3 Ways to Stress a Syllable’
By varying the tone of your voice so that it fluctuates, you can reveal your attitude to what you
are saying. You can indicate whether you are interested or not, and whether you are angry or
happy, for instance. This is related to the expressive function of language (see Unit 1). When
speaking, you can rephrase what you are saying by saying it quickly or slowly. Often, this will
depend on the feedback you receive from your listeners, who will reveal their attitudes towards
what they have heard through their body language. All the above is related to what we will
discuss in the next section, which deals with communicating to be understood.
• Communicating to be Understood
We speak to express our thoughts, feelings, and worldviews to one or more people. Among
other things, our purpose is to arrive at mutual understanding and maintain relationships. When
we speak, we choose our words to represent what we wish to share. Often, the people we are
speaking to understand us. However, sometimes our listeners do not hear our messages
correctly, which results in us being misunderstood. What could be the cause of such
miscommunication?
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According to Morgen (2014), the problem lies in our brains. As listeners, we think words have
been transmitted and interpreted directly, yet that is not always the case. Our ears hear the
sound, and our brains make sense of the sounds. That means we all see and hear the world in
a unique way, according to our mental models and filters – it is our brains that determine what
we hear. Morgen (2014) argues that during conversations our brains delete, misunderstand and
misinterpret information according to certain filters – our unique biases, triggers, assumptions,
beliefs, habits and mental models – to keep us comfortable.
We use words to communicate verbally. For second- or third-language speakers of English, it

becomes even more complicated at times to be heard and understood. There are several
reasons for this. As mentioned earlier, it is important to have the correct vocabulary. For
example, we cannot speak clearly about astronomy unless we are familiar with the topic and
use the correct register. Even though having a rich vocabulary is essential, knowing the context,
audience and genre is just as crucial.
Small variations in speech provide an additional challenge. The way we say something,
pronouncing words correctly and using the right body language are important when we speak to
be understood.
___I can explain the importance of using the correct register.
___I can explain why it is important to pronounce words correctly when I speak.
___I can explain why stress is important in speech.
___I can define the concepts of genre, register and audience.
Activity
Look at the sentences that follow. What would cause miscommunication if you were to hear
these sentences?
1. Dog for sale: Eats anything and is fond of children.
2. Tired of cleaning yourself? Let me do it.
3. Used cars: Why go elsewhere to be cheated? Come here first!
4. Wanted: Man to take care of cow that does not smoke or drink.
5. Illiterate? Write today for help.
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1. Dog for sale: Eats anything and is fond of children. It sounds as if the dog is fond of eating
children.
2. Tired of cleaning yourself? Let me do it. This appears to refer to someone else bathing you,
rather than coming to clean your place.
3. Used cars: Why go elsewhere to be cheated? Come here first! It seems as if they are
volunteering to be first in line to cheat you.
4. Wanted: Man to take care of cow that does not smoke or drink. It sounds as though the cow
does not smoke or drink.
5. Illiterate? Write today for help. How would an illiterate person be able to read or write?
Conclusion
In this unit we looked at listening and speaking skills. We saw that listening and speaking skills
are important for making meaning when we speak or listen to another person. In the unit we
also looked at diverse ways of enhancing our listening and speaking skills, to avoid
miscommunication. In the next unit, we will turn our attention to reading and writing skills.
References
Bloch, B. & Trager, G.L. (1942). Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of
America.
Press.
Lindsay, C. & Knight, P. (2006). Learning and Teaching English. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Morgen, S.D. (2014). What? Did You Really Say What I Think I Heard? Texas: Morgen
Publishing.
Nunan, D. (2001). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wyse, D., Jones, R., Bradford, H. & Wolpert, A.M. (2013). Teaching English, Language and
Literacy. 3rd ed. United Kingdom: Routledge.
Glossary
Receptive skills are the skills we use to receive and process information, but for which we do
not need to produce a language to do this. An example would be listening to music.
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Productive skills require production, for instance, of a speech.
Intonation refers to the sound changes produced by raising or lowering the voice when
speaking, especially when this has an impact on the meaning of what is being said.
Comprehension involves listening in order to comprehend or understand meaning. This type of
listening requires knowledge of the vocabulary used, and the rules of the language.
Pre-listening is the first stage of listening, that is, what is done prior to a listening activity.
While-listening is the second stage of listening, which occurs during the process of listening.
Post-listening is the last stage of listening. It includes activities that can be conducted after
listening to a spoken activity.
Critical listening involves analysis, critical thinking and judgement. In critical listening, the
intention is not only to understand what the other person is saying, but also to evaluate what is
being said and how.
The following questions are meant to test your understanding of the outcomes of the unit. The
maximum mark for each question is indicated in brackets. This will tell you how much you
should write for each answer.
Answer these questions to assess your mastery of the material in this unit. You can find
suggested answers to these questions in the feedback guide to the activities – it can be
1. What is the difference between receptive skills and productive skills? (4)
2. Provide any three examples of situations where individuals need to speak. (3)
3. What is the difference between hearing and understanding? (2)
4. What is the difference between discriminative listening and comprehension listening?
(4)
5. Give one example of an activity that you can do during the following listening stages:
Pre-listening (2)
While-listening (2)
Post-listening (2)
6. What do we mean by ‘critical listening’? (3)
7. Give two (2) examples of where pronunciation errors can cause serious
misunderstandings. (4)
8 State two (2) reasons why using the appropriate vocabulary is important in speech.(4)
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1. We use receptive skills when we receive and process information – we do not need to
produce a language to do this. Productive skills require production, for instance, of a
speech.
2. Here you can give examples of any speech activity that comes to mind.
3. You can hear something without understanding, for example, you can hear when two
people speak a language you do not understand. However, understanding means you can
make sense of, and interpret, what is being said.
4. Discriminative listening occurs when you can differentiate between different speech sounds,
while comprehension listening entails listening to comprehend/understand meaning. This
type of listening requires knowledge of the vocabulary and rules of the language.
5. You can give any examples to illustrate your understanding of these stages of listening.
6. Critical listening involves analysing texts, thinking critically about them, and making a
judgement. While you want to understand what the other person is saying in critical
listening, it is important to go beyond that, to assess what the person is saying and how s/he
is saying it.
7. The answers will vary.
8. Answers will vary.
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Unit 4: Reading and Comprehension
Outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to
• define the meaning of successful reading.

• explain the function and purpose of pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading
activities, and how they aid in comprehension.
• apply pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading activities to a text.
• identify and differentiate between various reading strategies such as prediction,
skimming, scanning, inference, summarising, paraphrasing, intensive reading, and critical
reading.
• apply different reading strategies to a text.
• explain the relationship between comprehension and reading and listening skills.
• demonstrate the importance of speech aspects to aid listening skills; and
• explain how reading skills can help the development of writing skills.
Introduction
In the previous units, you gained an understanding of language and how it is used to
communicate. Unit 3 focused on spoken language and listening comprehension. While
speaking and listening are auditory (pertaining to sounds that you hear), reading has a visual
aspect. It requires an understanding of visual symbols or images, and how they represent
sounds and meaning. This unit will guide you to develop your reading skills, and gain
competence and confidence in the area of reading.
Read the first two paragraphs of Chapter 9 in Wyse et al. (2013:123).
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Being able to read (and read well) forms the foundation of education, as all school subjects
require a student to acquire knowledge through texts and books. However, reading is about
more than education. Writing and reading are two of the most important ways in which we give
shape to our culture. Someone who cannot read will not be able to take part fully in society as
an adult.
• Think about your daily life and the regular activities in it. Which of those will be difficult or
impossible to do, for someone who has never learned how to read?
You can read about different approaches to reading in Chapter 9 of Wyse et al. (2013). These
approaches vary in respect of the importance they attach to different aspects of reading: word
recognition or decoding (knowing how the sounds of language correspond to the visual images
of letters) and language comprehension (understanding what a word or phrase means). A focus
on word recognition is seen in bottom-up approaches to reading that start with letters, then
progress to syllables and words. A top-down approach emphasises language comprehension. It
starts with the explanation of meaning (for example, when a storybook is read out loud to a child
before s/he can read by him-/herself), which eventually leads the child to connect the visual
shape of a word to the meaning, and later, when the word is familiar, to connect the meaning to
the individual letters that make up the word.
Current research recommends a combination of the bottom-up and top-down approaches. In

Chapter 9, ‘The Teaching of Reading’ (Wyse et al. 2013:135) argue that reading is the process
of understanding written language in order to establish meaning.
This process consists of two parts: 1) comprehension, which is the ability to process what a text
means; and 2) visual image interpretation plus an understanding of visual symbols and their
relationship to units of sound.
In this unit, you will discover various reading strategies that make use of both the bottom-up and
top-down approaches, to guide you to improve your reading comprehension. In the first part, we
will analyse what steps of the reading process to follow to fully engage with the text and extract
meaning. In the second part, we will discuss the different reading strategies you can use to gain
comprehension. Next, we will examine the relationship between reading and listening skills,
both of which are important for comprehension and can mutually aid and improve each other.
Lastly, we will show how the development of reading skills corresponds with improved writing
skills.
Read the first paragraph of Chapter 11 in Wyse et al. (2013:155).
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The Reading Process
What does this section tell you about the relationship between a text and its environment, the
social world? What about the relationship between the text and the reader? What does it mean
that meaning is a ‘transaction’ between text and reader? Do all readers understand the same
text in the same way? Will you understand the same text differently if you read it now and again
in ten years’ time? Would someone who grew up in South Africa understand it differently from
someone who grew up elsewhere? What factors influence the way a particular reader
understands a certain text?
When we say that language and its meaning involve a ‘transaction’ between text and reader, we
mean that communication is never a one-way process from text to reader. This is because each
reader has different background knowledge (either about the topic or the specific kind of text)
that will influence the way in which s/he engages with it. Likewise, each reader has individual
beliefs and expectations that will change how s/he receives the message of the text, and
understands and processes it.
Read the rest of the first section of Chapter 11 in Wyse et al. (2013:155–157).
Reading comprehension is not a simple act of passively receiving a message that is already
complete and clear. As a reader, you have to interact and engage with the text in order to
extract and construct meaning. For this to be possible, when you read a new text, it is important
to be able to make connections with existing knowledge. This will not only help you understand
the text, but will ensure that your reading aids in knowledge formation, as you will be able to use
the information in the text to build on your existing knowledge.
This chapter focuses on engaged reading and how to develop enthusiasm for reading. In the
rest of this section, we will focus on pre-, while- and post-reading activities that will encourage
engagement with a text and aid in the comprehension of it.
Pre-reading
The goal of the pre-reading activities (see ‘Phase 1: Starting Points’ of ‘Generic Teaching
Sequence for Guided Reading’ in Chapter 13 of Wyse et al. (2013:180–181) is to introduce the
text and determine strategies for its reading. This will prepare you for what you are about to
read and make you more receptive to the information, so that you understand it more easily. To
do this, you need to engage your schematic knowledge, which is the mental framework or
system according to which you organise existing information and store new information.
Background information can be about the type or genre of text. Knowing whether it is creative,
factual or informative, persuasive or argumentative, will tell you what you can expect, how the
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text will get its message across and what the purpose of the text is. The purpose of an
informative text is to inform, and it will likely use facts and data to construct its message. The
purpose of a creative text is to affect the reader emotionally or to say something about a social
problem, and it will use poetic and emotional language to do so.
The structure of a text is related to its purpose. An informative or persuasive text uses a formal
structure, with paragraphs and topic sentences marking the main points of its argument. Its
author may use strategies such as description and definition, comparison or contrast, cause and
effect to inform or persuade the reader. The structure of a short story uses creative language,
and might contain descriptions of a place, the internal thoughts of a character, and/or dialogue.
A poem consists of lines and stanzas and uses poetic devices such as rhyme to emphasise
certain words, or metaphor to carry across a particular message.
Contextualising the text is also part of the process of compiling background information. This is
related to the topic and themes of the text, as well as the sociocultural context in which it is
written: when, where, and in response to what. When you read the novels of Bessie Head, for
example, you understand them better when you know that they were written during the
apartheid era and respond to the social injustices of that time. In the case of a creative text in
particular, the author’s biography can help you understand how and why it was written.
Before reading a text, you should therefore activate your background knowledge and establish
the context. In the case of non-fiction texts, you can do research on the topic and find other
pieces that have been written on the subject. If it is a factual text, you might look for pictures or
graphics (for example, tables or posters) that summarise the topic. If it is fiction, reviews can be
helpful in giving you an idea of what to expect.
Activity
Look at the following examples – Bessie Head’s prose from The Collector of Treasures
(1992:97), and Mbuyiseni Oswald Mtshali’s poem ‘An abandoned bundle’ – provided below.
Prose extract from Bessie Head
Shortly after this Kenalepe had a miscarriage and had to be admitted to hospital for a
minor operation. Dikeledi kept her promise ‘to wash and cook for her friend. She ran both
their homes, fed the children, and kept everything in order. Also, people complained
about the poorness of the hospital diet and each day she scoured the village for eggs
and chicken, cooked them, and took them to Kenalepe every day at the lunch-hour.
One evening Dikeledi ran into a snag with her routine. She had just dished up
supper for the Thebolo children when a customer came around with an urgent request for
an alteration on a wedding dress. The wedding was to take place the next day. She left
the children seated around the fire eating and returned to her home. An hour later, her
own children asleep and settled, she thought she would check the Thebolo yard to see if
all was well there. She entered the children’s hut and noted that they had put themselves
to bed and were fast asleep.
An Abandoned Bundle, by Mbuyiseni Oswald Mtshali
The morning mist
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and chimney smoke
of White City Jabavu
flowed thick yello
as pus oozing
from a gigantic sore.
It smothered our little houses

Like fish caught in a net.
Scavenging dogs
draped in red bandanas of blood
fought fiercely
for a squirming bundle.
I threw a brick;
they bared fangs
flicked velvet tongues of scarlet
and scurried away’
leaving a mutilated corpse -
an infant dumped on a rubbish heap –
‘Oh! Baby in the Manger
sleep well
on human dung.’
Its mother
had melted into the rays of the rising sun,
her face glittering with innocence
her heart as pure as untrampled dew.
Use the following questions to guide your pre-reading:
5. What do you know about the genre of each text? What do you expect of fiction, and of a
poem respectively? What style characteristics do you associate with each genre? What
are the respective purposes of a story and of a poem?
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6. What do you know about each author? How does background information about them
change what you expect from the texts?
7. When was each text written? What is the setting of each? How does this information
influence what you expect the aim of each text to be?
8. Based on the title, what do you think the poem will be about?
9. What themes would you identify if you had to lead a discussion about each text before
reading the works?
10. Make a list of keywords that relate to the themes of the story and of the poem. How do
they relate to the titles?
11. Make a list of challenging vocabulary words and provide their definitions. Do they relate
to the topics of the texts? How?
Note that these are only suggestions. There are no right or wrong answers. The goal of
this feedback is to provide you with an example of what is expected of you.
As regards the questions about what you know of the genre of the texts, what to expect of
fiction and of a poem respectively, what style characteristics you associate with each, and what
the purposes of a story and of a poem are, the following may be of help:
1. What do you know about the genre of each text? What do you expect of fiction, and of a
poem respectively? What style characteristics do you associate with each genre? What
are the respective purposes of a story and of a poem?
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Fiction is a genre of prose that describes imaginary characters and events. Poetry is a
very condensed form of writing which usually relies on poetic language to create many
layers of meaning. You would expect a piece of fiction to tell a story. You would expect a
poem to have a very rhythmic sound when you read it out loud. The style of a fictional
prose sample would normally be descriptive of characters, their actions, and a setting. It
might contain dialogue. It could also make use of emotive language or lyrical description
(language that expresses feelings or emotion). The style of a poem is shorter and more
condensed, and it makes use of poetic devices such as metaphor and simile to create
layers of meaning. The purpose of a story is to tell something about a character and what
happened to him/her. Stories also have themes that the writer wants to share with the
reader, and they usually aim to provoke thought and perhaps elicit an emotional reaction.
The purpose of a poem is normally to evoke an emotional reaction from the reader,
whether by showing something beautiful (lyrical poems), presenting a social problem, or
engaging with a philosophical question.
2. What do you know about each author? How does background information about them
change what you expect from the texts?
Bessie Head (6 July 1937 – 17 April 1986) was born in South Africa and became involved
with the Pan-African Congress (PAC) and anti-apartheid politics. At the age of 27 she
moved to Botswana to seek asylum. Knowing this, you could expect that her work might
be set in rural Botswana, and that it would touch upon political themes regarding Africa,
colonialism, and race.
Oswald Mbuyiseni Mtshali, who was born on 17 January 1940, published his first
anthology (a book of poems) in 1971. His poetry is known for exploring the struggle
against apartheid, especially the conditions of working-class black people. Knowing this,
you would expect Mtshali’s poetry to engage with social problems, especially those
concerning the struggles and living conditions of working-class black people under
apartheid.
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3. When was each text written? What is the setting of each? How does this information
influence what you expect the aim of each text to be?
Bessie Head’s collection of short stories, The Collector of Treasures and Other Botswana
Village Tales was published in 1977. From the title, we can surmise that the stories are set
in a rural area of Botswana. We can expect the stories to be about traditional village life
and domestic struggles, set against the background of larger political themes. (You can
read reviews of this collection online.)
‘An abandoned bundle’ first appeared in Sounds of a Cowhide Drum (1971), Mtshali’s first
collection of poems which was awarded the Olive Schreiner Prize in 1974. From the title
of the collection, you might expect the poems to engage with traditional culture.
4. Based on the title, what do you think the poem will be about?
‘Abandoned’ refers to something that was cast off or thrown away. A ‘bundle’ refers to
something that is bunched up or tied together into a clump. It is often used to describe a
heap of clothes or rags. An ‘abandoned bundle’ would then refer to something shapeless
or lumpy, which has been discarded.
5. What themes would you identify if you had to lead a discussion about each text before
reading the works?
Prose: friendship and helping each other
Poem: pollution, unintended pregnancies, social problems
6. Make a list of keywords that relate to the themes of the story and of the poem. How do
they relate to the titles?
Prose example: promise, help, friendship
Poem: city, pollution, violence, abandoned infant, social problems. All of these keywords
provide an image of hardship and harsh living conditions.
7. Make a list of challenging vocabulary words and provide their definitions. Do they relate to
the topics of the texts? How?
• “miscarriage”: when a foetus dies in the womb before it reaches 20 weeks. The word is
related to the theme of friendship and helping each other, as Kenalepe’s miscarriage is the
reason why she is in hospital and why Dikeledi is taking care of her home.
• “scoured”: a very intense and thorough search for something. The word indicates just how
much effort Dikeledi is putting into taking care of Kenalepe. She goes to great lengths to
provide nutritious food for her, which shows the strength of their friendship as well as
Dikeledi’s helpful nature.
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• “pus”: a thick, yellowish fluid that is produced in infected wounds. The use of the word
emphasises how dirty and broken the city is, how polluted it is and how harsh the living
conditions are.
• “scavenging”: to hunt for something of value in trash, or, in the case of animals, to look for
and consume the meat of an animal that has been killed by something else (carrion). The
use of the word conveys feelings of danger and horror, as pertains to dogs scavenging in
the trash. It also emphasises that the baby they found is like ‘trash’; thrown away on
purpose.
• “manger’: originally a feeding trough for cattle, in this context it refers to the manger in
which it is said the baby Jesus slept after his birth. By using this word, the poet compares
the abandoned infant on the trash heap with Jesus. The comparison shows the baby’s
innocence, but also ironically emphasises the cruelty of life under these conditions.
While-reading
For optimal reading comprehension, it is important to read actively. You should interact and
engage with the text, and not simply regard it passively (see ‘Phase 2: Reading and
Responding’ of ‘Generic Teaching Sequence for Guided Reading’ in Chapter 13 of Wyse et al.
(2013:181–182). While reading, you are already constructing meaning and developing
understanding. Methods used to develop a deeper understanding involve questioning and
clarifying different points of the text and connecting different parts to one another. In an
informative text, this can indicate how the introduction is connected to the body, or reveal the
sequence of ideas: does one argument contrast with a preceding point of view, or does it build
on and expand your understanding of the previous argument? In a creative text, connecting the
different points of the text can show how a description adds to the atmosphere or mood, or what
dialogue says about a character.
This part of the reading process will rely on your understanding of language and grammar. You
will need to be able to distinguish a general idea from a specific example, to understand the
hierarchy of information that is being presented. This will help you recognise the important main
ideas. Identifying signpost language will help you grasp the structure of a text. Signpost
language guides you through the sequence of ideas, for example: ‘the topic of this piece is…’;
‘there are a number of things to discuss…’; ‘let’s begin with…’; ‘first/second/finally’; ‘moving on
to…’; ‘what does this mean for…’; ‘the significance of this…’; ‘to summarise…’; ‘to put it another
way…’. (In Unit 6, we will look in more detail at signposting.) In the same way, being able to
identify conjunctions, connecting words or phrases will help you understand how different ideas
relate to one another. Conjunctions include ‘so’, ‘in order to’, ‘therefore’, ‘however’ and
‘although’.
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In the next section of this unit, ‘Reading for Purpose’, we will discuss the different reading
strategies you can use to comprehend a text while reading.
Activity
Look again at the prose example by Head and the poem by Mtshali. Use the following questions
to guide you in while-reading:
• What characteristics of style or language did you find to indicate the genre of each text (as
discussed in the pre-reading activities)?
• Study the different parts of each text (sentences in the story; stanzas in the poem).
Summarise the idea contained in each part. How are they related? Does one logically
follow from the other? Is there a linear progression of ideas? Does the author make use of
contrast and comparison? Does one sentence/stanza build on the idea of the preceding
one?
• Does the text use words that show chronological progression? Note the different events
and make a timeline to indicate how they relate to one another. Are they chronological? If
not, what words indicate which event happened first? What is the effect of skipping time, or
of presenting events out of their chronological order?
1. What characteristics of style or language did you find to indicate the genre of each text
(as discussed in the pre-reading activities)?
In the prose example:
The names of characters, description of actions and chronology (to show the progress of
events).
In the poem:
Short lines, rhythmic language, sound devices (e.g., alliteration and assonance), similes,
metaphors, and layers of meaning
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2. Study the different parts of each text (sentences in the story; stanzas in the poem).
Summarise the idea contained in each part. How are they related? Does one logically
follow from the other? Is there a linear progression of ideas? Does the author make use
of contrast and comparison? Does one sentence/stanza build on the idea of the
preceding one?

Kenalepe was admitted to hospital,
Dikeledi washed and cooked for Kenalepe’s family,
She ran both households,
She cooked nutritious food for Kenalepe when she was in hospital.
The sentences are related to each other, based on their content and the fact that the
events in them take place at the same time. The paragraph summarises events that
must have taken place over a few days or weeks: it is a general impression and does
not show chronological progression.
In the poem:
The city of Jabavu is polluted,
The pollution oppresses the houses,
Dogs are fighting over something,
They have partially devoured an abandoned infant’
The infant’s mother cannot be blamed.
The logical progression of ideas (or images) is from large to small: from the city, to the
houses, to the dogs, to the bundle that the dogs were fighting over. Each idea builds
on the previous one by elaborating and providing more detail. The poem contrasts the
last stanza with the previous ones.
3. Does the text use words that show chronological progression? Note the different events
and make a timeline to indicate how they relate to one another. Are they chronological? If
not, what words indicate which event happened first? What is the effect of skipping time,
or of presenting events out of their chronological order?
“Shortly after this” shows that these events take place after some other significant
event. “ … each day… every day…” show that some of these events take place on a
daily basis. Your timeline had to show two events: first, Kenalepe being admitted to
hospital; and second, all the things Dikeledi did while Kenalepe was in hospital.
In the poem:
The only grammatical indication of time progression is “had melted” in the last stanza.
Here, the past perfect indicates that it happened before the rest of the events, which
are given in the simple past tense. Based on the content and context, you can tell in
what order the events happened, even though they are not presented in chronological
order. The poem presents the events out of chronological order, to intensify how
shocking it is to discover a baby on a rubbish heap being attacked by dogs.
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Post-reading
The goal of post-reading activities is two-fold: 1) they establish and test your comprehension of
the text; and 2) they help you to process the text, organise and store the information that you
extracted from it, and add this information to your schematic knowledge of the topic. In this part
of the reading process, you should reflect on the text and evaluate it (see ‘Phase 3: Reflecting
and Evaluating’ of ‘Generic Teaching Sequence for Guided Reading’ in Chapter 13 of Wyse et
al. (2013:182).
During post-reading, you deepen your understanding of the text and demonstrate it through
activities that engage critically with the text. Examples of these activities are discussions about
the content and style of the text (e.g., why it is written the way it is; how the style emphasises
the themes; whether or not the style is successful in conveying the message, whether or not
you agree with the message). Factual retention can be tested through quizzes or
comprehension tests. Drawing mind-maps or other graphic depictions of the text will help you
decode its structure and line of argumentation. Writing a summary will test your understanding
of the content as well as the structure (i.e., which are important ideas and what is irrelevant
detail), in addition to providing writing practice. Creative writing responses might include writing
a review of a story, making a table of personality traits in preparation for writing a character
analysis, or developing a counter-argument for a persuasive text.
Activity
Look again at the prose example by Head and the poem by Mtshali. Use the following points to
guide you in post-reading:
1. Make a list of statements about what happens in the prose example, and another of
statements about the events in the poem.
2. Make a list of statements describing the style of the prose example and another describing
the style of the poem. What language aspects strike you as significant? Why is the
sentence length significant? What poetic devices are used? What is the atmosphere of the
prose example and of the poem?
3. Write a character analysis for Dikeledi in Head’s story, and quote from the text to support
your argument.
4. Write a description of the place in Mtshali’s poem, and quote from the poem to support
your work.
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Make a list of statements about what happens in the prose example, and another of statements
about the events in the poem.
Prose example: Kenalepe is admitted to hospital. Dikeledi, who promised to take care of
her house, cooks and cleans for Kenalepe’s children. Dikeledi cooks for Kenalepe in
hospital.
Poem: the speaker sees dogs fighting over something. He throws a brick at the dogs. He
sees that they were fighting over a baby, who had been abandoned on a rubbish
heap by its mother.
1. Make a list of statements describing the style of the prose example and another describing
the style of the poem. What language aspects strike you as significant? Why is the
sentence length significant? What poetic devices are used? What is the atmosphere of the
prose example and of the poem?
Prose example: the style is straightforward and to the point. It does not use elaborate
words. The sentence structures are simple. It is striking that the fourth sentence (from
“Also, people…”) is so much longer than the others. It contrasts with the generic
statements in the first three sentences and provides a detailed example of Dikeledi’s
effort in caring for her friend. The atmosphere is peaceful and rural. There is no
indication that Kenalepe’s health is in serious danger.
Poem: the style is simple and descriptive. It is very visual, making use of simile and
metaphor to describe the setting. The lines are short, which gives the poem a choppy
rhythm that emphasises the atmosphere of danger and violence. The last stanza, by
contrast, contains longer sentences, which correspond with the idea of innocence,
purity, and peacefulness.
2. Write a character analysis for Dikeledi in Head’s story, and quote from the text to support
your argument.
Dikeledi is dependable because she “kept her promise”. She is a good housekeeper, as
she can keep “everything in order” in “both their homes”. She is very caring, as is
clear from the way in which she looked for eggs and chicken to cook for Kenalepe.
She is resourceful, because she had to look very hard (“scour”) for chicken and eggs,
but still managed to find some every day.
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3. Write a description of the place in Mtshali’s poem, and quote from the poem to support
your work.
White City Jabavu is very polluted. Its chimney smoke is so thick it “oozes” like pus and
“smothers” the houses. It is an ugly place, like “a gigantic sore”. There are open
rubbish heaps in the city, where “scavenging dogs” hunt for food.
____ I can explain what successful reading is.

____ I can explain how pre-reading activities help me understand a text.
____ I can explain how while-reading activities help me understand a text.
____ I can explain how post-reading activities help me understand a text.
____ I can apply pre-reading activities to a text.
____ I can apply while-reading activities to a text.
____ I can apply post-reading activities to a text.
Reading for Purpose

In the preceding section you saw how important it is for comprehension that you, as a reader,
actively engage with a text. In this section, we will focus on specific cognitive strategies that can
aid you in understanding a text and extracting meaning from it.
Before you continue, read Chapter 11 in Wyse (2013), paying special attention to
the section on ‘Cognitive Strategies’ on pp. 157–159.
Prediction
Prediction prepares you to interact meaningfully with a text by activating your expectations
based on your existing schematic knowledge. These expectations include the style of a certain
text, its genre and purpose, as well as the content. You can find clues about the content in the
title or heading, in keywords and themes, or, in the case of a novel, on the front cover and blurb.
Prediction also forms part of while-reading activities. In a factual text, you can pause after the
introduction and try to predict how the rest of the argument will develop. In short stories or a
novel, you can review the plot events up to a certain point and predict what will happen next.
You can look back on a character’s actions and predict how these will influence future events,
or how his/her views are likely to change.
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Prediction is a useful way of encouraging engagement with the text by feeding curiosity, and
creating expectation and suspense. Hypothesis (something you predict or guess that has not
been proven yet) is best supported through open-ended questions, as demonstrated in the
section on ‘Cognitive Strategies’ in Chapter 11 of Wyse (2013:157–159).
Skimming
Skimming is a rapid reading strategy that aims to uncover the main ideas of a text. It helps you
focus on extra-textual clues (e.g., titles, headings, pictures or graphics, bullet lists, different font
types [such as bold or italics]). Skimming allows you to take note of the use of structure: the first
paragraph normally introduces the text and states what it is about, while the last paragraph
typically summarises the argument of the text. In addition, you can skim for topic sentences that
contain the main ideas of the text. These are usually found in the first sentence of each
paragraph.
Skimming will not give you the same level of deep understanding as intensive reading, but it is a
valuable skill to cultivate. You can use it before close reading (which is basically intensive
reading) to explore the text and get a general idea of its gist (what it is about), so that you can
prepare yourself for what you are about to read in depth. You can also use skimming after close
reading, to review the text and further familiarise yourself with it.
Scanning
Scanning is likewise a rapid reading strategy. It can also be used before close reading to look
for keywords or words that are repeated often. These words will give you an idea of the general
content of the text and its main ideas. You will more often use scanning after close reading, to
quickly find certain facts or information, especially when you have to answer questions about
the text. In this case, you will first identify the keywords of the question, then scan the text for
those words in order to find your answer.
The difference between skimming and scanning is that skimming provides you with a general
idea of the text, while scanning enables you to locate specific information.
Inference
Inference is when you arrive at information that is not explicitly provided by making a deduction
based on other contextual information. It “involves filling in the ‘gaps’ that are not explicitly
stated by the author” (Wyse et al. 2013:159), and it is a crucial part of extracting information and
arriving at comprehension.
The different kinds of inference are described in the section ‘Inference’ in Chapter 11 (Wyse et
al. 2013:159). On a structural level, inference is a major part of any reading comprehension.
The position of a sentence in the text and the language used can indicate how important its
content is to the main argument (e.g., the first and last paragraphs usually contain a reference
to the main idea). In addition, certain sentences or paragraphs can be linked semantically
(through the use of linking words, for instance) or conceptually (through its content). In this way,
word use and content can indicate that a certain event is the result of a previously stated cause,
even if it is not stated directly.
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In works of fiction, inference is often needed to understand the progression of events or

character motivation. In the prose example by Bessie Head, for example, the reader can infer
conceptually that, at some point in the past, Dikeledi offered to wash and cook for her friend if
she ever became ill. Likewise, the reader can infer semantically (based on the word order of the
sentence) that Dikeledi cooked eggs and chicken because Kenalepe did not get enough
nutritious food in hospital.
Summarising
To summarise is to extract the main ideas of a text and present them in short and simple
language. This strategy facilitates understanding and aids in knowledge formation as well as
retention (remembering).
To summarise effectively, you have to discern between essential and supporting
information/detail. It is also important to understand the connections between the main points of
the text. A simple guideline to writing a summary is to answer the questions: who, when, where,
what, why and how. In informative texts, it can be helpful to start by first finding the main idea of
each paragraph, by asking: what is this paragraph about?
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing involves putting something into your own words. This is a critical skill to test and
deepen your understanding of a text. Paraphrasing is often the next step after summarising, as
it involves taking the information you extracted during your summary and using your own words
to rephrase it. To paraphrase effectively, it is important that you understand how the different
main ideas of a text are related. When paraphrasing, you indicate relations by using connecting
words or phrases such as ‘because’, ‘however’, ‘although’, ‘while’, ‘in order to’ or ‘as a result’.
Intensive reading
Intensive reading (or close reading) is reading for in-depth understanding, and it is related to the
while-reading process discussed earlier. Intensive reading will often require you to read the text
more than once: the first time to understand the gist of it, and the second (or third) time to
deepen your understanding by engaging with, and reflecting on, the text. Annotating the text
while reading is a useful part of intensive reading. This process involves highlighting or
underlining important words, phrases or sentences that strike you as significant and making
notes, such as jotting down keywords, summarising a paragraph, or drawing lines or arrows
between ideas that are related (e.g., cause and effect, general and specific statements,
examples given to explain an idea).
When going over the text again, intensive reading requires that you make connections to
understand how the whole is constructed. Your annotations will help you notice certain patterns
(for example, contrasting ideas or words that are repeated). Intensive reading also involves
paying attention to style (for example, the ways in which certain ideas are shown to be
important). More than just being able to answer questions about the content (asking who, what,
where, when), intensive reading should start you thinking about why certain words are used or
why ideas are stated or repeated, and how the writer uses style or content to fulfil the purpose
of the text.
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Intensive reading works on two levels: 1) you need to understand the central idea and main
themes of a text, along with the major supporting ideas; and 2) you should pay attention to the
text on the level of sentences and words: you need to understand each word and each
sentence, and how they all come together to develop the main argument.
Critical Reading and Thinking ‘Outside the Box’

Intensive reading prepares you to discover the various layers of meaning in a text. It provides
the framework and information you will need to engage critically with a text – to interpret it,
reflect on it, evaluate it and respond to it.
Once you understand what a text says, the next step is to interpret its purpose by asking why
and how. Critical reading investigates why a text was written by examining the stance of the
authors. For example: do they merely inform or are they trying to argue a specific point? What
tone are they using? Are they biased in some way? Do they have the authority to speak on this
topic (i.e., what are their credentials? Did they use research and refer to facts)?, do they use
definite facts or only offer an opinion? Are their arguments valid? Is their conclusion based on
the evidence they presented? Are their examples relevant to their argument?
The ‘how’ of a text is related to its purpose, but this question focuses on the tools the author
uses to fulfil this purpose. What language and style does s/he use? What register does s/he
write in? What words does s/he use? Which ideas are repeated? What strategies (i.e., contrast,
description, lists, bullets, graphics) does s/he use? What is the effect of all these language and
style choices?
Next, you will reflect on the text. This simply involves thinking about its strengths and
weaknesses, how successful it is in its purpose, and how it makes you feel. Is it clear and
concise? Does it ramble or repeat ideas too often? Is anything missing that would have made its
message clearer? Are you convinced of the argument being made, or does the text provide
inadequate information?
Reflecting prepares you to evaluate the text. Does it communicate effectively and successfully?
In informative texts, your answer can be based on research and the facts given, which will
indicate whether the author’s conclusions are valid. In persuasive texts, you will evaluate
whether or not s/he convinced you of his/her viewpoint. In creative texts, you will evaluate
whether the author was successful in portraying the message: are the metaphors effective? Are
the characters’ motivations clear?
You are now ready to respond to the text in your own writing. This can take the form of any of
the post-reading activities mentioned earlier. In academic writing, it will normally take the shape
of either an argumentative essay that analyses a creative work or an informative essay that
draws on various sources to present a specific topic.
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Activity
Contraception, health, and human rights
Contraception has clear health benefits, since the prevention of unintended

pregnancies leads to a decrease in maternal and infant deaths, and ill health.
Providing access to all women in developing countries who currently have a need for
modern methods of contraception would prevent 54 million unintended pregnancies,
26 million abortions (of which 16 million would be unsafe) and seven million
miscarriages; this would also prevent 79 000 maternal deaths and 1.1 million infant
deaths.
This situation would particularly benefit adolescent girls, who are at increased risk of
medical complications associated with pregnancy, and who are often forced to make
compromises in education and employment that may lead to poverty and lower
educational attainment.
Human rights include the right to non-discrimination; the right to life, survival and
development; the right to the highest attainable standard of health; and the rights to
education and information. These rights are applied to a wide range of sexual and
reproductive health issues, including the accessibility of contraceptive information
and services.
Adapted from WHO (2014:4-5)

Read the following text. You will be required to apply different reading strategies to it.
1. Use prediction as while-reading strategy.
• Read the title of the text. What kind of text do you expect this to be? What do you think
will be the connection between “contraception” and “human rights”?
• The text is written and published by the World Health Organization. Research who they
are and what they do. Based on this information, what are your expectations of the text
now?
2. Use skimming as a reading strategy.

• Before reading, read only the first sentence. What does it tell you about the topic of the
text? Which of the three concepts from the title (“contraception”, “health” and “human
rights”) is/are mentioned in this sentence?
• Now read the last sentence. How is the information in this sentence connected to that of
the first sentence? Which of the three title concepts are mentioned?
• After reading the text once, skim it again. Which words strike you as significant? Which
words are often repeated? Do they give you an overview of the text as a whole? How are
they related to the title?
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3. Use scanning as a reading strategy.
• Before reading, scan the text for keywords. How are the keywords related to the topic of
the text?
• After reading, scan the text for specific information. How many infant deaths can be
prevented? Who can benefit the most from modern contraception methods?
4. Use inference as a reading strategy.

• What can you infer from the title of the text? How are the three concepts (“contraception”,
“health” and “human rights”) related? What semantic clue (the sentence structure and
word choice) tells you that they are related?
• Read the first paragraph again, as it contains a number of statistics. What can you infer
from these statistics? What do they tell you about why access to modern contraception is
important? Why do you think the writers listed these statistics at the beginning of the
text?
• Read the second paragraph again. Using the context of the paragraph, under which
circumstances would adolescent girls be forced to compromise their education and
employment? What is the connection between access to modern contraception methods
and poverty or lack of higher education?
5. Use summarising as reading strategy.

• What is essential information in this text? What are the supporting details or specific
examples?
• Summarise each paragraph in one sentence. Now summarise the main idea of the whole
text in one sentence.
6. Use paraphrasing as reading strategy.

• Paraphrase the main points of this text in your own words. Pay attention to the logical
connections between contraception, health and human rights, to show how the different
components of the content are related to one another.
7. Read the text intensively.

• What problem do the writers address here? How do they show the magnitude of the
problem?
• Look for two examples of lists given in the text. What are their functions? How does the
information they contain connect with the main idea?
8. Read the text critically.

• What do you think the main purpose of this text is? What are the writers trying to show
here? What do you think they want the reader to think after reading it?
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• What style of language do they use for their purpose? Can you find any examples of
emotive language (words and phrases meant to evoke an emotional response in the
reader)? Can you find any examples of objective language (language which is not
influenced by personal feelings and opinions)? Why do you think the text uses the kind of
language that you found?
• The writers provide certain statistics. Do you trust that these statistics are correct?
Why/why not?
• Are you convinced by the text’s argument? Why/why not?
1. Prediction
• The title simply states three concepts (“contraception”, “health” and “human rights”).
Based on this, you can expect it to be a factual or informative text. You can expect there
to be a connection between contraception, health, and human rights. Based on what you
know of these concepts, you can probably predict that contraception is necessary for
health, which is a human right.
• The World Health Organization is an agency of the United Nations that focuses on
international public health and provides global leadership in health matters. Based on
this, you can expect the text to either provide factual information that describes a certain
area of healthcare, or to describe a policy that will improve global health.
2. Skimming
• The first sentence tells you that there is a link between contraception and good health for
women and children. The two title concepts mentioned in the first sentence are
“contraception” and “health”.
• The last sentence tells you that access to contraceptive information and services is a
human right. The information is linked semantically to the first sentence, because it also
refers to “contraception”. Contraception has health benefits, therefore access to it is a
human right. The title concepts mentioned in the last sentence are “human rights” and
“contraception”.
• Significant words/phrases: “contraception”, “health”, “unintended pregnancies”, “maternal
and infant deaths”, “pregnancy”, “education”, “employment”, “human rights”, “life”,
“survival”, “information”.
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• The words that are most often repeated are related to the concepts of the title. “Health” is
specified to be “reproductive health”, and specifically the health of women (mothers) and
children (infants). Examples of poor health are given ill health; death; unsafe abortions;
miscarriages; medical complications. “Human rights” are elaborated on, and examples
are given to explain what it means (the first sentence of the last paragraph). The
repeated words indicate the main idea of the text, which is the connection between
contraception, health, and human rights.
3. Scanning
• Keywords/key phrases: “contraception”, “health”, “adolescent girls”, “human rights”,
“sexual and reproductive health issues”.
• The keywords reinforce the main idea of the text (that contraception is important for
health, which is a human right) and provide additional information to support this idea
(e.g., that adolescent girls would benefit most from access to contraception).
• Scanning for specific information will tell you that 1.1 million infant deaths can be
prevented, and that adolescent girls will benefit most from modern contraception
methods.
4. Inference
• You can infer from the title that there is a connection between contraception, health, and
human rights. The connecting word “and” tells you that these three concepts are
probably interdependent. They are neither contrasted, nor do they indicate cause and
effect.
• You can infer from the statistics that the lack of access to modern methods of
contraception is indirectly responsible for the number of unintended pregnancies in
developing countries. You can also infer that unintended pregnancies often lead to
abortions, unsafe abortions, miscarriages, and maternal and infant deaths. You can infer
that these are all examples of ill health.
• The statistics are listed at the beginning of the text to provide background to the
message of the text. It shows the urgency of the message, by first indicating how big the
problem is for which the text is trying to offer a solution.
• From the context of the second paragraph, you can infer that adolescent girls are often
forced to compromise their education and employment if they unintentionally fall
pregnant. You can also infer from the context that if women do not have access to
modern contraception methods, they are more likely to have unintended pregnancies,
which can prevent them from pursuing an education which, in turn, would enable them to
secure well-paying jobs. They might also be unable to keep a job once they become
unintentionally pregnant, thus aggravating poverty.
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5. Summarising
• Essential information: contraception has health benefits
• Supporting detail: the prevention of unintended pregnancies decreases maternal and
infant deaths and ill health; contraception would prevent 54 million unintended
pregnancies, 26 million abortions, seven million miscarriages, 79 000 maternal deaths
and 1.1 million infant deaths
• Essential information: accessible contraception will particularly benefit adolescent girls
• Supporting detail: adolescent girls are at higher risk of medical complications due to
pregnancy; they are more likely to compromise their education and employment due
to unintended pregnancies
• Essential information: access to contraceptive information and services is a human right
• Supporting detail: human rights include the right to non-discrimination; the right to life,
survival and development; the right to the highest attainable standard of health; and
the right to education and information. All these rights are applicable to sexual and
reproductive health issues.
• Summarising each paragraph in one sentence might then look like this: Contraception
has health benefits. Accessible contraception will particularly benefit adolescent girls.
Access to contraceptive information and services is a human right.
• Summarising the main idea of the whole text in one sentence could look like this: Access
to contraception is necessary for good health and is therefore a human right.
6. Paraphrasing
• Paraphrasing the main points of the text could look like this: Access to contraception is
necessary for good health among women and children, especially adolescent girls. The
right to a standard of health that is as high as possible is a human right, along with the
right to information, which makes access to contraception a human right.
7. Intensive reading
• The main problem that the authors address is the lack of a high standard of health
among women (mothers) and children (infants) in developing countries. They show the
magnitude of the problem by listing statistics.
• There is a list in the first paragraph, second sentence, which contains statistics to
illustrate the magnitude of the main problem and show why the need for a solution is
urgent.
• There is another list in the third paragraph, first sentence, which outlines the specific
rights included in the generic term “human rights”, and supports the claim that access to
contraception is a human right.
8. Critical reading
• The purpose of the text is to show the connection between access to contraception and
health benefits, and how these are related to human rights. The writers are trying to
show that access to contraception is a human right, which is what they are trying to
convince the reader of.
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• The language is factual and objective. There are no examples of emotive language. An
example of objective language is: “This situation would particularly benefit adolescent
girls, who are at increased risk for medical complications associated with pregnancy.” It
states a fact, not an opinion. It does not reflect any personal feelings or make use of
emotive language (e.g., expressing outrage, anger, or pity towards adolescent girls). The
reason for using this kind of language is to portray the information as an accurate and
factual report of real events. The authors want to be seen as unbiased and uninfluenced
by their personal beliefs or opinions, as this lends more weight to their conclusions.
• You might trust the statistics because you trust the authority of the World Health
Organization. You might distrust them because you feel the authors did not provide
enough information (e.g., whether the number of deaths is considered per year).
• You might agree with the main argument in the text because you feel it provides enough
supporting information. You might disagree, because you feel there are gaps in the logic
of the argument, or there is insufficient information.
___ I can identify each of the following reading strategies (tick them off):
o prediction
o skimming
o scanning
o inference
o summarising
o paraphrasing
o intensive reading
o critical reading
___ I can apply each of the different reading strategies to a text (tick them off):
o prediction
o skimming
o scanning
o inference
o summarising
o paraphrasing
o intensive reading
o critical reading.
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Reading and Listening Skills Related to Comprehension and Reading

In Unit 3, you were introduced to listening skills. Some listening skills (e.g., trying to pick up
keywords first, to understand the gist of a piece) and re-reading (or re-listening) for detail are
similar to the reading skills already discussed in this unit.
When it comes to improving your reading and listening skills, it is often helpful to practise them
together by listening to a text and reading it at the same time. Receiving the message in
auditory as well as visual form can improve your comprehension. In addition, you might
understand words that are spoken even if you do not recognise their written forms. In this way,
you increase comprehension and learn vocabulary. This especially applies to English, which is
linguistically complex, as the consistency of how written symbols relate to sound is low (see
Chapter 9, ‘Reading Development’, in Wyse et al. (2013:129–130).
Importance of Pronunciation
When you are reading, you should pay attention to spelling in the same way you pay attention
to pronunciation while speaking. Read out loud to practise pronunciation. This will develop your
speaking, listening, and reading skills, by helping you to remember new vocabulary. Poor
pronunciation makes it difficult for listeners to understand you and can cause confusion
between words.
Use of Intonation and Stress

Intonation and the words a speaker chooses to stress contribute to comprehension, as they
indicate the main or important words in a sentence, and how different ideas are related.
Choice and Appropriateness of Vocabulary

In all forms of communication, the content and medium are equally important for the message to
be conveyed successfully and for comprehension to take place. Word choice pertains to the
content of the message: is it clear or does it use ambiguous or vague words? Does it use the
correct words, or words that are often confused? Appropriateness of vocabulary indicates
whether the words used are right for the context. Look at the following two sentences. Which
are examples of dialogue:
- Today, we will discuss the different registers and appropriateness of vocabulary in
different contexts.
- Hayibo, I mean, you cannot just, like, talk however you want any old place, okay?
Which of these is appropriate for addressing a class? Which would only be appropriate when
talking to your friends?
In listening and reading tasks, understanding the author’s choice of vocabulary will help you
determine the kind of text you are reading or listening to, as well as its purpose and aim.
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___ I can explain how reading and listening skills are related to comprehension.
___ I can explain why speech aspects are important in aiding listening skills.
Reading to Develop Writing Skills

You might think that reading is a passive skill, and that you should read only to learn new
information. This is not the case. Developing your reading skills will help to develop your writing
skills. This is because reading is a specific way of communicating language through visual
images, and it shares this visual aspect with writing.
In terms of content, the more you read, the broader your schematic knowledge of a topic
becomes (as discussed in the section on pre-reading). Schematic knowledge is the mental
framework that helps you organise and store new information. The wider this framework is, the
easier it becomes to process and memorise new information. This is why, when you conduct
research in order to write about a topic, you should read many different sources to gain a broad
picture and a deep understanding of the topic.
In academic writing especially, when you are faced with a vast number of resources, reading
strategies such as prediction, skimming and scanning will help you narrow down your source
material to what is relevant. Inference and intensive reading will help you to understand your
material and construct your own argument. Summarising and paraphrasing will help you to write
in a meaningful and concise manner about your source material.
Reading also provides you with models of successful writing. It is only through reading that you
can learn which texts are effective in meeting their goals, and why. Reading will uncover the
tools you need to write a successful piece yourself. There are three important aspects of
reading to develop your writing skills: reading for structure, reading for vocabulary, and reading
to evaluate.
When you read for structure, you can use the skim-reading strategy to summarise the structure
once you have mastered the text. In a non-fiction text, the structure consists of three levels:
1) the text: the introduction (first paragraph), body and conclusion (last paragraph);
2) the paragraph: topic sentence (usually first sentence) and supporting sentences; and
3) the sentence: words that indicate how supporting sentences relate to one another.
Reading a variety of examples will familiarise you with the workings of a clear and effective
structure which you can use in your own work. Reading many examples of prose and poems will
introduce you to a range of tools which you can use in your own creative writing.
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When you read for vocabulary, you should first look for words you do not know, and then look
up their meaning (we will discuss dictionary skills in Unit 6). Pay attention to the context in which
the words are used, and the way they fit into a sentence. This will show you how to use them
correctly. Also look for the ways in which words you do know are used: which prepositions are
used with them? What sentence structure follows them? In which contexts can they be used?
Do they have different meanings in different contexts? The more words you know, the wider
your range of expression will be. After all, you cannot express something for which you do not
know the word.
Pay attention to the kind of language used in different texts. This will help you to develop your
knowledge of register use (the tone and style, whether it is formal or informal). The kind of
language used in a blog post, for example, is not appropriate for an academic essay, and the
style of an academic essay is not appropriate for a poem.
Lastly, you need to read to evaluate. This is related to the intensive and critical reading
strategies discussed in this chapter. While and after reading a text, you should ask yourself
whether the text was successful in its purpose. Was it easy to understand or ambiguous? Did
the writer follow a clear, logical structure or were the arguments muddled? Did the writer
express him/herself well, or were you unclear about the message of the text? Did you enjoy
reading the work? Did it have an emotional impact? Did the text paint a clear picture of the
message it aimed to convey?
By reading to evaluate, you will discover a list of DOs and DONTs in writing. The goal of a text
is to communicate, and if it fails to do so effectively, you should be able to discover why, to
avoid repeating those mistakes in your own writing. Likewise, if a text communicates effectively,
you should understand what exactly it is that makes it effective, so you can emulate this in your
own writing.
In the end, you cannot write if you do not read, and, conversely, practising writing will help you
to read, because you will know what to look for in a text.
Self-reflective Question
Answer yes or no to the following question. If you answer no, review the part of this unit that
deals with that topic and deepen your understanding of it.
___ I can explain how reading skills can help to develop my writing skills.
Conclusion
In this study unit, we focused on reading as a form of communication that uses visual images
(letters) to convey meaning. We saw that successful reading cannot take place without
comprehension, or without making meaning out of what is read. Even though reading is a
complex process involving visual decoding, it is a skill that can easily be improved through
practice.
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This unit detailed different aspects of the reading process that can guide you to develop your
reading skills and optimise learning from it. Different reading strategies were presented that can
be learned as an array of tools which are useful for extracting meaning from a text, and
simultaneously aid in developing your writing skills.
References
Head, B. (1977). The collector of treasures: and other Botswana village tales. London:
Heinemann.
Mtshali, M.O. (1995). ‘An Abandoned Bundle’ in Malan, R. Poetry works 1: A workbook for
students and teachers. Cape Town: David Phillip.
WHO (World Health Organization). (2014). Ensuring Human Rights in the Provision of
Contraceptive Information and Services. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/102539/
1/9789241506748_eng.pdf Date of access: 15 Feb. 2018.
Glossary
comprehension is the understanding of what a word, phrase or text means.
genre describes the type or category of a text based on its style and purpose.
intonation is the way in which the voice rises or falls when speaking, using a higher or lower
pitch.
paraphrasing involves expressing the main idea of a text in different words.
prediction entails using reasoning to guess the likely outcome of something based on partial
information. In reading practice, prediction involves determining the content of a text based on
key information such as the title, author or genre.
pronunciation is the way in which a word is spoken out loud. It refers to a speech sound, in
which the correct pronunciation adheres to certain standards.
scanning involves reading a text quickly, to locate specific information.
skimming involves reading a text quickly, to gain an overview of its content.
stress is the way a word or phrase is emphasised in spoken language, usually by using a
louder volume, speaking more slowly or leaving pauses.
summarising involves stating the main ideas of a text in short and simple language.
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vocabulary encompasses the collection of words used about a certain topic or in a particular
context.
Complete these questions to assess whether you have mastered the outcomes of this unit:
1. Identify two aspects of the reading process. (2)

2. Define ‘language comprehension’. (2)
3. Explain ‘background knowledge’ or ‘schematic knowledge’. Why is it important to activate
this knowledge during the pre-reading process? (2)
4. List three goals of pre-reading activities. (3)
5. What does it mean to read actively? (2)
6. List two goals of post-reading activities. (3)
7. Identify two aspects of a text that you use for prediction as pre-reading strategy.
(2)
8. Compare skimming and scanning as reading strategies. Provide one similarity and one
difference between them. (3)
9. Define ‘inference’. (2)
10. Identify the two kinds of information you have to distinguish when writing a summary.
(2)
11. Explain what it means to ‘paraphrase’. (1)
12. Discuss the following statement: ‘Intensive reading is about more than just understanding
the content.’ (3)
13. List four components of critical reading. (4)
14. Give one reason why pronunciation is important when reading. (1)
15. Explain the importance of intonation and stress for comprehension. (2)
16. Explain what is meant by ‘the appropriateness of vocabulary’. (2)
17. Write a paragraph of three to five sentences on the following topic: ‘Reading develops
writing skills.’ (3)
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Feedback on Self-Assessment Questions
1. Identify two aspects of the reading process. (2)
Word recognition OR decoding OR visual image interpretation✓
Language comprehension✓
2. Define ‘language comprehension’. (2)

Language comprehension refers to understanding what a word or phrase✓ means.✓
3. Explain ‘background knowledge’ or ‘schematic knowledge’. Why is it important to activate

this knowledge during the pre-reading process? (2)
It is the mental system according to which existing information is organised and new
information is stored, OR It is the existing information you have about a topic.✓
Activating your schematic knowledge helps you understand and retain new information
more easily, OR Activating your schematic knowledge makes you more receptive to new
information.✓
4. List three goals of pre-reading activities. (3)

Any three of the following:
• It introduces you to the text.
• It sets strategies for the reading of the text.
• It prepares you for what you are about to read.
• It makes you more receptive.
• It makes it easier for you to understand the text.
5. What does it mean to read actively? (2)

Reading actively involves interacting and engaging with the text✓ in order to construct
meaning.✓
6. List two goals of post-reading activities. (3)

It establishes or tests your understanding of the text.✓
It helps you process the information obtained from the text (to organise, store and retain
it).✓
7. Identify two aspects of a text that you use for prediction as pre-reading strategy. (2)
Any two of the following:
• Title
• Heading
• Keywords
• Themes
• Front cover
• Blurb
• Diagrams or pictures
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8. Compare skimming and scanning as reading strategies. Provide one similarity and one
difference between them. (3)
Both are rapid reading strategies.✓
Skimming focuses on the main ideas or general overview of a text,✓ while scanning
locates specific information in the text.✓
9. Define ‘inference’. (2)

Inference is when you deduce information that was not explicitly provided✓ by interpreting
other contextual information.✓
10. Identify the two kinds of information you have to distinguish when writing a summary.
(2)
Essential/important information✓
Supporting/non-essential information/detail✓
11. Explain what it means to ‘paraphrase’. (1)

To paraphrase is to express or write something in your own words.✓
12. Discuss the following statement: ‘Intensive reading is about more than just understanding
the content.’ (3)
Any three of the following points:
Intensive reading aims for in-depth understanding. You need to engage with and reflect on
the text. You need to understand how the text is structured and how its different
components are connected. When you read intensively, you need to pay attention to the
style of the text. You need to think about why it was written in a certain way. You need to
understand how the writer uses style and content to fulfil the purpose of the text.
13. List four components of critical reading. (4)

Interpretation,✓ reflection,✓ evaluation,✓ response✓
14. Give one reason why pronunciation is important when reading. (1)
Either one of the following:
• It can help you remember new vocabulary.
• Poor pronunciation can cause confusion between words.
15. Explain the importance of intonation and stress for comprehension. (2)
Using intonation to stress certain words shows which words are important.✓ It also shows
how different ideas are related.✓
16. Explain what is meant by ‘the appropriateness of vocabulary’. (2)

Appropriateness of vocabulary indicates whether the words used are correct or suited✓ for
the context, aim, genre and purpose of the text.✓
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Write a paragraph of three to five sentences on the following topic: ‘Reading develops writing
skills.’ (3)
Example:
Reading develops writing skills because reading and writing are both visual forms of language
communication. Reading provides you with a broader general knowledge and deeper
understanding of any topic you have to write about. When you are doing research for
writing, reading strategies can help you gather information more quickly and efficiently.
Reading provides you with models of successful writing that you can emulate. In addition,
reading familiarises you with the effective use of structure in writing, and can also teach
you new vocabulary and how to use it.
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UNIT 5: WRITING AND COMPREHENSION

Outcomes
• define successful writing.

• explain the function and purpose of pre-, while- and post-writing strategies and how to
use them to communicate successfully.
• apply pre-, while- and post-writing activities to write a text.
• identify and differentiate different genres of writing, along with their particular
characteristics.
• explain how the characteristics of a genre are related to its purpose.
• explain what it means to write critically and apply critical thinking skills to your own
writing.
• explain the relationship between comprehension, and writing and listening skills; and
• explain the importance of pronunciation, appropriateness of vocabulary, and the use of
intonation and stress in relation to writing skills.
Introduction
In Unit 4, we focused on reading as a receptive aspect of written language communication. You
learned how to look critically at the ways in which a text conveys its message to the reader.
Through developing your reading skills, you should by now already have an idea of the various
tools available to a writer and how you can apply them to communicate successfully.
Read the following sections in Wyse et al. (2013:205–211): in Chapter 16, the
introduction, ‘Cognitive Models of Writing’, ‘The Writing Environment’ and ‘Towards
Conventional Writing’.
This unit will guide you through the next step: the productive aspect of written language. It will
aid you in developing your writing skills and gaining competence and confidence. Just like
reading to acquire knowledge is an essential part of education, writing is of critical importance.
Throughout your academic career, you will use writing to express your knowledge. Educators
often use written assignments to test their students’ understanding of a topic or subject. Being
able to write well will ensure that you can express your mastery of a subject in an effective
manner.
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Like reading, writing is about more than education. It is a way to participate in human culture
and meaning making, to interact with the world and make your mark on it. Think about your
daily life and the regular activities in it. When do you use writing or typing? What do you use it
for? What activities would be impossible for someone who never learned how to write?
Writing is a complex productive process because it involves knowledge of verbal language,

visual expression, as well as physical fine motor skills (used when writing by hand or typing).
‘Working memory’ is a function of the brain that integrates all of these areas of knowledge and
is very important for language production. It consists of three parts:
1) a phonological part, where verbal information is stored (which has to do with speech
sounds and how they represent meaning).
2) a visuospatial part (which has to do with the visual perception of spatial relations between
visual objects, like letters or words); and
3) an executive part (which controls and regulates the other two parts) (see ‘Cognitive
Models of Writing’, in Chapter 16 of Wyse et al. (2013:208).
You can understand the phonological and visuospatial aspects of working memory as being
involved in the two parts of the writing process: first, you need to translate ideas into words
(phonological), and then translate the words into the visual signs of writing (visuospatial) as you
type or write by hand.
In the first part of this unit, we will analyse the steps of the writing process: from gathering ideas
to revising the finished product. In the second part, we will discuss different genres of writing,
along with their characteristics and purposes. Next, we will explore critical skills with which to
approach the writing process. Lastly, we will examine the connection between listening skills,
writing skills and comprehension, the ways in which they inform one another, and how to use
them to develop one another.
Read the rest of Chapter 16, from the section titled ‘The Teaching of Writing’ to the
end of the chapter (Wyse et al., 2013:211–225).
The Writing Process
Look at Table 16.4 in Wyse et al., 2013:212). The composition part of writing involves gathering
ideas and selecting words. This corresponds to the pre-writing or planning strategies, while
transcription refers to the while-writing part, which is the physical effort of writing and using
grammar to construct a text (although you would check grammar correctness specifically during
post-writing). During post-writing, you revise and edit. This is when you check your spelling
and grammar, capitalisation, punctuation and paragraphs for legibility and correctness. Post-
writing is part of transcription, as the success of a piece of writing is tested in terms of how well
it communicates a massage. The correct use of language is crucial for an effective message.
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You will see that writing is usually inspired by a stimulus. The example in the section on
‘Creative Writing’ (Wyse et al., 2013:214) refers to creative or expressive writing. In factual
writing, the stimulus can be a topic or subject to write about (usually formulated as a question),
and your writing will be a response to the topic or your answer to the question. In any kind of
writing, stimulation is important as a way of engaging with a topic. This is a vital part of the pre-
writing process, and there are strategies that can help you generate ideas from a stimulus.
Read the following text from the the South African National Aids Council (SANAC) on
addressing social factors to aid in preventing HIV infections. It will serve as your stimulus for the
writing activities in this section.
Feedback on the activities is included after each activity. Note that these are only suggestions;
there are no right or wrong answers. The goal of this feedback is to provide you with an
example of what is expected of you.
Social and structural factors such as poverty, inequality, inadequate access to quality
education, poor nutrition, migration, gender inequality, gender-based violence, and
alcohol and drug use increase vulnerability to HIV. These factors impact health-
seeking behaviour and adherence to prescribed treatment and prevention regimens.
The basic education sector has a unique role, as it contains almost all the nation’s
children in 12-year cycles that bridge the most vulnerable years of their lives. More
than sexuality education, the greatest contribution that the basic education sector can
make is to provide quality education, particularly for girls.
Source: Adapted from SANAC (2017:27)
Pre-writing
You will see there are different approaches to planning writing. Some writers prefer a tight
structure, planning their text in detail before writing. Others prefer a looser structure and just
start writing, letting their ideas form while they write. There is no right or wrong way to start
writing. What is important is that any piece of writing needs to be revised and edited afterwards.
Here are strategies to generate ideas for writing:
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• Brainstorming
Brainstorming involves writing down as many ideas or words about your chosen topic as you
can, as quickly as possible. You can jot them down randomly, or as a list with commas, or even
as bullet points. Let your thoughts roam free and use association to come up with words. The
reason for doing this quickly, is to stimulate your creativity and prevent you from getting a
mental block by concentrating on doing it ‘right’. Do not worry about spelling or coherence at
this point, and do not ignore or discard any idea that comes to mind.
Once you have jotted down many words or idea phrases, organise the ones you find useful into
groups that are related to one another. Pick a word or phrase that summarises each group, as
these will make up the themes or sub-topics of your main topic.
Example
Think about the poem you read in the previous unit, Mbuyiseni Oswald Mtshali’s ‘An abandoned
bundle’. If you have to write about the social issues referred to in this poem, brainstorming could
result in the following words through free association: city, smoke, dirty, pollution, garbage, stray
dogs, danger, violence, rubbish heaps, abandoned baby, mother, poverty, unplanned
pregnancy, abortion, childcare, healthcare.
When you organise these into themes, you might come up with the following:
Pollution: city, smoke, dirty, air pollution, garbage, rubbish heaps (possible disease, lack of
municipal services)
Stray animals: stray dogs, violence
Poverty: abandoned baby, mother, unplanned pregnancy, lack of abortion facilities, lack of
child-/healthcare
Note how some of the ideas (e.g., ‘rubbish heaps’) were expanded on (also, ‘abortion facilities’,
‘child-/healthcare’), to show how they fit the theme.
Activity
• Re-read the text by SANAC on preventing HIV infections. Use the reading strategies you
learnt in Unit 4 to identify main ideas and keywords in the text.
• You are preparing to write an essay on the following topic: The importance of education
in helping to prevent HIV. Use free association and write down as many ideas or words
on the topic, as quickly as you can. You may use words from the text.
• Here are some questions to help you think of more ideas:
- What do you feel about the topic?
- How do you think the factors that are mentioned increase people’s vulnerability to
HIV?
- Do you agree that education is important to help prevent HIV infections?
- How does education help people understand health in general and efforts to prevent
the spread of HIV in particular?
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- What do you understand “quality education” to be?

- What are the benefits of education in general?
- Which of the other factors mentioned in the text (poverty, gender inequality) are
related to education?
- Why do you think the education of girls in particular is important?
- Why do you think the school years are the most vulnerable of a child’s life?
• Select the words or idea phrases that you think will be useful in writing about The
importance of education in helping to prevent HIV.
• Organise them into groups of words that are related to one another.
• Look at each group and pick a word or phrase that can serve as the main idea or title of
the group – these will become the themes or sub-topics of your main topic.
In the next activities, you will be building on the words and themes you brainstormed, to plan
and outline your essay.
Brainstorming words
education = social/structural factor; education = information about prevention; inequality =
unequal educational opportunities for boys/girls; lack of education = lack of jobs = poverty;
information about gender-based violence; sexual violence; people should know their rights (e.g.,
consensual sex in marriage, reporting domestic abuse); education empowers; poverty =
desperate measures (e.g., migration; sex work); young children more impressionable; education
= formative years; education = good job opportunities & economic stability; education = health
knowledge overall
• Themes
Information: how to stay healthy in general; how to prevent HIV infections; what is gender-
based violence and how to prevent it; what are your rights
Employment opportunities: economic stability; prevent poverty; prevent migration; prevent

sex work; gender equality
Focus on children: formative years influence adulthood; vulnerable to poor decisions, violence
and exploitation
• Free writing
Free writing is similar to brainstorming but employs sentences rather than words or phrases.
Free writing, which is used to develop a flow of ideas, can serve as a warm-up exercise. You
can use it after brainstorming, or as a strategy by itself. At this point, you should not focus on
grammar or correctness. You can use the first person, if you want. Just jot down your
impressions or your response to the stimulus.
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Example
The poem is set in a city. It seems dangerous. The author uses ugly metaphors, such as pus
flowing from a sore. The city is disgusting. It smothers people. There are dangerous dogs
around. They scavenge and have fangs. A baby is abandoned on a rubbish heap. Its mother
has left it. I don’t know why she did it. Maybe she was too poor to afford raising a baby. She is
innocent and pure. The poet doesn’t blame her. He understands why she did it.
Activity
• Re-read the text by SANAC on preventing the spread of HIV. Remember that you are
preparing to write an essay on the following topic: The importance of education in
helping to prevent HIV.
• Take another look at the words and ideas you brainstormed. Now use full sentences and
write down your impressions and ideas in response to the text and the topic. You can
write in the first person and use informal language if you wish.
I agree that education is important to help prevent HIV infections. A lack of education can lead
to poverty. Poverty causes poor nutrition, which makes it hard for people to be healthy. Poverty
also makes people do desperate things, for example sex work. If you are not educated you
might not know how to keep healthy and prevent becoming infected with HIV. If you are
uneducated, you will have fewer job opportunities and lack economic stability. This can lead to
job migration and being cut off from your community. If you are lonely and don’t have support, it
might lead to high-risk behaviour. People need to be educated about gender-based violence,
because sexual violence can spread HIV. All people should know their rights. Gender inequality
contributes to the spread of HIV, because women are often victims of domestic and sexual
violence. If women are seen as equal to men they will be more independent and won’t have to
tolerate abusive behaviour just because they cannot afford to leave a relationship. We need to
focus on girls’ education because they don’t always have the same opportunities as boys. They
need to be just as well educated, to understand that they are equal to boys. The years of a
child’s life up to 18 is when they learn most about the world. This is when they learn how to
behave. If they are educated about HIV and related human rights (e.g., gender equality), they
will make better choices now and as adults. Children are more vulnerable to violence and
exploitation. They need to know their rights and where to find help.
• Clustering
This strategy, which is also called mind-mapping, focuses on exploring the connection between
ideas. Clustering can help you generate ideas, but it is especially helpful for developing a
structure in respect of what you want to say.
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To use this strategy, first select a single main idea. You can use a keyword from your stimulus,
or keywords from your brainstorming or free writing. Write this main word or phrase in the centre
of a sheet of paper. Write ideas around it and draw lines to show which ideas are connected to
what. This will help you understand what points to make to support your argument, which ideas
to group together in one paragraph, and how the different main points should follow on one
another.
Example
Activity
• Take another look at the ideas you brainstormed, as well as keywords from your free
writing.
• Select a single main idea. Remember that your topic is: The importance of education
in helping to prevent HIV. What word or phrase will be the focus of your essay? Write
this idea in the centre of your page.
• Now write down the ideas (themes or subtopics) that are related to your main idea
around it. Draw lines to show how concepts are connected.
• Write down examples and details to support your ideas. Draw lines to show which ideas
they are connected to.
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• Outlining
When you make an outline for a piece that you are going to write, make notes on the structure
and indicate what you want to say, where. The reading skills you developed in Unit 4 will help
you here, as you already know what to expect from an introduction, body and conclusion.
Look at the section titled ‘Writing Frames’ in Chapter 17 of Wyse et al. (2013:233–235), about
using ‘writing frames’ as an aid for outlining ideas. Look at the example given on p. 234. How
does it correspond with the structure of an introduction, body and conclusion? Pay attention to
the connectives provided on p. 235, as these can be helpful in organising your ideas into a
coherent argument.
Here is the typical structure of an academic essay:
1) Introduction
- background or context
- main topic or thesis statement
- indication of the structure of the essay
2) Body
- Argument 1
- Argument 2
- Argument 3
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3) Conclusion
The background or context introduces the reader to the topic. It provides background
information, explains, or defines important terms, and states why the topic is important. If you
are writing about a poem, novel, or play, it is important to provide the title of the text and the
name of the writer as part of your background information.
The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay is about. It is your main topic stated in a
full sentence, for example: This essay discusses the social issues addressed in ‘An abandoned
bundle’.
The indication of the structure of the essay tells the reader what your main arguments are.
For example: The social problems of pollution, stray animals, poverty and unplanned pregnancy
will be discussed. Or: First, I will look at pollution as a social problem. Second, the issue of stray
animals will be examined. Lastly, I will discuss poverty and unplanned pregnancy.
The arguments that make up the body of your essay are your main ideas. They contain the
proof for your thesis statement and the reasons for why you are making that statement. For
example, if your thesis statement is: The poem ‘An abandoned bundle’ addresses different
social issues, then your arguments will explain why you say this.
Lastly, your conclusion repeats the thesis statement of your essay. For example: In
conclusion, this essay has shown that different social issues are addressed by the poem ‘An
abandoned bundle’. It also gives a brief summary of the ideas you discussed in the body of
your essay, for example: From the discussion in this essay, it is clear that Oswald Mtshali
responded effectively to the social issues of pollution, stray animals, poverty and unplanned
pregnancy in his poem. You can follow this with a final, concluding statement, for example:
For this reason, ‘An abandoned bundle’ is a good example of socially involved poetry.
You can also make your outline after writing if you prefer. This will mean looking at your first
draft and noting the important ideas and deciding whether they are in the right place, or where
they should go instead. You can then draw up your outline based on your draft and rework your
draft to make the structure clearer.
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Example
Introduction — 1) background: circumstances when poem was written, location,

city living in general
thesis statement: ‘An abandoned bundle’ addresses different
social issues
indication of structure
Body — 2) pollution
3) stray animals
4) poverty/unplanned pregnancy
Conclusion — 5) restate main idea; summarise main points of the body
Here is an example of an outline for writing about the poem ‘An abandoned bundle’.
Activity
• By now you should have the following:
- A main idea that is connected to the topic of your essay. You will state this in your
introduction, along with some background or context to explain it.
- At least three themes or subtopics that are related to your main idea (the body of
your essay).
• Now make notes on the following:

- Introduction:
What background or context will you give your topic? This should introduce the reader to
the topic and tell them what it is about, and why it is important.
How will you phrase your thesis statement?
What will you include in the indication of the essay’s structure?
- Body:
List three or four main points you want to make about the topic.
- Conclusion:
Remember to restate the main idea.
Give a summary of your main arguments.
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Introduction — 1) background: what is HIV; why should it be prevented?
thesis statement: education is important for prevention
structure the essay will take
Body — 2) Information:
people should be informed about health, HIV and gender-based
violence
3) Employment:
leads to economic stability; aids gender equality
4) Children
school years are formative, children are vulnerable
Conclusion 5) Summary of why education is important for HIV prevention
• Critical reading and thinking

When you write a report or academic essay, part of your pre-writing process is to read your
sources very critically. Make use of the reading strategies you learned in the previous unit.
When writing about a poem or short story, use close reading to develop an argument about the
text. When writing about a factual topic, critically read your source material and evaluate it for
substance and accuracy. When writing a creative piece, think critically about what message you
want to convey or what theme you want to address. Do you want your poem to be sad or
soothing? Do you want your short story to develop the themes of youth and old age?
While-writing
In your pre-writing activities, you should have established what you want to say. Now, it is time
to put it into words and onto paper (or a computer screen!). Do not worry about your writing
being perfect at this stage, as you will still revise and edit it afterwards.
While you are writing, keep in mind that you are writing for a reader. What you are doing is an
act of communication, and it is your task to convey your message clearly. Try to put yourself in
the reader’s place and organise your thoughts to make it easy for the reader to understand. Use
only one main idea per paragraph and use clear and concise language.
More specifically, keep in mind the audience for whom you are writing. Are you writing for
children, for a teacher, or for your peers? This will influence your tone (formal or informal,
friendly, or professional) and the level of difficulty. Your intended audience is also related to the
purpose of your writing: are you writing to inform, persuade or evoke emotion? This will likewise
influence your tone, as well as your choice of words (e.g., you would not use informal slang in
an academic essay, or overly stiff and formal language in a blog). You should be conscious of
your purpose while writing, to make your voice and intention clear. Afterwards, you will again
consider these aspects when you revise, to make sure that you have succeeded in the purpose
of your writing.
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Activity
Write the first draft of the essay you prepared for during the pre-writing activities. It should be at
least five paragraphs in length.
Keep in mind that a ‘first draft’ means it is the first or preliminary version – it is not meant to be
perfect, but it gives you the rough material to work with when you revise and edit. The ‘final
draft’ will be the end result or the final product that is ready to be read by others.
For now, just concentrate on writing down all of your ideas. If you make good use of your outline
now, it will save you trouble later. Note that your essay should be at least five paragraphs in
length. This means you should devote at least one paragraph to each main point listed in your
outline. Your introduction and conclusion should never be more than one paragraph each. This
leaves three paragraphs for the body of your essay. Make sure that you do not address more
than one main idea per paragraph. This will ensure that your paragraph is cohesive, and that
your main line of argumentation is easy to follow.
Below is an example of a first draft essay on the topic The importance of education in
FIRST DRAFT:
(Please note that this is NOT the final draft. It still contains mistakes and errors that will
be corrected during the post-writing revision and editing. The purpose is to show you the
stages of the writing process, and the importance of post-writing revision and editing.
NEVER SUBMIT A FIRST DRAFT FOR AN ASSIGNMENT!).
The spread of HIV is a big problem in South Africa. HIV (Human Immunodefiency Virus) is the
virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiencty Syndrom). There is no cure. The illnes
AIDS have a negative impact on people's lives. According to SANAC (2018) 9.2% of youth
between the ages of 15 and 24 was HIV positive in 2016. One of the best ways to prevent it is
to prioritise education.
This information should be about health in general, especially sexuually transmitted diseases
like HIV and safe sexual practices. Being educated will also give people knowledge about social
problems that put people at risk for HIV, such as gender-based violence. People need to know
what their rights are. More knowledge will help people to keep themselves save from risk. When
people are education, it is easier for them to get information, because they have more
knowledge and for example because they can read pamphlets.
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Poverty, migration, and sex work are factors with increased risk for HIV. Quality education is
also linked to economic stability, because more and better-paid jobs will be available to
someone who is educated. Economic stability prevent poverty, migration, and sex work. Good
employment opportunities will also ensure greater gender equality, which means women are
less likely to fall pray to abusive situations because they are not independent. If women are
financially independent, they will have more choice over their lives and thier bodies and they
can avoid risks for HIV.
Education is also important because almost all the children in South Africa has to complete 12
years of basic education until they are 18 years old. The behaviour and skills that is learned in
this time will be influence their behaviour as adults. They should learn good skills in this time. If
children are taught their rights and given information about HIV at this stage, they will be able to
avoid the risks.
Education provides people with knowledge they need to keep themselves safe. It also leads to
good employment opportunities and economic stability, which empowers people not to have to
take desperate measures for a livelihood that put them at risk for HIV. Focusing on children
during the 12 years of basic education means informing and empowering them during the
formative years of their lives when they are most vulnerable to HIV risks.
Reference:
SANAC (The South African National AIDS Council) (2018). Latest HIV statistics.
ivizard.org/sanac/viz Date of access: 1 March 2018.
Post-writing
Many students ignore the post-writing process and hand in the first drafts of their assignments.
However, to communicate the message of your writing effectively, post-writing is crucial. This
phase consists of two components: revision and editing.
Revision entails making changes to the content and structure of your written piece. When it
comes to revising content, you should make sure that your writing responds properly and
completely to the topic. Do you provide enough information? Are all your facts correct? Does
your writing answer the question that it is responding to? (This can be either an assignment
question or a question you formulated yourself, about your subject.) Do you repeat yourself
unnecessarily? Is everything clear and coherent? Does the text leave you wondering or
confused, or does it make sense? When you re-read your writing for revision, you need to read
with a critical eye. Try to read as if you were seeing it for the first time. Does your writing say
what you want it to?
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You will also make structural revisions. If you drafted an outline as part of your pre-reading
activities, go back to that outline and make sure that you included everything in your writing. If
you are only making an outline now, you need to ensure that you have a clear introduction,
body and conclusion. Does your introduction tell the reader what to expect from the rest of the
piece? Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence, and does it contain only one main
idea? Does your conclusion summarise your main argument?
Once you are sure your content and structure are in place, you should move on to editing. This
involves grammar and spelling. Look at each sentence separately: is it a complete sentence?
Does it make sense on its own? Did you use the correct tense? Are you consistent in your tense
use? Did you use the correct form of words? Did you use words correctly (e.g., easily confused
words)? Did you use articles correctly? Did you use concord correctly? (Unit 6 will focus in more
detail on these common mistakes.)
Read Chapter 20 in Wyse et al. (1982).
This chapter deals with the importance of punctuation. As the final step of writing, you must
check your spelling, capitalisation, and punctuation – especially the use of commas.
Here is a checklist for editing:

✓ complete sentences
✓ tense
✓ correct word forms
✓ correct words in context
✓ articles
✓ concord
✓ spelling
✓ capitalisation
✓ punctuation
You will see that revision and editing work downwards, from the largest level (content and
structure) to the smallest. This ensures that you do not waste time spell-checking a section that
you may have to cut because of structure or having to re-check your grammar because you
ended up adding sentences for content!
Activity
Re-read your writing. Start by making notes on the content and structure (just as you did in the
previous unit’s reading activities). Once you are satisfied that your writing responds fully and
accurately to your topic, edit it for grammar and spelling.
During the revision process, you can add content to clarify some of the information and provide
supporting detail to illustrate your main points. When you do a structural revision, look critically
at each paragraph, and make sure that it addresses only one main idea and has a clear topic
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sentence. You might have to move some of your sentences around to improve the flow of your
paragraph. You can also add more signposting language to make the logical progression of
your ideas clearer.
Here is an example of a second revised draft on the topic The importance of education in
Revision:
(These are the changes to the content and the structure. Sentences that are struck through
are ones that were moved to improve the structure and flow of the paragraph. Sentences in red
are ones that were added to improve the content.
Please note that this draft still includes spelling and grammar mistakes. They will be corrected
during editing.)
SECOND DRAFT:
The spread of HIV is a big problem in South Africa. HIV (Human Immunodefiency Virus) is the
virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiencty Syndrom). There is no cure. The illnes
AIDS have a negative impact on people's lives. According to SANAC (2018) 9.2% of youth
between the ages of 15 and 24 was HIV positive in 2016. The spread of HIV is a big problem in
South Africa.There is no cure. The illnes AIDS have a negative impact on people's lives. One of
the best ways to prevent HIV/AID is to prioritise education. In this essay, I will discuss how the
spread of information, employment opportunities, and reaching children are the benefits of
education that can help prevent the spread of HIV.
When people are education, it is easier for them to get information, because they have more
knowledge and for example because they can read pamphlets. This information should be
about health in general, especially sexuually transmitted diseases like HIV and safe sexual
practices. It should also be about HIV specifically: how it is transmitted, how it can be
prevented, and what treatments options there are. Being educated will also give people
knowledge about social problems that put people at risk for HIV, such as gender-based
violence. People need to know what their rights are, for example that, just because you are
married, it is illegal for your spouse to force you to have sex against your will. More knowledge
will help people to keep themselves save from risk. When people are education, it is easier for
them to get information, because they have more knowledge and for example because they can
read pamphlets.
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Poverty, migration, and sex work are factors with increased risk for HIV. Quality education is
also linked to economic stability, because more and better-paid jobs will be available to
someone who is educatied. Economic stability prevent poverty, migration, and sex work.
Poverty, migration, and sex work are factors with increased risk for HIV. Good employment
opportunities will also ensure greater gender equality, which means women are less likely to fall
pray to abusive situations because they are not independent. If women are financially
independent, they will have more choice over their lives and thier bodies and they can avoid
risks for HIV.
Education is also important because almost all the children in South Africa has to complete 12
years of basic education until they are 18 years old. The behaviour and skills that is learned in
this time will be influence their behaviour as adults. They should learn good skills in this time.
These are also the years when they are most vulnerable for unprotected sex that can lead to
teenage pregnancies, as well as violence and exploitattion, because they are not independent
but depend on older people to look after them. If children are taught their rights and given
information about HIV at this stage, they will be able to avoid the risks.
In the end, education is very important to help prevent the spread of HIV. Education provides
people with knowledge they need to keep themselves safe. It also leads to good employment
opportunities and economic stability, which empowers people not to have to take desperate
measures for a livelihood that put them at risk for HIV. Focusing on children during the 12 years
of basic education means informing and empowering them during the formative years of their
lives when they are most vulnerable to HIV risks.
Reference:
When it comes to editing, it might help to read through your draft a few times, picking one
language aspect to focus on during each reading. First, look at your sentence structure and
grammar. Are all of your sentences complete and grammatically correct? Do they read easily,
and say what you want them to say? The next time you read through your writing, focus on
word choice and spelling. Have you used the correct words in every sentence? Are they spelled
correctly? Read your writing once more, this time paying attention to punctuation. Do you have
capital letters at the beginning of sentences and proper nouns? Does each sentence end with a
full stop (or punctuation mark)? Is your comma use correct? Are your quotation marks in the
correct places?
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Now read your essay one final time. You might still find something you overlooked!
Below is an example of a third edited draft on the topic The Importance of education in
Editing:
(These are corrections to sentence structure, word choice, grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
The words that were spelled incorrectly or were in the wrong form in the first and second drafts
are now in bold to show the correct spelling. Where words have been changed for clarity or
improved sentence structure, they are highlighted. Changes to punctuation are underlined.
Additional signposting language is written in italics.)
DO NOT SKIP THIS STEP IN YOUR OWN WRITING!)
FINAL DRAFT:
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes AIDS (Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome). According to SANAC (2018) 9.2% of the youth in Gauteng
between the ages of 15 and 24 was already HIV positive in 2016. The spread of HIV is a major
concern in South Africa, as there is no cure, and the consequent illness AIDS has a negative
impact on people's lives. One of the best ways to prevent HIV/AIDS is to prioritise education. In
this essay, I will discuss how the spread of information, improved employment opportunities,
and reaching children are the benefits of education that can help to prevent the spread of HIV.
When people are educated, they will be more knowledgeable, in addition to being able to read,
which makes information more accessible to them. The information to help prevent HIV should
be about health in general, especially sexually transmitted diseases like HIV, and safe sexual
practices. It should also be about HIV in particular: how it is transmitted, how it can be
prevented, and what the treatments options are. Being educated will also give people
knowledge about social problems that put people at risk for HIV, such as gender-based
violence. People need to know what their rights are. To name one example: even if a couple is
married, it is illegal for one spouse to force the other to have sex against their will. Having more
information will help people to keep themselves safe from risk.
In addition to access to information, quality education is also linked to economic stability. More
and better-paid jobs will be available to someone who is educated. Economic stability prevents
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poverty, and as a result also migration and sex work. These are all factors associated with an
increased risk for HIV. Good employment opportunities will moreover ensure greater gender
equality, which means that women would be less likely to fall prey to abusive situations
because they lack independence. In contrast, if women are financially independent, they will
have more choice over their lives and their bodies and they will be better able to avoid risks for
HIV.
Education is also important because almost all the children in South Africa are required to
complete 12 years of basic education, until they are 18 years old. The behaviour that is learned
in this time will prescribe their behaviour as adults, and they should be taught sufficient life skills
while at school. These are also the years when children are most vulnerable, for example for
unprotected sex that can lead to teenage pregnancies, as well as violence and exploitation,
because they depend on older people to look after them. If children are taught their rights and
given information about HIV at this stage, they will be better able to avoid the risks.
In the end, education is very important to help prevent the spread of HIV. Education provides
people with the knowledge they need to keep themselves safe. It also ensures good
employment opportunities and economic stability, which empower people so they do not have
to take desperate measures for a livelihood that will put them at risk for HIV. Lastly, focusing on
children during the 12 years of basic education means protecting and empowering them during
the formative years of their lives when they are most vulnerable to HIV risks.
Reference:
____ I can explain what successful writing is.
____ I can use pre-writing activities to prepare for writing a text.
____ I can use while-writing activities to help me write a text.
____ I can use post-writing activities to revise and edit my writing.
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Writing for Purpose and Genre

By now you should understand why the purpose of a text is such an important part of
comprehension and production. In Unit 4, we looked at the purpose of a text to help you make
meaning from it when you read. You saw that each genre of text has its own characteristics that
are linked to its purpose, because writers use style and content to convey their messages with a
certain intention. In this section, we will look at different genres of text, along with their purpose
and style characteristics, so that you can learn how to write them yourself.
Dialogue
Look at the example of dialogue, titled ‘A Short Case Study’, in Chapter 8 of Wyse et
al. (2013:114–116).
A dialogue is a written representation of a conversation between two or more people. (A play is

mostly written in dialogue form.) What can you say about its typographical form (the way the
print is arranged on the page)? Does it use formal or informal language?
Since dialogue represents spoken language, it is usually less formal than other genres of
writing. Examples of informal language are slang (‘okay’; ‘alright’; ‘stuff’) and contractions (‘let’s’;
‘you’ve’; ‘it’s’). It also makes use of interjections and exclamations, like ‘Well!’ and ‘Oh!’. You will
also notice that dialogue mostly uses shorter sentences than formal writing, and sometimes
even features incomplete sentences.
Run-on sentences are another form of informal, spoken language. These sentences incorrectly
join two or more clauses, for example: ‘My wife likes to cook, she cooks every day, she makes
delicious food.’ While this would be acceptable in a dialogue, it is not considered grammatically
correct in formal, written language (‘My wife likes to cook and she cooks every day, making
delicious food’ would be an example of a grammatically correct sentence.)
Spoken language also tends not to use many complex sentence structures, such as
subordinate clauses. This is because when you are speaking or listening, it is happening in real
time and your mind cannot keep track of long, complicated sentences. When you write dialogue,
a good idea is to read it out loud. If you have difficulty reading it, your dialogue is not a proper
representation of spoken language, and you need to revise it.
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Newspaper article
Read the following article.
Source: SANAC News, January 2018, Issue 21.
What, in your view, is the purpose of this article? What typographical characteristics does it
have (i.e., how is the text arranged on the page)? What can you say about the headline? Where
is the by-line? What does the first sentence tell you? What do the first two paragraphs tell you?
What kind of language is used? What are the tone and register of the article?
The purpose of a newspaper article is to inform the reader about current events and something
specific that happened. It is often printed in columns. The headline uses as few words as
possible, to say what the article is about. It is normally written in the present tense to create a
sense of immediacy, while the article itself is in the past tense, because it describes events that
have already happened. The by-line gives the name of the writer of the article.
The first line (also called the lead) is meant to capture the readers’ attention, to ‘hook’ them. The
first paragraph (or sometimes the second paragraph after the lead) should answer the questions
who, what, when and where. The body provides more information and answers the questions
how and why. Newspaper articles often make use of quotations from witnesses or experts to
support or shed light on the events described in the article. Newspaper articles should be
concrete, neutral, and objective. They should not express the journalist’s own opinion or
attitude. The language register should be formal, factual, and informative.
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Academic writing
Carefully read the section titled ‘Working with Parents/Carers in the Classroom’ in
Chapter 22 of Wyse et al. (2013:286).
teach engli
This is an example of academic writing. Compare it to the example of dialogue that you read
earlier. How does the style differ? Look at the difference between informal language (dialogue)
and formal language (academic writing). Also pay attention to the use of references in academic
writing.
Academic writing employs a formal style. It is impersonal and objective – you would not use
phrases such as: ‘I liked doing this research.’ You should not address the reader directly, for
example by using ‘you’ (unless it is a textbook), and your tone should not be humorous or jokey.
Formal writing uses complete sentences and words (no contractions), and usually features
longer and more complex sentences than informal writing does.
There are two main types of academic writing you should be familiar with: a report and an
essay.
Read Unit 4.4 of Bailey (2015:224–228) to learn more about the structuring of a report.
• Report
An academic report describes a situation or gives the result of an experiment or survey (an
examination and record of the experiences or attitudes of a group of people). It deals with facts
that you gathered yourself, and normally contains primary research (information from interviews,
case studies, surveys) along with secondary research.
• Essay
An academic essay usually deals with an abstract subject, such as an idea, even if is an idea
found in or based on another piece of writing, such as a poem. You would mainly use
secondary research (material which other people have written on your chosen subject) to
support your own view and argument. An essay follows the structure discussed in the section
on Outlining, mentioned earlier. In Unit 6, we will look at this in more detail.
Summarising/paraphrasing vs. plagiarism

In Unit 4, you learned about summarising and paraphrasing as reading strategies. In academic
writing, you would use them as a writing strategy when referring to another writer’s ideas or
words. When you summarise and paraphrase, you have to put the information in your own
words.
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Even if you use your own words, but it was not your original idea, you have to give
credit to the original writer and provide a reference, otherwise it will be viewed as
plagiarism.
Plagiarism involves taking someone else’s words and ideas and presenting them as your own.
This is dishonest, and you will be heavily penalised if you do this in an assignment. Even
outside of your academic career, plagiarism is a very serious offence. You can be prosecuted if
found guilty of this offense.
Here is an example of a direct quote with a reference: “South Africa began to place a
particularly high priority on addressing the social and structural factors that increase risk and
vulnerability to HIV among adolescent girls and young women. Programmes prioritise action to
decrease teenage pregnancies, prevent gender-based violence, keep girls in school, and
increase economic opportunities for young people, especially young women” (SANAC,
2017:27).
Obvious plagiarism would be to use these sentences word for word, without using quotation
marks or acknowledging the source (reference).
Plagiarism that might not be as obvious could look like this: Preventing teenage pregnancies
and violence against women and encouraging education and job opportunities for women are
ways in which South Africa prioritises the risk of HIV to girls and women.
Notice that this example is summarised and paraphrased. However, because it does not
credit its source, it is still considered to be plagiarism.
Blogs
The word ‘blog’ is a shortened form of ‘weblog’, which refers to a log (a record of events) on the
web. Look for examples of blogs and read through them. What topics do they cover? What style
do they use? Are they written in the first person (using ‘I’, ‘my’, etc.) or objective third person
(like an academic essay)? Are they objective and neutral (like newspaper reports or academic
writing) or do they tell you something about each writer’s personal experiences?
Most blogs take the form of a diary or journal about a specific topic, although the range of topics
which blogs cover is limitless. A writer might blog about her cooking and recipes, books she has
read, her experiences as a parent, or her adventures as a traveller. Blogs use a friendly and
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informal style, and are mostly written in the first person, because the writers are sharing their
own experiences, viewpoints and attitudes.
Do you follow any particular blogger? If so, who? Why do you read his/her blog? Have you ever
thought about becoming a blogger? What subject would you like to blog about?
Read the section titled ‘Creative Writing’ in Chapter 16 of Wyse et al. (2013:213–215).
Creative/expressive writing
While transactional writing is usually objective and has a pragmatic or practical purpose (e.g.,
informing or instructing), creative writing is subjective, imaginative and inventive. It expresses
your own thoughts, feelings and ideas, or your personal response to a stimulus. Its purpose is
usually to inspire, evoke emotion or entertain. There are three broad genres of creative writing:
poetry, prose narratives (fiction) and plays (drama).
• Poetry
Poetry’s main characteristic is its rhythm (the sound of a poem). It consists of certain patterns of
syllabic stress and repeated sounds. Poetry tends to contain more poetic devices (e.g.,
metaphors and similes) than prose, in addition to sound devices such as alliteration and
assonance. This is because poems are usually shorter and more condensed than most
narratives, and therefore often have many layers of meaning that are suggested through poetic
devices, rather than being stated explicitly.
• Prose narratives
Prose narratives come in different forms and lengths, from short stories to novels. A fictional
prose narrative is any kind of story about invented or imaginary events. (The exception is
historical fiction, which uses facts from history that really happened, but presents them in an
imaginative way.) Fiction usually has two major components: characters and plot. Characters
are the people the story is about, and plot refers to the events that happen to the characters.
Prose narratives can also be descriptive or lyrical (expressing emotions about the subject), for
example, a description of a landscape.
• Plays
Plays are characterised by the fact that they are mostly written in dialogue and are meant to be
performed on stage. Along with the dialogue, plays therefore also have ‘stage directions’ which
tell the reader what the setting and characters look like, as well as what the characters are
doing and where they should move during a scene.
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Visual media writing
This genre includes writing where visual attractiveness is just as important (if not more so) than
the content. It can contain graphic images, along with text. Being highly visual, it requires any
written text to be short and to the point, catchy and memorable.
• Posters
Take a look at this example of a poster from SANAC’s National Strategic Plan (NSP). What is its
purpose? What typographical features does it have (i.e., how are the text and other images
arranged on the page)? Does the text use full sentences?
Source: SANAC (South African National Aids Council) (2017), Let Our Actions Count: South
Africa's National Strategic Plan for HIV, TB and STIs, 2017–2022.
Posters are used to convey information in an easy-to-read format which has high visual impact.
It uses striking fonts and images, and an unusual arrangement of text to make an impact on the
reader. The text should be short enough to be easily understood and remembered.
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Posters are usually informative: they can be used in classrooms to aid understanding and
memory, to create awareness (e.g., of health issues, environmental concerns, safety
regulations) and to advertise an event, by informing the public of when and where it will take
place.
• Advertisements
Take a look at this example of a public awareness advertisement or a social issue
advertisement from SANAC. What are the different components? What is its purpose? What
effect does it have on the viewer? What can you say about the words that are used?
Source: http://sanac.org.za/2015/12/02/free-to-download-poster-for-your-stigma-and-
discrimination-campaign-events/
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Advertisements promote products and services or raise social awareness. Their purpose is to
convince people to buy a product, make use of a service, or change their attitude towards a
certain social problem. For this reason, advertisements are usually catchy or entertaining, and
normally use image(s) as well as print. The text in an advertisement is called ‘copy’, which is the
result of ‘copywriting’. It is usually very short, so as to be easily understood and remembered,
while making the maximum impact on the reader.
____ I can identify each of the following genres of writing, along with its purpose (tick them off):
o dialogue
o newspaper article
o academic report
o academic essay
o blog
o poem
o narrative prose
o play
o poster
o advertisement
____ I can list the characteristics of each of the following genres of writing (tick them off):
o dialogue
o newspaper article
o academic report
o academic essay
o blog
o poem
o narrative prose
o play
o poster
o advertisement
Critical Writing and Thinking Outside the Box

In Unit 4, you learned several critical reading skills. You will use them again as you prepare
yourself to write critically. If you are writing in response to another text, you will use critical
reading skills to engage with the source material. Once you have written your first draft, you will
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apply your critical reading skills to your own writing, to improve on it. Critical thinking can and
should take place during pre-, while- and post-writing.
Before writing, critical thinking involves providing your own ideas in response to a topic or idea.
In the case of academic writing, you cannot simply repeat other writers’ ideas and words. You
have to engage with them critically, i.e., interpret them, reflect on their meaning and evaluate
their worth. In creative writing, you need to interpret your stimulus (whether this is a theme,
picture or even just an idea for a story) and reflect on it. Try to ‘see’ your topic from all angles.
To think outside of the box, you can start by making a list of ideas and responses you think are
very common or typical. What do you believe most people would think of, when they see your
topic? Once you have this list of typical responses, try to come up with something that is
different and approaches the subject from a fresh angle.
While you are writing, critical thinking requires you to be aware of your own stance or attitude
towards a topic. When you are writing a newspaper article, for example, it is important to take a
neutral stance. You need to convey what happened, not how you feel about it. In academic
writing, you need to be aware of your biases and strive to be objective and provide proof for
your statements. You also need to be aware of any viewpoints that differ from your own, and to
engage with them: say whether you agree or disagree with them, state the reasons why, and
provide proof. In academic writing particularly, you need to enter into conversation with your
sources: analyse, evaluate, and respond to them. The same is true when you write a persuasive
piece: it will be more persuasive if you can show that you thought of alternative viewpoints.
Then you can provide reasons why you believe your own viewpoint is more convincing.
After writing, you will apply your critical reading skills to your own writing. What is lacking?
Where do you need more evidence? Is the argument convincing? Why or why not? What is the
stance of the piece? Is the style appropriate and effective? How does it convey your intended
message? Are there better ways of achieving this? What are the strengths and weaknesses of
your text? Is it successful in its purpose?
___ I can explain what it means to use critical thinking before writing.
___ I can explain what it means to use critical thinking while writing.
___ I can explain what it means to use critical thinking after writing.
___ I can apply all of these critical thinking skills to my own writing.
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Writing and Listening Skills Related to Comprehension and Writing
In Unit 4, we looked at the connection between reading and listening skills, and how you can
improve both by practising them together. In the same way, listening skills can help to develop
your writing skills. Good listening skills will help you when you gather resources and information
for your writing. Listening critically can help you improve the way you write, as well as hone your
writing for a particular purpose or audience.
When you use written pieces for listening practice, you will realise how important it is to have a
proper structure and signposting. Because speech happens in real time, structuring and
signposting are necessary to orient your listener as to what is being discussed and how the
argument progresses. Many writers read their writing out loud to themselves as part of their
revision process. If you are writing a factual piece, reading it out loud will help you to keep the
sentences short enough to be easily understandable. If you are writing a persuasive piece,
listening to it will reveal whether it is convincing enough. In the case of creative writing, reading
it out loud will tell you if a prose narrative flows smoothly, and in the case of a poem, rhythm can
be best discerned through listening.
The Importance of pronunciation

Poor pronunciation makes it difficult for listeners to understand you and can cause confusion
between words. Even if your pronunciation is correct, some words are still easily confused when
they are heard rather than read, because they sound the same even if they are spelled
differently (homophones). Regular listening practice will help you to use context to understand
which word should be used (e.g., ‘Their work is well known’ vs. ‘There is a lot of controversy
about the issue’); and listening to words like these will alert you to using the correct one when
writing.
For homophones, you need to listen to the context to know which meaning is intended.
Examples are allowed/aloud; bare/bear; board/bored; bread/bred; cereal/serial; fair/fare;
knead/need; heard/herd; pail/pale; pray/prey; sight/site; weakly/weekly.
For other words that are easily confused, the correct pronunciation is very important. If you
practise your listening skills often and carefully, you will learn how to tell them apart and use
them correctly in your writing. Examples are accept/except; affect/effect; allude/elude; bald/bold;
career/carrier/courier; collage/college; confuse/confess; decent/descent; desperate/disparate;
expect/except; moral/morale; of course,/off course; personal/personnel; task/tax; test/text;
walk/work; wander/wonder.
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Which pairs of words do you often confuse?
Use of intonation and stress

Intonation refers to a rising or falling voice pitch (the voice becoming higher or lower when
speaking). It is used to indicate the intention expressed in sentences (e.g., a question,
statement, or command) as well as the tone of the speaker (whether s/he is annoyed, angry,
upset, anxious, uncertain, hesitant, etc.). When you are writing, punctuation is the major way of
conveying tone and intonation, for example by using question marks, exclamation marks,
ellipses, etc. Correct punctuation will also help a reader to read out loud. For example, at a
comma the pitch often rises to indicate that the sentence is still continuing. At a full stop it falls,
to indicate that the sentence is now complete.
Stress refers to the emphasis of a syllable or word, its loudness relative to others when you
speak. In each word, correct pronunciation dictates which syllable should be stressed. The
correct syllabic stress is part of Standard English and is independent of the speaker. Carefully
listening to syllabic stress can help your spelling abilities.
Syllabic stress is also used in some words to distinguish between verbs and nouns, even if they
are spelled the same. Compare, for example,
• attribute (noun) vs attribute (verb) conduct (noun) vs conduct (verb)

• conflict (noun) vs conflict (verb) decrease (noun) vs decrease (verb)
• export (noun) vs export (verb) impact (noun) vs impact (verb)
• increase (noun) vs increase (verb) object (noun) vs object (verb)
• project (noun) vs project (verb) subject (noun) vs subject (verb)
When it comes to stressing individual words in a sentence, someone who reads out loud will
decide for him-/herself which word to emphasise, however subtly. Sometimes you can find hints
to word stress in the punctuation of a sentence, for example this sentence from your prescribed
textbook Wyse et al. (2013:286):
“Story sacks, containing a good children’s book and supporting materials, are designed to
stimulate reading activities.”
When reading this sentence out loud, a natural tendency would be to stress the underlined
words, as they are the main concepts in the sentence. The phrase between the commas
(“containing … materials”) will likely be said without stress, as it merely provides additional
information. The lack of stress will make it clear that it is meant as an explanation.
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Sometimes you will need to rely on contextual clues to tell you which word to stress. Consider
the following examples:
The boy and girl were both standing on the lawn. The boy caught the ball.
The girl threw a ball and a beanbag. The boy caught the ball.
Do you see how the meaning of the sentence changes based on which word is stressed? When
writing, you do not have voice stress to make your meaning clear. You need to use writing tools
to do it instead. For this, it is also helpful to read your work out loud. If anything is unclear or if
you find yourself automatically stressing a certain word or phrase, consider printing that
word/phrase in italics, reorganising your sentence to make the meaning clearer, or adding extra
verbal cues, for example: ‘The boy was the one who caught the ball’ or ‘The boy only caught the
ball.’
Choice and appropriateness of vocabulary

In Unit 4 we discussed how understanding the choice and appropriateness of vocabulary will
help you when listening and reading. When writing, you need to be particularly aware of your
choice of vocabulary, to make sure that you use the correct and appropriate register and tone.
Your register or level of formality will ensure that your message is conveyed effectively: on the
one hand, if your tone is too formal for the purpose, your listeners or readers might lose interest
or be unable to follow what you are saying. On the other hand, if your tone is too informal for the
purpose, it might sound as if you are not serious about the topic, or even as if you do not
respect your readers or listeners.
___ I can explain how writing and listening skills are related to comprehension.
___ I can explain why each of the following is important for my writing skills (tick them off):
o pronunciation
o appropriateness of vocabulary
o intonation and stress.
Conclusion
In this study unit, we focused on writing as a productive form of communication. We examined
the writing process, from generating ideas through to the final product. It is handy to think of this
process as divided into pre-, while- and post-writing, but in the end it is important that you use
critical writing skills for every step of the process.
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We looked at different genres and their purposes, and discussed how developing your writing
skills will have a positive impact on your listening and reading skills.
References
Routledge.
Dlamini, N. (2018). Men’s March against Gender-Based Violence. SANAC News, Jan.
http://sanac.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Final-Newsletter-Jan-2018.pdf Date of access:
16 Apr. 2018.
SANAC (South African National Aids Council). (2017). Let Our Actions Count: South Africa’s
National Strategic Plan for HIV, TB and STIs 2017–2022. http://sanac.org.za/wp-
content/uploads/2017/05/NSP_FullDocument_FINAL.pdf Date of access: 28 Feb. 2018.
Glossary
brainstorming is a strategy for generating ideas through free association.
clustering is a strategy for generating ideas and exploring the connections between them, by
using a mind-map.
comprehension involves an understanding of what a word, phrase or text means.
editing involves making corrections to the language use (grammar, spelling and punctuation) of
a piece of writing.
free writing is a strategy for developing the flow of ideas through free association.
genre refers to the type or category of a text based on its style and purpose.
intonation is the way in which the voice rises or falls when speaking, using a higher or lower
pitch.
outlining is a strategy that develops structure by summarising the main components of a piece
of writing.
pronunciation refers to the way in which a word is spoken out loud. It refers to the sound of
speech, and the correct pronunciation adheres to certain standards.
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revision entails making corrections to the content and structure of a piece of writing.
stress refers to the way a word or phrase is emphasised in spoken language, usually by using
a louder volume, speaking more slowly, or pausing.
vocabulary refers to the collection of words used about a certain topic or in a particular context.
Complete these questions to assess whether you have mastered the outcomes of this unit.
1. List the three components of writing as a complex productive process. (3)

2. Explain ‘brainstorming’ in one sentence. (1)
3. What is the main difference between brainstorming and free writing? (1)
4. List two pre-writing strategies that can help you develop a structure. (2)
5. Identify two aspects of your writing that will be influenced by your intended audience. (Two
characteristics of your text that will be different, depending on the audience you are writing
for.) (2)
6. What are the two aspects you focus on during revision? (2)
7. List at least five things to check during editing. (5)
8. Give a definition for ‘dialogue’. Write one word to describe each of the following as it
applies to dialogue: i) register; ii) sentence length; iii) sentence structure. (4)
9. What is the purpose of a newspaper article? What would be the correct tone to use? How
is the tone related to the purpose of a newspaper article? (4)
10. Explain what plagiarism is. (3)
11. Write down three words or phrases to describe a blog. (2)
12. What is the purpose of creative writing? What kind of language does it use to fulfil its
purpose? (4)
13. Provide two examples of visual media writing. (2)
14. Write a paragraph of at least three sentences in which you explain how to use critical
thinking skills for pre-, while- and post-writing. (3)
15. How can you tell homophones apart 1) in writing; 2) in spoken language? (2)
16. What is the most important way of indicating tone and intonation in writing? (2)
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1. List the three components of writing as a complex productive process. (3)

Knowledge of verbal language.✓
Knowledge of visual expression.✓
Fine moto skills OR physical skills for handwriting or typing.✓
2. Explain ‘brainstorming’ in one sentence. (1)

Brainstorming is where you write down as many ideas or words about your topic as you
can, as quickly as possible. ✓
3. What is the main difference between brainstorming and free writing? (1)
Brainstorming makes use of single words or simple phrases, while free writing makes use
of sentences.✓
4. List two pre-writing strategies that can help you develop a structure. (2)
Clustering✓
Outlining✓
5. Identify two aspects of your writing that will be influenced by your intended audience. (Two
characteristics of your text that will be different, depending on the audience you are writing
for.) (2)
Any two of the following:
• Tone
• Register
• Level of difficulty
• Purpose
• Choice of words or vocabulary
6. What are the two aspects you focus on during revision? (2)
Content✓
Structure✓
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7. List at least five things to check during editing. (5)
Any five of the following:
• complete sentences
• tense
• correct word forms
• correct words in context
• articles
• concord
• spelling
• capitalisation
• punctuation
8. Give a definition for ‘dialogue’. Write one word to describe each of the following as it
applies to dialogue: i) register; ii) sentence length; iii) sentence structure. (4)
A dialogue is a written representation of a conversation between two or more people.✓

i) informal✓
ii) short✓
iii) simple✓
9. What is the purpose of a newspaper article? What would be the correct tone to use? How
is the tone related to the purpose of a newspaper article? (4)
The purpose of a newspaper article is to inform the reader about current events or
something that has happened.✓ The tone of a newspaper article is neutral and objective.✓
The tone should be neutral and objective to inform effectively, without influencing the
reader to feel a certain way, or trying to elicit an emotion.✓
10. Explain what plagiarism is. (3)

Plagiarism is when you take someone else’s ideas/information or data from a secondary
source✓ and present it as your own✓ without providing a reference.✓
11. Write down three words or phrases to describe a blog. (2)

Any three (or similar) of the following:
First person
Personal
Informal
Diary; journal
Own experiences
Subjective
Any topic
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12. What is the purpose of creative writing? What kind of language does it use to fulfil its
purpose? (4)
The purpose of creative writing is to inspire, entertain or evoke emotion,✓ and it uses
subjective, imaginative, and inventive language✓ to do this.
13. Provide two examples of visual media writing. (2)

Posters✓
Advertisements✓
14. Write a paragraph of at least three sentences in which you explain how to use critical
thinking skills for pre-, while- and post-writing. (3)
Suggested answer:
Before writing, you need to critically engage with your source material or stimulus to
formulate clear and original ideas. While writing, you should be aware of your own biases
and attitudes, so you can be sure to be objective and fair. You should also be aware of
and engage with views that differ from your own. After writing, you should use your critical
thinking skills to evaluate and improve your writing. You should look at it critically and
judge whether or not it is effective and fulfils its purpose.
15. How can you tell homophones apart 1) in writing; 2) in spoken language? (2)
Spelling and context✓
Context✓
16. What is the most important way of indicating tone and intonation in writing? (2)
Punctuation✓
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Unit 6: Important Language Competencies
Outcomes
• define what language competence is.

• describe the different aspects of language competencies.
• explain the importance of dictionary and thesaurus skills.
• use a dictionary and thesaurus (online or physical).
• apply dictionary and thesaurus skills to improve your vocabulary.
• define syllabic breaks and use them to improve your spelling skills.
• formulate grammatically correct questions.
• identify common errors in English language usage and know how to correct them.
• explain how multimodal strategies can reinforce language skills; and
• make use of your reading and writing skills and apply the following skills to academic
writing: planning, finding key points, summarising, and paraphrasing, organising
paragraphs, writing introductions and conclusions, rewriting and proofreading.
Introduction
In the two previous units, we focused mostly on the message of written language: how to
receive it (reading) and how to produce it (writing). If the message of language is the content
(what is being communicated), then you can think of the medium as the channel of the
message, the ‘container’ or the ‘packaging’. You can also think of the medium as the instrument
of communication (how the message is communicated).
This unit will focus on the more technical aspects of language as a medium. These are called
your language competencies. When you have ‘competence’ in a subject, it means you are
capable, you can deal with something successfully. To be competent in a language means
being able to communicate successfully when speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
Language competence can be distinguished from language performance. The former refers to
your grammatical and linguistic knowledge of the language works, while the latter refers to how
you use it. For example, it is common for home language speakers to know instinctively how to
use certain grammatical features correctly (performance), even if they cannot consciously
explain the grammatical rules (competence) that dictate their use. They might say that “it just
sounds right!” Another example is when you are speaking informally and make an unconscious
grammatical error (performance). If you stop to think about it, however, you will recognise it as a
mistake and know how to correct it (competence).
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Luckily, language competence and performance skills develop each other mutually. The greater
your competence, the better your performance will be, and the more you practise performance,
the more your competence will develop.
There are varying aspects of language competence that reflect the different features of
communication. Linguistic or grammatical competence has to do with the formal characteristics
of language. This includes phonology (how sounds are organised in language); morphology
(how words are constructed, for example, to create different parts of speech); lexicon or
vocabulary (the collection of words you are able to use); and syntax (how words are arranged in
grammatically correct sentences). Units 1 and 2 focused on linguistic and grammatical
competence.
Discourse or textual competence refers to the comprehension and production of spoken or

written texts. It means that you are able to combine and organise words into sentences, and
sentences into longer texts with a specific message (even if it is to have a conversation with
your friends) and that you can likewise make meaning out of such texts yourself. These are your
speech and listening comprehension skills, and your reading and writing comprehension skills.
Units 3, 4 and 5 focused on discourse and textual competence.
Sociocultural or pragmatic competence refers to the use of language in a social setting. This
aspect of language focuses on using language appropriately, for example, the different
registers, expressions of politeness, styles, choice of vocabulary and topics that are
appropriate, based on the setting, your audience, your purpose, and the specific culture in
which you are communicating. All the units so far have contained aspects of sociocultural
competence.
In this unit, we will look at specific linguistic and discourse competencies that will help you
improve your overall language competence. In the first part of the unit, we will discuss dictionary
and thesaurus skills which are important tools for you have, in order to master language. In the
second part, we will examine how to formulate and answer grammatically correct questions. In
the third part, we will study common errors in English language usage as well as how to
recognise and avoid them. Next, we will discuss the use of multimedia strategies to reinforce
language, reading and writing skills. Lastly, we will consolidate what we have learned about
reading and writing skills so far and apply this to academic writing.
Dictionary and Thesaurus Skills

How would you define a dictionary? What different kinds of dictionaries are there? What
different forms do they take? What do you use a dictionary for? Do you use one when you are
reading or writing? Does your cell phone have an automatic dictionary that predicts what words
you might want to use, or autocorrects words as you type?
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According to its most basic definition, a dictionary is a reference book for language. It not only
provides explanations for the meanings of words, but also other information such as parts of
speech, irregular past tenses, grammatically correct phrases in which a specific word is often
used, and examples of how that word is used in a sentence. When learning a new language or
simply improving a language in which you are already fluent, a dictionary is one of your most
valuable tools.
Online Skills
This is an example from the Oxford English Dictionary Online. It can be accessed through Unisa
at www.unisa.ac.za > Library > Find e-resources > More > E-Reference > Oxford English
Dictionary
This screenshot shows the search results for the word ‘labour’. Note that there are two items.
One is labelled n. and the other v., both circled in the example above. The first points to ‘labour’
as a noun, the second to ‘labour’ as a verb. Other abbreviations that indicate part of speech are
adj. (adjective), adv. (adverb), pron. (pronoun), prep. (preposition) and conj. (conjunction).
This is the screenshot for ‘labour’ (noun):
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Note that the British English spelling (‘labour’, circled) is given before the American English
spelling (‘labor’). In South Africa we use the British English spelling of words. Next to
‘Pronunciation’ you will see the phonetic spelling of the word, which uses the phonetic alphabet
to show you how to pronounce the word in both the British and the American way. This online
dictionary also has a sound recording of the correct pronunciation that you can listen to. The
stress mark ' in front of a syllable indicates that it is stressed. For the word ‘labour’, the stress is
on the first syllable.
All the different meanings of ‘labour’ are listed under the word. Here is a screenshot for the
meaning of ‘labour’ as it is used within the context of human rights. It has been expanded to
show quotations.
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Note the list of words given in italics under the definition. They indicate compound phrases that
include the word ‘labour’, for example, ‘child labour’, ‘casual labour’, etc. To look up the
meaning of these phrases, you must look up the first element (word) of the phrase. In other
words, the definition for ‘child labour’ can be found under ‘child’. Compounds that start with the
word ‘labour’ are found in a list after the definitions and include phrases such as ‘labour
dispute’, ‘labour master’, etc. The dictionary also provides a list of phrases and idiomatic
expressions that include the word ‘labour’, along with their meanings, for example, ‘to lose one’s
labour’ or ‘labour of Hercules’.
Look at the quotations that are given to show you how the word ‘labour’ is used in a sentence.
What can you infer from this? Is ‘labour’ a countable or uncountable noun in the way it is used
here? Does it need an article (the, a/an)? Is it a singular or plural noun?
Dictionary Skills
A physical dictionary works in the same way as an online dictionary – except that in the former
you have to turn the pages yourself! In a physical dictionary, the words are arranged
alphabetically, so you will need to keep in mind the alphabetic order of letters to find the word
you are looking for.
Syllabic Breaks
In some dictionaries, words are divided into syllables or speech sounds. This is an aid for
pronunciation which can also help you learn its correct spelling. Here is an example of syllabic
breaks from the free online Merriam-Webster dictionary (https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary). Note how the syllabic breaks are indicated with a floating dot, like this
·.
Thesaurus Skills
A thesaurus is a kind of dictionary that lists words in groups of synonyms. If you look up
‘laborious’ in the Merriam-Webster thesaurus (https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus), it
provides the following synonyms: active, assiduous, bustling, diligent, employed, engaged,
hopping, industrious, busy, occupied, sedulous, tied-up, working. It also provides words that are
related to ‘laborious’, although they are not synonyms, for example: knee-deep, swamped,
animated, astir, buzzing, flourishing, happening, humming, lively, thriving, vibrant.
Thesauri (the plural of ‘thesaurus’) are valuable tools to expand your vocabulary. They are also
helpful when you want to avoid repeating the same word too often in your writing. Using
synonyms can make your writing more interesting and colourful. When you are looking for a
synonym to use, make sure to look up its definition as well. Some words are synonyms only in a
certain context. If you use a synonym in the wrong context, your meaning will be lost.
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this unit that deals with the topic and deepen your understanding of it.
____ I know how to use a dictionary to look up the following information about a word (tick them
off):
o meaning
o part of speech
o pronunciation
o compound phrases in which it is used
o idiomatic expressions in which it is used
o whether it is a countable or an uncountable noun
o syllabic breaks
____ I know how to use a thesaurus to look up the synonym(s) of a word.
Formulation of Grammatically Correct Questions

Questions are a normal part of conversations when you need more information, but they are
also a critical skill that can develop your reading and writing skills. In units 4 and 5 we used
questions such as who, what, when, where, whom, whose and which to improve
comprehension or understand content and check facts. You might use these questions when
writing a newspaper article or other informative text. When writing a summary of a piece you
have read, these questions will help you identify the main ideas. When it comes to intensive
reading, and critical reading and writing, how and why are likewise important for reflecting on
and evaluating any text you have written or read.
There are three grammatical structures for forming wh-questions: 1) with an auxiliary verb (be,
do, have); 2) with a modal verb (can, will, shall, may, could, would, should, might) or 3) without
an auxiliary verb.
With an auxiliary verb:

wh-word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
Examples:
Where is she going? (auxiliary verb ‘be’)
When did she talk to you? (auxiliary verb ‘do’)
What have you been doing? (auxiliary verb ‘have’)
Note: any additional adverbs or adverbial phrases come after the main question, e.g. Where is
she going in such a hurry?; When did she talk to you about the news?; What have you been
doing with yourself all day?
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This rule does not include adjectives or adjectival phrases that describe the noun. They come
before or after the noun, for example: When did the horrible accident happen?; What is that girl
in the red dress doing?
With a modal verb:

wh-word + modal verb + subject + main verb
Examples:
Where will the new park be built?
What should he have done differently?
When might that happen?
Who can I talk to about this?
How could she walk away like that?
Note: in these sentences, adverbs and adverbial phrases likewise follow the main question.
Without an auxiliary verb:
When you use what, who, which or whose as the subject or part of the subject of the question
sentence, you do not use an auxiliary verb.
subject + verb (+ object)
Examples:
What made that noise?

Who called you?
Which one is she?
Whose phone is this?
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Activity
International labour standards are first and foremost about the development of people as
human beings. In the ILO’s Declaration of Philadelphia of 1944, the international
community recognized that “labour is not a commodity”. Indeed, labour is not like an apple
or a television set, an inanimate product that can be negotiated for the highest profit or the
lowest price. Work is part of everyone’s daily life and is crucial to a person’s dignity, well-
being and development as a human being. Economic development should include the
creation of jobs and working conditions in which people can work in freedom, safety and
dignity. In short, economic development is not undertaken for its own sake but to improve
the lives of human beings; international labour standards are there to ensure that it
remains focused on improving human life and dignity.
Source: ILO (2018)
Read the following text from the International Labour Organization (ILO) and complete the
activity.
Formulate wh-questions about the given text. Use the wh-word provided and formulate a
question that can be answered by the given word or phrase.
Example: what / “the development of people as human beings”
Answer: What are international standards first and foremost about?

• when / “1944”
• where / “Philadelphia”
• who / “the international community”
• what / “labour is not a commodity”
• why / “to improve the lives of human beings”
• how / “[Through] the creation of jobs and working conditions in which people can work in
freedom, safety and dignity”.
You can also find feedback on these questions in the feedback guide to the activities – it can be
• When was the ILO’s Declaration of Philadelphia adopted?
• Where was the ILO’s Declaration of 1944 adopted?
• Who recognised that “labour is not a commodity”?
• What did the international community recognise?
• Why is economic development undertaken?
• How can economic development improve the lives of human beings?
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Critical Thinking: Taxonomy of Levels of Assessments Interrogation
In 1956, the American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom devised a taxonomy to show
six different levels of cognitive thinking. This taxonomy, in revised forms, is used in education to
develop and test cognitive skills. Here are the different levels, along with the type of questions
that normally pertain to each particular level.
Knowledge
- What happened after…?; How many…?; What is the name of…?; Who said that…?;
When did this take place?; Which one?; Who was…?; Why did…?
Comprehension
- Can you write in your own words…?; What do you think will happen next?; What is the
main idea?; Can you distinguish between…?: Can you provide an example/definition…?;
How would you compare…?; What facts/ideas show that…?; How would you
summarise…?; What is meant by…?
Application
- Do you know of another instance where…?; Could this have happened
differently/elsewhere?; From the information given, can you devise a set of instructions
for…?; Would this information be useful if…?; How would you approach…?; How would
you solve…. using what you have learned?
Analysis
- What is the underlying theme?; Why did… happen?; Can you explain why…?; What were
some of the reasons that…?; What are the features of…?; How would you classify…?;
What is the function of…?; What evidence can you find that…?
Synthesis
- What alternative can you suggest?; What changes would you make to solve…?; How
would you improve…?; Suppose you could…. what would you…?
Evaluation
- Do you agree with…?; How would you feel if…?; Can you defend the argument that…?;
What would you recommend…?; What choice would you have made…?
____ I can formulate grammatically correct questions using grammatical structures … (tick them
off)
o with an auxiliary verb
o with a modal verb
o without an auxiliary verb.
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Common Errors in Language Usage

Fossilisation
Fossilisation is when a language error becomes such a familiar habit that it sounds ‘normal’ to a
speaker and is hard to correct. It often happens when characteristics of the student’s home
language (e.g., grammatical structure) are transferred to his/her second language, even though
they are incorrect. Here are some commonly fossilised errors:
Concord: Concord refers to the agreement between the subject and the verb of the sentence.
• If the subject noun (thing or object) is singular, the verb (action) should have a singular
form (+s).
• If the subject noun (thing or object) is plural (or ‘I’), the verb (action) should be the plural
form as well.
• In the present tense, the singular and plural form of verbs and nouns are always opposite:
- singular noun: no –s; singular form of the verb: add –s
- plural noun: add –s; plural form of the verb: no –s
- Example: The monkey climbs the tree. (singular noun, singular form of the verb)
- Example: The monkeys climb the tree. (plural noun, plural form of the verb)
Note: not all plural nouns are formed just by adding an –s. If they end on s, x, z, ch or sh,
you add –es. If they end on y, the y changes into –ies. Some nouns have irregular plurals.
Luckily a dictionary can help you here, so make good use of it!
• When the sentence has two subjects that are joined by either/or or neither/nor, use the
singular form of the verb, for example: Neither Thabo nor his friend likes coffee.
• Except when the subject closest to the verb is plural, then you use the plural verb, for
example: Neither Thabo nor his friends like coffee.
• When two subjects are joined by and, use the plural form of the verb, for example: Thabo
and his friend like coffee.
Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
• A common mistake is to confuse the male (he, him, his), female (she, her, hers) and
neutral (it, its) pronouns. In English, male and female pronouns are only used for people
(and sometimes personal pets). Neutral pronouns are used for all inanimate objects.
• Another common mistake is to add unnecessary pronouns, for example: *My mother she
went to the shop. Subject pronouns (he, she, it, we, they, etc.) are used to replace subject
nouns to avoid repetition. For example: My mother (subject) went to the shop, where she
(subject) bought bread and milk. See how each clause has only one subject? *My mother
(subject) she (subject) went to the shop is therefore incorrect, as the pronoun she does not
replace the subject noun my mother.
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Articles: the, a, an
• A common mistake for second-language users of English is to omit the article in front of a
countable noun. The is the definite article and indicates something specific or particular,
while a/an is used to refer to something non-specific. A is used before a consonant sound
and an before a vowel sound: for example an hour (because it is pronounced ‘our’, thus a
vowel sound) but a unit (because it is pronounced ‘yunit’, thus a consonant sound).
• Another common mistake is to include articles in front of uncountable nouns. Countable
nouns need an article, while uncountable nouns normally do not need one. An easy way to
know whether a noun is countable or not, is to put a number in front of it: you can say two
apples’(countable) but not *two informations. Whether a noun is countable or uncountable
sometimes depends on the context, for example: I like drinking coffee (uncountable,
general) but I ordered a coffee in the restaurant (countable, because it refers to a cup of
coffee).
• When you use ‘few’ to indicate number, you should still use the indefinite article even if the
noun seems to be in the plural form. For example: I have a few pages left to read; She
wants to leave in a few minutes; It happened a few days ago; There are a few cookies left.
• When you use ‘many’, you should not use an article, for example: I have many pages left
to read; It happened many years ago; There are many cookies left.
Progressive tense: be + verb -ing
• A common mistake is to use the progressive tense for verbs that cannot be progressive.
These verbs have to do with sensory perception (see, hear, taste, smell, know); emotion
(want, love, hate, like, dislike); measurement (weight, cost, measure); and relationship
(have, own, contain, entail, belong). For example:
The apple tastes nice (correct), but *The apple is tasting nice (incorrect).
I want cookies (correct) but *I am wanting cookies (incorrect).
The coffee costs R10 (correct), but *The coffee is costing R10 (incorrect).
She owns that car (correct), but *She is owning that car (incorrect).
• There are exceptions to these rules, for instance when an emotion or feeling indicates a
change in condition, or if you are feeling something you do not normally feel. For example:
I am having chest pains.
• Actions that indicate a state of affairs or something that happens regularly do not take the
progressive tense, but always use simple tense. For example:
Many people do not have human rights (correct, state of affairs), but *Many people are not
having human rights (incorrect);
I drink coffee in the mornings (correct, regular occurrence), but *I am drinking coffee in the
mornings (incorrect).
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Preposition use
Prepositions in English (on, to, at, in, from, about, for) do not follow consistent rules. The best
way to learn how to use them correctly is to pay attention to preposition use when you read.
You will gradually learn which prepositions are used with which nouns, and it will start to come
naturally to you. Your dictionary skills will be very valuable here, as dictionaries normally
indicate the correct prepositions to be used with any noun, in addition to providing sample
sentences to demonstrate the correct use.
Adverbs vs. adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
A common mistake is to confuse the adjective and adverb forms in a sentence. For example:
*She writes good, where ‘good’ is the adjective form. This is incorrect. The correct form is:
She writes well, because ‘well’ modifies the verb ‘writes’ and should therefore be an
adverb.
To develop your language competence, you need to be aware of common errors, as well as
errors you tend to make regularly (as will be indicated in feedback from the tutors and on your
assignments). Once you know what to look out for, read often and critically. Use the reading
strategies discussed in Unit 4 to help you. Reflect on the grammatical constructions successful
writers use and practise them in your own writing.
Infiltration
Infiltration refers to the process whereby words from a different language are taken up in
another language. Examples in South African English are babbelas; ag; eish!; lekker and yebo.
While these words are acceptable in informal settings, they are considered slang or non-
standard English, and should be avoided in formal register.
Activity
Read the text from the International Labour Organization again.
1. Indicate all the subject-verb agreements (concord). Note that in some cases a subject
might take more than one verb.
2. Find two examples of pronouns. Indicate which nouns they replaced.
3. Find ten examples of countable nouns and list them next to the articles they use.
4. Find ten examples of nouns that do not have articles and indicate why in each case.
5. Find five examples of prepositions and list them with the phrase in which they appear.
6. Read the following sentences and pick the correct form of the underlined words. Indicate
the part of speech of the word you have picked, along with the part of speech of the word it
modifies (describes).
197
a) The international community gradual / gradually recognised that “labour is not a cheap /
cheaply commodity”.
b) Indeed, labour is not like a tasty / tastefully apple or an expensive / expensively television
set, an entirely / entire inanimate product that can be cold / coldly negotiated for the
highest conceivable / conceivably profit or the absolute / absolutely lowest price.
c) True / truly economic development is not simple / simply undertaken for its own sake, but
to improve the lives of real / really human beings.
1. Indicate all the subject-verb agreements (concord). Note that in some cases a subject
might take more than one verb.
International labour standards (subject) are (verb)
Labour (subject) is … (verb)
Work (subject) is … (verb)
Economic development (subject) is undertaken (verb)
it (subject, referring to ‘economic development’) remains (verb)
2. Find two examples of pronouns. Indicate which nouns they replaced.

its (economic development)
it (economic development)
3. Find ten examples of countable nouns and list them next to the articles they use.
(the) development
(the) community
(a) commodity
(an) apple
(a) television set
(an inanimate) product
(the) profit
(the) price
(a) human being
(the) lives
4. Find ten examples of nouns that do not have articles and indicate why in each case.
Any ten of the following:
standards (plural, unspecific)
people (plural, unspecific)
human beings (plural, unspecific)
work (uncountable in this context, it does not refer to written texts or visual art pieces, e.g.
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‘The works of Shakespeare’; ‘The works of Monet’)

life (uncountable in this context, it does not refer to individual lives but to the state of
living)
dignity (uncountable)
well-being (uncountable)
development (uncountable in this context, it does not refer to specific developments in
specific areas, but to progress in general)
freedom (uncountable)
safety (uncountable)
jobs (plural, unspecific)
conditions (plural, unspecific)
5. Find five examples of prepositions and list them with the phrase in which they appear.
Any five of the following:
about; “standards… are about the development”
as; “people as human beings”
for; “negotiated for the highest profit”
of; “part of … daily life”
to; “crucial to… dignity”
as; “development as a human being”
for; “undertaken for its own sake”
on; “focused on improving human life”
6. Read the following sentences and pick the correct form of the underlined words. Indicate
the part of speech of the word you have picked, along with the part of speech of the word
it modifies (describes).
a) The international community gradually recognized that “labour is not a cheap commodity’.
gradually (adverb, modifies verb ‘recognized’)
cheap (adjective, modifies noun ‘commodity’)
b) Indeed, labour is not like a tasty apple or an expensive television set, an entirely
inanimate product that can be coldly negotiated for the highest conceivable profit or the
absolute lowest price.
tasty (adjective, modifies noun ‘apple’)
expensive (adjective, modifies noun ‘television set’)
entirely (adverb, modifies adjective ‘inanimate’)
coldly (adverb, modifies verb ‘negotiated’)
conceivable (adjective, modifies noun ‘profit’)
absolute (adjective, modifies noun phrase ‘lowest price’)
c) True economic development is not simply undertaken for its own sake but to improve the
lives of real human beings.
True (adjective, modifies noun ‘development’)
simply (adverb, modifies verb ‘undertaken’)
real (adjective, modifies noun ‘human beings’)
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____ I know the correct use of the following (tick them off):
o concord
o pronouns
o articles
o progressive tense
o preposition use
o adverbs vs. adjectives
o
Using Multimodal Strategies to Reinforce Language, Reading and Writing Skills
In the previous units, you saw how auditory listening and speaking skills, and visual reading and
writing skills could mutually benefit one another. To develop your language competence, you
can use different multimodal or multimedia strategies that combine different auditory and visual
skills to enhance your learning.
Examples of multimodal strategies for developing language competence can be to listen to

audiobooks while reading the printed book. (Many websites offer free audiobooks and printed
books, or at least free trials). Alternatively, practise your own speaking skills by recording
yourself while you read out loud from a book. Listen to your recording while quietly reading the
text once more. In this way, you can also practise pronunciation.
If you watch movies or video clips with subtitles, you can practise your reading and listening
skills at the same time. You can also experiment with watching the video without subtitles to
practise your listening skills or watching it without sound but with subtitles to practise your
reading.
Graphic novels that combine text with graphics can enhance your reading skills, as the visual
aspects are part of the context and background information. This can help you practise
inference as reading strategy. Making your own notes, doodles, or drawings while reading is
likewise a useful exercise. As we saw in units 4 and 5, making mind-maps of information, or
even just highlighting or underlining parts of text, is a useful way of engaging with text in both
the receptive and productive processes.
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____ I can use multimodal strategies to reinforce my language, reading and writing skills.
Academic Writing
Proficiency in academic writing is a critical skill in your academic career. At a tertiary level,
academic writing is the medium through which you will most often express your knowledge and
show your insight into a topic being assessed. At the same time, a foundation in academic
writing will enable you to read academic texts with a greater level of comprehension. This is
because academic writing, more than most other types of writing, has strict structural
requirements. If you practise recognising the different structural elements, it will help you grasp
a text’s main argument more quickly.
Planning
In Unit 5 of this study guide, we looked at different pre-writing activities that can help you plan
for your essay. Read Unit 1.5 in Bailey (2015:31–35) and look at ‘Analysing Essay Titles’ in
particular. In academic writing, this is often the very first step, and it is especially important in
assignments and exams. When you are given a title or topic to write about, apply your reading
comprehension skills to make sure you understand exactly what is required of you. Once you
have written your essay, use your reading skills again to make sure that what you wrote
responds fully to the assignment question.
Re-read the section on ‘Essay Length’ (Bailey, 2015:34). Working out what percentage of your
essay length to dedicate to which part of your essay will not only save you writing time but will
likewise ensure that your essay responds to the assignment in full.
Finding Key Points

In the Humanities, academic writing often responds to a primary text (for example, a poem or
novel) or makes use of secondary texts to construct and substantiate an argument. You will
again make use of your reading skills to read and engage with your sources. Read Unit 1.6 in
Bailey (2015:36–41) and review the intensive reading strategies we discussed in Unit 4 of this
study guide. How can you improve your comprehension of a given text by finding its key points?
How will note-making help you plan your essay?
Summarising and Paraphrasing

Read Unit 1.7 in Bailey (2015:42–52) and review summarising and paraphrasing as reading
strategies in Unit 4 of this study guide, as well as the difference between
summarising/paraphrasing and plagiarism, as discussed in Unit 5. These skills are very
important in academic writing, as summarising and paraphrasing are the main methods of
engaging with secondary sources when writing an essay.
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Organising Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the next unit of text after sentences, and they are very important for organising
information and keeping the main argument of the text clear and easy to understand. From your
reading practice, you should by now have a good idea of what the characteristics of a
successful paragraph are. Read Unit 1.10 in Bailey (2015:67–71). Reflect on the characteristics
of a paragraph, as outlined in the section titled ‘Example Paragraph’ (Bailey, 2015:68). Look for
an example in your recent reading where the writer adhered to these guidelines. Also look for
an example of where the writer did not follow them. Which text is easier to read? Which is
easier to understand, and why?
Look at the phrases in bold in the example paragraph (Bailey, 2015:68) as well as the examples
of connecting phrases given in the section ‘Introducing Paragraphs and Linking Them Together’
(Bailey, 2015:70–71). These are all examples of signposting language, discussed in units 4 and
5. Signposts help you structure your writing so that your main argument is clear. Learning
different signposting phrases and how to use them correctly and grammatically are important
aspects of language competence.
Examples of signposting language

To emphasise a point: Importantly,…; In fact,…; Furthermore,…; Moreover,…
To add a contrasting point or comparison: However,…; In contrast,…; On one hand,…; On
the other hand,…; In comparison,…; Compared to…; Conversely,…; Whereas…;
Nevertheless,…; Alternatively,…
To add a similar, connecting point: Similarly,…; Likewise,…; Also,…; In addition,…; In the
same way,…
To provide a more specific point: In particular,…; More specifically,…; In this regard,…; In
terms of,…; With regard to…
To provide a more general point: As a rule,…; In general,…; Usually,…; For the most part,…;
Generally,…; In most cases,…
To give an example: For instance,…; For example,…; This can be illustrated by…; … ,
namely,…; …, such as…; To demonstrate,…
To acknowledge something before moving to a different point: Apart from this,…;
Although…; Even though…; Despite…; What is more,…
To follow a logical connection: Therefore,…; Subsequently,…; Hence…; Consequently,…;
Accordingly,…; As a result,…; As a consequence,…; To this end,…; Thus…; For this
reason,…
To summarise: Finally,…; Lastly,….; In conclusion,…; To summarise,…; In summary,…;
Overall,…; In short,…; As this essay has demonstrated…
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Writing Introductions and Conclusions

From your reading and writing practice, you know by now that reading the introduction to a text
can give you a good indication of what the text is about and how it will present its message.
Read Unit 1.11 in Bailey (2015:72–77). Look at ‘Introduction Structure’ (Bailey, 2015:73–74).
How do the components featured in the first paragraph help you comprehend text when
reading? How will it help to convince you that you should keep reading? Keep this in mind when
you write. The same things that help or hinder you as a reader will also help or hinder your
prospective readers.
Read the discussion on ‘Opening Sentences’ in Unit 1.11 of Bailey (2015:76) and make a note
of the time phrases. Time phrases are useful for providing context to your essay. They can also
act as signposting language, to indicate time flow or cause and effect between different
components of your content. For example:
during; thereafter; initially; at that/this point; simultaneously; finally; at that/this time;

meanwhile; formerly; prior to; consequently; previously; at present; at a later stage
Read the discussion on ‘Conclusions’ in Unit 1.11 of Bailey (2015:76–77). When we practised
skimming and inference as reading strategies in Unit 4 of this study guide, we read the
conclusion (the last paragraph) for the main idea of the text. What do introductions and
conclusions have in common? How do they differ?
Rewriting and Proofreading

Read Unit 1.12 of Bailey (2015:78–82) and review the post-writing activities discussed in Unit 5
of this study guide. Rewriting is the same as revision, while proofreading is linked to editing.
While rewriting or revision focuses on the content and structure up to the paragraph,
proofreading or editing refers to the structure from the sentence onwards and includes grammar
and spelling.
When it comes to this stage of your writing, the language competencies discussed in this unit
will be very valuable. Be sure to check for common errors when proofreading. Underline or
highlight all the verbs and nouns in your draft, and make sure they agree. Circle your
prepositions and, if in doubt, look them up to make sure you are using them correctly. Indicate
all your adverbs and adjectives as well as the parts of speech they refer to. Make sure your
adjectives modify nouns and that your adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
203
____ I can use the following skills in my academic writing (tick them off):
o planning
o finding key points
o summarising and paraphrasing
o organising paragraphs
o signposting language
o writing introductions and conclusions
o rewriting and proofreading
Conclusion
In this study unit, we focused on different forms of language competence that will enable you to
communicate successfully. We saw that you need grammatical as well as textual competence in
order to communicate, and that developing one skill will help to develop the other.
We discussed the dictionary and thesaurus skills that can improve your language competence.
We studied how to ask grammatically correct questions and looked at common language errors
and how to avoid them. To fully develop your language competence, you will need to practise all
your skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. We discussed different multimodal
strategies that can help you with this, and finally looked at academic writing, in which you will
engage all your different skills to produce academic texts.
References
Routledge.
ILO (International Labour Organization). (2018). The Benefits of International Labour Standards.
www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-international-labour-standards/ the-benefits-of-
international-labour-standards/lang—en/index.htm Date of access: 17 Feb. 2018.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (2018). https://www.merriam-webster.com/ Date of access: 19

Feb. 2018.
OED: Oxford English Dictionary. (2018). http://www.oed.com/ Date of access: 19 Feb. 2018.
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Glossary
a dictionary is a book or electronic resource that contains an alphabetic list of the words of a
language, along with their meanings and other additional information.
fossilisation is the process through which certain language errors become a habit for someone
learning a second language.
infiltration is the process through which words, phrases, or grammatical constructs from a
speaker’s first language are taken up into his/her second language.
language competence refers to a person’s linguistic knowledge of the features and rules of a
language.
paraphrasing involves expressing the main idea of a text in different words.
proofreading involves editing, or making corrections to the language used (grammar, spelling
and punctuation) in a piece of writing.
summarising involves stating the main ideas of a text in short, simple language.
a thesaurus is a book or electronic resource that contains a list of words and their synonyms.
Complete these questions to assess whether you have mastered the outcomes of this unit.
1. Explain the difference between a dictionary and a thesaurus. (2)
2. Where would you look for the following information? Write down either ‘dictionary’ or
‘thesaurus’ in each case: (7)
a) compound phrases containing a certain word
b) related words
c) parts of speech
d) pronunciation
e) synonyms
f) idiomatic expressions
g) plural forms
3. List the three grammatical structures you can use to form a correct wh-question. (3)
4. Using the correct forms of the given words, form a grammatically correct wh-question:
(6)
a) be; what; write; you
b) go; she; when; will
c) book; be; which; that
d) when; do; make; it; he
e) may; where; we; go
f) who; that; be
205
5. Correct the concord errors in the following sentences: (5)
a) The cats hunts the mice which runs away.
b) Either Themba or Thabo parks in that space.
c) Either Themba or her friends parks in that space.
d) Thabo and Themba both parks there sometimes.
e) She hold her baby while he cry.
6. Rewrite the following sentence using female pronouns. (3)

He said that his brother owed him money.
7. Rewrite the following sentence using male pronouns. (3)

Her job is very caring. It suits her, as she is a nice person.
8. Fill in the correct articles in the following sentence. (Mark the space with an X if no article
should be used.) (8)
There are ___ few ___seats left on ___ bus. There is ___ open space in front of ___ girl in
the back. I am relieved, as I have ___ many shopping bags. I bought ___ clothes and ___
box of shoes.
9. Explain what ‘infiltration’ is. (1)
10. Name two ways in which you can use reading skills when planning your writing.
(2)
11. Explain what it means to summarise and paraphrase. (3)
12. How will identifying keywords as a reading strategy help your writing? (1)
13. Define signposting language. Why is it important to use when writing? (2)
14. Name three components of a correct introduction in academic writing. (3)
15. Name three components of a correct conclusion in academic writing. (3)

1. Explain the difference between a dictionary and a thesaurus. (2)
A dictionary provides explanations for the meanings of words, as well as additional
grammatical information about the words.✓ A thesaurus provides a list of synonyms and
related words.✓
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2. Where would you look for the following information? Write down either ‘dictionary’ or
‘thesaurus’ in each case: (7)
a) compound phrases containing a certain word; b) related words; c) parts of speech; d)
pronunciation; e) synonyms; f) idiomatic expressions; g) plural forms.
a) dictionary✓
b) thesaurus✓
c) dictionary✓
d) dictionary✓
e) thesaurus✓
f) dictionary✓
g) dictionary✓
3. List the three grammatical structures you can use to form a correct wh-question.
(3)
With an auxiliary verb.✓ With a modal verb.✓ Without an auxiliary verb.✓
4. Using the correct forms of the given words, form a grammatically correct wh-question:
(6)
a) be; what; write; you
b) go; she; when; will
c) book; be; which; that
d) when; do; make; it; he
e) may; where; we; go
f) who; that; be
a) What are you writing?✓
b) When will she go?✓
c) Which book is that?✓
d) When did he make it?✓
e) Where may we go?✓
f) Who is that?✓
207
5. Correct the concord errors in the following sentences: (5)
a) The cats hunts the mice which runs away.
b) Either Themba or Thabo parks in that space.
c) Either Themba or her friends parks in that space.
d) Thabo and Themba both parks there sometimes.
e) She hold her baby while he cry.
a) The cats hunt the mice which run away.✓

b) Either Themba or Thabo parks in that space.✓ (already correct)
c) Either Themba or her friends park in that space.✓
d) Thabo and Themba both park there sometimes.✓
e) She holds her baby while he cries.✓
6. Rewrite the following sentence using female pronouns. (3)

He said that his brother owed him money.
She✓ said that her✓ brother owed her✓ money.
7. Rewrite the following sentence using male pronouns. (3)

Her job is very caring. It suits her, as she is a nice person.
His✓ job is very caring. It suits him,✓ as he✓ is a nice person.
8. Fill in the correct articles in the following sentence. (Mark the space with an X if no article
should be used.) (8)
There are ___ few ___seats left on ___ bus. There is ___ open space in front of ___
girl in the back. I am relieved, as I have ___ many shopping bags. I bought ___
clothes and ___ box of shoes.
There are _a_ ✓ few _X_ ✓ seats left on _the_ ✓ bus. There is _an_ ✓ open space in
front of _the_ ✓ girl in the back. I am relieved, as I have _X_ ✓ many shopping bags. I
bought _X_ ✓ clothes and _a_ ✓ box of shoes.
9. Explain what ‘infiltration’ is. (1)

Infiltration is when you use words from a different language and mix them with the
language you are speaking.✓
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10. Name two ways in which you can use reading skills when planning your writing.
(2)
To read and understand your question or assignment.✓ To gather source material.✓
11. Explain what it means to summarise and paraphrase. (3)

Summarising involves noting only the most important main ideas or the key information
from a piece of writing.✓ Paraphrasing involves rewriting text in your own words without
changing the meaning.✓
12. How will identifying keywords as a reading strategy help your writing? (1)
If you are able to identify keywords while reading, you can make sure that your own
writing is structured well and responds to your topic.✓
13. Define signposting language. Why is it important to use when writing? (2)
Signposting language indicates how ideas or sentences are connected to one another.✓
Signposting language is important because it indicates the structure/flow of your
writing.✓
14. Name three components of a correct introduction in academic writing. (3)

Context OR background information
Definition of key terms
Review of other writing about the topic
Purpose and aim of the text (thesis statement)
Research methods
An indication of the structure the text will take
15. Name three components of a correct conclusion in academic writing. (3)

Brief review of the main points of your text
A statement that shows how the text has reached its aim
A summary of what you have achieved in your text
Some suggestions for further research
A discussion of the implications of the research.
209

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ENG1514/501/0/2024

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2024

Applied English Language for Foundation

Department of English Studies

This tutorial letter contains important information

Course Overview / Introduction

Outcomes and Assessment Criteria

Unit 1: Understanding Language

By the end of this unit, you should be able to

• define language, its features, and functions.

Read Chapter 4 in Wyse et al. (2013).

words to call certain objects/ideas/thoughts, those words become accepted by everyone

Formal and Informal Language

Let us look at the following examples:

Read Chapter 5 in Wyse et al. (2013:88–92).

Standard and Non-standard Language

1. Chap, do you wanna come over to my house to watch movies later?

Critical Language Awareness

____ I can define language.

Basic Grammatical Concepts

We will examine pronouns in more detail in Unit 2.

English Personal Pronouns

In English, gender as a grammatical concept is strictly marked for third-person singular

She bought a car.

In this sentence, the pronoun she is the subject of the sentence.

Her uncle left home.

1. Frank will watch the rugby match next Sunday.

• The present progressive/continuous tense: this is typically used to describe present

I am teaching English grammar now.

• The past progressive/continuous tense: this is normally used to refer to past

If I were you, I would not sign the contract.

1. *At this present time, I was in the kitchen.

1. At the present time, I am in the kitchen.

3. My sister will buy a new phone very soon.

4. I had known that school life was not the best.

6. The state has been congratulating you.

10. I am determined to be on the Nigerian volleyball team.

Let us start with the meaning of concord.

I am singing. I am grateful. I am a doctor.

You are dancing. You are grateful. You are a student.

He is singing. She is singing. It is our mascot.

We are singing. You are dancing. They are leaving.

The man and his pet have gone for a walk.

Our secretary and scribe is here.

Bread and butter is my favourite breakfast.

The engineer, as well as his trainees, is here.

3. Concord Relating to the Nature of Certain Nouns

4. Concord between Subject and Complement of a Sentence

That man is a prince. Those men are princes.

The children or their father is washing the floor.

6. Concord between Determiners and the Nouns They Modify

7. Concord Involving Personal Pronouns in the Third Person

If Thuli comes today, I will give her the money.

5. *The people who own that house has no dogs.

Read pages 263 and 264 in Wyse et al. (2013).

Differences between Oral, Written and Visual Communication

Verbal/oral communication is the transfer of messages and information by word of mouth. It is