2 Logic and Set Theory

Tuesday, 11 April 2023 7:52 am

2.1 : Proposition
Mathematics is a language that uses proposition to communicate mathematical ideas.
Proposition is a declarative sentence that can be identified as either true or false.
-if proposition is true denoted by T or 1 in truth value , otherwise F or 0 for false.
Truth Table diagram in table form used to show all possible truth values.
p q
1 0
0 1
Quantified statements involve terms like all, each, every, no, none, some, there exist, and at
least one
Universal Quantifiers involve terms like all, each, every, no, and none.
Existensial Quantifiers involve terms like some, there exist, and at least one.
Negation if p is proposition and is true, then the negation is false.
-to express negation replace it with is/are by is not/are/not, etc.
p ~p
1 0
0 1

2.2 : Compound Preposition

Simple Preposition
• a proposition with one subject and one predicate
• Cannot be deduced to simpler proposition
• Conveys single idea
• Ex. Every cat that barks has a PHD
Compound Preposition
• Joining two or more simple proposition w/ connectives
• Conveys two or more ideas
Connectives
• Conjunction : and : ^ : true only when both p and q are true.
• Disjunction : or : v : false only when both and q are false.
• Conditional : if…then : -> : false when p is true and q is false.
• Biconditional : if and only if or iff : <-> : true when p and q have the same truth values.
• Exclusive or of p and q : : true when exactly one of p and q is true.
Remark for Conditional:
• In conditional statement p -> q, p is called the hypothesis ( or antecedent or premise ),
and q is conclusion ( or consequent)

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 and q is conclusion ( or consequent)
• Other ways to express p -> q: p implies q, p only if q, p is sufficient for q, q whenever p,
etc.
• The converse of p -> q is q -> p
• The inverse of p -> q is ~p ->~q
• The contrapositive of p->q is ~q -> ~p
Remark:
• If compound statement is written in English, comma is used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together. Statements on the same side of a comma are group
together.
• When there are parenthesis , we find the truth value of the statement/statements in the
parenthesis first.
• If compound statement is written in symbols and there are no parenthesis, the hierarchy
of connectives is ~, ^, v,->,<->.
• When a compound statement has both conjunction and disjunction, we need to use
parenthesis to determine which to consider first.
Tautology - compound proposition that is always true.
Contradiction - compound proposition that is always false.
Contingency - neither tautology nor contradiction.
Logically Implies - if the conditional statement p -> q is a tautology. (written as => )
Logically Equivalent - if proposition have same truth values for all possible combinations of
truth value for the simple proposition that compose them. p => q and q => p. (<=> or )
Common Equivalences in Logic

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2.3 : Argument
Argument is compound proposition of the form( p1 ^ p2 ^ p3^…^pn ) -> q.
p1,p2,p3,…,pn are the premises; q is the conclusion.
can be written in column or standard form.
REMARK
• If all premises are true implies that the conclusion is true then the argument is valid.
Otherwise, invalid.
• Fallacy is an error in reasoning that leads to an invalid argument.
• If the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, then an argument is valid. Failing
that, then invalid.
• If tautology, then valid.
Procedure in determining the validity of an argument:
• Write the argument in symbols.
• Write the argument as a conditional statement.
• Set up and construct a truth table for the symbolic form.
• If the last column is a tautology then valid, otherwise, invalid.
Common Forms of Valid Argument

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Common Forms of Invalid Arguments
1. Fallacy of the converse
p -> q
q
-------
therefore, p
2. Fallacy of the inverse
p -> q
~p
-------
therefore, ~q
3. Fallacy of the inclusive or
pvq
p
------
therefore, ~q
To analyze an argument with an Euler Diagram
1. Draw an Euler Diagram based on the premises of the argument.
2. Invalid if there's a way to draw diagram that makes the conclusion false.
3. Valid if the diagram can't be drawn to make the conclusion false.
4. If premises are insufficient to determine the location of an element or a set mentioned in
the conclusion, then the argument is invalid.
Universal Affirmative

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 the conclusion, then the argument is invalid.
Universal Affirmative

All A is B.
Universal Negative

No A is B.
Particular Affirmative

Some A is B
Particular Negative

x
A

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 x
A

Some A is not B.
2.4 : Sets
Sets - a well-defined collection of objects called elements.
- it is well-defined if for any given object we can decide whether it's or is not in the
collection.
- definition of what is or is not in a set has to be based on facts , not opinions
Set can be described in three ways:
Listing (roster) Method : listing all the elements between braces and separated by comma.
Set-Builder Notation : uses a variable, braces and a vertical bar | ( such that ). This is used
when elements are too many to list down.
Descriptive Method : short verbal statement to describe the set.
Notations:
N - set of natural or counting numbers.
Z - set of integers.
Q - set of rational numbers.
R - set of real numbers.
Empty Set - ( null set ) set with no elements.
- {} or is used to represent the empty set.
- set with one element is called unit set or a singleton.
Finite - possible to list down all the elements. Otherwise, it is infinite.
Cardinality - number of elements denoted as n(A).
Equal - have exactly the same members of elements. A = B.
Equivalent - have the same number of elements. n(A) = n(B). A = B.
One-to-one Correspondence - if each element in the first set can be paired with one element
of the second set, vice versa.
Universal Set - set of all objects that are reasonable to consider in that situation. .
Complement of a set - set of all elements in the universal set that are not in A. A .
- A ={ x|xEU and x E A}
Subset - if every element of set A is also an element of set B, then A is called subset of B. A_B.
Proper Subset - if a set A is a subset of a set B and is not equal to B, then we call A as proper
subset of B. A B.
Power Set - set containing all the subsets of a set. 2 .
Remark:
-Empty set is a subset of every set.
Intersection of two sets - set of all elements that are in both sets. A B.
-when the intersection of two sets is the empty sets, the sets are said
to be disjoint.
-conjunction in connectives.
Union of two sets - set of all elements that are in either set A or set B (or both). A U B.
-n(A U B) = n(A) +n(B) - n(A B)
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 -conjunction in connectives.
Union of two sets - set of all elements that are in either set A or set B (or both). A U B.
-n(A U B) = n(A) +n(B) - n(A B)
- disjunction in connective.
Difference of two sets - set of all elements in A that are not in B, written as A\B or A - B.
- A\B = A B .
Cartesian product or cross product of two sets - set of ordered pairs(a,b), where a E A and b E
B. A X B. n(A x B) = n(A) n(B).
Venn Diagram - to visualize sets and their relations.

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