FUNDAMENTALS OF

leh astoren
(SEOGRAPHY
 ❈❖ ✁✂ ✁✄
CoNnTENTS

❋☎✆✝❲✞✟✠
FOREWORD ✐✐✐tii
❯✡☛☞
UNIT ☛I ✌: ✍❊✎✏✑✒✓✔✕
Geoarapuy As ✒❆ A✒ ✥■❆✖■✓✗■✘❊
DISCIPLINE ✶✙✶✚
1-12
Xm✛✳ ●✜✢✣✤✦✧★✩
Geography ✦✪ as ✦ a ✫✬✪✭✬✧✮✬✯✜
Discipline ✷2
❯✡☛☞
UNIT ☛☛ ☞✔❊ ✰✒✑✱✔
II ✌: Tue Eartu ✶✲✙✲✴
13-38
✷✳
2. ❚★✜ ✵✤✬✣✬✯
The Origin ✦✯✸ and ✹✺✢✮✻✼✬✢✯
Evolution ✢✽ of ✼★✜
the ✹✦✤✼★
Earth ✛✾
14
_ 3✿✳ Interior
❀✯✼✜✤✬✢✤ ✢✽ of ✼★✜
the ✹✦✤✼★
Earth ✷✛
21
_ 4✾✳ Distribution
✫✬✪✼✤✬❉✻✼✬✢✯ ✢✽ of ✵✭✜✦✯✪
Oceans ✦✯✸and ❁✢✯✼✬✯✜✯✼✪
Continents ✿❂
30

❯✡☛☞
UNIT ☛☛☛ III ✌: ❃✒✘❄❅✎✑❇❆
Lanprorms ✲❍✙❏❑
39-74
BO ▲✳ 1 ▼✬✯✜✤✦✮✪
Minerals ✦✯✸ and ◆✢✭P✪
Rocks + ✾❂
40
Leb Sn We oritddle — didln + muck sulwante
◗✳
6. ●✜✢❘✢✤✧★✬✭
Geomorphic ❙✤✢✭✜✪✪✜✪
.
Processes ff “0 bel pint pltus — gas PYG: ✾▲
45
❱✳
7. ❳✦✯✸✽✢✤❘✪
Landforms ✦✯✸ and ✼★✜✬✤
their ✹✺✢✮✻✼✬✢✯
Evolution 4, Past \0 we. ▲❨
58

❯✡☛☞
UNIT ☛❩ IV ✌: ❬✗■❇✒✱❊
Ciimate ❏❭✙✶✶❪
75-110
._-8-~❨✳ Composition
❁✢❘✧✢✪✬✼✬✢✯ ✦✯✸ and ❫✼✤✻✭✼✻✤✜
Structure ✢✽ ❴✼❘✢✪✧★✜✤✜
of Atmosphere ❱◗
76
❵✳
9. ❫✢✮✦✤
Solar ◆✦✸✬✦✼✬✢✯❛
Radiation, ❜✜✦✼ Heat ❝✦✮✦✯✭✜
Balance ✦✯✸ ❚✜❘✧✜✤✦✼✻✤✜
and Temperature ❱❵
79
✛❂✳
10. ❴✼❘✢✪✧★✜✤✬✭ ❁✬✤✭✻✮✦✼✬✢✯
Atmospheric Circulation ✦✯✸ ❞✜✦✼★✜✤ ❫✩✪✼✜❘✪
and Weather Systems ❨❨
88
✛✛✳
11. ❞✦✼✜✤ ✬✯
Water in ✼★✜ ❴✼❘✢✪✧★✜✤✜
the Atmosphere ❵❨
98
✛✷✳
12. ❞✢✤✮✸ ❁✮✬❘✦✼✜
World Climate ✦✯✸ and ❁✮✬❘✦✼✜
Climate ❁★✦✯✣✜
Change ✛❂✿
103

UNIT V❩ ✌: Water
❯✡☛☞ ❡✒✱❊✑ ❢❣✖❊✒✘❆❤
(Oceans) ✶✶✶✙✶✚❭
111-125
✛✿✳. Water❞✦✼✜✤ ❥✵✭✜✦✯✪❦
(Oceans) ✛✛✷
112
✛✾✳. ▼✢✺✜❘✜✯✼✪
Movements ✢✽ of ✵✭✜✦✯
Ocean Water❞✦✼✜✤ ✛✷❂
120

❯✡☛☞
UNIT VI: ❩☛ ✌ ❃■❅❊
Lire ✎✘on ✱✔❊THE ✰✒✑✱✔
EartTHu ✶✚❧✙✶❑❪
126-140
✛▲✳
15. ❳✬✽✜
Life ✢✯
on ✼★✜
the ✹✦✤✼★
Earth ✛✷❱
127
✛◗✳
16. ❝✬✢✸✬✺✜✤✪✬✼✩
Biodiversity ✦✯✸ and ❁✢✯✪✜✤✺✦✼✬✢✯
Conservation ✛✿▲
135

✍✗✎❆❆✒✑✕
GLOSSARY ✶❑✶✙✶❑❑
141-144
 ❯◆✣✤
UNIT

a
✦
Aa
>

●❊ ✁✂✄☎✆✝ AS
GEOGRAPHY ✄❆ A✄ ✥■❆✞■☎✟■✠❊
DISCIPLINE
❚✡☛☞ ✌✍☛✎ ✏✑✒✓☞ ✔☛✎✡
This unit deals with
➄¢ ✕✑✖✗✘✒✙✡✚
Geography ✒☞as ✒✍
an ☛✍✎✑✗✘✒✎☛✍✗
integrating ✏☛☞✐☛✙✓☛✍✑✛
discipline; ✒☞
as ✒a ☞✐☛✑✍✐✑
science ✖✜
of ☞✙✒✎☛✒✓
spatial
✒✎✎✘☛❛✌✎✑☞
attributes
➄¢« ❇✘✒✍✐✡✑☞
Branches ✖✜of ✗✑✖✗✘✒✙✡✚✛
geography; ☛✢✙✖✘✎✒✍✐✑
importance ✖✜ ✙✡✚☞☛✐✒✓ ✗✑✖✗✘✒✙✡✚
of physical geography
❈CHAPTER
❉❋❍❏❑▲

J ●✻✼✽✾✿❀❁❂ ✿❆ A✿ ❃■❆❄■❀❅■❇✻
GEOGRAPHY AS DISCIPLINE

\ You ♦ ✁✂✄☎
have ✆✝ ✞✟☎✞ ❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛
studied geography ✂✆ as ♦☞☎
one ♦✌ of ✝✁☎
the ♦✌
of ✝✁☎
the ☎✂✠✝✁✔✆
earth’s ✆surface.
✠✌✂❝☎✉ The ☞✞☎✠✆✝✂☞✞✟☞❣ ✂☞✞
❚✁☎ understanding and
components ♦✌
❝♦✍✡♦☞☎☞✝✆ ☛♦ ✠ ✆♦❝✟✂✎
of your social ✆✝ ✞✟☎✆ ❝♦
studies course ✠✆☎ ✝✁☎
the ✆✘✟✎✎✆
skills ♦✕✝✂✟☞☎✞
obtained ✟☞ modern ✆❝✟☎☞✝✟✌✟❝
in ✍♦✞☎✠☞ scientific
❨upto ✡✝♦ ✝✁☎the ✆☎❝♦☞✞✂✠☛
secondary ✆✝✂❣☎✉ stage. You ✏♦ ✂✠☎ are ✝☎❝✁☞✟✗
techniques ☎✆ ✆such ❝✁ ✂✆ as ✓t✜ GIS ✂☞✞ and ✢✣✤✥✦✧★✩
computer
✂✎✠☎✂✞☛
already ✂❛✂✠☎
aware ♦✌ of ✆♦✍☎
some ♦✌ of ✝✁☎
the ✡✁☎☞♦✍☎☞✂
phenomena ♦✌ of ✢✪✩✧✣✫✩✪✥✬✭
cartography ☎✗
equip✟✡ you ☛♦ ✝♦ to ✍☎✂☞✟☞❣✌
meaningfully ✎✎☛
❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁✟❝✂✎
geographical ☞✂✝ nature ✠☎ ✟☞ in ✝✁☎ ❛♦✠✎✞ ✂☞✞
the world and ✟✝✆ its contribute✝☎ ✝♦
❝♦☞✝✠✟✕ to ✝✁☎
the ☞✂✝✟♦☞✂✎
national ☎☞✞☎✂✄♦ endeavour ✠ ✌♦✠ for
✞✟✌✌☎✠☎☞✝
different ✡✂✠✝✆✉
parts. ❞♦❛✑Now, you ☛♦ will❛✟✎✎ ✆✝
study✞☛ ✒✓☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛✔
‘Geography’ ✞☎✄☎✎♦✡✍☎☞✝✉
development.
✂✆ ✂☞ ✟☞✞☎✡☎☞✞☎☞✝
as an independent subject ✆ ✂☞✞
✕✖☎❝✝ and ✎☎✂✠☞ learn ✂✕♦ about ✝ ✝✁☎ the Now ✝✁☎
❞♦❛ the ☞☎◆✝
next ✗ ☎✆✝✟♦☞ which
question ❛✁✟❝✁ you ☛♦ ✍✂☛ may ✎✟✘☎like
✡✁☛✆✟❝✂✎
physical ☎☞✄✟✠♦☞✍☎☞✝
environment ♦✌ of ✝✁☎
the ☎✂✠✝✁✑
earth, ✁ human ✍✂☞ ✝♦ ✂✆✘ ✟✆ ➋ ✙✁✂✝ ✟✆ ❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛✚
to ask is — What is geography? You know that ✏♦ ✘☞♦❛ ✝✁✂✝
✂❝✝✟✄✟✝✟☎✆
activities ✂☞✞ and ✝✁☎✟✠
their ✟☞✝☎✠✂❝✝✟✄☎
interactive ✠☎✎✂✝✟♦☞✆✁✟✡✆✉
relationships. ☎✂✠✝✁
earth ✟✆ is ♦our✠ ✁♦✍☎✉
home. t✝ It ✟✆
is ✂✎✆♦
also ✝✁☎
the ✁♦✍☎
home ♦✌ of ✍✂☞☛
many
❚✁☎✠☎✌♦✠☎✑ ✂a ✡☎✠✝✟☞☎☞✝
Therefore, pertinent ✗ ☎✆✝✟♦☞ you
question ☛♦ ❝✂☞ can ✂✆✘ask ✂✝ at ♦✝✁☎✠
other ❝✠☎✂✝
creatures,✠☎✆✑ ✕✟❣
big ✂☞✞and ✆✍✂✎✎✑ ❛✁✟❝✁ ✎✟✄☎
small, which live ♦☞ on
✝✁✟✆
this ✆✝✂❣☎stage ✟✆ is — ➋ Why ✙✁☛ ✆✁♦ should✎✞ we ❛☎ ✆✝ study ✞☛ ✝✁☎
the ☎✂✠✝✁
earth ✂☞✞and ✆sustain.
✆✝✂✟☞✉ The ❚✁☎ ☎✂✠✝✁✔✆
earth’s ✆surface ✠✌✂❝☎ ✟✆ is
❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛✚
geography? We live ♦☞
✙☎ ✎✟✄☎ on ✝✁☎
the ✆surface
✠✌✂❝☎ ♦✌ of ✝✁☎
the ☎✂✠✝✁✉
earth. ☞♦✝ ☞✟✌♦✠✍✉ t✝It ✁✂✆
not uniform. ✄✂✠✟✂✝✟♦☞✆ ✟☞
has variations in ✟✝✆
its ✡✁☛✆✟❝✂✎
physical
❖Our✠ ✎✟✄☎✆
lives ✂✠☎
are ✂✌✌☎❝✝☎✞
affected ✕☛ by ♦ our✠ ✆surroundings
✠✠♦ ☞✞✟☞❣✆ ✟☞ in ✌☎✂✝ ✠☎✆✉ There
features. ❚✁☎✠☎ ✂✠☎ are ✍♦ ☞✝✂✟☞✆✑ ✁✟✎✎✆✑
mountains, ✄✂✎✎☎☛✆✑
hills, valleys,
✍✂☞☛ ❛✂☛✆✉ ✙☎ ✞☎✡☎☞✞
many ways. We depend on the resources to ♦☞ ✝✁☎ ✠☎✆♦ ✠❝☎✆ ✝♦ ✡✎✂✟☞✆✑
plains, ✡✎✂✝☎✂
plateaus,✆✑ ♦❝☎✂☞✆✑
oceans, ✎✂✘☎✆✑lakes, ✞☎✆☎✠✝✆
deserts ✂☞✞ and
✆sustain
✆✝✂✟☞ ♦ourselves
✠✆☎✎✄☎✆ ✟☞ in ✝✁☎
the ✆surrounding
✠✠♦ ☞✞✟☞❣ ✂✠☎✂✆✉ areas. ❛✟✎✞☎✠☞☎✆✆✉
wilderness. There ❚✁☎✠☎ ✂✠☎ are ✄✂✠✟✂✝✟♦☞✆
variations ✟☞ in ✟✝✆
its ✆♦❝✟✂✎
social
Primitive ✆♦❝✟☎✝✟☎✆
P✠✟✍✟✝✟✄☎ societies ✆subsisted
✕✆✟✆✝☎✞ ♦☞ on ✒☞✂✝
‘natural ✠✂✎ ✍☎✂☞✆
means ✂☞✞ ✎✝ ✠✂✎ ✌☎✂✝
and ❝cultural features✠☎✆ ✝♦♦✉ ❚✁☎✠☎ ✂✠☎
too. There are ✄✟✎✎✂❣☎✆✑
villages,
♦✌
of ✆subsistence’,
✕✆✟✆✝☎☞❝☎✔✑ ✟✉☎✉ i.e. ☎✞✟✕✎☎
edible ✡✎✂☞✝✆
plants ✂☞✞ and ✂☞✟✍✂✎✆✉
animals. cities, roads, railways, ports, markets ✂☞✞
❝✟✝✟☎✆✑ ✠♦✂✞✆✑ ✠✂✟✎❛✂☛✆✑ ✡♦✠✝✆✑ ✍✂✠✘☎✝✆ and
✙✟✝✁ ✝✁☎
With the ✡✂✆✆✂❣☎
passage ♦✌ of ✝✟✍☎✑
time, we ❛☎ ✞☎✄☎✎♦✡☎✞
developed many ♦✝✁☎✠
✍✂☞☛ other ☎✎☎✍☎☞✝✆
elements ❝✠☎✂✝☎✞
created ✕☛ by ✁ ✍✂☞ ✕☎✟☞❣✆
human beings
✝☎❝✁☞♦✎♦❣✟☎✆
technologies ✂☞✞ and ✆✝✂✠✝☎✞
started ✡✠♦✞ producing❝✟☞❣ ♦our✠ ✌♦♦✞ food ✂❝✠♦✆✆
across ✝✁☎ the ☎☞✝✟✠☎
entire ✡☎✠✟♦✞
period ♦✌ of ✝✁☎✟✠
their ❝cultural ✎✝ ✠✂✎
✆✟☞❣ ☞✂✝
using ✠✂✎ ✠☎✆♦
natural resources✠❝☎✆ ✆such ❝✁ ✂✆ land, ✆♦✟✎
as ✎✂☞✞✑ soil ✂☞✞and ✞☎✄☎✎♦✡✍☎☞✝✉
development.
❛✂✝☎✠✉ We
water. ✙☎ ✂✞✖ adjusted✆✝☎✞ ♦our✠ ✌♦♦✞ food ✁✂✕✟✝✆
habits ✂☞✞ and ❚✁✟✆ ✄✂✠✟✂✝✟♦☞
This variation ✡✠♦✄✟✞☎✆provides ✂ a ❝✎clue☎ ✝♦ to ✝✁☎the
clothing ✂❝❝♦✠✞✟☞❣
❝✎♦✝✁✟☞❣ according ✝♦ to ✝✁☎
the ✡✠☎✄✂✟✎✟☞❣
prevailing weather❛☎✂✝✁☎✠ ☞✞☎✠✆✝✂☞✞✟☞❣ ♦✌
understanding of ✝✁☎
the ✠☎✎✂✝✟♦☞✆✁✟✡
relationship ✕☎✝❛☎☎☞between ✝✁☎ the
❝♦☞✞✟✝✟♦☞✆✉
conditions. There ❚✁☎✠☎ are variations in the ☞✂✝
✂✠☎ ✄✂✠✟✂✝✟♦☞✆ ✟☞ ✝✁☎ natural ✠✂✎ ✡✁☛✆✟❝✂✎
physical ☎☞✄✟✠♦☞✍☎☞✝
environment ✂☞✞ and ✆♦❝✟✂✎♣❝
social/cultural ✎✝ ✠✂✎
✠☎✆♦
resource ✠❝☎ ✕✂✆☎✑
base, ✝☎❝✁☞♦✎♦❣✟❝✂✎
technological ✞☎✄☎✎♦✡✍☎☞✝✑
development, ✌☎✂✝
features.✠☎✆✉ The
❚✁☎ ✡✁☛✆✟❝✂✎
physical ☎☞✄✟✠♦☞✍☎☞✝
environment ✁✂✆ has
✂✞✂✡✝✂✝✟♦☞
adaptation with ❛✟✝✁ ✂☞✞ modification ♦✌
and ✍♦✞✟✌✟❝✂✝✟♦☞ of ✡✁☛✆✟❝✂✎
physical ✡✠♦✄✟✞☎✞
provided the stage, on which ✁
✝✁☎ ✆✝✂❣☎✑ ♦☞ ❛✁✟❝✁ ✍✂☞ ✆♦❝✟☎✝✟☎✆
human societies
☎☞✄✟✠♦☞✍☎☞✝✑
environment, ✆♦❝✟✂✎ social ♦✠❣✂☞✟✆✂✝✟♦☞✆
organisations ✂☞✞ and ❝cultural✎✝ ✠✂✎ ☎☞✂❝✝☎✞
enacted ✝✁☎ the ✞✠✂✍✂
drama ♦✌ of ✝✁☎✟✠ creative ✆✘✟✎✎✆
their ❝✠☎✂✝✟✄☎ skills ❛✟✝✁
with
✞☎✄☎✎♦✡✍☎☞✝✉
development. As ✛✆ ✂a ✆✝ ✞☎☞✝ ♦✌
student of ❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛✑
geography, you ☛♦ ✝✁☎
the ✝♦♦✎✆
tools ✂☞✞and ✝☎❝✁☞✟✗
techniques ☎✆ ❛✁✟❝✁
which ✝✁☎☛ they ✟☞✄☎☞✝☎✞
invented
✆✁♦
should✎✞ ✕☎ ✠✟♦ ✆ ✝♦
be ❝curious know ✂✕♦
to ✘☞♦❛ about ✝ ✂✎✎ all ✝✁☎ the ✂☞✞
and ☎✄♦✎✄☎✞
evolved ✟☞ in ✝✁☎
the ✡✠♦❝☎✆✆
process ♦✌ of ✝✁☎✟✠ ✎✝ ✠✂✎
their ❝cultural
✡✁☎☞♦✍☎☞✂
phenomena which ❛✁✟❝✁ vary ✄✂✠☛ ♦✄☎✠over ✆✡✂❝☎✉
space. You ✏♦ ✎☎✂✠☞learn ✞☎✄☎✎♦✡✍☎☞✝✉
development. ❞♦❛✑ Now, you ☛♦ ✆✁♦ should✎✞ ✕☎ be ✂✕✎☎able ✝♦ to
✂✕♦
about ✝ ✝✁☎the ✞✟✄☎✠✆☎
diverse ✎✂☞✞✆ lands ✂☞✞ and ✡☎♦✡✎☎✉
people. You ✏♦ ✂✝✝☎✍✡✝
attempt ✝✁☎ the ✂☞✆❛☎✠
answer ♦✌ of ✝✁☎
the ✗ ☎✆✝✟♦☞ ✡♦✆☎✞
question posed
✆✁♦ ✂✎✆♦
should✎✞ also ✕☎ be interested in understanding ✝✁☎
✟☞✝☎✠☎✆✝☎✞ ✟☞ ☞✞☎✠✆✝✂☞✞✟☞❣ the ☎✂✠✎✟☎✠
earlier ✂✆ as ✝♦to ❡✙✁✂✝
“What ✟✆ is ❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛❤✚
geography”? t☞ In ✄☎✠☛
very
❝✁✂☞❣☎✆
changes which ❛✁✟❝✁ ✁✂✄☎ have ✝✂✘☎☞taken ✡✎✂❝☎place ♦✄☎✠ over ✝✟✍☎✉time. ✆✟✍✡✎☎ ❛♦✠✞✆✑ ✟✝ ❝✂☞ ✕☎ ✆✂✟✞
simple words, it can be said that geography ✝✁✂✝ ❣☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛
Geography ☎✗
✓☎♦❣✠✂✡✁☛ equips✟✡✆ you
☛♦ ✝♦ to ✂✡✡✠☎❝✟✂✝☎
appreciate ✞✟✄☎✠✆✟✝☛
diversity ✟✆
is ✝✁☎
the ✞☎✆❝✠✟✡✝✟♦☞
description ♦✌ of ✝✁☎the ☎✂✠✝✁✉
earth. The ❚✁☎ ✝☎✠✍ term
✂☞✞
and ✟☞✄☎✆✝✟❣✂✝☎
investigate ✟☞✝♦ into ✝✁☎
the ❝✂ causes✆☎✆ ✠☎✆✡♦☞✆✟✕✎☎
responsible ✌♦✠ for ✫★✣✫✩✪✥✬✭
geography ❛✂✆ was ✌✟✠✆✝
first ❝♦✟☞☎✞
coined ✕☛ by ❊✩✪✧✣✮✧✬★✯★✮★✑
Eratosthenese,
creating ✆such
❝✠☎✂✝✟☞❣ ✄✂✠✟✂✝✟♦☞✆ ♦✄☎✠
❝✁ variations over ✝✟✍☎
time ✂☞✞ and ✆✡✂❝☎✉
space. ✂a ✓✠☎☎✘
Greek ✆❝✁♦✎✂✠
scholar ✰✱✲✳✴✵✶✷
(276-194 ✸✹✉✺✉ BC.). The word ✁✂✆
❚✁☎ ❛♦✠✞ has
✏♦ will
You ❛✟✎✎ ✞☎✄☎✎♦✡
develop ✆✘✟✎✎✆skills ✝♦ ☞✞☎✠✆✝✂☞✞ ✝✁☎
to understand the ❣✎♦✕☎
globe been ✞☎✠✟✄☎✞
✕☎☎☞ derived ✌✠♦✍ from ✝❛♦ two ✠♦♦✝✆
roots ✌✠♦✍ from ✓✠☎☎✘ Greek
❝♦☞✄☎✠✝☎✞ ✟☞✝♦ ✍✂✡✆ ✂☞✞
converted into maps and have a visual sense✁✂✄☎ ✂ ✄✟✆ ✂✎ ✆☎☞✆☎ ✎✂☞❣
language✂❣☎ ✫★✣ (earth) ✂☞✞
geo ✰☎✂✠✝✁✺ and ✫✩✪✥✬✣✮
graphos ✰✞☎✆❝✠✟✡✝✟♦☞✺✉
(description).
● ✁●✂✄☎✆✝ AS
GEOGRAPHY ✄✞ A✄ ✟✠✞✡✠☎☛✠☞
DISCIPLINE ✸3

P✌✍
Put ✍✎✏✑✍✒✑✓✱
together, ✍✒✑✔they ✕✑✖✗
mean ✘✑✙✚✓✛✜✍✛✎✗
description ✎✢ of ✍✒✑
the ✑✖✓✍✒✣
earth. ❝✻✬✳✼✰✳✼
changing ✭✬r✴✻ earth ✬✳✯ and ✽✳✴✰r✰✳✼
untiring ✬✳✯ and ✭✺✭r✾✬❝✴✰✺✭
ever-active
❚✒✑ ✑✖✓✍✒
The earth ✒✖✙has ✖✤✥✖✔✙
always been ✦✑✑✗ ✙✑✑✗
seen ✖✙ as ✍✒✑
the ✖✦✎✘✑
abode ✻✽❤✬✳
human ✿✭✰✳✼❀✣
beings. P✓✛✕✛✍✛✫✑
Primitive ✒✌✕✖✗ human ✙✎✚✛✑✍✛✑✙
societies were✥✑✓✑
✎✢
of ✒✌✕✖✗
human beings✦✑✛✗✏✙ ✖✗✘ and ✍✒✌✙✱
thus, ✙✚✒✎✤✖✓✙
scholars ✘✑✢✛✗✑✘defined ✘✛✓✑✚✍✤✔
directly ✘✑✜✑✗✘✑✗✍
dependent ✎✗ on ✍✒✑✛ their✓ ✛✕✕✑✘✛✖✍✑
immediate
✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
geography ✖✙✱ as, ❣✍✒✑
“the ✘✑✙✚✓✛✜✍✛✎✗
description ✎✢ of ✍✒✑
the ✑✖✓✍✒
earth ✖✙as ✑✗✫✛✓✎✗✕✑✗✍✣
environment. ❛✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔✱ Geography, ✍✒✌✙✱ thus, ✛✙ is ✚✎✗✚✑✓✗✑✘
concerned
✍✒✑
the ✖✦✎✘✑
abode ✎✢ of ✒✌✕✖✗ ✦✑✛✗✏✙t✣ You
human beings”. ✧✎✌ ✖✓✑are ✖✥✖✓✑
aware ✎✢ of ✥✛✍✒ ✍✒✑
with the ✙✍✌✘✔study ✎✢ of ◆✬ Nature✴✽r✭ ✖✗✘ and ❍✽❤✬✳Human
✍✒✑
the ✢✖✚✍
fact ✍✒✖✍
that ✓✑✖✤✛✍✔
reality ✛✙is ✖✤✥✖✔✙
always ✕✌✤✍✛✢✖✚✑✍✑✘
multifaceted ✖✗✘ and ✛✗✍✑✓✖✚✍✛✎✗✙ ✖✙ ✖✗ ✛✗✍✑✏✓✖✍✑✘
interactions as an integrated whole. ‘Human’ ✥✒✎✤✑✣ ★✐✌✕✖✗✩
✍✒✑
the ★✑✖✓✍✒✩
‘earth’ ✛✙ is ✖✤✙✎
also ✕✌✤✍✛✪✘✛✕✑✗✙✛✎✗✖✤✱
multi-dimensional, ✍✒✖✍ that ✛✙is ✛✙
is ✖✗
an ✛✗✍✑✏✓✖✤
integral ✜✖✓✍ part ✎✢ of ★✗✖✍✌✓✑✩
‘nature’ ✖✗✘ and ★✗✖✍✌✓✑✩
‘nature’ ✒✖✙ has
✥✒✔ ✕✖✗✔ ✘✛✙✚✛✜✤✛✗✑✙ ✢✓✎✕
why many disciplines from natural sciences ✗✖✍✌✓✖✤ ✙✚✛✑✗✚✑✙ ✍✒✑
the ✛✕✜✓✛✗✍✙
imprints ✎✢ of ★✒✌✕✖✗✩✣
‘human’. ★❁✖✍✌✓✑✩
‘Nature’ ✒✖✙ has ✛✗✢✤✌✑✗✚✑✘
influenced
✙✌✚✒
such ✖✙ as ✏✑✎✤✎✏✔✱
geology, ✜✑✘✎✤✎✏✔✱
pedology, ✎✚✑✖✗✎✏✓✖✜✒✔✱
oceanography, ✘✛✢✢✑✓✑✗✍
different ✖✙✜✑✚✍✙
aspects ✎✢ of ✒✌✕✖✗
human ✤✛✢✑✣ life. ■✍✙
Its ✛✕✜✓✛✗✍✙
imprints ✚✖✗ can
✦✎✍✖✗✔✱ ❜✎✎✤✎✏✔
botany, zoology ✖✗✘ and ✕✑✍✑✎✓✎✤✎✏✔
meteorology ✖✗✘ and ✖ a ✦✑ ✗✎✍✛✚✑✘
be noticed ✎✗ on ✢✎✎✘✱
food, ✚✤✎✍✒✛✗✏✱
clothing, ✙✒✑✤✍✑✓ shelter ✖✗✘ and
✗✌✕✦✑✓
number ✎✢ of ✙✛✙✍✑✓
sister ✘✛✙✚✛✜✤✛✗✑✙
disciplines ✛✗ in ✙✎✚✛✖✤
social ✙✚✛✑✗✚✑✙
sciences occupation. ✐✌✕✖✗
✎✚✚✌✜✖✍✛✎✗✣ Human beings ✦✑✛✗✏✙ ✒✖✫✑ have ✚✎✕✑come ✍✎ to ✍✑✓✕✙
terms
✙✌✚✒
such ✖✙ as ✑✚✎✗✎✕✛✚✙✱
economics, ✒✛✙✍✎✓✔✱
history, ✙✎✚✛✎✤✎✏✔✱
sociology, ✜✎✤✛✍✛✚✖✤
political ✥✛✍✒ ✗✖✍✌✓✑
with nature ✍✒✓✎✌✏ through✒ ✖✘ ✖✜✍ ✖✍✛✎✗ ✖✗✘
adaptation and
✙✚✛✑✗✚✑✱
science, ✖✗✍✒✓✎✜✎✤✎✏✔✱
anthropology, ✑✍✚✣ etc. ✙✍✌✘✔
study ✘✛✢✢✑✓✑✗✍
different ✕✎✘✛✢✛✚✖✍✛✎✗✣
modification. As ✇✙ you already ♠✗✎✥✱
✔✎✌ ✖✤✓✑✖✘✔ know, ✍✒✑ the ✜✓✑✙✑✗✍
present
✖✙✜✑✚✍✙
aspects ✎✢ of ✍✒✑
the ✑✖✓✍✒✩✙
earth’s ✙✌✓✢✖✚✑✣
surface. ❛✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
Geography ✛✙ is ✙✎✚✛✑✍✔
society ✒✖✙ has ✜✖✙✙✑✘passed ✍✒✑ the ✙✍✖✏✑stage ✎✢ of ✜✓✛✕✛✍✛✫✑
primitive
✘✛✢✢✑✓✑✗✍ ✢✓✎✕ ✎✍✒✑✓ ✙✚✛✑✗✚✑✙
different from other sciences in its subject ✛✗ ✛✍✙ ✙✌✦❞✑✚✍ ✙✎✚✛✑✍✛✑✙✱
societies, which were directly dependent ✎✗
✥✒✛✚✒ ✥✑✓✑ ✘✛✓✑✚✍✤✔ ✘✑✜✑✗✘✑✗✍ on
✕✖✍✍✑✓
matter ✖✗✘ and ✕✑✍✒✎✘✎✤✎✏✔
methodology but ✦✌✍ ✖✍at ✍✒✑
the ✙✖✕✑
same ✍✛✕✑✱
time, ✍✒✑✛✓
their ✛✕✕✑✘✛✖✍✑
immediate ✜✒✔✙✛✚✖✤ physical ✑✗✫✛✓✎✗✕✑✗✍
environment ✢✎✓ for
✛✍
it ✛✙
is ✚✤✎✙✑✤✔
closely ✓✑✤✖✍✑✘
related ✍✎ to ✎✍✒✑✓
other ✘✛✙✚✛✜✤✛✗✑✙✣
disciplines. ✙✌✙✍✑✗✖✗✚✑✣
sustenance. P✓✑✙✑✗✍ Present ✙✎✚✛✑✍✛✑✙
societies ✒✖✫✑ have ✕✎✘✛✢✛✑✘
modified
❛✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
Geography ✘✑✓✛✫✑✙ derives ✛✍✙ its ✘✖✍✖ ✦✖✙✑ ✢✓✎✕
data base from ✖✤✤ all ✍✒✑
the ✍✒✑✛✓
their ✗✖✍✌✓✖✤
natural ✑✗✫✛✓✎✗✕✑✗✍
environment by ✦✔ ✛✗✫✑✗✍✛✗✏
inventing ✖✗✘ and
✗✖✍✌✓✖✤
natural ✖✗✘ and ✙✎✚✛✖✤
social ✙✚✛✑✗✚✑✙
sciences ✖✗✘ and ✖✍✍✑✕✜✍✙
attempts ✍✒✑✛✓ their ✌✙✛✗✏
using ✍✑✚✒✗✎✤✎✏✔
technology ✖✗✘ and ✍✒✌✙✱
thus, ✒✖✫✑ have ✑❡✜✖✗✘✑✘
expanded ✍✒✑ the
✙✔✗✍✒✑✙✛✙✣
synthesis. ✒✎✓✛❜✎✗
horizon ✎✢ of ✍✒✑✛✓
their ✎✜✑✓✖✍✛✎✗
operation by ✦✔ ✖✜✜✓✎✜✓✛✖✍✛✗✏
appropriating ✖✗✘ and
❲✑ ✒✖✫✑
We have ✗✎✍✑✘
noted ✍✒✖✍that ✍✒✑✓✑
there ✑❡✛✙✍ ✫✖✓✛✖✍✛✎✗✙
exist variations ✌✍✛✤✛✙✛✗✏
utilising ✍✒✑ the ✓✑✙✎✌✓✚✑✙
resources ✜✓✎✫✛✘✑✘provided by ✦✔ ✗✖✍✌✓✑✣ ❲✛✍✒
nature. With
✎✫✑✓
over ✍✒✑
the ✙✌✓✢✖✚✑
surface ✎✢ of ✍✒✑
the ✑✖✓✍✒
earth ✛✗ in ✛✍✙
its ✜✒✔✙✛✚✖✤
physical ✖✙ as ✍✒✑ ✏✓✖✘✌✖✤ ✘✑✫✑✤✎✜✕✑✗✍
the gradual development of technology, homan✎✢ ✍✑✚✒✗✎✤✎✏✔✱ ✒✌✕✖✗
well as cultural environment. A number ✎✢
✥✑✤✤ ✖✙ ✚✌✤✍✌✓✖✤ ✑✗✫✛✓✎✗✕✑✗✍✣ ✇ ✗✌✕✦✑✓ of ✦✑✛✗✏✙ were
beings ✥✑✓✑ ✖✦✤✑able ✍✎ to ✤✎✎✙✑✗
loosen ✍✒✑ the ✙✒✖✚♠✤✑✙
shackles ✎✢ of ✍✒✑✛✓
their
✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✖
phenomena ✖✓✑ are ✙✛✕✛✤✖✓
similar ✖✗✘and ✕✖✗✔
many ✖✓✑ are ✘✛✙✙✛✕✛✤✖✓✣
dissimilar. ✜✒✔✙✛✚✖✤
physical ✑✗✫✛✓✎✗✕✑✗✍✣
environment. Technology ❚✑✚✒✗✎✤✎✏✔ ✒✑✤✜✑✘ helped ✛✗ in
■✍ ✥✖✙✱ ✍✒✑✓✑✢✎✓✑✱
It was, therefore, ✤✎✏✛✚✖✤
logical ✍✎ to ✜✑✓✚✑✛✫✑
perceive ✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
geography ✓✑✘✌✚✛✗✏
reducing ✍✒✑ the ✒✖✓✙✒✗✑✙✙
harshness ✎✢ of ✤✖✦✎✌✓✱
labour, ✛✗✚✓✑✖✙✑✘
increased
✖✙
as ✍✒✑
the ✙✍✌✘✔
study ✎✢ of ✬r✭✬✮
areal ✯✰✲✲✭r✭✳✴✰✬✴✰✵✳✣
differentiation. Thus, ❚✒✌✙✱ ✤✖✦✎✌✓
labour ✑✢✢✛✚✛✑✗✚✔
efficiency ✖✗✘ and ✜✓✎✫✛✘✑✘
provided ✤✑✛✙✌✓✑ leisure ✍✎ to
✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
geography was ✥✖✙ ✜✑✓✚✑✛✫✑✘
perceived ✍✎ to ✙✍✌✘✔
study ✖✤✤ all ✍✒✎✙✑
those ✒✌✕✖✗
human beings ✦✑✛✗✏✙ ✍✎ to ✖✍✍✑✗✘
attend ✍✎ to ✍✒✑
the ✒✛✏✒✑✓
higher ✗✑✑✘✙needs ✎✢ of
✜✒✑ ✗✎✕✑✗✖ which
phenomena ✥✒✛✚✒ vary ✫✖✓✔ ✎✫✑✓ over ✙✜✖✚✑✣
space. ✤✛✢✑✣
life. ■✍
It ✖✤✙✎
also ✛✗✚✓✑✖✙✑✘
increased ✍✒✑ the ✙✚✖✤✑scale ✎✢ of ✜✓✎✘✌✚✍✛✎✗
production
❛✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✑✓✙
Geographers ✘✎ do ✗✎✍
not ✙✍✌✘✔
study ✎✗✤✔only ✍✒✑ ✫✖✓✛✖✍✛✎✗✙
the variations ✖✗✘
and ✍✒✑the ✕✎✦✛✤✛✍✔
mobility ✎✢ of ✤✖✦✎✌✓✣
labour.
✛✗
in ✍✒✑
the ✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✖
phenomena ✎✫✑✓ over ✍✒✑the ✑✖✓✍✒✩✙
earth’s ✙✌✓✢✖✚✑
surface ❚✒✑ ✛✗✍✑✓✖✚✍✛✎✗
The interaction between ✦✑✍✥✑✑✗ ✍✒✑ the ✜✒✔✙✛✚✖✤
physical
✶✙✜✖✚✑✷
(space) but✦✌✍ ✖✤✙✎
also ✙✍✌✘✔
study ✍✒✑ the ✖✙✙✎✚✛✖✍✛✎✗✙
associations with ✥✛✍✒ ✑✗✫✛✓✎✗✕✑✗✍
environment and human beings ✒✖✙
✖✗✘ ✒✌✕✖✗ ✦✑✛✗✏✙ ✦✑✑✗ very
has been ✫✑✓✔
✍✒✑
the ✎✍✒✑✓
other ✢✖✚✍✎✓✙ ✥✒✛✚✒ ✚✖✌✙✑
factors which cause ✍✒✑✙✑ ✫✖✓✛✖✍✛✎✗✙✣
these variations. ✙✌✚✚✛✗✚✍✤✔
succinctly ✘✑✙✚✓✛✦✑✘
described by ✦✔ ✖a ✜✎✑✍poet ✛✗ in ✍✒✑
the ✢✎✤✤✎✥✛✗✏
following
❋✎✓
For ✑❡✖✕✜✤✑✱
example, ✚✓✎✜✜✛✗✏
cropping ✜✖✍✍✑✓✗✙
patterns ✘✛✢✢✑✓differ ✢✓✎✕
from ✘✛✖✤✎✏✌✑
dialogue between✦✑✍✥✑✑✗ ★✒✌✕✖✗✩ ‘human’ ✖✗✘ and ★✗✖✍✌✓✑✩
‘nature’ ✶❛✎✘✷✣
(God).
✓✑✏✛✎✗
region ✍✎ to ✓✑✏✛✎✗
region but✦✌✍ ✍✒✛✙ ✫✖✓✛✖✍✛✎✗ ✛✗
this variation in ✚✓✎✜✜✛✗✏
cropping You ❝r✭✬✴✭✯
❨✵✽ created ✴✻✭ the ❀✵✰✮❂
soil, ❃I ❝r✭✬✴✭✯
created ✴✻✭ the ❝✽❄❂
cup, ❅✵✽you
✜✖✍✍✑✓✗✱
pattern, ✖✙ as ✖ a ✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✎✗✱
phenomenon, ✛✙ is ✓✑✤✖✍✑✘
related ✍✎ to ❝r✭✬✴✭✯
created ✳✰✼✻✴❂night, ❃I ❝r✭✬✴✭✯
created ✴✻✭ the ✮✬❤❄❆
lamp. ❨✵✽ You ❝r✭✬✴✭✯
created
✫✖✓✛✖✍✛✎✗✙ ✛✗
variations in ✙✎✛✤✙✱
soils, ✚✤✛✕✖✍✑✙✱
climates, ✘✑✕✖✗✘✙
demands ✛✗ in ✍✒✑
the ❇✰✮✯✭r
wilderness, ✳✭❀❀❂ ✻✰✮✮❅ hilly ✴✭rr✬✰✳❀
terrains ✬✳✯ and ✯✭❀✭r✴❀♥
deserts; ❃I
✕✖✓♠✑✍✱
market, ✚✖✜✖✚✛✍✔
capacity ✎✢ of ✍✒✑
the ✢✖✓✕✑✓
farmer ✍✎ to ✛✗✫✑✙✍
invest ✖✗✘ and ❝r✭✬✴✭✯
created flower ✲✮✵❇✭r ✿✭✯❀ beds ✬✳✯ and ✼✬r✯✭✳❀✣
gardens. ✐✌✕✖✗ Human
✍✑✚✒✗✎✤✎✏✛✚✖✤ ✛✗✜✌✍✙ ✖✫✖✛✤✖✦✤✑
technological inputs available to her/him. ✍✎ ✒✑✓✹✒✛✕✣ beings have claimed their contribution ✌✙✛✗✏
✦✑✛✗✏✙ ✒✖✫✑ ✚✤✖✛✕✑✘ ✍✒✑✛✓ ✚✎✗✍✓✛✦✌✍✛✎✗ using
❚✒✌✙✱ ✍✒✑
Thus, the ✚✎✗✚✑✓✗
concern ✎✢ of ✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
geography ✛✙ is ✍✎
to ✢✛✗✘
find ✎✌✍out ✗✖✍✌✓✖✤
natural ✓✑✙✎✌✓✚✑✙✣
resources. With ❲✛✍✒ ✍✒✑ the ✒✑✤✜
help ✎✢ of ✍✑✚✒✗✎✤✎✏✔✱
technology,
✍✒✑
the ✚✖✌✙✖✤
causal ✓✑✤✖✍✛✎✗✙✒✛✜
relationship between ✦✑✍✥✑✑✗ ✖✗✔ any ✍✥✎ two ✒✌✕✖✗
human beings ✦✑✛✗✏✙ ✕✎✫✑✘ moved ✢✓✎✕ from ✍✒✑ the ✙✍✖✏✑
stage ✎✢ of
✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✖
phenomena ✎✓ ✦✑✍✥✑✑✗ ✕✎✓✑
or between more ✍✒✖✗ than ✎✗✑ one ✗✑✚✑✙✙✛✍✔
necessity ✍✎ to ✖ a ✙✍✖✏✑
stage ✎✢ of ✢✓✑✑✘✎✕✣
freedom. They ❚✒✑✔ ✒✖✫✑ have ✜✌✍put
✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✎✗✣
phenomenon. ✍✒✑✛✓
their ✛✕✜✓✛✗✍✙
imprints ✑✫✑✓✔✥✒✑✓✑
everywhere ✖✗✘ and ✚✓✑✖✍✑✘
created ✗✑✥ new
A✇ ✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✑✓
geographer ✑❡✜✤✖✛✗✙
explains ✍✒✑ the ✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✖
phenomena ✛✗ in ✜✎✙✙✛✦✛✤✛✍✛✑✙
possibilities ✛✗ in ✚✎✤✤✖✦✎✓✖✍✛✎✗
collaboration with ✥✛✍✒ ✗✖✍✌✓✑✣ ❚✒✌✙✱
nature. Thus,
✖a ✢✓✖✕✑
frame ✎✢ of ✚✖✌✙✑
cause ✖✗✘and ✑✢✢✑✚✍
effect ✓✑✤✖✍✛✎✗✙✒✛✜✱
relationship, ✖✙ as ✛✍it ✥✑ ✗✎✥
we now find ✻✽❤✬✳✰❀✭✯
✢✛✗✘ humanised ✳✬ ✴✽r✭ ✖✗✘
nature and
✘✎✑✙
does ✗✎✍
not ✎✗✤✔
only ✒✑✤✜
help ✛✗ in ✛✗✍✑✓✜✓✑✍✖✍✛✎✗
interpretation but ✦✌✍ ✖✤✙✎
also naturalised ✻✽❤✬✳
✳✬✴✽r✬✮✰❀✭✯ human ✿✭✰✳✼❀ beings ✖✗✘ and ✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✔
geography
✢✎✓✑✙✑✑✙
foresees ✍✒✑ the ✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✖
phenomena ✛✗ in ✢✌✍✌✓✑✣
future. ✙✍✌✘✛✑✙
studies ✍✒✛✙ this ✛✗✍✑✓✖✚✍✛✫✑
interactive ✓✑✤✖✍✛✎✗✙✒✛✜✣
relationship. The ❚✒✑ ✙✜✖✚✑
space
❚✒✑ ✏✑✎✏✓✖✜✒✛✚✖✤ ✜✒✑✗✎✕✑✗✖✱
The geographical phenomena, both ✦✎✍✒ ✍✒✑ the ✏✎✍
got organised with the help of the ✕✑✖✗✙
✎✓✏✖✗✛✙✑✘ ✥✛✍✒ ✍✒✑ ✒✑✤✜ ✎✢ ✍✒✑ means ✎✢ of
✜✒✔✙✛✚✖✤
physical ✖✗✘ and ✒✌✕✖✗✱
human, ✖✓✑ are ✗✎✍
not ✙✍✖✍✛✚ ✦✌✍ ✒✛✏✒✤✔
static but highly ✍✓✖✗✙✜✎✓✍✖✍✛✎✗
transportation ✖✗✘ and ✚✎✕✕✌✗✛✚✖✍✛✎✗
communication ✗✑✍✥✎✓♠✣ network.
✘✔✗✖✕✛✚✣
dynamic. They ❚✒✑✔ ✚✒✖✗✏✑
change ✎✫✑✓over ✍✛✕✑
time ✖✙as ✖ a ✓✑✙✌✤✍
result ✎✢ of ❚✒✑ ✤✛✗♠✙
The links ✶✓✎✌✍✑✙✷
(routes) ✖✗✘ and ✗✎✘✑✙
nodes ✶✙✑✍✍✤✑✕✑✗✍✙
(settlements ✎✢ of ✖✤✤
all
✍✒✑
the ✛✗✍✑✓✖✚✍✛✫✑
interactive ✜✓✎✚✑✙✙✑✙
processes between ✦✑✍✥✑✑✗ ✭✺✭r ever ✍✔✜✑✙
types ✖✗✘and ✒✛✑✓✖✓✚✒✛✑✙✷
hierarchies) ✛✗✍✑✏✓✖✍✑✘
integrated ✍✒✑ the ✙✜✖✚✑
space ✖✗✘
and
✹4 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❣✑✒✓✔✒✕✕✖✗
gradually, ✘✙ it ❣✚✙
got ✚✑❣✒✛✘✜✢✓✣
organised. As ✤✜ ✒a ✜✚✥✘✒✕
social ✜✥✘✢✛✥✢
science ❞✑✢✜✢✛✙
present ★✚✑✕✓world ✘✜ is q✢✘✛❣
being ❞✢✑✥✢✘❛✢✓
perceived ✒✜ as ✒ a ❣✕✚q✒✕
global
✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢✗
discipline, ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
geography ✜✙✔✓✘✢✜ studies ✙✦✢ the ✧✜❞✒✙✘✒✕
‘spatial ❛✘✕✕✒❣✢✣
village. Thes✦✢ ✓✘✜✙✒✛✥✢✜
distances ✦✒❛✢ have q✢✢✛ reduced q✖
been ✑✢✓✔✥✢✓ by
✚✑❣✒✛✘✜✒✙✘✚✛♦
organisation’ ✒✛✓ and ✧✜❞✒✙✘✒✕
‘spatial ✘✛✙✢❣✑✒✙✘✚✛♦✣
integration’. q✢✙✙✢✑
better ✫✢✒✛✜
means ✚t of ✙✑✒✛✜❞✚✑✙✒✙✘✚✛
transportation ✘✛✥✑✢✒✜✘✛❣ increasing
●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
Geography ✒✜ as ✒a ✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢
discipline ✘✜ is ✥✚✛✥✢✑✛✢✓
concerned with ★✘✙✦ ✒✥✥✢✜✜✘q✘✕✘✙✖✣
accessibility. The s✦✢ ✒✔✓✘✚✸❛✘✜✔✒✕
audio-visual ✫✢✓✘✒ media ✒✛✓ and
✙✦✑✢✢ ✜✢✙✜ ✚t ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜✪
three sets of questions: ✘✛t✚✑✫✒✙✘✚✛ technology ✦✒❛✢
information ✙✢✥✦✛✚✕✚❣✖ have ✢✛✑✘✥✦✢✓
enriched ✙✦✢ the ✓✒✙✒
data
✭✘✮
(i) ❙✚✫✢
Some ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
questions ✒✑✢ are ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓
related ✙✚ to ✙✦✢
the q✒✜✢✣ s✢✥✦✛✚✕✚❣✖ ✦✒✜
base. Technology has ❞✑✚❛✘✓✢✓
provided q✢✙✙✢✑ better ✥✦✒✛✥✢✜
chances
✘✓✢✛✙✘t✘✥✒✙✘✚✛
identification ✚t the ❞✒✙✙✢✑✛✜
of ✙✦✢ patterns ✚t of ✛✒✙✔✑✒✕
natural of monitoring natural phenomena as ★✢✕✕
✚t ✫✚✛✘✙✚✑✘✛❣ ✛✒✙✔✑✒✕ ❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒ ✒✜ well ✒✜ as
✒✛✓ cultural t✢✒✙✔✑✢✜
and ✥✔✕✙✔✑✒✕ features ✒✜ as t✚✔✛✓
found ✚❛✢✑ over ✙✦✢
the ✙✦✢
the ✢✥✚✛✚✫✘✥
economic ✒✛✓ and ✜✚✥✘✒✕ ❞✒✑✒✫✢✙✢✑✜✣
social parameters.
✜✔✑t✒✥✢
surface ✚t of ✙✦✢
the ✢✒✑✙✦✣
earth. These s✦✢✜✢ ✒✑✢ are ✙✦✢the ●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
Geography ✒✜ as ✒✛an ✘✛✙✢❣✑✒✙✘✛❣
integrating ✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢ discipline ✦✒✜ has
✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
questions ✒q✚✔✙ about ✇✬✯✰✱ what? interface ★✘✙✦
✘✛✙✢✑t✒✥✢ with ✛✔✫✢✑✚✔✜
numerous ✛✒✙✔✑✒✕ natural ✒✛✓ and ✜✚✥✘✒✕
social
✭✘✘✮ ❙✚✫✢ ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
(i) Some questions ✒✑✢ are ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓
related ✙✚ to ✙✦✢
the ✜✥✘✢✛✥✢✜✣
sciences. All ✤✕✕ ✙✦✢ sciences, ★✦✢✙✦✢✑
the ✜✥✘✢✛✥✢✜✗ whether ✛✒✙✔✑✒✕ natural ✚✑ or
✓✘✜✙✑✘q✔✙✘✚✛
distribution ✚t of ✙✦✢
the ✛✒✙✔✑✒✕
natural ✒✛✓ and ✦✔✫✒✛✲
human/ ✜✚✥✘✒✕✗
social, ✦✒❛✢
have ✚✛✢ one q✒✜✘✥ basic ✚qP✢✥✙✘❛✢✗
objective, ✚t
of
cultural t✢✒✙✔✑✢✜
✥✔✕✙✔✑✒✕ features ✚❛✢✑ over ✙✦✢ the ✜✔✑t✒✥✢
surface ✚t of ✙✦✢
the understanding ✰✬✳
✉❑◗✳✴❈✰✯❑◗❍❑❘ the ✴✳✯❏❍✰✷✣
reality. ●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
Geography
✢✒✑✙✦✣ s✦✢✜✢ ✒✑✢
earth. These are ✙✦✢ the ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
questions ✒q✚✔✙ about ✒✙✙✢✫❞✙✜
attempts ✙✚ to ✥✚✫❞✑✢✦✢✛✓
comprehend ✙✦✢ the ✒✜✜✚✥✘✒✙✘✚✛✜
associations ✚t of
✇✬✳✴✳✱
where? ❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒ ✒✜ ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓ ✘✛
phenomena as related in sections of reality. ✜✢✥✙✘✚✛✜ ✚t ✑✢✒✕✘✙✖✣
s✒✵✢✛ ✙✚❣✢✙✦✢✑✗
Taken together, both q✚✙✦ ✙✦✢✜✢these ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
questions ✙✒✵✢ take ❚✘❣✔✑✢
Figure ❯✣❯ 1.1 ✜✦✚★✜
shows ✙✦✢ the ✑✢✕✒✙✘✚✛✜✦✘❞
relationship ✚t of ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
geography
✥✒✑✢
care of distributional and locational aspects ✚t
✚t ✓✘✜✙✑✘q✔✙✘✚✛✒✕ ✒✛✓ ✕✚✥✒✙✘✚✛✒✕ ✒✜❞✢✥✙✜ of ★✘✙✦
with ✚✙✦✢✑
other ✜✥✘✢✛✥✢✜✣
sciences. ❱❛✢✑✖ Every ✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢✗
discipline, ✥✚✛✥✢✑✛✢✓
concerned
✙✦✢
the ✛✒✙✔✑✒✕
natural ✒✛✓ cultural t✢✒✙✔✑✢✜✣
and ✥✔✕✙✔✑✒✕ features. These s✦✢✜✢ ★✘✙✦ scientific ✵✛✚★✕✢✓❣✢
with ✜✥✘✢✛✙✘t✘✥ knowledge ✘✜ linked ★✘✙✦
is ✕✘✛✵✢✓ with
✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
questions ❞✑✚❛✘✓✢✓
provided ✘✛❛✢✛✙✚✑✘✜✢✓
inventorised ✘✛t✚✑✫✒✙✘✚✛
information ✚t of ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
geography ✒✜ as ✫✒✛✖
many ✚t of ✙✦✢✘✑ elements ❛✒✑✖
their ✢✕✢✫✢✛✙✜ vary ✚❛✢✑over
★✦✒✙ t✢✒✙✔✑✢✜
what features ✒✛✓ ★✦✢✑✢ ✕✚✥✒✙✢✓✣
and where located. ✶✙ ★✒✜ ✒a very
It was ❛✢✑✖ space. ●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
✜❞✒✥✢✣ Geography ✦✢✕❞✜ helps ✘✛ in ✔✛✓✢✑✜✙✒✛✓✘✛❣
understanding ✙✦✢ the
❞✚❞✔✕✒✑
popular ✒❞❞✑✚✒✥✦
approach ✓✔✑✘✛❣ during ✙✦✢ colonial ❞✢✑✘✚✓✣
the ✥✚✕✚✛✘✒✕ period. ✑✢✒✕✘✙✖
reality ✘✛ in ✙✚✙✒✕✘✙✖
totality ✘✛ in ✘✙✜ spatial ❞✢✑✜❞✢✥✙✘❛✢✣
its ✜❞✒✙✘✒✕ perspective.
s✦✢✜✢ ✙★✚
These two ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✜
questions ✓✘✓ did ✛✚✙not ✫✒✵✢make ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
geography ●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖✗
Geography, ✙✦✔✜✗ thus, ✛✚✙ not ✚✛✕✖ only ✙✒✵✢✜
takes ✛✚✙✢ note ✚t of ✙✦✢
the
✒a ✜✥✘✢✛✙✘t✘✥
scientific ✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢
discipline ✙✘✕✕ till ✙✦✢ third ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛
the ✙✦✘✑✓ question was ★✒✜ ✓✘tt✢✑✢✛✥✢✜ ❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒
differences in the phenomena from place ✙✚
✘✛ ✙✦✢ t✑✚✫ ❞✕✒✥✢ to
✒✓✓✢✓✣
added. The s✦✢ ✙✦✘✑✓
third ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛
question ✘✜ is ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓
related ✙✚ to ✙✦✢
the
❞✕✒✥✢
place q✔✙but ✘✛✙✢❣✑✒✙✢✜
integrates ✙✦✢✫ them ✦✚✕✘✜✙✘✥✒✕✕✖
holistically ★✦✘✥✦ which
✢❡❞✕✒✛✒✙✘✚✛
explanation ✚✑ or ✙✦✢the ✥✒✔✜✒✕
causal ✑✢✕✒✙✘✚✛✜✦✘❞✜
relationships
✫✒✖
may q✢ be ✓✘tt✢✑✢✛✙
different ✒✙ other ❞✕✒✥✢✜✣
at ✚✙✦✢✑ places. A✤ ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✢✑
geographer
q✢✙★✢✢✛ t✢✒✙✔✑✢✜ ✘✜
is ✑✢✩✔✘✑✢✓
required ✙✚ to ✦✒❛✢
have ✒ a q✑✚✒✓
broad ✔✛✓✢✑✜✙✒✛✓✘✛❣
understanding ✚t of
between features ✒✛✓ and ✙✦✢ the ❞✑✚✥✢✜✜✢✜
processes ✒✛✓ and
❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒✣ s✦✘✜ ✒✜❞✢✥✙ ✒✕✕
all ✙✦✢ related t✘✢✕✓✜✗
the ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓ fields, ✙✚ to q✢ be ✒q✕✢
able ✙✚ to ✕✚❣✘✥✒✕✕✖
logically
phenomena. This aspect ✚t of ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
geography ✘✜ is ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓
related
✘✛✙✢❣✑✒✙✢
integrate ✙✦✢✫✣ them. This s✦✘✜ ✘✛✙✢❣✑✒✙✘✚✛
integration ✥✒✛ can q✢ be
✙✚ the ✩✔✢✜✙✘✚✛✗
to ✙✦✢ question, ✇✬✷✱ why?
●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖ understood ★✘✙✦
✔✛✓✢✑✜✙✚✚✓ with ✜✚✫✢ examples. ●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
some ✢❡✒✫❞✕✢✜✣ Geography
Geography ✒✜ as ✒ a ✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢
discipline ✘✜ is ✑✢✕✒✙✢✓
related ✙✚ to
influences ✦✘✜✙✚✑✘✥✒✕
✘✛t✕✔✢✛✥✢✜ historical ✢❛✢✛✙✜✣ events. ❙❞✒✙✘✒✕
Spatial ✓✘✜✙✒✛✥✢
distance
✜❞✒✥✢
space ✒✛✓ and ✙✒✵✢✜
takes ✛✚✙✢note ✚t of ✜❞✒✙✘✒✕
spatial ✥✦✒✑✒✥✙✢✑✘✜✙✘✥✜
characteristics
✘✙✜✢✕t ✦✒✜ q✢✢✛ ❛✢✑✖ ❞✚✙✢✛✙
itself has been a very potent factor to ✒✕✙✢✑
✒ t✒✥✙✚✑ ✙✚ alter ✙✦✢ the
✒✛✓ attributes. ✶✙
and ✒✙✙✑✘q✔✙✢✜✣ It ✜✙✔✓✘✢✜
studies ✙✦✢ the ❞✒✙✙✢✑✛✜
patterns ✚t of
✥✚✔✑✜✢
course ✚t ✦✘✜✙✚✑✖
of history ✚t of ✙✦✢ ★✚✑✕✓✣ ❙❞✒✙✘✒✕
the world. Spatial ✓✢❞✙✦ depth
✓✘✜✙✑✘q✔✙✘✚✛✗
distribution, ✕✚✥✒✙✘✚✛location ✒✛✓ and ✥✚✛✥✢✛✙✑✒✙✘✚✛
concentration ✚t of
❞✑✚❛✘✓✢✓
provided ✓✢t✢✛✥✢ defence ✙✚ to ✫✒✛✖many ✥✚✔✛✙✑✘✢✜✗
countries,
❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒
phenomena ✚❛✢✑ over ✜❞✒✥✢
space ✒✛✓ and ✘✛✙✢✑❞✑✢✙✜
interprets ✙✦✢✫ them
❞✒✑✙✘✥✔✕✒✑✕✖
particularly ✘✛ in ✙✦✢
the ✕✒✜✙ century. ✶✛
last ✥✢✛✙✔✑✖✣ In ✙✑✒✓✘✙✘✚✛✒✕
traditional
❞✑✚❛✘✓✘✛❣ explanations t✚✑
providing ✢❡❞✕✒✛✒✙✘✚✛✜ these ❞✒✙✙✢✑✛✜✣
for ✙✦✢✜✢ patterns. ✶✙ It
★✒✑t✒✑✢✗ countries ★✘✙✦
warfare, ✥✚✔✛✙✑✘✢✜ with ✕✒✑❣✢large ✜✘❲✢
size ✘✛ in ✒✑✢✒✗
area, ❣✒✘✛gain
✙✒✵✢✜
takes ✛✚✙✢ note ✚t of ✙✦✢
the ✒✜✜✚✥✘✒✙✘✚✛✜
associations ✒✛✓ and ✘✛✙✢✑
inter- ✸
s✦✢ ✓✢t✢✛✥✢
✙✘✫✢
time ✒✙at ✙✦✢
the ✥✚✜✙
cost ✚tof ✜❞✒✥✢✣
space. The defence ❞✑✚❛✘✓✢✓
provided
✑✢✕✒✙✘✚✛✜✦✘❞✜
relationships between q✢✙★✢✢✛ ✙✦✢ the ❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒
phenomena ✚❛✢✑ over
q✖
by ✚✥✢✒✛✘✥
oceanic ✢❡❞✒✛✜✢
expanse ✒✑✚✔✛✓ around ✙✦✢ the ✥✚✔✛✙✑✘✢✜
countries ✚t of
✜❞✒✥✢
space ✒✛✓ and ✘✛✙✢✑❞✑✢✙✜
interprets ✙✦✢✫ them ❞✑✚❛ providing✘✓✘✛❣ ★✚✑✕✓ ✦✒✜ ❞✑✚✙✢✥✙✢✓ t✑✚✫ ★✒✑✜
✙✦✢ ✛✢★
the new world has protected them from wars ✙✦✢✫
explanations t✚✑
✢❡❞✕✒✛✒✙✘✚✛✜ these ❞✒✙✙✢✑✛✜✣
for ✙✦✢✜✢ patterns. ✶✙ It ✒✕✜✚
also ✙✒✵✢✜
takes q✢✘✛❣
being ✘✫❞✚✜✢✓
imposed ✚✛ on ✙✦✢✘✑
their ✜✚✘✕✣soil. ✶t If ★✢
we ✕✚✚✵
look ✒✙ at ✙✦✢the
✛✚✙✢
note ✚t of ✙✦✢
the ✒✜✜✚✥✘✒✙✘✚✛✜
associations ✒✛✓ and ✘✛✙✢✑✸✑✢✕✒✙✘✚✛✜✦✘❞✜
inter-relationships ✦✘✜✙✚✑✘✥✒✕ events ★✚✑✕✓
historical ✢❛✢✛✙✜ world ✚❛✢✑✗ over, ✢✒✥✦each ✚✛✢ one ✚t of ✙✦✢✫
them
q✢✙★✢✢✛
between ✙✦✢ the ❞✦✢✛✚✫✢✛✒
phenomena ✑✢✜✔✕✙✘✛❣ resulting t✑✚✫ from ✙✦✢ the
can q✢
✥✒✛ be ✘✛✙✢✑❞✑✢✙✢✓
interpreted ❣✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✘✥✒✕✕✖✣
geographically.
✓✖✛✒✫✘✥ interaction q✢✙★✢✢✛
dynamic ✘✛✙✢✑✒✥✙✘✚✛ between ✦✔✫✒✛ human q✢✘✛❣✜ beings ✶✛
In ✶✛✓✘✒✗
India, ❳✘✫✒✕✒✖✒✜
Himalayas ✦✒❛✢ have ✒✥✙✢✓ acted ✒✜ as ❣✑✢✒✙
great
✒✛✓ their ❞✦✖✜✘✥✒✕
and ✙✦✢✘✑ physical ✢✛❛✘✑✚✛✫✢✛✙✣
environment. q✒✑✑✘✢✑✜
barriers ✒✛✓ and ❞✑✚❛✘✓✢✓
provided ❞✑✚✙✢✥✙✘✚✛ protection q✔✙ but ✙✦✢ the
❞✒✜✜✢✜
passes ❞✑✚❛✘✓✢✓
provided ✑✚✔✙✢✜ routes ✙✚ the ✫✘❣✑✒✛✙✜
to ✙✦✢ migrants ✒✛✓ and
✺❊✻✼✽✾✿❀❁
GEOGRAPHY ✾❆ AS ✾❂AN ❃❂◆❊✼✽✾◆❄❂✼
INTEGRATING ❅❄❆■❄✿❇❄❂❊
DISCIPLINE
invaders t✑✚✫
✘✛❛✒✓✢✑✜ from ✐✢✛✙✑✒✕
Central Asia. ✤✜✘✒✣ Thes✦✢ ✜✢✒ coast ✦✒✜
sea ✥✚✒✜✙ has
●✢✚❣✑✒❞✦✖
Geography ✘✜ is ✒a ✓✘✜✥✘❞✕✘✛✢
discipline ✚t of ✜✖✛✙✦✢✜✘✜✣
synthesis. ✶✙
It ✢✛✥✚✔✑✒❣✢✓ ✥✚✛✙✒✥✙ ★✘✙✦ ❞✢✚❞✕✢
encouraged contact with people from East and t✑✚✫ ❱✒✜✙ ✒✛✓
attempts ❈❉✯✰❍✯❏
✒✙✙✢✫❞✙✜ spatial ❈✷❑✰✬✳❈❍❈▲
synthesis, ✒✛✓ and ✦✘✜✙✚✑✖
history ❙✚✔✙✦✢✒✜✙
Southeast Asia, ✤✜✘✒✗ ❱✔✑✚❞✢
Europe ✒✛✓ ✤t✑✘✥✒✣ ❨✒❛✘❣✒✙✘✚✛
and Africa. Navigation
attempts ✰✳▼❉❖✴✯❏
✒✙✙✢✫❞✙✜ temporal ❈✷❑✰✬✳❈❍❈✣
synthesis. ✶✙✜Its ✒❞❞✑✚✒✥✦
approach ✘✜is technology ✦✢✕❞✢✓
✙✢✥✦✛✚✕✚❣✖ helped ❱✔✑✚❞✢✒✛European ✥✚✔✛✙✑✘✢✜ countries ✙✚ to
✦✚✕✘✜✙✘✥
holistic ✘✛ nature. ✶✙
in ✛✒✙✔✑✢✣ It ✑✢✥✚❣✛✘✜✢✜ the t✒✥✙
recognises ✙✦✢ fact ✙✦✒✙
that ✥✚✕✚✛✘✜✢
colonise ✒ a ✛✔✫q✢✑
number ✚t of ✥✚✔✛✙✑✘✢✜
countries ✚t ✤✜✘✒ ✒✛✓
of Asia and
the ★✚✑✕✓
✙✦✢ world ✘✜
is ✒
a ✜✖✜✙✢✫
system ✚t of ✘✛✙✢✑✓✢❞✢✛✓✢✛✥✘✢✜✣
interdependencies. Thes✦✢ Africa, including ✶✛✓✘✒
✤t✑✘✥✒✗ ✘✛✥✕✔✓✘✛❣ India ✒✜ as ✙✦✢✖
they ❣✚✙ got ✒✥✥✢✜✜✘q✘✕✘✙✖
accessibility
● ✁●✂✄☎✆✝ AS
GEOGRAPHY ✄✞ A✄ ✟✠✞✡✠☎☛✠☞
DISCIPLINE ✺5

t✌✍✎✏✑✌
through ✎✒✓✔✕✖✗
oceans. The✘✌✓ ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✙✒✔✚
geographical ✛✔✒t✎✍✖ factors ✌✔✜✓
have ✓✒✎✕✎♠✓t✍✙✒✖✗
econometrics. ✦✔❤✖Maps ✔✍✓
are ❤✍✓❤✔✍✓✢
prepared t✌✍✎✏✑✌
through
♠✎✢✙✛✙✓✢
modified t✌✓ the ✒✎✏✍✖✓
course ✎✛ of ✌✙✖t✎✍✣
history ✙✕ in ✢✙✛✛✓✍✓✕t
different ❤✔✍t✖
parts ✔✍t✙✖t✙✒
artistic ✙♠✔✑✙✕✔t✙✎✕✗
imagination. ✦✔r✙✕✑
Making ✖r✓t✒✌✓✖✥
sketches, ♠✓✕t✔✚
mental
✎✛
of t✌✓ ♦✎✍✚✢✗
the world. ♠✔❤✖
maps ✔✕✢ and ✒✔✍t✎✑✍✔❤✌✙✒ ♦ ✎✍r ✍✓q✏✙✍✓
cartographic work require
❊✜✓✍✣
Every ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✙✒✔✚
geographical ❤✌✓✕✎♠✓✕✎✕
phenomenon ✏✕✢✓✍✑✎✓✖ undergoes ❤✍✎✛✙✒✙✓✕✒✣
proficiency ✙✕
in ✔✍t✖✗
arts.
✒✌✔✕✑✓
change t✌✍✎✏✑✌
through t✙♠✓ time ✔✕✢ and ✒✔✕ can ❝✓ be ✓✤❤✚✔✙✕✓✢
explained
t✓♠❤✎✍✔✚✚✣✗
temporally. The ✘✌✓ ✒✌✔✕✑✓✖
changes ✙✕ in ✚✔✕✢✛✎✍♠✖✥
landforms, ✒✚✙♠✔t✓✥climate, ✵✶✷✸✹✳✻✮✯
Geography ✳✼✽
and ❁✷✲✱✳✴
Social ❁✲✱✶✼✲✶✰
Sciences
✜✓✑✓t✔t✙✎✕✥ ✓✒✎✕✎♠✙✒
vegetation, economic ✔✒t✙✜✙t✙✓✖
activities ✎✒✒✏❤✔t✙✎✕✖
occupations ✔✕✢ and
✒✏✚t✏✍✔✚
cultural ✢✓✜✓✚✎❤♠✓✕t✖
developments ✌✔✜✓ have ✛✎✚✚✎♦✓✢
followed ✔ a ✢✓✛✙✕✙t✓
definite ❊✔✒✌
Each ✖✎✒✙✔✚
social ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓
science ✖r✓t✒✌✓✢
sketched ✙✕ in s✙✑✏✍✓
Figure ★✗★ 1.1 ✌✔✖
has
✌✙✖t✎✍✙✒✔✚
historical ✒✎✏✍✖✓✗
course. ✦✔✕✣
Many ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✙✒✔✚
geographical ✛✓✔t✏✍✓✖ features ✙✕t✓✍✛✔✒✓
interface with ♦✙t✌ ✎✕✓ one ❝✍✔✕✒✌
branch ✎✛ of ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣✗
geography. The ✘✌✓
✍✓✖✏✚t
result ✛✍✎♠from t✌✓ the ✢✓✒✙✖✙✎✕
decision ♠✔r✙✕✑ making ❤✍✎✒✓✖✖ process ❝✣ by ✍✓✚✔t✙✎✕✖✌✙❤✖
relationships ❝✓t♦✓✓✕ between ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography ✔✕✢ and ✌✙✖t✎✍✣
history
✢✙✛✛✓✍✓✕t
different ✙✕✖t✙t✏t✙✎✕✖
institutions ✔t at ✔ a ❤✔✍t✙✒✏✚✔✍
particular ❤✎✙✕t point ✎✛ of ✌✔✜✓
have already been outlined in detail. ❊✜✓✍✣
✔✚✍✓✔✢✣ ❝✓✓✕ ✎✏t✚✙✕✓✢ ✙✕ ✢✓t✔✙✚✗ Every
t✙♠✓✗
time. ✧t It ✙✖
is ❤✎✖✖✙❝✚✓
possible t✎ to ✒✎✕✜✓✍t
convert t✙♠✓ time ✙✕ in t✓✍♠✖
terms ✎✛ of ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓
discipline ✌✔✖ has ✔ a ❤✌✙✚✎✖✎❤✌✣
philosophy which ♦✌✙✒✌ ✙✖ is t✌✓
the ❍■❈❏❇❑
raison
✖❤✔✒✓
space ✔✕✢ and ✖❤✔✒✓
space ✙✕in t✓✍♠✖
terms ✎✛ of t✙♠✓✗
time. s✎✍ For ✓✤✔♠❤✚✓✥
example, ❉❞❆▲❍❆
d’etre ✛✎✍for t✌✔t
that ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓✗
discipline. ❛✌✙✚✎✖✎❤✌✣
Philosophy ❤✍✎✜✙✢✓✖ provides
✙t
it ✒✔✕
can ❝✓ be ✖✔✙✢
said t✌✔t
that ❤✚✔✒✓
place A✐ ✙✖ is ★✥✩✪✪
1,500 r♠ km ✛✍✎♠
from ✍✎✎t✖
roots t✎ to ✔ a ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓
discipline ✔✕✢ and ✙✕ in t✌✓
the ❤✍✎✒✓✖✖
process ✎✛ of ✙t✖
its
❤✚✔✒✓
place ♣ B ✎✍or ✔✚t✓✍✕✔t✓✚✣✥
alternately, ✙t it ✒✔✕
can ✔✚✖✎
also ❝✓ be ✖✔✙✢
said t✌✔t
that ✓✜✎✚✏t✙✎✕✥
evolution, ✙t it ✔✚✖✎
also ✓✤❤✓✍✙✓✕✒✓✖
experiences ✢✙✖t✙✕✒t distinct ✌✙✖t✎✍✙✒✔✚
historical
❤✚✔✒✓
place A✐ ✙✖ is t♦✎
two ✌✎✏✍✖
hours ✔♦✔✣ away ✫✙✛ (if ✎✕✓
one t✍✔✜✓✚✖
travels ❝✣ by ❤✍✎✒✓✖✖✓✖✗
processes. Thus, ✘✌✏✖✥ t✌✓ the ✌✙✖t✎✍✣
history ✎✛ of ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✙✒✔✚
geographical
❤✚✔✕✓✬
plane) ✎✍ or ✖✓✜✓✕t✓✓✕
seventeen ✌✎✏✍✖hours ✔♦✔✣ away ✫✙✛ (if ✎✕✓
one t✍✔✜✓✚✖
travels t✌✎✏✑✌t
thought ✔✖ as ♠✎t✌✓✍
mother ❝✍✔✕✒✌ branch ✎✛ of ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography ✙✖ is
❝✣
by ✔ a ✛✔✖t
fast ♠✎✜✙✕✑
moving t✍✔✙✕✬✗
train). ✧t It ✙✖
is ✛✎✍
for t✌✙✖
this ✍✓✔✖✎✕✥
reason, ✙✕✒✚✏✢✓✢ ✏✕✙✜✓✍✖✔✚✚✣ ✙✕ ✙t✖
included universally in its curricula. All the ✒✏✍✍✙✒✏✚✔✗ ✐✚✚ t✌✓
t✙♠✓
time ✙✖is ✔✕
an ✙✕t✓✑✍✔✚
integral ❤✔✍t
part ✎✛of ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✙✒✔✚
geographical ✖t✏✢✙✓✖ studies ✖✎✒✙✔✚
social ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓
science ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓✖✥
disciplines, viz. ✜✙❄✗ ✖✎✒✙✎✚✎✑✣✥
sociology,
✔✖
as t✌✓
the ✛✎✏✍t✌
fourth ✢✙♠✓✕✖✙✎✕✗
dimension. ❛✚✓✔✖✓ Please ♠✓✕t✙✎✕
mention ✎t✌✓✍ other ❤✎✚✙t✙✒✔✚
political ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓✥
science, ✓✒✎✕✎♠✙✒✖
economics ✔✕✢ and ✢✓♠✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
demography
t✌✍✓✓
three ✢✙♠✓✕✖✙✎✕✖✭
dimensions? ✖t✏✢✣
study ✢✙✛✛✓✍✓✕t
different ✔✖❤✓✒t✖ aspects ✎✛ of ✖✎✒✙✔✚
social ✍✓✔✚✙t✣✗
reality. The✘✌✓
s✙✑✏✍✓★✗★
Figurel.1 ✔♠❤✚✣ amply ✢✓❤✙✒t✖
depicts t✌✓ the ✚✙✕r✔✑✓✖
linkages ✎✛ of ❝✍✔✕✒✌✓✖
branches ✎✛ of ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣✥
geography, viz. ✜✙❄✗ ✖✎✒✙✔✚✥
social, ❤✎✚✙t✙✒✔✚✥
political,
✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography with ♦✙t✌ ✢✙✛✛✓✍✓✕t
different ✕✔t✏✍✔✚
natural ✔✕✢ and ✖✎✒✙✔✚
social ✓✒✎✕✎♠✙✒
economic ✔✕✢ and ❤✎❤✏✚✔t✙✎✕
population ✔✕✢ and ✖✓tt✚✓♠✓✕t✖
settlements ✔✍✓ are
✖✒✙✓✕✒✓✖✗
sciences. This ✘✌✙✖ ✚✙✕r✔✑✓
linkage ✒✔✕ can ❝✓ be ❤✏tput ✏✕✢✓✍
under t♦✎ two ✒✚✎✖✓✚✣ ✚✙✕r✓✢ ♦✙t✌ t✌✓✖✓
closely linked with these disciplines as each ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓✖ ✔✖ ✓✔✒✌
✖✓✑♠✓✕t✖✗
segments. ✎✕✓
one ✎✛of t✌✓♠
them ✌✔✖ has ✖❤✔t✙✔✚
spatial ✔tt✍✙❝✏t✓✖✗
attributes. The ✘✌✓ ✒✎✍✓
core
✒✎✕✒✓✍✕
concern ✎✛ of ❤✎✚✙t✙✒✔✚
political ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓
science ✙✖ is t✓✍✍✙t✎✍✣✥
territory, ❤✓✎❤✚✓
people
P✮✯✰✱✲✳✴
Physical ✵✶✷✸✹✳✻✮✯
Geography ✳✼✽
and ✾✳✿❀✹✳✴
Natural ❁✲✱✶✼✲✶✰
Sciences
✔✕✢
and ✖✎✜✓✍✓✙✑✕t✣
sovereignty while ♦✌✙✚✓ ❤✎✚✙t✙✒✔✚
political ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography ✙✖ is
✐✚✚ t✌✓
All the ❝✍✔✕✒✌✓✖
branches ✎✛ of ❤✌✣✖✙✒✔✚
physical ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣✥
geography, ✔✖ as ✔✚✖✎
also ✙✕t✓✍✓✖t✓✢
interested ✙✕ in t✌✓
the ✖t✏✢✣
study ✎✛ of t✌✓the ✖t✔t✓
state ✔✖ asa✔
✖✌✎♦✕
shown ✙✕ in s✙✑✏✍✓
Figure ★✗★✥1.1, ✌✔✜✓
have ✙✕t✓✍✛✔✒✓ ♦✙t✌ ✕✔t✏✍✔✚
interface with natural ✖❤✔t✙✔✚
spatial ✏✕✙tunit ✔✖ ♦✓✚✚ ✔✖
as well as ❤✓✎❤✚✓
people ✔✕✢ and t✌✓✙✍their ❤✎✚✙t✙✒✔✚
political
✖✒✙✓✕✒✓✖✗
sciences. The ✘✌✓ t✍✔✢✙t✙✎✕✔✚
traditional ❤✌✣✖✙✒✔✚
physical ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography ❝✓✌✔✜✙✎✏✍✗
behaviour. ❊✒✎✕✎♠✙✒✖ Economics ✢✓✔✚✖ deals with ♦✙t✌ ❝✔✖✙✒basic
✙✖
is ✚✙✕r✓✢ ♦✙t✌ ✑✓✎✚✎✑✣✥
linked with geology, ♠✓t✓✎✍✎✚✎✑✣✥
meteorology, ✌✣✢✍✎✚✎✑✣
hydrology ✔tt✍✙❝✏t✓✖ ✎✛ t✌✓ ✓✒✎✕✎♠✣
attributes of the economy such as production, ✖✏✒✌ ✔✖ ❤✍✎✢✏✒t✙✎✕✥
✔✕✢
and ❤✓✢✎✚✎✑✣✥
pedology, ✔✕✢ and t✌✏✖✥
thus, ✑✓✎♠✎✍❤✌✎✚✎✑✣✥
geomorphology, ✢✙✖t✍✙❝✏t✙✎✕✥
distribution, ✓✤✒✌✔✕✑✓ exchange ✔✕✢ and ✒✎✕✖✏♠❤t✙✎✕✗
consumption. ❊✔✒✌ Each
✒✚✙♠✔t✎✚✎✑✣✥
climatology, ✎✒✓✔✕✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
oceanography ✔✕✢ and ✖✎✙✚
soil ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography ✎✛
of t✌✓✖✓
these ✔tt✍✙❝✏t✓✖
attributes ✔✚✖✎ also ✌✔✖has ✖❤✔t✙✔✚
spatial ✔✖❤✓✒t✖
aspects ✔✕✢ and
✍✓✖❤✓✒t✙✜✓✚✣
respectively ✌✔✜✓ have very ✜✓✍✣ ✒✚✎✖✓
close ✚✙✕r ♦✙t✌ t✌✓
link with the ✌✓✍✓
here ✒✎♠✓✖
comes t✌✓ the ✍✎✚✓
role ✎✛ of ✓✒✎✕✎♠✙✒
economic ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣ geography t✎ to
✕✔t✏✍✔✚
natural ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓✖
sciences ✔✖ as t✌✓✖✓
these ✢✓✍✙✜✓
derive t✌✓✙✍
their ✢✔t✔
data ✛✍✎♠
from ✖t✏✢✣
study t✌✓ the ✖❤✔t✙✔✚
spatial ✔✖❤✓✒t✖ aspects ✎✛ of ❤✍✎✢✏✒t✙✎✕✥
production,
t✌✓✖✓
these ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓✖✗
sciences. ♣✙✎❂❃✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
Bio-Geography ✙✖ is ✒✚✎✖✓✚✣
closely ✍✓✚✔t✓✢
related ✢✙✖t✍✙❝✏t✙✎✕✥
distribution, ✓✤✒✌✔✕✑✓ exchange ✔✕✢ and ✒✎✕✖✏♠❤t✙✎✕✗
consumption.
t✎
to ❝✎t✔✕✣✥ ❄✎✎✚✎✑✣ ✔✖
botany, zoology ♦✓✚✚ ✔✖
as well as ✓✒✎✚✎✑✣
ecology ✔✖ as ✌✏♠✔✕
human ▼✙r✓♦✙✖✓✥
Likewise, population◆❇◆❖◗■▲❈❇❑ ❘❆❇❘❍■◆❙❚ geography ✙✖ is ✒✚✎✖✓✚✣
closely
❝✓✙✕✑✖
beings ✔✍✓are ✚✎✒✔t✓✢
located ✙✕ in ✢✙✛✛✓✍✓✕t
different ✚✎✒✔t✙✎✕✔✚
locational ✕✙✒✌✓✗niche. ✚✙✕r✓✢ ♦✙t✌ t✌✓ ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓
linked with the discipline of demography. ✎✛ ❉❆❯❇❘❍■◆❙❚✗
A✐ ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✓✍
geographer ✖✌✎✏✚✢ should ✌✔✜✓have ✖✎♠✓
some ❤✍✎✛✙✒✙✓✕✒✣
proficiency
✘ ✌✓ ✔❝
The above✎✜✓ ✢ ✙✖ ✒✏✖✖ ✙✎✕ ✖✌✎♦✖
discussion shows tthat ✌✔t
✙✕
in ♠✔t✌✓♠✔t✙✒✖
mathematics ✔✕✢ and ✔✍t✥
art, ❤✔✍t✙✒✏✚✔✍✚✣
particularly ✙✕ in ✢✍✔♦✙✕✑
drawing
✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
geography ✌✔✖ has ✖t✍✎✕✑
strong ✙✕t✓✍✛✔✒✓
interface with ♦✙t✌ ✕✔t✏✍✔✚
natural
♠✔❤✖✗
maps. ❃✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✣
Geography ✙✖ ✜✓✍✣ ♠✏✒✌
is very much ✚✙✕r✓✢
linked with♦✙t✌ t✌✓
the
✖t✏✢✣ ✔✕✢
and ✖✎✒✙✔✚
social ✖✒✙✓✕✒✓✖✗sciences. ✧t It ✛✎✚✚✎♦✖
follows ✙t✖ its ✎♦✕
own
study ✎✛ of ✔✖t✍✎✕✎♠✙✒✔✚
astronomical ✚✎✒✔t✙✎✕✖
locations ✔✕✢ and ✢✓✔✚✖ ♦✙t✌
deals with
✚✔t✙t✏✢✓✖
latitudes ✔✕✢and ✚✎✕✑✙t✏✢✓✖✗
longitudes. The ✘✌✓ ✖✌✔❤✓
shape ✎✛ of t✌✓
the ✓✔✍t✌
earth
♠✓t✌✎✢✎✚✎✑✣
methodology ✎✛ of ✖t✏✢✣
study which♦✌✙✒✌ ♠✔r✓✖ makes ✙t it ✢✙✖t✙✕✒t
distinct
✙✖
is ❅❆❇❈❉
Geoid ❝✏tbut t✌✓
the ❝✔✖✙✒
basic t✎✎✚tool ✎✛
of ✔
a ✑✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✓✍
geographer ✙✖ is ✔a ✛✍✎♠
from ✎t✌✓✍✖✗
others. ✧t It ✌✔✖
has ✎✖♠✎t✙✒
osmotic ✍✓✚✔t✙✎✕✖✌✙❤
relationship with ♦✙t✌
♠✔❤ ♦✌✙✒✌ ✙✖
map which is t♦✎
two ✢✙♠✓✕✖✙✎✕✔✚
dimensional ✍✓❤✍✓✖✓✕t✔t✙✎✕
representation ✎t✌✓✍
other ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓✖✗
disciplines. While ❱✌✙✚✓ ✔✚✚ all t✌✓
the ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓✖
disciplines ✌✔✜✓ have
✎✛
of t✌✓
the ✓✔✍t✌✗
earth. The✘✌✓ ❤✍✎❝✚✓♠
problem ✎✛ of ✒✎✕✜✓✍t✙✕✑
converting ✑✓✎✙✢✖ geoids t✌✓✙✍
their ✎♦✕
own ✙✕✢✙✜✙✢✏✔✚
individual ✖✒✎❤✓✥ scope, t✌✙✖ this ✙✕✢✙✜✙✢✏✔✚✙t✣
individuality
✙✕t✎
into t♦✎two ✢✙♠✓✕✖✙✎✕✖
dimensions ✒✔✕ can ❝✓ be t✔✒r✚✓✢
tackled ❝✣ by ✢✎✓✖
does ✕✎t
not ✎❝✖t✍✏✒t
obstruct t✌✓ the ✛✚✎♦
flow ✎✛ of ✙✕✛✎✍♠✔t✙✎✕
information ✔✖ as ✙✕in
❤✍✎❋✓✒t✙✎✕✖
projections constructed graphically ✎✍
✒✎✕✖t✍✏✒t✓✢ ✑✍✔❤ ✌✙✒✔✚✚✣ or ✒✔✖✓
case ✎✛of ✔✚✚
all ✒✓✚✚✖
cells ✙✕in t✌✓
the ❝✎✢✣
body t✌✔t that ✌✔✜✓have ✙✕✢✙✜✙✢✏✔✚
individual
♠✔t✌✓♠✔t✙✒✔✚✚✣✗
mathematically. The ✘ ✌✓ ✒✔✍t✎✑✍✔❤
cartographic ✌✙✒ ✔✕✢ and ✙✢✓✕t✙t✣
identity ✖✓❤✔✍✔t✓✢
separated ❝✣ by ♠✓♠❝✍✔✕✓✖
membranes ❝✏t but t✌✓the ✛✚✎♦
flow
q✏✔✕t✙t✔t✙✜✓
quantitative t✓✒✌✕✙q✏✓✖
techniques ✍✓q✏✙✍✓ require ✖✏✛✛✙✒✙✓✕t
sufficient ✎✛
of ❝✚✎✎✢
blood ✙✖ is ✕✎t
not ✎❝✖t✍✏✒t✓✢✗
obstructed. ❃✓✎✑✍✔❤✌✓✍✖Geographers ✏✖✓ use
❤✍✎✛✙✒✙✓✕✒✣
proficiency ✙✕ in ♠✔t✌✓♠✔t✙✒✖✥
mathematics, ✖t✔t✙✖t✙✒✖ statistics ✔✕✢ and ✢✔t✔
data ✎❝t✔✙✕✓✢
obtained ✛✍✎♠ from ✖✙✖t✓✍sister ✢✙✖✒✙❤✚✙✕✓✖
disciplines ✔✕✢ and
✻ ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

★✧
✭✖

Figure 1.1 : Geography and its relation with other subjects

✬✫
✔★
✕✖
✣✧
✛

sociolofy
Geogr aphy
✣✧

Social
✒
✪
✥✛
✒✧
✩✜✖
✕
★✧
Oceanography

✒
Hydrology

✦✥

Geography
Historica]
✜
✤✣
✢✜
✕✓
✛✖
✚✙
✘✗✗
✖✕
✔✓
✒✑

Aydersoax
ur sonbruysay,
sanenueng&

SOlMj9uIOU00T.
SONSTIEIS
● ✁●✂✄☎✆✝ AS
GEOGRAPHY ✄✞ A✄ ✟✠✞✡✠☎☛✠☞
DISCIPLINE ✼

❛✌✌✍✎✏✌
attempt ✑✒✓✌✔✍✑✕✑
synthesis ✖✗✍✘
over ✑✏❛✙✍✚
space. ✛❛✏✑
Maps ❛✘✍ ✗✍✘✒
are very ❇❘✦✧★✩✪✫
BRANCHES ❖✬
OF ✭✪❖❊❘✦✮✩✯
GEOGRAPHY ❲❇✦✫✪❳
(BASED ❖✧
ON
✍❡❡✍✙✌✕✗✍
effective ✌✖✖✜✑
tools ✖❡of ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✍✘✑
geographers ✕✓ ✣✔✕✙✔ ✌✔✍
in which the ❨✯✫❩✪❬✦❩❭★ ❪✮✮❘❖✦★✩❫
SysTEMATIC APPROACH)
✌❛t✤✜❛✘ ✥❛✌❛
tabular data is converted into visual form ✌✖
✕✑ ✙✖✓✗✍✘✌✍✥ ✕✓✌✖ ✗✕✑✤❛✜ ❡✖✘✎ to
t✘✕✓✢
bring ✖✤✌
out ✌✔✍
the ✑✏❛✌✕❛✜
spatial ✏❛✌✌✍✘✓✚
pattern. ❴❵
1. ❜❞❤❥❦❧♠♥
Physical ♣qr✉✈♠✇❞❤
Geography

❇❘✦✧★✩✪✫
BRANCHES ❖✬
OF ✭✪❖❊❘✦✮✩✯
GEOGRAPHY ❣✕✲
(i) ①✵♦✾♦✺②③♦✴♦④⑤
Geomorphology ✕✑ is ✥✍✗✖✌✍✥
devoted ✌✖to ✌✔✍
the ✑✌✤✥✒
study
✖❡ ✜❛✓✥❡✖✘✎✑❁ ✌✔✍✕✘ ✍✗✖✜✤✌✕✖✓ ❛✓✥
of landforms, their evolution and related ✘✍✜❛✌✍✥
P✜✍❛✑✍
Please ✑✌✤✥✒study ❋✕✢✤✘✍
Figure ✰✚✰ 1.1 ❡✖✘ recapitulation. ❢✌
for ✘✍✙❛✏✕✌✤✜❛✌✕✖✓✚ It ✔❛✑
has ✏✘✖✙✍✑✑✍✑✚
processes.
very clearly t✘✖✤✢✔✌
✗✍✘✒ ✙✜✍❛✘✜✒ brought ✖✤✌ that ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒
out ✌✔❛✌ geography ✕✑ is ❛✓an ❣✕✕✲
(ii) ⑥✴▲✾✷❀♦✴♦④⑤
Climatology ✍✓✙✖✎✏❛✑✑✍✑
encompasses ✌✔✍ the ✑✌✤✥✒
study ✖❡ of
✕✓✌✍✘✥✕✑✙✕✏✜✕✓❛✘✒
interdisciplinary subject of study. The study ✖❡
✑✤t✐✍✙✌ ✖❡ ✑✌✤✥✒✚ ✱✔✍ ✑✌✤✥✒ of ✑✌✘✤✙✌✤✘✍
structure ✖❡ of ❛✌✎✖✑✏✔✍✘✍
atmosphere ❛✓✥ and ✍✜✍✎✍✓✌✑
elements
✍✗✍✘✒
every ✑✤t✐✍✙✌subject ✕✑ is ✥✖✓✍
done ❛✙✙✖✘✥✕✓✢
according ✌✖ to ✑✖✎✍
some of ✣✍❛✌✔✍✘
✖❡ weather ❛✓✥ and ✙✜✕✎❛✌✍✑
climates ❛✓✥ and ✙✜✕✎❛✌✕✙
climatic
❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔✚
approach. The ✱✔✍ ✎❛✐✖✘major ❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔✍✑
approaches ✌✖ to ✑✌✤✥✒
study ✌✒✏✍✑
types ❛✓✥
and ✘✍✢✕✖✓✑✚
regions.
✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒
geography ✔❛✗✍ have t✍✍✓ been ❣✕✲ (i) ❙✒✑✌✍✎❛✌✕✙
Systematic ❛✓✥ and ❣✕✕✕✲
(iii) ❍⑤✹✺♦✴♦④⑤
Hydrology ✑✌✤✥✕✍✑
studies ✌✔✍ the ✘✍❛✜✎
realm ✖❡ of ✣❛✌✍✘
water
❣✕✕✲
(ii) ✳✍✢✕✖✓❛✜✚
Regional. The ✱✔✍ ✑✒✑✌✍✎❛✌✕✙
systematic ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒geography ❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔approach ✖✗✍✘
over ✌✔✍
the ✑✤✘❡❛✙✍
surface ✖❡ of ✌✔✍
the ✍❛✘✌✔
earth ✕✓✙✜✤✥✕✓✢
including
✕✑
is ✌✔✍
the ✑❛✎✍
same ❛✑ as ✌✔❛✌
that ✖❡ of ✢✍✓✍✘❛✜
general ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒✚
geography. This ✱✔✕✑ oceans, ✜❛⑦✍✑❁
✖✙✍❛✓✑❁ lakes, ✘✕✗✍✘✑
rivers ❛✓✥ other ✣❛✌✍✘
and ✖✌✔✍✘ water
❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔
approach was ✣❛✑ ✕✓✌✘✖✥✤✙✍✥
introduced t✒ ❆✴✵✶✷✸✹✵✺ ✻♦✸
by Alexander Von t✖✥✕✍✑
bodies ❛✓✥and ✕✌✑ its ✍❡❡✍✙✌
effect ✖✓on ✥✕❡❡✍✘✍✓✌
different ✜✕❡✍ life
❍✽✾✿♦✴✹❀❁ ❛ ❂✍✘✎❛✓ ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✍✘
Humboldt, a German geographer (1769-1859) ❣✰❃❄❅❈✰❉■❅✲ ❡✖✘✎✑
forms ✕✓✙✜✤✥✕✓✢
including ✔✤✎❛✓ human ✜✕❡✍life ❛✓✥
and ✌✔✍✕✘
their
✣✔✕✜✍ ✘✍✢✕✖✓❛✜
while regional ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒geography ❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔ approach was ✣❛✑ ❛✙✌✕✗✕✌✕✍✑✚
activities.
✥✍✗✍✜✖✏✍✥
developed t✒ another ❂✍✘✎❛✓
by ❛✓✖✌✔✍✘ German ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✍✘
geographer ❛✓✥ and ❛ a ❣✕✗✲
(iv) ⑧♦▲✴
Soil ①✵♦④✺✷②③⑤
Geography ✕✑ is ✥✍✗✖✌✍✥
devoted ✌✖ to ✑✌✤✥✒
study ✌✔✍the
✙✖✓✌✍✎✏✖✘❛✘✒ ✖❡
contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter❝✤✎t✖✜✥✌❁ ❑✷✺✴ ❏▲❀❀✵✺ ✏✘✖✙✍✑✑✍✑
processes ✖❡ soil ❡✖✘✎❛✌✕✖✓❁
of ✑✖✕✜ formation, ✑✖✕✜ soil ✌✒✏✍✑❁
types,
❣✰❃❃❅❈✰❉■❅✲✚
(1779-1859). their ❡✍✘✌✕✜✕✌✒
✌✔✍✕✘ status, ✥✕✑✌✘✕t✤✌✕✖✓
fertility ✑✌❛✌✤✑❁ distribution ❛✓✥ and
❢✓
In ✑✒✑✌✍✎❛✌✕✙
systematic ❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔ approach ❣❋✕✢✤✘✍ (Figure ✰✚▼✲❁ 1.2), ❛ a ✤✑✍✚
use.
✏✔✍✓✖✎✍✓✖✓
phenomenon ✕✑ is ✑✌✤✥✕✍✥
studied world ✣✖✘✜✥ ✖✗✍✘ over ❛✑ as ❛ ✣✔✖✜✍❁
a whole,
⑨❵
2. ⑩❶❷♠❸
Human ♣qr✉✈♠✇❞❤
Geography
❛✓✥
and ✌✔✍✓ then ✌✔✍ the ✕✥✍✓✌✕❡✕✙❛✌✕✖✓
identification ✖❡ of ✌✒✏✖✜✖✢✕✍✑
typologies ✖✘ or
✑✏❛✌✕❛✜
spatial ✏❛✌✌✍✘✓✑
patterns ✕✑ is ✥✖✓✍✚
done. ❋✖✘ For ✍s❛✎✏✜✍❁
example, ✕❡ if ✖✓✍
one ✕✑ is ❣✕✲
(i) ⑧♦❹▲✷✴❺⑥✽✴❀✽✺✷✴
Social/Cultural ①✵♦④✺✷②③⑤ Geography ✍✓✙✖✎❈ encom-
✕✓✌✍✘✍✑✌✍✥
interested ✕✓ in ✑✌✤✥✒✕✓✢
studying ✓❛✌✤✘❛✜ ✗✍✢✍✌❛✌✕✖✓❁ ✌✔✍
natural vegetation, the ✏❛✑✑✍✑
passes ✌✔✍ the ✑✌✤✥✒
study ✖❡ of ✑✖✙✕✍✌✒
society ❛✓✥ and ✕✌✑its
✑✌✤✥✒
study will ✣✕✜✜ t✍
be ✥✖✓✍
done ❛✌ at ✌✔✍ ✣✖✘✜✥ ✜✍✗✍✜
the world level ❛✑ as a ❛ ❡✕✘✑✌
first spatial ✥✒✓❛✎✕✙✑
✑✏❛✌✕❛✜ dynamics ❛✑ as ✣✍✜✜
well ❛✑as ✌✔✍
the ✙✤✜✌✤✘❛✜
cultural
✑✌✍✏✚
step. The ✱✔✍ ✌✒✏✖✜✖✢✕✍✑
typologies ✑✤✙✔ such ❛✑ as ✍◆✤❛✌✖✘✕❛✜
equatorial ✘❛✕✓ rain ✍✜✍✎✍✓✌✑ contributed t✒
elements ✙✖✓✌✘✕t✤✌✍✥ by ✌✔✍
the ✑✖✙✕✍✌✒✚
society.
❡✖✘✍✑✌✑
forests ✖✘ or ✑✖❡✌✣✖✖✥
softwood ✙✖✓✕✙❛✜ conical ❡✖✘✍✑✌✑
forests ✖✘ or ✎✖✓✑✖✖✓
monsoon ❣✕✕✲
(ii) ❻♦②✽✴✷❀▲♦✸
Population ✷✸✹ and ⑧✵❀❀✴✵✾✵✸❀
Settlement ①✵♦④✺✷②③⑤
Geography
❡✖✘✍✑✌✑❁
forests, ✍✌✙✚ etc. ✣✕✜✜
will t✍ identified, ✥✕✑✙✤✑✑✍✥
be ✕✥✍✓✌✕❡✕✍✥❁ discussed ❛✓✥ and ❣✳✤✘❛✜ and ❼✘t❛✓✲✚
(Rural ❛✓✥ Urban). ❢✌ It ✑✌✤✥✕✍✑
studies ✏✖✏✤✜❛✌✕✖✓
population
✥✍✜✕✎✕✌✍✥✚
delimited. ❢✓ In ✌✔✍
the ✘✍✢✕✖✓❛✜
regional ❛✏✏✘✖❛✙✔❁
approach, ✌✔✍ the ✣✖✘✜✥
world ✢✘✖✣✌✔❁
growth, ✥✕✑✌✘✕t✤✌✕✖✓❁
distribution, ✥✍✓✑✕✌✒❁
density, ✑✍s sex ✘❛✌✕✖❁
ratio,
is ✥✕✗✕✥✍✥
✕✑ divided ✕✓✌✖into ✘✍✢✕✖✓✑
regions ❛✌ at ✥✕❡❡✍✘✍✓✌
different ✔✕✍✘❛✘✙✔✕✙❛✜
hierarchical ✎✕✢✘❛✌✕✖✓
migration ❛✓✥ and ✖✙✙✤✏❛✌✕✖✓❛✜
occupational ✑✌✘✤✙✌✤✘✍structure
✜✍✗✍✜✑
levels ❛✓✥ and ✌✔✍✓
then ❛✜✜ the ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✕✙❛✜
all ✌✔✍ geographical ✏✔✍✓✖✎✍✓❛ phenomena etc. ❙✍✌✌✜✍✎✍✓✌
✍✌✙✚ Settlement ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒
geography ✑✌✤✥✕✍✑ studies ✌✔✍ the
✕✓
in ❛ a ✏❛✘✌✕✙✤✜❛✘
particular ✘✍✢✕✖✓ region ❛✘✍ are ✑✌✤✥✕✍✥✚
studied. These ✱✔✍✑✍ ✙✔❛✘❛✙✌✍✘✕✑✌✕✙✑ ✖❡ ✘✤✘❛✜
characteristics of rural and urban ❛✓✥ ✤✘t❛✓
✘✍✢✕✖✓✑
regions ✎❛✒ may t✍ be ✓❛✌✤✘❛✜❁
natural, ✏✖✜✕✌✕✙❛✜
political ✖✘ or ✥✍✑✕✢✓❛✌✍✥
designated
✑✍✌✌✜✍✎✍✓✌✑✚
settlements.
✱✔✍ ✏✔✍✓✖✎✍✓❛ ❣✕✕✕✲
(iii) ❽❹♦✸♦✾▲❹
Economic ①✵♦④✺✷②③⑤
Geography ✑✌✤✥✕✍✑ studies ✍✙✖✓✖✎✕✙
economic
✘✍✢✕✖✓✚
region. The phenomena ✕✓ in ❛ a ✘✍✢✕✖✓
region ❛✘✍ are ✑✌✤✥✕✍✥
studied
❛✙✌✕✗✕✌✕✍✑
activities ✖❡ of ✌✔✍
the ✏✍✖✏✜✍
people ✕✓✙✜✤✥✕✓✢
including
✕✓
in a holistic manner searching for unity ✕✓
❛ ✔✖✜✕✑✌✕✙ ✎❛✓✓✍✘ ✑✍❛✘✙✔✕✓✢ ❡✖✘ ✤✓✕✌✒ in
❛✢✘✕✙✤✜✌✤✘✍❁
agriculture, ✕✓✥✤✑✌✘✒❁
industry, ✌✖✤✘✕✑✎❁
tourism, ✌✘❛✥✍❁
trade,
✥✕✗✍✘✑✕✌✒✚
diversity.
❛✓✥
and transport, infrastructure ❛✓✥
✌✘❛✓✑✏✖✘✌❁ ✕✓❡✘❛✑✌✘✤✙✌✤✘✍ and
◗✤❛✜✕✑✎
Dualism ✕✑ is ✖✓✍
one ✖❡ of ✌✔✍
the ✎❛✕✓
main ✙✔❛✘❛✙✌✍✘✕✑✌✕✙✑
characteristics
✑✍✘✗✕✙✍✑❁
services, ✍✌✙✚
etc.
of geography which got introduced ❡✘✖✎
✖❡ ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒ ✣✔✕✙✔ ✢✖✌ ✕✓✌✘✖✥✤✙✍✥ from ✌✔✍ the ❣✕✗✲
(iv) ❍▲❾❀♦✺▲❹✷✴
Historical ①✵♦④✺✷②③⑤
Geography ✑✌✤✥✕✍✑ studies ✌✔✍ the
very t✍✢✕✓✓✕✓✢✚
✗✍✘✒ beginning. This ✱✔✕✑ ✥✤❛✜✕✑✎
dualism ✥✍✏✍✓✥✍✥
depended ✖✓ on ✌✔✍the ✔✕✑✌✖✘✕✙❛✜
historical ✏✘✖✙✍✑✑✍✑
processes ✌✔✘✖✤✢✔through ✣✔✕✙✔which ✌✔✍the
❛✑✏✍✙✌
aspect ✍✎✏✔❛✑✕✑✍✥
emphasised ✕✓ in ✌✔✍ study. ❚❛✘✜✕✍✘
the ✑✌✤✥✒✚ Earlier ✑✙✔✖✜❛✘✑
scholars space ✢✍✌✑
✑✏❛✙✍ organised. ❚✗✍✘✒
gets ✖✘✢❛✓✕✑✍✥✚ Every ✘✍✢✕✖✓
region ✔❛✑
has
✜❛✕✥
laid ✍✎✏✔❛✑✕✑
emphasis ✖✓ physical ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒✚
on ✏✔✒✑✕✙❛✜ geography. ❯✤✌ But ✤✓✥✍✘✢✖✓✍
undergone ✑✖✎✍ some ✔✕✑✌✖✘✕✙❛✜
historical ✍s✏✍✘✕✍✓✙✍✑
experiences
human t✍✕✓✢✑
✔✤✎❛✓ beings ❛✘✍ are ❛✓ an ✕✓✌✍✢✘❛✜
integral ✏❛✘✌ part ✖❡ of ✌✔✍
the ✍❛✘✌✔❱✑
earth’s t✍❡✖✘✍
before attaining the present ✥❛✒
❛✌✌❛✕✓✕✓✢ ✌✔✍ ✏✘✍✑✍✓✌ day ✑✌❛✌✤✑❵
status.
✑✤✘❡❛✙✍✚
surface. They ✱✔✍✒ ❛✘✍are ✏❛✘✌
part ❛✓✥ and ✏❛✘✙✍✜
parcel ✖❡ of ✓❛✌✤✘✍✚
nature. They ✱✔✍✒ ✱✔✍ ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✕✙❛✜
The geographical ❡✍❛✌✤✘✍✑
features ❛✜✑✖ also
❛✜✑✖
also ✔❛✗✍ have ✙✖✓✌✘✕t✤✌✍✥
contributed ✌✔✘✖✤✢✔ through ✌✔✍✕✘ their ✙✤✜✌✤✘❛✜
cultural ✍s✏✍✘✕✍✓✙✍
experience ✌✍✎✏✖✘❛✜
temporal ✙✔❛✓✢✍✑
changes ❛✓✥ and ✌✔✍✑✍
these
✥✍✗✍✜✖✏✎✍✓✌✚
development. ✱✔✤✑ ✥✍✗✍✜✖✏✍✥
Thus developed ✔✤✎❛✓ human ❡form
✖✘✎ ✌✔✍ the ✙✖✓✙✍✘✓✑
concerns ✖❡ of ✔✕✑✌✖✘✕✙❛✜
historical
✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒
geography ✣✕✌✔ with ✍✎✏✔❛✑✕✑
emphasis ✖✓ on ✔✤✎❛✓
human ❛✙✌✕✗✕✌✕✍✑✚
activities. ✢✍✖✢✘❛✏✔✒✚
geography.
✽ ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

Branches of Geography
(Based on Systematic Approach)

Y v v v
PRINCIPLES/ METHODS AND
PHYSICAL PHILOSOPHY TECHNIQUES HUMAN

Ceggrpnietl anand tuman| | Castgraphy || | Gd Survey

. Human Ecology :

§ Interaction) etnods
Vv Vv
Quantitative Geo Informatics
Techniques
Vv.
t Vv 1
GIS GPS LIS
_ Interface .
- Biogeography *

Climatology Hydrology

Vv Vv v v Y
Geomorphology Soil Geography Social/ Population and .
Cultural Settlements Economic
Vv Vv
v v Historical Political
Y
Plant Zoo
Geography Geography
| Rural | | Urban |

Ecology
y
—_
nvironmenta
N
j | 1
Geography Agriculture Tourism Infrastructure
Vv Vv Vv

Industrial made and Services

ransport

✑✒✓✔✕✖
Figure ✗✘✙
1.2 ✚: ✛✕✜✢✣✤✖✥
Branches ✦✧
of ✓✖✦✓✕✜★✤✩ ✪✜✥✖✫ ✦✢
geography based on ✥✩✥✬✖✭✜✬✒✣
systematic ✜★★✕✦✜✣✤
approach

✮✯✰
(v) P✱✲✳✴✳✵✶✲
Political ✷✸✱✹✺✶✻✼✾
Geography ❧✿✿❀❁
looks ❂❃at ❃❄❅
the ❁s❂❆❅
space ❘❙
3. ❚❯❱❲❳❱❲❨❩❬❭❪
Biogeography
❢❇✿❈
from the angle of political events ❂❉❍
❃❄❅ ❂❉❊❧❅ ✿❢ s✿❧●❃●❆❂❧ ❅✯❅❉❃❁ and ❫❄❅ ●❉❃❅❇❢❂❆❅
The ❏❅❃❜❅❅❉ s❄❴❁●❆❂❧
interface between physical ❊❅✿❊❇❂s❄❴
geography
❁❃■❍●❅❁ ❏✿■❉❍❂❇●❅❁❑ ❁s❂❆❅
studies boundaries, space ❇❅❧❂❃●✿❉❁
relations ❂❉❍
and human geography ❄❂❁
❄■❈❂❉ ❊❅✿❊❇❂s❄❴ has ❧❅❂❍
lead ❃✿
to ❃❄❅
the
❏❅❃❜❅❅❉ ❉❅●❊❄❏✿■❇●❉❊
between neighbouring s✿❧●❃●❆❂❧
political ■❉●❃❁❑
units, ❍❅✯❅❧✿s❈❅❉❃
development ✿❢ of ❞●✿❊❅✿❊❇❂s❄❴
Biogeography which❜❄●❆❄
❍❅❧●❈●❃❂❃●✿❉ ✿❢ ❆✿❉❁❃●❃■❅❉❆●❅❁❑ ❅❧❅❆❃●✿❉
delimitation of constituencies, election ●❉❆❧■❍❅❁✐
includes:
❁❆❅❉❂❇●✿
scenario ❂❉❍and ❍❅✯❅❧✿s❁
develops ❃❄❅✿❇❅❃●❆❂❧
theoretical ✮●✰
(i) P✲✶❵✴
Plant ✷✸✱✹✺✶✻✼✾
Geography ❜❄●❆❄ ❁❃■❍●❅❁
which studies ❃❄❅
the
▲✺✶▼✸◆✱✺❖ ❃✿
Jjramework to ■❉❍❅❇❁❃❂❉❍
understand ❃❄❅ the s✿❧●❃●❆❂❧
political ❁s❂❃●❂❧
spatial s❂❃❃❅❇❉
pattern ✿❢
of ❉❂❃■❇❂❧ ✯❅❊❅❃❂❃●✿❉ ●❉
natural vegetation in
❏❅❄❂✯●✿■❇ ✿❢
behaviour of ❃❄❅
the s✿s■❧❂❃●✿❉◗
population. ❃❄❅●❇
their ❄❂❏●❃❂❃❁◗
habitats.
● ✁●✂✄☎✆✝ AS
GEOGRAPHY ✄✞ A✄ ✟✠✞✡✠☎☛✠☞
DISCIPLINE ✾

✭✌✌✍ ❩✎✎ ✏✑✎✒✓✔✕✖✗

(ii) Zoo Geography ✥✘✌✙✘ ✚✛✜✢✌✣✚
which studies ✛✘✣the ✭✙✍
(c) ❸✌✣✦✢
Field ❦✜♣✴✣✳
Survey ⑩✣✛✘✩✢✚
Methods
spatial s✤✛✛✣♣✧✚
✚s✤✛✌✤✦ patterns ✤✧✢ and ★✣✩★♣✤s✘✌✙
geographic ✭✢✍
(d) ⑤✣✩❹✌✧❝ ✩♣✪ ✤✛✌✙✚ ✙✩✪
Geo-informatics s♣✌✚✌✧★
comprising
characteristics ✩❝
✙✘✤♣✤✙✛✣♣✌✚✛✌✙✚ of ✤✧✌✪✤✦✚
animals ✤✧✢ and ✛✘✣✌♣
their ✛techniques
✣✙✘✧✌❶✜✣✚ ✚✜✙✘ ✤✚
such as Remote ❥✣✪ ✩✛✣
✘✤❤✌✛✤✛✚✫
habitats. ❦✣✧✚✌✧★❣
Sensing, ⑤⑧❦❣ GIS, ⑤r❦❣
GPS, ✣✛✙✫
etc.
✭✌✌✌✍
(iii) ❊✬✎✮✎✒✗
Ecology ✯❊✬✎✰✗✰✱✑✲
/Ecosystem ✢✣✤✦✚ ✥✌✛✘ ✛✘✣
deals with the ♦✘ ✣ ✤❤✩✴
The above✣ ✙✦ ✤✚✚✌❝✌✙✤✛✌ ✩✧ ★✌✴
classification gives✣✚ ✤a
✚✙✌ ✣✧✛✌❝✌✙ ✚✛
scientific ✜✢✳ ✩❝
study of ✛✘the✣ ✘ ✤❤✌✛✤✛✚
habitats comprehensive ❝✩♣✪✤✛
✙✩✪s♣✣✘✣✧✚✌✴✣ format ✩❝ of ✛✘✣ ❤♣✤✧✙✘✣✚ ✩❝
the branches of
characteristic ✩❝
✙✘✤♣✤✙✛✣♣✌✚✛✌✙ of ✚s✣✙✌✣✚✫
species. ★✣✩★♣✤s✘✳✫ Generally ★✣✩★♣✤s✘✳
geography. ⑤✣✧✣♣✤✦✦✳ geography ✙✜♣♣✌✙✜✦✤
curricula ✌✚ is
✭✌✴✍
(iv) Environmental Geography ✙✩✧✙✣♣✧✚
❊✵✶✷✓✎✵✲✑✵✱✔✮ ✏✑✎✒✓✔✕✖✗ concerns
taught ✤✧✢
✛✤✜★✘✛ and ✦✣✤♣✧✛learnt ✌✧ this ❝✩♣✪✤✛
in ✛✘✌✚ format but ❤✜✛ ✛✘✌✚
this
✥✩♣✦✢ ✩✴✣♣
world over ✦✣✤✢✌✧★
leading ✛✩ the ♣✣✤✦✌✚✤✛✌✩✧
to ✛✘✣ realisation ✩❝of
❝✩♣✪✤✛
format ✌✚is ✧✩✛
not ✚✛✤✛✌✙✫ ❺✧✳ ✢✌✚✙✌s✦✌✧✣
static. Any discipline ✌✚ ❤✩✜✧✢
is bound
environmental s♣✩❤✦✣✪✚
✣✧✴✌♣✩✧✪✣✧✛✤✦ problems ✚✜✙✘ such ✤✚as ✦✤✧✢
land
★♣✤✢✤✛✌✩✧❣
gradation, s✩✦✦✜✛✌✩✧
pollution ✤✧✢ concerns ❝✩♣
and ✙✩✧✙✣♣✧✚ for ✛✩ ★♣✩✥ ✥✌✛✘ ✧✣✥ ✌✢✣✤✚❣ s♣✩❤✦✣✪✚❣
to grow with new ideas, problems, methods ✪✣✛✘✩✢✚
✙✩✧✚✣♣✴✤✛✌✩✧
conservation ✘✤✚ has ♣✣✚✜✦✛✣✢
resulted ✌✧ in ✛✘✣
the ✤✧✢
and ✛✣✙✘✧✌❶✜✣✚✫
techniques. ❸✩♣ For ✣❻✤✪s✦✣❣
example, what ✥✘✤✛ was✥✤✚ ✩✧✙✣
once
introduction ✩❝
✌✧✛♣✩✢✜✙✛✌✩✧ this ✧✣✥
of ✛✘✌✚ ❤♣✤✧✙✘ ✌✧
new branch in ✪ ✤✧✜✤✦ ✙✤♣✛✩★♣✤s✘
manual cartography✳ ✘✤✚ has ✧ ✩✥ been
now ❤✣✣✧
★✣✩★♣✤s✘✳✫
geography. ✛♣✤✧✚❝✩♣✪✣✢
transformed ✌✧✛✩ into ✙✩✪s✜✛✣♣
computer ✙✤♣✛✩★♣✤s✘✳✫
cartography.
♦✣✙✘✧✩✦✩★✳ ✘✤✚
Technology has ✣✧✤❤✦✣✢
enabled ✚✙✘✩✦✤♣✚
scholars ✛✩ to ✘✤✧✢✦✣
handle
❇❘✸✹✺✻✼✽
BRANCHES ❖✿
OF ❀✼❖❁❘✸❂✻❃
GEOGRAPHY ❄✸✽✼❅
BASED ❖✹
ON ❆✼❁❈❖✹✸❉
REGIONAL ✦✤♣★✣ quantum ✩❝
large ❶✜✤✧✛✜✪ of ✢✤✛✤✫ internet s♣✩✴✌✢✣✚
♦✘✣ ✌✧✛✣♣✧✣✛
data. The provides
❋❂❂❘❖✸✺✻ ❍■❈❁❏❘✼❑▲▼◆
ApproacH (Ficure1.3) ✣❻✛✣✧✚✌✴✣
extensive ✌✧❝✩♣✪✤✛✌✩✧✫
information. Thus, ♦✘✜✚❣ ✛✘✣the ✙✤s✤✙✌✛✳
capacity ✛✩ to
P◗
1. ❙❚❯❱❲❳❨❬
Regional ❭❪❫❴❱❚❵❛❜❞❚❨
Studies/Area ❭❪❫❴❱❚❵
Studies ✤✛✛✣✪s✛
attempt ✤✧✤✦✳✚✌✚
analysis ✘✤✚ has ✌✧✙♣✣✤✚✣✢
increased ✛♣✣✪✣✧✢✩✜✚✦✳✫
tremendously.
❡✩✪s♣✌✚✌✧★
Comprising ❢✔✬✓✎✐ Meso ✤✧✢
Macro, ❢✑✰✎ and ❢✷✬✓✎
Micro ⑤⑧❦ has ❝✜♣✛✘✣♣
GIS ✘✤✚ further ✩s✣✧✣✢ vistas ✩❝
opened ✴✌✚✛✤✚ of ❼✧✩✥✦✣✢★✣✫
knowledge.
❥✣★✌✩✧✤✦
Regional ❦✛✜✢✌✣✚
Studies ⑤r❦
GPS ✘✤✚ become ✤
has ❤✣✙✩✪✣ a ✘✤✧✢✳
handy ✛✩✩✦ to ❝✌✧✢
tool ✛✩ find ✩✜✛
out ✣❻✤✙✛
exact
❧◗
2. ❙❚❯❱❲❳❨❬
Regional ♠❬❨❳❳❱❳❯Planning ✦✩✙✤✛✌✩✧✚✫
locations. Technologies have enhanced ✛✘✣
♦✣✙✘✧✩✦✩★✌✣✚ ✘✤✴✣ ✣✧✘✤✧✙✣✢ the
❡✩✪s♣✌✚✌✧★ Country/Rural ✤✧✢
Comprising ❡✩✜✧✛♣✳♥❥✜♣✤✦ ♦✩✥✧♥
and Town/ capacity ✩❝
✙✤s✤✙✌✛✳ of ✤✛✛✣✪s✛✌✧★
attempting ✚✳✧✛✘✣✚✌✚
synthesis ✥✌✛✘with ✚✩✜✧✢
sound
q♣❤✤✧
Urban r✦✤✧✧✌✧★
Planning ✛✘✣✩♣✣✛✌✙✤✦
theoretical ✜✧✢✣♣✚✛✤✧✢✌✧★✫
understanding.
t◗
3. ❙❚❯❱❲❳❨❬
Regional ✉❚✈❚❬❲✇①❚❳❪
Development You will ✦✣✤♣✧
❽✩✜ ✥✌✦✦ some s♣✣✦✌✪✌✧✤♣✳
learn ✚✩✪✣ preliminary ✤✚s✣✙✛✚
aspects ✩❝ of
②◗
4. ❙❚❯❱❲❳❨❬ ❜❳❨❬③❵❱❵
Regional Analysis ✛✘✣✚✣
these ✛✣✙✘✧✌❶✜✣✚
techniques ✌✧ ✳✩✜♣ ❤✩✩❼❣
in your book, ❾✓✔✬✱✷✬✔✮
Practical ❿✎✓➀
work
♦✘✣♣✣ ✤♣✣
There two ✤✚s✣✙✛✚
are ✛✥✩ ✥✘✌✙✘ ✤♣✣
aspects which are ✙✩✪✪✩✧
common ✷✵
in ✏✑✎✒✓✔✕✖✗
Geography ➁ — ❾✔✓✱
Part ➂I(NCERT,
✭➃❡⑨❥♦❣ ➄➅➅➆✍➇
2006). You❽✩✜ ✥✌✦✦
will
✛✩
to ✣✴✣♣✳
every ✢✌✚✙✌s✦✌✧✣❣ these ✤♣✣④
discipline, ✛✘✣✚✣ are: ✙✩✧✛✌✧✜✣
continue ✛✩ to ✌✪s♣✩✴✣
improve ✜s✩✧ skills ✤✧✢
✳✩✜♣ ✚❼✌✦✦✚
upon your and
✭✌✍
(i) r✘✌✦✩✚✩s✘✳
Philosophy ✦✣✤♣✧
learn ✤❤✩✜✛
about ✛✘✣✌♣their ✤ss✦✌✙✤✛✌✩✧✫
application.
✭✤✍
(a) ⑤✣✩★♣✤s✘✌✙✤✦ ♦✘✩✜★✘✛
Geographical Thought
✭❤✍
(b) ⑥✤✧✢ ✤✧✢
Land and Human ⑧✧✛✣♣✤✙✛✌✩✧♥
⑦✜✪✤✧ Interaction/ ➈✻❃✽❈✺✸❉
PuHysICAL ❀✼❖❁❘✸❂✻❃
GEOGRAPHY ✸✹❅ ITS ➊➋❂❖❘➉✸✹✺✼
AND ❈➉✽ IMPORTANCE
⑦✜✪✤✧
Human ⑨✙✩✦✩★✳
Ecology
✭✌✌✍ Methods ✤✧✢
(ii) ⑩✣✛✘✩✢✚ ♦✣✙✘✧✌❶✜✣✚
and Techniques This chapter ✤ss✣✤♣✚
♦✘✌✚ ✙✘✤s✛✣♣ appears ✌✧ in ✛✘✣
the ❤✩✩❼
book ✣✧✛✌✛✦✣✢
entitled
✭✤✍
(a) ❡✤♣✛✩★♣✤s✘✳
Cartography ✌✧✙✦✜✢✌✧★
including ❡✩✪s✜✛✣♣
Computer ➌➍✵➎✔✲✑✵✱✔✮✰
Fundamentals ✎➏ of ❾✖✗✰✷✬✔✮
Physical ✏✑✎✒✓✔✕✖✗✫
Geography. The ♦✘✣
❡✤♣✛✩★♣✤s✘✳
Cartography contents ✩❝
✙✩✧✛✣✧✛✚ of ✛✘✣
the ❤✩✩❼ clearly ♣✣❝✦✣✙✛
book ✙✦✣✤♣✦✳ reflect ✌✛✚
its ✚✙✩s✣✫
scope.
✭❤✍
(b) ❷✜✤✧✛✌✛✤✛✌✴✣ ♦✣✙✘✧✌❶✜✣✚♥❦✛✤✛✌✚✛✌✙✤✦
Quantitative Techniques/Statistical ⑧✛
It ✌✚ therefore, ✤ss♣✩s♣✌✤✛✣
is ✛✘✣♣✣❝✩♣✣❣ appropriate ✛✩ to ❼✧✩✥
know ✛✘✣ the
♦✣✙✘✧✌❶✜✣✚
Techniques ✌✪s✩♣✛✤✧✙✣ ✩❝ ✛✘✌✚ ❤♣✤✧✙✘ ✩❝
importance of this branch of geography.★✣✩★♣✤s✘✳✫

Branches of
Geography
(Based on Regional Approach

Y Y ' U
Regional Studies/ Regional Regional Regional
Area Studies Development Analysis Planning

f
Macro Regional
4
Meso Regional
|
Micro Regional
a
Country/Rural Town/Urban
Studies Studies Studies Planning Planning

➐➑➒➓➔→
Figure ➣↔↕
1.3 ➙: ➛➔➜➝➞➟→➠
Branches ➡➢
of ➒→➡➒➔➜➤➟➥
geography ➦➜➠→➧
based ➡➝
on ➔→➒➑➡➝➜➨
regional ➜➤➤➔➡➜➞➟
approach
✶✑
10 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

P✒✓✔✕✖✗✘
Physical ✙✚✛✙✜✗✢✒✓
geography ✕✣✖✘✤✥✚✔ includes ✦✒✚ the ✔✦✤✥✓
study ✛✧ of ✔✚✗✐✧✛✛✥✩
sea-food, ✛✖✚✗✣✔
oceans ✗✜✚
are ✜✕✖✒ in ★✕✣✚✜✗✘
rich ✕✣ mineral ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚✔✪
resources.
lithosphere ❧✘✗✣✥✧✛✜★✔✩
✘✕✦✒✛✔✢✒✚✜✚ (landforms, ✥✜✗✕✣✗✙✚✩drainage, ✜✚✘✕✚✧ relief ✗✣✥ and ❣✣✥✕✗
India ✒✗✔
has ✥✚✫✚✘✛✢✚✥
developed ✦✒✚ the ✦✚✖✒✣✛✘✛✙✓
technology ✧✛✜ for
✢✒✓✔✕✛✙✜✗✢✒✓♣✩ atmosphere ❧✕✦✔
physiography), ✗✦★✛✔✢✒✚✜✚ (its ✖✛★✢✛✔✕✦✕✛✣✩
composition, collecting ★✗✣✙✗✣✚✔✚
✖✛✘✘✚✖✦✕✣✙ manganese ✣✛✥✤✘✚✔nodules ✧✜✛★from ✛✖✚✗✣✕✖
oceanic
✔✦✜✤✖✦✤✜✚✩
structure, ✚✘✚★✚✣✦✔
elements ✗✣✥ and ✖✛✣✦✜✛✘✔
controls ✛✧ s✚✗✦✒✚✜
of weather ✇✚✥✪
bed. ❜✛✕✘✔
Soils ✗✜✚
are ✜✚✣✚s✗✇✘✚
renewable ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚✔✩
resources, whichs✒✕✖✒
✗✣✥
and ✖✘✕★✗✦✚❛
climate; ✦✚★✢✚✜✗✦✤✜✚✩
temperature, ✢✜✚✔✔✤✜✚✩ pressure, winds, s✕✣✥✔✩ ✕✣✧✘✤✚✣✖✚
influence ✗a ✣✤★✇✚✜
number ✛✧ of ✚✖✛✣✛★✕✖
economic ✗✖✦✕✫✕✦✕✚✔
activities ✔✤✖✒
such
✢✜✚✖✕✢✕✦✗✦✕✛✣✩ ✖✘✕★✗✦✕✖ ✦✓✢✚✔✩ ✚✦✖✪♣✩
precipitation, climatic types, etc.), hydrosphere ✒✓✥✜✛✔✢✒✚✜✚ as agriculture. The fertility of the soil is ✇✛✦✒
✗✔ ✗✙✜✕✖✤✘✦✤✜✚✪ ❚✒✚ ✧✚✜✦✕✘✕✦✓ ✛✧ ✦✒✚ ✔✛✕✘ ✕✔ both
❧✛✖✚✗✣✔✩
(oceans, ✔✚✗✔✩
seas, ✘✗✭✚✔lakes ✗✣✥ and ✗✔✔✛✖✕✗✦✚✥
associated ✧✚✗✦✤✜✚✔features ✣✗✦✤✜✗✘✘✓
naturally ✥✚✦✚✜★✕✣✚✥
determined ✗✣✥ and ✖✤✘✦✤✜✗✘✘✓
culturally ✕✣✥✤✖✚✥✪
induced.
s✕✦✒ water
with s✗✦✚✜ ✜✚✗✘★♣
realm) ✗✣✥ and ✇✕✛✔✢✒✚✜✚
biosphere ❧( ✘✕✧✚ life ✧✛✜★✔
forms ❜✛✕✘✔
Soils ✗✘✔✛
also ✢✜✛✫✕✥✚ the ✇✗✔✕✔
provide ✦✒✚ basis ✧✛✜ the ✇✕✛✔✢✒✚✜✚
for ✦✒✚ biosphere
✕✣✖✘✤✥✕✣✙ human ✇✚✕✣✙
including ✒✤★✗✣ being ✗✣✥ and ★✗✖✜✛✐✛✜✙✗✣✕✔★
macro-organism ✗✖✖✛★★✛✥✗✦✕✣✙
accommodating ✢✘✗✣✦✔✩ plants, ✗✣✕★✗✘✔
animals ✗✣✥ and ★✕✖✜✛
micro
✗✣✥
and ✦✒✚✕✜ sustaining ★✚✖✒✗✣✕✔★✩
their ✔✤✔✦✗✕✣✕✣✙ mechanism, viz. ✫✕✬✪ ✧✛✛✥
food ✛✜✙✗✣✕✔★✔✪
organisms.
✖✒✗✕✣✩
chain, ✚✖✛✘✛✙✕✖✗✘
ecological ✢✗✜✗★✚✦✚✜✔
parameters ✗✣✥ and ✚✖✛✘✛✙✕✖✗✘
ecological
✇✗✘✗✣✖✚♣✪
balance). ❜✛✕✘✔
Soils ✗✜✚are ✧✛✜★✚✥
formed ✦✒✜✛✤✙✒
through ✦✒✚ the ✢✜✛✖✚✔✔
process ❲❄❅❆ ❇❈
What is ❉❊●❍■❅❏❄❑▲
Geography?
✛✧ ✮✯✰✱✲✯✳✯✴✵✴ ✗✣✥
of pedogenesis and ✥✚✢✚✣✥
depend ✤✢✛✣ upon ✦✒✚ the ✢✗✜✚✣✦
parent
✜✛✖✭✔✩ climate, ✇✕✛✘✛✙✕✖✗✘
rocks, ✖✘✕★✗✦✚✩ biological ✗✖✦✕✫✕✦✓
activity ✗✣✥ and ✦✕★✚✪time. ◆❖◗❘❙❯❱❳❨
Geography ❩❬ is ❭◗❪❭❖❙❪❖❫
concerned with❴❩❵❳ ❵❳❖
the ❫❖❬❭❙❩❱❵❩◗❪
description
Time provides ★✗✦✤✜✕✦✓
❚✕★✚ ✢✜✛✫✕✥✚✔ maturity ✦✛ to ✔✛✕✘✔
soils ✗✣✥and ✒✚✘✢✔
helps ✕✣ in
❯❪❫
and ❖❝❱❢❯❪❯❵❩◗❪
explanation ◗❤ of ❵❳❖
the ❯❙❖❯❢
areal ❫❩❤❤❖❙❖❪❵❩❯❵❩◗❪
differentiation ◗❤of
❵❳❖
the ❖❯❙❵❳❥❬
earth’s ❬❦❙❤❯❭❖♠
surface.
✦✒✚
the ✥✚✫✚✘✛✢★✚✣✦
development ✛✧ of ✔✛✕✘ profiles. t✗✖✒
soil ✢✜✛✧✕✘✚✔✪ Each ✚✘✚★✚✣✦
element ♥♦qr✉✈①
Richard ②✉✈③④r⑤✈⑥⑦
Hartshorne
✕✔
is ✕★✢✛✜✦✗✣✦
important ✧✛✜ human ✇✚✕✣✙✔✪
for ✒✤★✗✣ beings. ✷✗✣✥✧✛✜★✔
Landforms
✢✜✛✫✕✥✚ the ✇✗✔✚
provide ✦✒✚ base ✛✣ s✒✕✖✒ ✒✤★✗✣
on which human ✗✖✦✕✫✕✦✕✚✔
activities ✗✜✚ are ◆❖◗❘❙❯❱❳❨
Geography ❬❵❦❫❩❖❬
studies ❵❳❖
the ❫❩❤❤❖❙❖❪❭❖❬
differences ◗❤
of
✘✛✖✗✦✚✥✪ ❚✒✚ ✢✘✗✕✣✔ ✗✜✚ ✤✦✕✘✕✔✚✥ ✧✛✜
located. The plains are utilised for agriculture. ✗✙✜✕✖✤✘✦✤✜✚✪ ❱❳❖❪◗⑧❖❪❯
phenomena ❦❬❦❯❢❢❨
usually ❙❖❢❯❵❖❫
related ❩❪
in ❫❩❤❤❖❙❖❪❵
different ❱❯❙❵❬
parts
P✘✗✦✚✗✤✔
Plateaus ✢✜✛✫✕✥✚
provide ✧✛✜✚✔✦✔ forests ✗✣✥ and ★✕✣✚✜✗✘✔✪
minerals.
◗❤
of ❵❳❖
the ❖❯❙❵❳❥❬
earth’s ❬❦❙❤❯❭❖♠
surface.
▼✛✤✣✦✗✕✣✔ ②⑦③③⑥⑦✈
Hettner
Mountains ✢✜✛✫✕✥✚provide ✢✗✔✦✤✜✚✔✩
pastures, ✧✛✜✚✔✦✔✩forests, ✦✛✤✜✕✔✦
tourist
✔✢✛✦✔
spots ✗✣✥
and ✗✜✚are ✔✛✤✜✖✚✔
sources ✛✧ of ✜✕✫✚✜✔
rivers ✢✜✛✫✕✥✕✣✙
providing water s✗✦✚✜
✦✛
to ✘✛s✘✗✣✥✔✪
lowlands. ✸✘✕★✗✦✚Climate ✕✣✧✘✤✚✣✖✚✔
influences ✛✤✜ our ✒✛✤✔✚
house ❚✒✚ ✔✦✤✥✓
The study ✛✧ of ✢✒✓✔✕✖✗✘
physical ✙✚✛✙✜✗✢✒✓
geography ✕✔ is
✦✓✢✚✔✩
types, ✖✘✛✦✒✕✣✙
clothing ✗✣✥ and ✧✛✛✥
food ✒✗✇✕✦✔✪
habits. The ❚✒✚ ✖✘✕★✗✦✚
climate ✚★✚✜✙✕✣✙
emerging ✗✔ as ✗ a ✥✕✔✖✕✢✘✕✣✚
discipline ✛✧ of ✚✫✗✘✤✗✦✕✣✙
evaluating ✗✣✥ and
✒✗✔
has ✗a ✢✜✛✧✛✤✣✥
profound ✚✧✧✚✖✦ effect ✛✣ ✫✚✙✚✦✗✦✕✛✣✩ ✖✜✛✢✢✕✣✙
on vegetation, cropping ★✗✣✗✙✕✣✙
managing ✣✗✦✤✜✗✘ resources. ❣✣
natural ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚✔✪ In ✛✜✥✚✜
order ✦✛to
✢✗✦✦✚✜✣✩
pattern, ✘✕✫✚✔✦✛✖✭
livestock ✧✗✜★✕✣✙
farming ✗✣✥
and ✔✛★✚ some ✗✖✒✕✚✫✚
achieve ✦✒✕✔ this ✛✇❂✚✖✦✕✫✚✩
objective, ✕✦ it ✕✔
is ✚✔✔✚✣✦✕✗✘
essential ✦✛ to
✕✣✥✤✔✦✜✕✚✔✩
industries, ✚✦✖✪ Human ✇✚✕✣✙✔
etc. ✹✤★✗✣ beings ✒✗✫✚ have ✥✚✫✚✘✛✢✚✥
developed ✤✣✥✚✜✔✦✗✣✥
understand ✦✒✚ the ✕✣✦✜✕✖✗✦✚ relationship ✇✚✦s✚✚✣
intricate ✜✚✘✗✦✕✛✣✔✒✕✢ between
✦✚✖✒✣✛✘✛✙✕✚✔
technologies which s✒✕✖✒ ★✛✥✕✧✓
modify ✖✘✕★✗✦✕✖
climatic ✚✘✚★✚✣✦✔
elements ✢✒✓✔✕✖✗✘
physical ✚✣✫✕✜✛✣★✚✣✦
environment ✗✣✥ human ✇✚✕✣✙✔✪
and ✒✤★✗✣ beings.
✕✣
in ✗ ✜✚✔✦✜✕✖✦✚✥ ✔✢✗✖✚
arestricted space ✔✤✖✒ such ✗✔ as ✗✕✜
air ✖✛✣✥✕✦✕✛✣✚✜✔
conditioners P✒✓✔✕✖✗✘
Physical ✚✣✫✕✜✛✣★✚✣✦
environment ✢✜✛✫✕✥✚✔
provides ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚✔✩
resources, ✗✣✥and
✗✣✥
and ✖✛✛✘✚✜✔✪ ❚✚★✢✚✜✗✦✤✜✚ ✗✣✥
coolers. Temperature and ✢✜✚✖✕✢✕✦✗✦✕✛✣
precipitation ✒✤★✗✣ ✇✚✕✣✙✔ ✤✦✕✘✕✔✚ ✦✒✚✔✚
human beings utilise these resources and ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚✔ ✗✣✥
✚✣✔✤✜✚
ensure ✦✒✚ the ✥✚✣✔✕✦✓
density ✛✧ of ✧✛✜✚✔✦✔
forests ✗✣✥ and ❡✤✗✘✕✦✓
quality ✛✧ of ✚✣✔✤✜✚
ensure ✦✒✚✕✜ their ✚✖✛✣✛★✕✖
economic ✗✣✥ and ✖✤✘✦✤✜✗✘
cultural
✙✜✗✔✔✘✗✣✥✪ ❣✣ ❣✣✥✕✗✩ ★✛✣✔✛✛✣✗✘
grassland. In India, monsoonal rainfall sets the✜✗✕✣✧✗✘✘ ✔✚✦✔ ✦✒✚ ✥✚✫✚✘✛✢★✚✣✦✪ ❃✖✖✚✘✚✜✗✦✚✥ ✢✗✖✚
development. Accelerated pace ✛✧ of ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚
resource
✗✙✜✕✖✤✘✦✤✜✚
agriculture ✜✒✓✦✒★rhythm ✕✣ in ★✛✦✕✛✣✪
motion. P✜✚✖✕✢✕✦✗✦✕✛✣
Precipitation ✤✦✕✘✕✔✗✦✕✛✣ s✕✦✒ ✦✒✚
utilisation with the ✒✚✘✢ of ★✛✥✚✜✣
help ✛✧ modern ✦✚✖✒✣✛✘✛✙✓
technology
✜✚✖✒✗✜✙✚✔
recharges ✦✒✚ ground ✼✽✾✯✺
the ✲✺✱✻✳✰ water ✽✿✻✵❀✯✺✴
aquifers which s✒✕✖✒ ✒✗✔
has ✖✜✚✗✦✚✥
created ✚✖✛✘✛✙✕✖✗✘
ecological ✕★✇✗✘✗✣✖✚
imbalance in✕✣the s✛✜✘✥✪
✦✒✚ world.
✘✗✦✚✜
later ✢✜✛✫✕✥✚✔
provides water s✗✦✚✜ ✧✛✜ for ✗✙✜✕✖✤✘✦✤✜✚
agriculture ✗✣✥ and ✹✚✣✖✚✩
Hence, ✗ a_ ✇✚✦✦✚✜
better ✤✣✥✚✜✔✦✗✣✥✕✣✙
understanding ✛✧ of ✢✒✓✔✕✖✗✘
physical
✥✛★✚✔✦✕✖
domestic ✤✔✚✪use. We ❞✚ ✔✦✤✥✓
study ✛✖✚✗✣✔
oceans whichs✒✕✖✒ ✗✜✚ are ✦✒✚the ✚✣✫✕✜✛✣★✚✣✦
environment ✕✔ is ✗✇✔✛✘✤✦✚✘✓
absolutely ✚✔✔✚✣✦✕✗✘
essential ✧✛✜ for
✔✦✛✜✚
store ✒✛✤✔✚
house ✛✧ of ✜✚✔✛✤✜✖✚✔✪
resources. ❁✚✔✕✥✚✔Besides ✧✕✔✒ fish ✗✣✥
and ✛✦✒✚✜
other ✔✤✔✦✗✕✣✗✇✘✚
sustainable ✥✚✫✚✘✛✢★✚✣✦✪
development.

— ⑨⑩⑨❶❷❸❹⑨❹
EXERCISES —__

❺♠
1. ❻❦❢❵❩❱❢❖
Multiple ❭❳◗❩❭❖
choice ❼❦❖❬❵❩◗❪❬♠
questions.
❽❩❾
(i) ❿❳❩❭❳ ◗❪❖
Which one ◗❤
of ❵❳❖
the ❤◗❢❢◗❴❩❪❘
following ❬❭❳◗❢❯❙❬
scholars ❭◗❩❪❖❫
coined ❵❳❖the ❵❖❙⑧
term ➀◆❖◗❘❙❯❱❳❨❥➁
‘Geography’?
❽❯❾
(a) ➂❖❙◗❫◗❵❦❬
Herodotus ❽❭❾
(c) ◆❯❢❩❢❖◗
Galileo

❽➃❾
(b) ➄❙❯❵❳◗❬❵❳❖❪❖❬❖
Erathosthenese ❽❫❾ ➅❙❩❬❵◗❵❢❖
(d) Aristotle

❽❩❩❾
(ii) ❿❳❩❭❳ ◗❪❖
Which one ◗❤
of ❵❳❖
the ❤◗❢❢◗❴❩❪❘
following ❤❖❯❵❦❙❖❬
features ❭❯❪
can ➃❖be ❵❖❙⑧❖❫
termed ❯❬
as ➀❱❳❨❬❩❭❯❢
‘physical ❤❖❯❵❦❙❖❥➁
feature’?
❽❯❾
(a) ➆◗❙❵
Port ❽❭❾
(c) ➆❢❯❩❪
Plain

❽➃❾
(b) ➇◗❯❫
Road ❽❫❾ ❿❯❵❖❙ ❱❯❙➈
(d) Water park
● ✁●✂✄☎✆✝ AS
GEOGRAPHY ✄✞ A✄ ✟✠✞✡✠☎☛✠☞
DISCIPLINE ✶✶
11

✭✌✌✌✍
(iii) ▼✎✏✑
Make ✒✓✔✔✑✒✕
correct ✖✎✌✔✗
pairs ✘✔✓✙
from ✕✚✑
the ✘✓✛✛✓✜✌✢✣
following ✕✜✓
two ✒✓✛✤✙✢✗
columns ✎✢✥
and ✙✎✔✏
mark ✕✚✑
the ✒✓✔✔✑✒✕
correct
✓✖✕✌✓✢♦
option.

1. ▼✑✕✑✓✔✓✛✓✣✧
✦♦ Meteorology ❆♦ P✓✖✤✛✎✕✌✓✢
A. Population ★✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
Geography
✷♦
2. ❉✑✙✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
Demography ❇♦
B. ❙✓✌✛
Soil ★✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
Geography
✸♦
3. ❙✓✒✌✓✛✓✣✧
Sociology ❈♦
C. ❈✛✌✙✎✕✓✛✓✣✧
Climatology
✹♦
4. P✑✥✓✛✓✣✧
Pedology ❉♦
D. ❙✓✒✌✎✛
Social ★✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
Geography

✭✎✍
(a) ✦❇✩✷❈✩✸❆✩✹❉
1B,2C,3A,4D ✭✒✍
(c) ✦❉✩✷❇✩✸❈✩✹❆
1D,2B,3C,4A
✭✪✍
(b) ✦❆✩✷❉✩✸❇✩✹❈
1A,2D,3B,4C ✭✥✍
(d) ✦❈✩✷❆✩✸❉✩✹❇
1C,2A,3D,4B
✭✌✫✍ ❲✚✌✒✚ ✓✢✑
(iv) Which one ✓✘
of ✕✚✑
the ✘✓✛✛✓✜✌✢✣ questions ✌✗
following ✬✤✑✗✕✌✓✢✗ is ✔✑✛✎✕✑✥
related ✕✓
to ✒✎✤✗✑✮✑✘✘✑✒✕
cause-effect ✔✑✛✎✕✌✓✢✗✚✌✖✯
relationship?
✭✎✍ ❲✚✧
(a) Why ✭✒✍ ❲✚✎✕
(c) What

✭✪✍ ❲✚✑✔✑
(b) Where ✭✥✍ ❲✚✑✢
(d) When
✭✫✍
(v) ❲✚✌✒✚ ✓✢✑
Which one ✓✘
of ✕✚✑
the ✘✓✛✛✓✜✌✢✣
following ✥✌✗✒✌✖✛✌✢✑✗
disciplines ✎✕✕✑✙✖✕✗
attempts ✕✑✙✖✓✔✎✛
temporal ✗✧✢✕✚✑✗✌✗✯
synthesis?
✭✎✍
(a) ❙✓✒✌✓✛✓✣✧
Sociology ✭✒✍ ❆✢✕✚✔✓✖✓✛✓✣✧
(c) Anthropology

✭✪✍
(b) ★✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
Geography ✭✥✍
(d) ❍✌✗✕✓✔✧
History

✷♦
2. ❆✢✗✜✑✔ ✕✚✑
Answer the ✘✓✛✛✓✜✌✢✣ questions ✌✢
following ✬✤✑✗✕✌✓✢✗ in ✎✪✓✤✕
about ✸✰ ✜✓✔✥✗♦
30 words.
✭✌✍
(i) ❲✚✎✕ ✌✙✖✓✔✕✎✢✕
What important ✒✤✛✕✤✔✎✛
cultural ✘✑✎✕✤✔✑✗
features ✥✓ ✧✓✤ ✓✪✗✑✔✫✑
do you ✜✚✌✛✑ ✣✓✌✢✣
observe while going ✕✓to ✗✒✚✓✓✛✯
school?
❆✔✑ ✕✚✑✧
Are they ✗✌✙✌✛✎✔
similar ✓✔
or ✥✌✗✗✌✙✌✛✎✔✯ Should ✕✚✑✧
dissimilar? ❙✚✓✤✛✥ ✪✑ ✌✢✒✛✤✥✑✥
they be included ✌✢
in ✕✚✑
the ✗✕✤✥✧
study ✓✘
of
✣✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
geography ✓✔or ✢✓✕✯
not? ❣✘ ✜✚✧✯
✧✑✗✩ why?
If yes,
✭✌✌✍
(ii) ❨✓✤ ✚✎✫✑
You have ✗✑✑✢
seen ✎ a ✕✑✢✢✌✗ ✪✎✛✛✩ ✎a ✒✔✌✒✏✑✕
tennis ball, ✪✎✛✛✩ ✎✢
cricket ball, an ✓✔✎✢✣✑
orange ✎✢✥
and ✎a ✖✤✙✖✏✌✢♦
pumpkin.
❲✚✌✒✚ ✓✢✑
Which one ✎✙✓✢✣✗✕
amongst ✕✚✑✗✑
these ✔✑✗✑✙✪✛✑✗
resembles ✕✚✑ the ✗✚✎✖✑
shape ✓✘of ✕✚✑
the ✑✎✔✕✚✯ ❲✚✧ ✚✎✫✑
earth? Why have
✧✓✤ ✒✚✓✗✑✢
you chosen ✕✚✌✗
this ✖✎✔✕✌✒✤✛✎✔
particular ✌✕✑✙
item ✕✓to ✥✑✗✒✔✌✪✑
describe ✕✚✑the ✗✚✎✖✑
shape ✓✘of ✕✚✑
the ✑✎✔✕✚✯
earth?
✭✌✌✌✍
(iii) ❉✓ ✧✓✤ ✒✑✛✑✪✔✎✕✑
Do you celebrate ❱❛✱
Van ✲❛✳✴✵✺❛✻❛
Mahotsava ✌✢ ✧✓✤✔ ✗✒✚✓✓✛✯
in your ❲✚✧ ✥✓
school? Why ✜✑ ✖✛✎✢✕
do we plant ✗✓
so ✙✎✢✧
many
✕✔✑✑✗✯
trees? ❍✓✜
How ✥✓do ✕✚✑
the ✕✔✑✑✗
trees ✙✎✌✢✕✎✌✢
maintain ✑✒✓✛✓✣✌✒✎✛ ✪✎✛✎✢✒✑✯
ecological balance?
✭✌✫✍
(iv) ❨✓✤ ✚✎✫✑
You have ✗✑✑✢
seen ✑✛✑✖✚✎✢✕✗✩
elephants, ✥✑✑✔✩
deer, ✑✎✔✕✚✜✓✔✙✗✩
earthworms, ✕✔✑✑✗
trees ✎✢✥
and ✣✔✎✗✗✑✗♦ ❲✚✑✔✑ ✥✓
grasses. Where do
✕✚✑✧
they ✛✌✫✑
live ✓✔
or ✣✔✓✜✯ ❲✚✎✕ ✌✗
grow? What is ✕✚✑
the ✢✎✙✑
name ✣✌✫✑✢
given ✕✓
to ✕✚✌✗
this ✗✖✚✑✔✑✯
sphere? ❈✎✢ ✧✓✤ ✥✑✗✒✔✌✪✑
Can you describe
✗✓✙✑
some ✓✘of ✕✚✑
the ✌✙✖✓✔✕✎✢✕
important ✘✑✎✕✤✔✑✗
features ✓✘
of ✕✚✌✗
this ✗✖✚✑✔✑✯
sphere?
✭✫✍
(v) ❍✓✜
How ✙✤✒✚
much ✕✌✙✑
time ✥✓ ✧✓✤ ✕✎✏✑
do you take ✕✓
to ✔✑✎✒✚ ✧✓✤✔ ✗✒✚✓✓✛
reach your school ✘✔✓✙ ✧✓✤✔ ✚✓✤✗✑✯
from your house? ❍✎✥
Had
✕✚✑
the ✗✒✚✓✓✛ been ✛✓✒✎✕✑✥
school ✪✑✑✢ located ✎✒✔✓✗✗
across ✕✚✑
the ✔✓✎✥
road ✘✔✓✙ ✧✓✤✔ ✚✓✤✗✑✩
from your house, ✚✓✜how ✙✤✒✚
much ✕✌✙✑
time
✜✓✤✛✥ ✧✓✤
would you ✚✎✫✑
have ✕✎✏✑✢
taken ✕✓
to ✔✑✎✒✚
reach ✗✒✚✓✓✛✯ ❲✚✎✕ ✌✗
school? What is ✕✚✑
the ✑✘✘✑✒✕
effect ✓✘
of ✕✚✑
the ✥✌✗✕✎✢✒✑
distance
✪✑✕✜✑✑✢ ✧✓✤✔ ✔✑✗✌✥✑✢✒✑ ✎✢✥ ✕✚✑ ✗✒✚✓✓✛ ✓✢ ✕✚✑ ✕✌✙✑ ✕✎✏✑✢
between your residence and the school on the time taken in commuting? ✌✢ ✒✓✙✙✤✕✌✢✣✯
❈✎✢ you ✒✓✢✫✑✔✕
Can ✧✓✤ convert ✕✌✙✑
time ✌✢✕✓
into ✗✖✎✒✑
space ✎✢✥ ✫✌✒✑ versa?
and vice ✫✑✔✗✎✯
✸♦
3. ❆✢✗✜✑✔ ✕✚✑
Answer the ✘✓✛✛✓✜✌✢✣ questions ✌✢
following ✬✤✑✗✕✌✓✢✗ in ✎✪✓✤✕
about ✦✼✰ ✜✓✔✥✗♦
150 words.

✭✌✍
(i) ❨✓✤ ✓✪✗✑✔✫✑
You observe ✑✫✑✔✧
every ✥✎✧
day ✌✢ your ✗✤✔✔✓✤✢✥✌✢✣✗
in ✧✓✤✔ surroundings ✕✚✎✕ that ✕✚✑✔✑
there ✌✗ ✫✎✔✌✎✕✌✓✢ ✌✢
is variation in
✢✎✕✤✔✎✛
natural ✎✗ ✜✑✛✛ ✎✗
as well as ✒✤✛✕✤✔✎✛
cultural ✖✚✑✢✓✙✑✢✎♦
phenomena. All ❆✛✛ ✕✚✑
the ✕✔✑✑✗
trees ✎✔✑
are ✢✓✕
not ✓✘
of ✕✚✑
the ✗✎✙✑
same
❆✛✛ ✕✚✑
✫✎✔✌✑✕✧♦ All
variety. birds ✎✢✥
the ✪✌✔✥✗ and ✎✢✌✙✎✛✗ you ✗✑✑✩
animals ✧✓✤ see, ✎✔✑
are ✥✌✘✘✑✔✑✢✕♦ ❆✛✛ ✕✚✑✗✑
different. All these ✥✌✘✘✑✔✑✢✕
different
✑✛✑✙✑✢✕✗
elements ✎✔✑are ✘✓✤✢✥
found ✓✢
on ✕✚✑
the ✑✎✔✕✚♦
earth. ❈✎✢ you ✢✓✜
Can ✧✓✤ now ✎✔✣✤✑
argue ✕✚✎✕
that ✣✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧
geography ✌✗ is
✕✚✑
the ✗✕✤✥✧
study ✓✘ “areal ✥✌✘✘✑✔✑✢✕✌✎✕✌✓✢✽✯
of t✎✔✑✎✛ differentiation”?

✭✌✌✍
(ii) ❨✓✤ ✚✎✫✑
You have ✎✛✔✑✎✥✧
already ✗✕✤✥✌✑✥
studied ✣✑✓✣✔✎✖✚✧✩
geography, ✚✌✗✕✓✔✧✩
history, ✒✌✫✌✒✗
civics ✎✢✥
and ✑✒✓✢✓✙✌✒✗
economics ✎✗as
✖✎✔✕✗
parts ✓✘
of ✗✓✒✌✎✛
social ✗✕✤✥✌✑✗♦ ❆✕✕✑✙✖✕ ✎✢
studies. Attempt an ✌✢✕✑✣✔✎✕✌✓✢
integration ✓✘of ✕✚✑✗✑
these ✥✌✗✒✌✖✛✌✢✑✗
disciplines
✚✌✣✚✛✌✣✚✕✌✢✣
highlighting ✕✚✑✌✔
their ✌✢✕✑✔✘✎✒✑♦
interface.
✶✑
12 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

Pr♦✒✓✔✕
Project Work ✖♦r✗
❙✘✙✘✚✛
Select ✜✢✣✘✤✛
forest ✥✤
as ✥
a ✦✥✛✧✣✥✙
natural ✣✘✤✢✧✣✚✘★
resource.
✭✐✮
(i) ✩✣✘✪✥✣✘
Prepare ✥a ✫✥✪
map ✢✜of ✬✦✯✐✥
India ✤✰✢✱✐✦✲
showing ✛✰✘
the ✯✐✤✛✣✐✳✧✛✐✢✦
distribution ✢✜
of ✯✐✜✜✘✣✘✦✛
different ✛✴✪✘✤
types ✢✜
of ✜✢✣✘✤✛✤★
forests.
✭✐✐✮
(ii) ❲✣✐✛✘ ✥✳✢✧✛
Write about ✛✰✘
the ✘✚✢✦✢✫✐✚
economic ✐✫✪✢✣✛✥✦✚✘
importance ✢✜of ✜✢✣✘✤✛✤
forests ✜✢✣
for ✛✰✘
the ✚✢✧✦✛✣✴★
country.
✭✐✐✐✮
(iii) ✩✣✘✪✥✣✘
Prepare ✥ a ✰✐✤✛✢✣✐✚✥✙
historical ✥✚✚✢✧✦✛
account ✢✜
of ✚✢✦✤✘✣✵✥✛✐✢✦
conservation ✢✜of ✜✢✣✘✤✛✤
forests ✐✦
in ✬✦✯✐✥ ✱✐✛✰ ✜✢✚✧✤
India with focus
✢✦ Chipko ✫✢✵✘✫✘✦✛✤
on ✷✰✐✪✸✢ movements ✐✦ Rajasthan ✥✦✯
in ✹✥✺✥✤✛✰✥✦ and ✻✛✛✥✣✥✦✚✰✥✙★
Uttaranchal.
 ❯◆✛✜
CG
Z
—
J

■■
oa

❚❍
THE ✥❆✁✂❍
EARTH
✄☎✆✝
This ✞✟✆✠
unit ✡☛☞✌✝
deals ✍✆✠☎
with
➄¢ ❖✎✆✏✆✟
Origin ☞✟✡ evolution ✒✓✠☎☛
and ☛✑✒✌✞✠✆✒✟ earth; ✕✟✠☛✎✆✒✎✒✓✠☎☛
of the ☛☞✎✠☎✔ earth; ✖☛✏☛✟☛✎❡✝
Interior of the ☛☞✎✠☎✔ Wegener’s
❝✒✟✠✆✟☛✟✠☞✌ ✠☎☛✒✎✗ ☞✟✡ ✘✌☞✠☛
continental drift theory and plate tectonics; earthquakes ☞✟✡
✡✎✆✓✠ ✠☛❝✠✒✟✆❝✝✔ ☛☞✎✠☎✙✞☞✚☛✝ and
✑✒✌❝☞✟✒☛✝
volcanoes
❵ ❜❝❞❣✐❥
CHAPTER

2
THE ❑P◗❯◗❱
❍■❏ ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
❲❱❳ ❨❩❬❭❪❫◗❬❱
OF ❫■❏
❬❴ THE ❨❲P❫■
EARTH

♦o you ♦✁ ✂✄☎✄☎✆✄✂
remember ✝✞✄
the ✟✁✂✠✄✂
nursery ✂✞ ☎✄
rhyme ✑✂✔✁☎✄✟✝t
argument. At ✵✝ ✑a ✎✑✝✄✂ date, ✝✞✄
later ✗✑✝✄✏ the ✑✂✔✁☎✄✟✝✠
arguments
ID ➇✡☛☞✌✟✍✎✄✏
“... Twinkle, Twinkle little ✠✝✑✂✡✒✓
☛☞✌✟✍✎✄ ✎✌✝✝✎✄ star...”? considered ♦✙
✖♦✟✠✌✗✄✂✄✗ of ✑ companion ✝♦
a ✖♦☎✢✑✟✌♦✟ to ✝✞✄
the ✠✁✟
sun ✝♦
to ✞✑✕✄
have
❉ ✆✄✄✟ ✖♦✄❡✌✠✝✌✟✔t
been ☛✞✄✠✄ ✑✂✔✁☎✄✟✝✠
coexisting. These arguments ✑✂✄ are ✖✑✎✎✄✗
called
Starry ✟✌✔✞✝✠
❙✝✑✂✂ nights ✞✑✕✄ always✠ ✑✝✝✂✑✖✝✄✗
have ✑✎☞✑ attracted ✁✠ us ✠✌✟✖✄
since ✼❋❦✿❀❂
binary ❅❇✻❄❀❋✻❈t
theories. ✜✟ In ✷✹❧✇✏
1950, r✝✝♦
Otto ❙✖✞☎✌✗✝
Schmidt ✌✟ in
✝✞✄
the ✖✞✌✎✗✞♦♦✗t
childhood. You✘♦✁ ☎✑ also ✞✑✕✄
may ✑✎✠♦ have ✝✞♦✁✔✞✝
thought ♦✙ of ♠✁✠✠✌✑
Russia ✑✟✗ and ✛✑✂✎ ❢✄✌♥✑✠✖✑✂ ✌✟
Carl Weizascar in ✶✄✂☎✑✟
Germany
✝✞✄✠✄
these ✠✝✑✂✠ and ✞✑✗
stars ✑✟✗ had ✟✁☎✄✂♦✁✠
numerous ✚✁✄✠✝✌♦✟✠
questions ✌✟ in ✠♦☎✄☞✞✑✝
somewhat ✂✄✕✌✠✄✗
revised ✝✞✄ ‘nebular ✞
the ♣✟✄✆✁✎✑✂ ✢♦✝✞✄✠✌✠q✏
hypothesis’,
♦✁✂ ☎✌✟✗t
your Questions ✠✁✖✞
mind. ②✁✄✠✝✌♦✟✠ such ✑✠ as ✞♦☞
how ☎✑✟many ✠✝✑✂✠
stars ✝✞♦✁✔✞
though ✗✌✙✙✄✂✌✟✔
differing ✌✟
in ✗✄✝✑✌✎✠t
details. They considered ✝✞✑✝
☛✞✄ ✖♦✟✠✌✗✄✂✄✗ that
are ✝✞✄✂✄
✑✂✄ in ✝✞✄
there ✌✟ the ✠✍
sky?✓ ❛♦☞
How ✗✌✗did ✝✞✄
they ✖♦☎✄
come ✌✟✝♦
into ✝✞✄
the ✠✁✟
sun was☞✑✠ ✠✁✂✂♦✁✟✗✄✗
surrounded by ✆ ✠♦✎✑✂
solar ✟✄✆✁✎✑
nebula
✄❡✌✠✝✄✟✖✄✓
existence? ✛✑✟Can ♦✟✄
one ✂✄✑✖✞
reach ✝✞✄the ✄✟✗
end ♦✙of ✝✞✄
the ✠✍sky?✓ containing ☎♦✠✝✎
✖♦✟✝✑✌✟✌✟✔ mostly ✝✞✄the ✞ ✗✂♦✔✄✟ ✑✟✗
hydrogen and ✞✄✎✌✁☎
helium
▼✑
May be ✆✄ ☎✑✟
many ☎♦✂✄
more ✠✁✖✞
such ✚✁✄✠✝✌♦✟✠
questions ✑✂✄ are ✠✝✌✎✎
still ✑✎♦✟✔
along with ☞✞✑✝ ☎✑
☞✌✝✞ what may be ✆✄ ✝✄✂☎✄✗
termed ✑✠ as ✗✁✠✝t ☛✞✄
dust. The
✝✞✄✂✄
there ✌✟ ♦✁✂ ☎✌✟✗t
in your mind. ✜✟ In ✝✞✌✠
this ✖✞✑✢✝✄✂✏
chapter, you ♦✁ will
☞✌✎✎ friction and collision of particles led ✝♦
✙✂✌✖✝✌♦✟ ✑✟✗ ✖♦✎✎✌✠✌♦✟ ♦✙ ✢✑✂✝✌✖✎✄✠ ✎✄✗ to
learn ✞♦☞
✎✄✑✂✟ how ✝✞✄✠✄
these ➇✝☞✌✟✍✎✌✟✔ little ✠✝✑✂✠✒
“twinkling ✎✌✝✝✎✄ ☞✄✂✄
stars” were formation ♦✙
✙♦✂☎✑✝✌♦✟ of ✑a ✗✌✠✍●✠✞✑✢✄✗
disk-shaped ✖✎♦✁✗ cloud ✑✟✗and ✝✞✄
the
✙♦✂☎✄✗t ❢✌✝✞ ✝✞✑✝
formed. With that you♦✁ will
☞✌✎✎ ✄✕✄✟✝✁✑✎✎
eventually ✑✎✠♦ also ✂✄✑✗
read ✢✎✑✟✄✝✠
planets ☞✄✂✄ formed ✝✞✂♦✁✔✞
were ✙♦✂☎✄✗ through ✝✞✄ process ♦✙
the ✢✂♦✖✄✠✠ of
✝✞✄
the ✠✝♦✂
story ♦✙
of ♦✂✌✔✌✟ and ✄✕♦✎✁✝✌♦✟
origin ✑✟✗ evolution ♦✙ of ✝✞✄
the ✄✑✂✝✞t
earth. ✑✖✖✂✄✝✌♦✟t
accretion.

❖❘✣✤✣✥
ORIGIN ✦✧
OF ❚★✩
THE ✪❆❘❚★
EARTH Modern ✯✰✱✲✬✳✱✴
✉✲✈✱✬① Theories

However, ✠✖✌✄✟✝✌✠✝✠
❛♦☞✄✕✄✂✏ scientists ✌✟ in ✎✑✝✄✂ period ✝♦♦✍
later ✢✄✂✌♦✗ took ✁✢
up ✝✞✄
the
❊✫✬✭✮
Early ✯✰✱✲✬✳✱✴
Theories problems ♦✙
✢✂♦✆✎✄☎✠ of ♦✂✌✔✌✟
origin ♦✙of ✁✟✌✕✄✂✠✄
universe ✂✑✝✞✄✂
rather ✝✞✑✟than ✝✞✑✝
that
large ✟✁☎✆✄✂
A✵ ✎✑✂✔✄ number ♦✙ of ✞ ✢♦✝✞✄✠✄✠ were
hypotheses ☞✄✂✄ ✢✁✝ put ✙♦✂✝✞
forth ♦✙ ③✁✠✝ ✝✞✄
of just the ✄✑✂✝✞
earth ♦✂ or ✝✞✄
the ✢✎✑✟✄✝✠t
planets. The ☛✞✄ ☎♦✠✝
most
✆ ✗✌✙✙✄✂✄✟✝ ✢✞✌✎♦✠♦✢✞✄✂✠
by different philosophers and scientists ✑✟✗ ✠✖✌✄✟✝✌✠✝✠ ✢♦✢✁✎✑✂ argument ✂✄✔✑✂✗✌✟✔
popular ✑✂✔✁☎✄✟✝ regarding ✝✞✄ the ♦✂✌✔✌✟
origin ♦✙of ✝✞✄
the
✂✄✔✑✂✗✌✟✔
regarding ✝✞✄ the ♦✂✌✔✌✟
origin ♦✙ of ✝✞✄
the ✄✑✂✝✞t
earth. r✟✄ One ♦✙ of ✝✞✄
the ✁✟✌✕✄✂✠✄
universe ✌✠is ✝✞✄
the ④❋⑤
Big ④✿❦⑤
Bang ⑥❇✻❄❀❂t
Theory. ✜✝ It ✌✠
is ✑✎✠♦
also ✖✑✎✎✄✗
called
✄✑✂✎✌✄✂
earlier ✑✟✗
and ✢♦✢✁✎✑✂
popular ✑✂✔✁☎✄✟✝✠
arguments ☞✑✠ was ✆ by ✶✄✂☎✑✟
German ✻⑦❃✿❦⑧❋❦⑤
expanding ✽❦❋⑨✻❀❈✻universe ❇ ❂❃❄❅❇✻❈❋❈t ⑩✗☞✌
hypothesis. Edwin✟
✢✞✌✎♦✠♦✢✞✄✂
philosopher ✜☎☎✑✟✁✄✎
Immanuel ❤✑✟✝t Kant. ▼✑✝✞✄☎✑✝✌✖✌✑✟
Mathematician ❛✁✆✆✎✄✏
Hubble, ✌✟ in ✷✹❶✇✏ provided ✄✕✌✗✄✟✖✄
1920, ✢✂♦✕✌✗✄✗ evidence ✝✞✑✝ that ✝✞✄
the
▲✑✢✎✑✖✄
Laplace ✂✄✕✌✠✄✗
revised ✌✝ in ✷✸✹✺t
it ✌✟ 1796. ✜✝ It ✌✠
is ✍✟♦☞✟
known ✑✠ as ✁✟✌✕✄✂✠✄
universe ✌✠is ✄❡✢✑✟✗✌✟✔t
expanding. As ✵✠ ✝✌☎✄
time ✢✑✠✠✄✠✏
passes, ✔✑✎✑❡✌✄✠
galaxies
◆✻✼✽✾✿❀
Nebular ❁❂❃❄❅❇✻❈❋❈t
Hypothesis. The ☛✞✄ ✞ ✢♦✝✞✄✠✌✠ ✖♦✟✠✌✗✄✂✄✗
hypothesis considered ☎♦✕✄
move ✙✁✂✝✞✄✂
further ✑✟✗ and ✙✁✂✝✞✄✂
further ✑✢✑✂✝t
apart. ✘♦✁ You ✖✑✟can
✝✞✑✝
that ✝✞✄
the ✢✎✑✟✄✝✠
planets ☞✄✂✄ formed ♦✁✝
were ✙♦✂☎✄✗ out ♦✙ of ✑ cloud ♦✙
a ✖✎♦✁✗ of ✄❡✢✄✂✌☎✄✟✝
experiment ✑✟✗ and ✙✌✟✗
find ☞✞✑✝ does ✝✞✄
what ✗♦✄✠ the ✄❡✢✑✟✗✌✟✔
expanding
☎✑✝✄✂✌✑✎ ♦✁✝✞✙✁✎
material associated with a youthful sun, ☞✞✌✖✞
✑✠✠♦✖✌✑✝✄✗ ☞✌✝✞ ✑ ✠✁✟✏ which ✁✟✌✕✄✂✠✄
universe ☎✄✑✟t
mean. Take ☛✑✍✄ ✑a ✆✑✎✎♦♦✟
balloon ✑✟✗ and ☎✑✂✍
mark ✠♦☎✄
some
was ✠✎♦☞✎
☞✑✠ slowly ✂♦✝✑✝✌✟✔t
rotating. ▲✑✝✄✂
Later ✌✟in ✷✹✇✇✏
1900, ✛✞✑☎✆✄✂✎✑✌✟
Chamberlain ✢♦✌✟✝✠ ♦✟ ✝♦ ✂✄✢✂✄✠✄✟✝ ✝✞✄
points on it to represent the galaxies. Now, ✌✙
✌✝ ✔✑✎✑❡✌✄✠t ❷♦☞✏ if
✑✟✗
and ▼♦✁✎✝♦✟ considered ✝✞✑✝
Moulton ✖♦✟✠✌✗✄✂✄✗ that ✑ wandering ✠✝✑✂
a ☞✑✟✗✄✂✌✟✔ star ♦✁ ✠✝✑✂✝
you inflating ✝✞✄
start ✌✟✙✎✑✝✌✟✔ the ✆✑✎✎♦♦✟✏
balloon, ✝✞✄ the ✢♦✌✟✝✠
points
approached ✝✞✄
✑✢✢✂♦✑✖✞✄✗ the ✠✁✟t ✵✠ ✑ ✂✄✠✁✎✝✏
sun. Asa result, ✑ a ✖✌✔✑✂●✠✞✑✢✄✗
cigar-shaped ☎✑✂✍✄✗
marked ♦✟ on ✝✞✄
the ✆✑✎✎♦♦✟
balloon ☞✌✎✎ appear ✝♦
will ✑✢✢✄✑✂ to ✆✄
be ☎♦✕✌✟✔
moving
✄❡✝✄✟✠✌♦✟
extension ♦✙ of ☎✑✝✄✂✌✑✎
material ☞✑✠ was ✠✄✢✑✂✑✝✄✗
separated ✙✂♦☎ from ✝✞✄the ✑☞✑ from ✄✑✖✞
away ✙✂♦☎ each ♦✝✞✄✂
other ✑✠as ✝✞✄
the ✆✑✎✎♦♦✟
balloon ✄❡✢✑✟✗✠t
expands.
✠♦✎✑✂
solar ✠✁✂✙✑✖✄t
surface. As✵✠ ✝✞✄ passing ✠✝✑✂
the ✢✑✠✠✌✟✔ star ☎♦✕✄✗
moved ✑☞✑ away, ✏ Similarly, ✏ ✝✞✄
❙✌☎✌✎✑✂✎ distance ✆✄✝☞✄✄✟
the ✗✌✠✝✑✟✖✄ between ✝✞✄ the ✔✑✎✑❡✌✄✠
galaxies ✌✠ is
✝✞✄
the ☎✑✝✄✂✌✑✎
material ✠✄✢✑✂✑✝✄✗
separated ✙✂♦☎ from ✝✞✄the ✠♦✎✑✂
solar ✠✁✂✙✑✖✄
surface ✑✎✠♦ found ✝♦
also ✙♦✁✟✗ to ✆✄
be ✌✟✖✂✄✑✠✌✟✔
increasing ✑✟✗ and ✝✞✄✂✄✆
thereby, ✏ ✝✞✄
the
✖♦✟✝✌✟✁✄✗ ✝♦ ✂✄✕♦✎✕✄
continued to revolve ✑✂♦✁✟✗ around the ✠✁✟✝✞✄ sun ✑✟✗and ✌✝ it ✁✟✌✕✄✂✠✄
universe ✌✠ considered ✝♦
is ✖♦✟✠✌✗✄✂✄✗ to ✆✄be ✄❡✢✑✟✗✌✟✔t
expanding.
✠✎♦☞✎
slowly ✖♦✟✗✄✟✠✄✗
condensed ✌✟✝♦ into ✢✎✑✟✄✝✠t
planets. ❙✌✂ s✑☎✄✠ Jeans
Sir James s✄✑✟✠ However, you will find that besides ✝✞✄
❛♦☞✄✕✄✂✏ ♦✁ ☞✌✎✎ ✙✌✟✗ ✝✞✑✝ ✆✄✠✌✗✄✠ the ✌✟✖✂✄✑✠✄
increase
✑✟✗
and ✎✑✝✄✂
later ❙✌✂
Sir ❛✑✂♦✎✗ s✄✙✙✂✄ ✠✁✢✢♦✂✝✄✗
Harold Jeffrey supported ✝✞✌✠ this ✌✟ ✝✞✄
in the ✗✌✠✝✑✟✖✄✠ ✆✄✝☞✄✄✟
distances between the ✢♦✌✟✝✠ ✝✞✄ points ♦✟ on ✝✞✄
the
❚ ✁ ✂✄☎✆☎✝
THE ✞✝✟ ✁✠✂✡☛❚☎✂✝
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION ✂☞ ❚ ✁ ✁✞✄❚
OF THE EARTH ✶✌
15

❜✍✎✎✏✏✑✒
balloon, ✓✔✕
the ✖✏✗✑✓✘
points ✓✔✕✙✘✕✎✚✕✘
themselves ✍✛✕ are ✕✜✖✍✑✢✗✑✣✤
expanding. ✥✔✕ ✕✜✖✍✑✘✗✏✑
The expansion ✏★ of ✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕
universe ✙✕✍✑✘
means ✗✑✦✛✕✍✘✕
increase
✥✔✗✘ ✗✘
This is ✑✏✓
not ✗✑in ✍✦✦✏✛✢✍✑✦✕
accordance with ✧✗✓✔ ✓✔✕ the ★✍✦✓✤
fact. ✗✑
in ✘✖✍✦✕
space ❜✕✓✧✕✕✑
between ✓✔✕ the ✣✍✎✍✜✗✕✘✤
galaxies. An❆✑ ✍✎✓✕✛✑✍✓✗✚✕
alternative
❙✦✗✕✑✓✗✘✓✘
Scientists ❜✕✎✗✕✚✕
believe ✓✔✍✓
that ✓✔✏✩✣✔
though ✓✔✕ the ✘✖✍✦✕
space ✓✏
to ✓✔✗✘ ✧✍✘ ❅✏t✎✕❈✘
this was Hoyle’s ✦✏✑✦✕✖✓
concept ✏★ of s❉❊●❍❏ state. ■✓
steady s❉●❉❊✤ It
❜✕✓✧✕✕✑
between ✓✔✕
the ✣✍✎✍✜✗✕✘
galaxies ✗✘
is ✗✑✦✛✕✍✘✗✑✣✒
increasing, ✏❜✘✕✛✚✍✓✗✏✑✘
observations ✦✏✑✘✗✢✕✛✕✢
considered ✓✔✕
the ✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕
universe ✓✏ to ❜✕
be ✛✏✩✣✔✎t
roughly ✓✔✕
the ✘✍✙✕
same
✢✏
do ✑✏✓
not ✘✩✖✖✏✛✓
support ✓✔✕
the ✕✜✖✍✑✘✗✏✑
expansion ✏★ of ✣✍✎✍✜✗✕✘✤
galaxies. ❙✏✒
So, ✍✓
at ✍✑t
any ✖✏✗✑✓
point ✏★of ✓✗✙✕✤
time. ❅✏✧✕✚✕✛✒ ✧✗✓✔ ✣✛✕✍✓✕✛
However, with greater
✓✔✕ ❜✍✎✎✏✏✑ ✕✜✍✙✖✎✕ ✗✘ ✏✑✎t ✖✍✛✓✗✍✎✎t
the balloon example is only partially correct. ✦✏✛✛✕✦✓✤ ✕✚✗✢✕✑✦✕
evidence becoming available about ✓✔✕
❜✕✦✏✙✗✑✣ ✍✚✍✗✎✍❜✎✕ ✍❜✏✩✓ the
✕✜✖✍✑✢✗✑✣
expanding ✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕✒ scientific ✦✏✙✙✩✑✗✓t
universe, ✘✦✗✕✑✓✗★✗✦ community ✍✓ at
present ★✍✚✏✩✛✘
✖✛✕✘✕✑✓ favours ✍✛✣✩✙✕✑✓
argument ✏★ of ✕✜✖✍✑✢✗✑✣
expanding
✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕✤
universe.

▲▼◆ ❖P◗❘
The Star ❯❱❘❳◗P❨❱❩
Formation
✥✔✕ ✢✗✘✓✛✗❜✩✓✗✏✑
The distribution ✏★ of ✙✍✓✓✕✛
matter ✍✑✢ and ✕✑✕✛✣t
energy was ✧✍✘ ✑✏✓
not
✕✚✕✑
even ✗✑in ✓✔✕
the ✕✍✛✎t
early ✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕✤
universe. These ✥✔✕✘✕ ✗✑✗✓✗✍✎
initial ✢✕✑✘✗✓t
density
✢✗★★✕✛✕✑✦✕✘
differences ✣✍✚✕ gave ✛✗✘✕ rise ✓✏ to ✢✗★★✕✛✕✑✦✕✘
differences ✗✑ in
gravitational ★✏✛✦✕✘
✣✛✍✚✗✓✍✓✗✏✑✍✎ forces ✍✑✢ and ✗✓ it ✦✍✩✘✕✢
caused ✓✔✕ the ✙✍✓✓✕✛
matter
✓✏
to ✣✕✓
get ✢✛✍✧✑
drawn ✓✏✣✕✓✔✕✛✤
together. These✥✔✕✘✕ ★✏✛✙✕✢
formed ✓✔✕ the ❜✍✘✕✘
bases
★✏✛ ✢✕✚✕✎✏✖✙✕✑✓ ✏★ ✣✍✎✍✜✗✕✘✤ ❆ ❣●❬●❭❏
for development of galaxies. A galaxy contains ✦✏✑✓✍✗✑✘
✍a ✎✍✛✣✕
large ✑✩✙❜✕✛
number ✏★ stars. ❛✍✎✍✜✗✕✘
of ✘✓✍✛✘✤ Galaxies ✘✖✛✕✍✢spread ✏✚✕✛over
✚✍✘✓ ✢✗✘✓✍✑✦✕✘
vast distances ✓✔✍✓
that ✍✛✕are ✙✕✍✘✩✛✕✢
measured ✗✑ in ✓✔✏✩✘✍✑✢✘
thousands
of ❬❧❣❪❉❫❏❊●❴✘✤
✏★ light-years. The ✥✔✕ ✢✗✍✙✕✓✕✛✘
diameters ✏★ of ✗✑✢✗✚✗✢✩✍✎
individual
✣✍✎✍✜✗✕✘
galaxies ✛✍✑✣✕range ★✛✏✙
from ❵❲✒❲❲❲❝❀❄❲✒❲❲❲
80,000-150,000 ✎✗✣✔✓ light
Singularity
t✕✍✛✘✤ A❆ ✣✍✎✍✜t
years. galaxy ✘✓✍✛✓✘
starts ✓✏ to ★✏✛✙
form ❜t by ✍✦✦✩✙✩✎✍✓✗✏✑
accumulation
❋✪✫✬✭✮
Figure ✯✰✱
2.1 ✲: The
✳✴✮ ✵✪✫Big ✵✷✸✫
Bang ✏★
of ✔t✢✛✏✣✕✑
hydrogen ✣✍✘ gas ✗✑ the ★✏✛✙
in ✓✔✕ form ✏★ of ✍ ✚✕✛t ✎✍✛✣✕
a very large
✥✔✕ ✹✗✣
The Big ✹✍✑✣ ✥✔✕✏✛t ✦✏✑✘✗✢✕✛✘
Bang Theory considers ✓✔✕ the
✦✎✏✩✢ ✦✍✎✎✕✢ ♥❊❞❢❬●✤ ❤✚✕✑✓✩✍✎✎t✒
cloud called nebula. Eventually, ✣✛✏✧✗✑✣ growing
★✏✎✎✏✧✗✑✣
following ✘✓✍✣✕✘stages ✗✑ in ✓✔✕
the ✢✕✚✕✎✏✖✙✕✑✓
development ✏★ of ✓✔✕
the
✑✕❜✩✎✍
nebula ✢✕✚✕✎✏✖✘ localised ✦✎✩✙✖✘
develops ✎✏✦✍✎✗✘✕✢ clumps ✏★ of ✣✍✘✤ ✥✔✕✘✕
gas. These
✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕✤
universe.
✦✎✩✙✖✘
clumps ✦✏✑✓✗✑✩✕
continue ✓✏ to ✣✛✏✧
grow ✗✑✓✏into ✕✚✕✑
even ✢✕✑✘✕✛
denser
✺✻✼ ✣✍✘✕✏✩✘
gaseous ❜✏✢✗✕✘✒
bodies, ✣✗✚✗✑✣
giving ✛✗✘✕rise ✓✏ to ★✏✛✙✍✓✗✏✑
formation ✏★ of
(i) ■✑ ✓✔✕ ❜✕✣✗✑✑✗✑✣✒
Inthe beginning, ✍✎✎ matter ★✏✛✙✗✑✣
all ✙✍✓✓✕✛ forming ✓✔✕ the
✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕ ✕✜✗✘✓✕✢ ✗✑ ✏✑✕ ✖✎✍✦✕ ✗✑ ✓✔✕ ★✏✛✙ ✘✓✍✛✘✤ ✥✔✕ ★✏✛✙✍✓✗✏✑
stars. The formation ✏★ of ✘✓✍✛✘
stars ✗✘is ❜✕✎✗✕✚✕✢
believed ✓✏ to ✔✍✚✕
have
universe existed in one place in the form
✓✍❡✕✑
taken ✖✎✍✦✕ some ❄❝✐
place ✘✏✙✕ 5-6 ❜✗✎✎✗✏✑ t✕✍✛✘ ✍✣✏✤
billion years ago.
✏★
of ✍a ♦✓✗✑t ball” ✾✘✗✑✣✩✎✍✛
“tiny ❜✍✎✎✽ (singular ✍✓✏✙✿ atom) with✧✗✓✔ ✍✑ an
✩✑✗✙✍✣✗✑✍❜✎t
unimaginably ✘✙✍✎✎ ✚✏✎✩✙✕✒ ✗✑★✗✑✗✓✕
small volume, infinite A❥ ❦♠♣qr ✉✈✇① ♠②
light year is ✇a ③✈✇②④①✈
measure ⑤⑥ of ⑦♠②r✇⑧⑨✈
distance ✇⑧⑦and
✓✕✙✖✕✛✍✓✩✛✕
temperature ✍✑✢ and ✗✑★✗✑✗✓✕
infinite ✢✕✑✘✗✓t✤
density. ⑧⑤r
not ⑤⑥ time. ❶♠♣qr
of r♠③✈⑩ Light r①✇❷✈❦②
travels ✇r at ✇a ②❸✈✈⑦
speed ⑤⑥ of
✺✻✻✼
(ii) ❆✓ ✓✔✕
At the ✹✗✣
Big ✹✍✑✣
Bang ✓✔✕ the ♦✓✗✑t
“tiny ❜✍✎✎✽
ball” ✕✜✖✎✏✢✕✢
exploded ❹❺❺❻❺❺❺
300,000 ❼③❽②✈⑨⑤⑧⑦⑩
km/second. ❾⑤⑧②♠⑦✈①♠⑧♣
Considering rq♠②❻ this,
✚✗✏✎✕✑✓✎t✤ This
violently. ✥✔✗✘ ✎✕✢ led ✓✏to ✍a ✔✩✣✕
huge ✕✜✖✍✑✘✗✏✑✤
expansion. rq✈
the ⑦♠②r✇⑧⑨✈②
distances rq✈ the ❦♠♣qr ❿♠❦❦ r①✇❷✈❦
light will travel ♠⑧in ⑤⑧✈
one
■✓
It ✗✘
is ✑✏✧
now ✣✕✑✕✛✍✎✎t
generally ✍✦✦✕✖✓✕✢accepted ✓✔✍✓ that ✓✔✕the ✉✈✇① ♠②
year is r✇❼✈⑧
taken r⑤ ➀✈ ⑤⑧✈
to be one ❦♠♣qr
light year. ➁q♠②
✉✈✇①⑩ This
✈➂④✇❦②
equals r⑤ 9.461x10!2➈➉ ❼③⑩
to ➃⑩➄➅➆➇➆❺ km. The ➁q✈ ③✈✇⑧
mean
✕✚✕✑✓
event ✏★ of ❜✗✣
big ❜✍✑✣
bang ✓✏✏❡ place ❀❁✤❂
took ✖✎✍✦✕ 13.7 ❜✗✎✎✗✏✑
billion
⑦♠②r✇⑧⑨✈ ➀✈r❿✈✈⑧ rq✈
distance between the ②④⑧
sun ✇⑧⑦
and rq✈the ✈✇①rq
earth
t✕✍✛✘ ❜✕★✏✛✕
years before ✓✔✕the ✖✛✕✘✕✑✓✤
present. The ✥✔✕ ✕✜✖✍✑✘✗✏✑
expansion is ➆➄➃❻➊➃➋❻❺❺❺
♠② 149,598,000 ❼③⑩ km. ➌⑧ In r✈①③②
terms ⑤⑥ of ❦♠♣qr
light
✦✏✑✓✗✑✩✕✘
continues ✕✚✕✑ even ✓✏ to ✓✔✕
the ✖✛✕✘✕✑✓
present ✢✍t✤ day. As❆✘ ✗✓it ✉✈✇①②❻ ♠rit ♠②
years, is ➋⑩❹➆➆
8.311 ③♠⑧④r✈②
minutes ⑤⑥ of ✇ ✉✈✇①⑩
a year.
✣✛✕✧✒ ✘✏✙✕ ✕✑✕✛✣t ✧✍✘
grew, some energy was converted into ✦✏✑✚✕✛✓✕✢ ✗✑✓✏
✙✍✓✓✕✛✤
matter. There✥✔✕✛✕ was ✧✍✘ ✖✍✛✓✗✦✩✎✍✛✎t
particularly ✛✍✖✗✢ rapid
✕✜✖✍✑✘✗✏✑ ✧✗✓✔✗✑ ★✛✍✦✓✗✏✑✘ ❯❱❘❳◗P❨❱❩
Formation ❱➍ of ➎➏◗❩◆P➐
Planets
expansion within fractions ✏★ of ✍a ✘✕✦✏✑✢
second
✍★✓✕✛
after ✓✔✕ the ❜✍✑✣✤ ✥✔✕✛✕✍★✓✕✛✒ ✓✔✕
bang. Thereafter, the ✥✔✕ ★✏✎✎✏✧✗✑✣
The are ✦✏✑✘✗✢✕✛✕✢
following ✍✛✕ considered ✓✏ to ❜✕
be ✓✔✕
the ✘✓✍✣✕✘
stages
✕✜✖✍✑✘✗✏✑
expansion ✔✍✘ has ✘✎✏✧✕✢
slowed ✢✏✧✑✤ ❃✗✓✔✗✑ ★✗✛✘✓
down. Within first ✗✑
in ✓✔✕
the ✢✕✚✕✎✏✖✙✕✑✓
development ✏★ of ✖✎✍✑✕✓✘
planets ➑:
✓✔✛✕✕ minutes ★✛✏✙
three ✙✗✑✩✓✕✘ from ✓✔✕ the ✹✗✣
Big ✹✍✑✣
Bang ✕✚✕✑✓✒
event, ✺✻✼
(i) ✥✔✕ ✘✓✍✛✘
The stars ✍✛✕are ✎✏✦✍✎✗✘✕✢
localised ✎✩✙✖✘
lumps ✏★ of ✣✍✘
gas
the ★✗✛✘✓
✓✔✕ first ✍✓✏✙
atom ❜✕✣✍✑
began ✓✏ to ★✏✛✙✤
form. ✧✗✓✔✗✑ ✍ ✑✕❜✩✎✍✤ ✥✔✕ ✣✛✍✚✗✓✍✓✗✏✑✍✎
within a nebula. The gravitational force ★✏✛✦✕
✺✻✻✻✼
(iii) ❃✗✓✔✗✑ ❁❲❲✒❲❲❲
Within 300,000 years t✕✍✛✘ ★✛✏✙ from ✓✔✕ the ✹✗✣Big ✧✗✓✔✗✑ ✓✔✕
within the ✎✩✙✖✘
lumps ✎✕✍✢✘
leads ✓✏ the ★✏✛✙✍✓✗✏✑
to ✓✔✕ formation
✹✍✑✣✒
Bang, ✓✕✙✖✕✛✍✓✩✛✕
temperature ✢✛✏✖✖✕✢ dropped ✓✏ to ❇✒❄❲❲
4,500 ❑ K ✏★ a ✦✏✛✕
of ✍ core ✓✏to ✓✔✕ gas ✦✎✏✩✢
the ✣✍✘ cloud ✍✑✢
and ✍ a ✔✩✣✕
huge
✍✑✢
and ✣✍✚✕ gave ✛✗✘✕
rise ✓✏ to ✍✓✏✙✗✦
atomic ✙✍✓✓✕✛✤
matter. The ✥✔✕ ✛✏✓✍✓✗✑✣
rotating ✢✗✘✦
disc ✏★of ✣✍✘
gas ✍✑✢
and ✢✩✘✓
dust ✢✕✚✕✎✏✖✘
develops
✩✑✗✚✕✛✘✕
universe ❜✕✦✍✙✕became ✓✛✍✑✘✖✍✛✕✑✓✤
transparent. ✍✛✏✩✑✢
around ✓✔✕ gas ✦✏✛✕✤
the ✣✍✘ core.
✶✑
16 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✭✒✒✓
(ii) ■✔
In ✕✖✗
the ✔✗✘✕
next ✙✕✚✛✗✜
stage, ✕✖✗
the ✛✚✙
gas ✢✣✤✥✦
cloud ✙✕✚✧✕✙
starts ✤✯
of ✕✖✗★ are ★✥✢✖
them ✚✧✗ much ✣✚✧✛✗✧
larger ✕✖✚✔
than ✕✖✗
the ✕✗✧✧✗✙✕✧❣✚✣
terrestrial
✛✗✕✕❣✔✛
getting ✢✤✔✦✗✔✙✗✦
condensed ✚✔✦ and ✕✖✗the ★✚✕✕✗✧
matter ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙
planets ✚✔✦
and ✖✚❛✗
have ✕✖❣✢♠ atmosphere, ★✤✙✕✣♦
thick ✚✕★✤✙✩✖✗✧✗✜ mostly ✤✯ of
✚✧✤✥✔✦
around ✕✖✗ the ✢✤✧✗ develops ❣✔✕✤
core ✦✗❛✗✣✤✩✙ into ✙★✚✣✣✪
small- ✖✗✣❣✥★
helium ✚✔✦✖♦✦✧✤✛✗✔✬❚✣✣
and hydrogen. All ✕✖✗
the ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙ ✐✗✧✗ ✯✤✧★✗✦
planets were formed
✧✤✥✔✦✗✦
rounded ✤r✫✗✢✕✙✬ ✮✖✗✙✗ ✙★✚✣✣✪✧✤✥✔✦✗✦
objects. These small-rounded ❣✔
in ✕✖✗
the ✙✚★✗
same ✩✗✧❣✤✦
period ✙✤★✗✕❣★✗ about ❏✬❍
sometime ✚r✤✥✕ r❣✣✣❣✤✔
4.6 billion
✤r✫✗✢✕✙ r♦ ✕✖✗
objects by the ✩✧✤✢✗✙✙
process ✤✯of ✢✤✖✗✙❣✤✔
cohesion ✦✗❛✗✣✤✩
develop ♦✗✚✧✙ ✚✛✤✬
years ago. ❄✤★✗
Some ✦✚✕✚
data ✧✗✛✚✧✦❣✔✛
regarding ✤✥✧
our ✙✤✣✚✧
solar ✙♦✙✕✗★
system
❣✔✕✤ ✐✖✚✕ ❣✙ ✢✚✣✣✗✦ ♣✰✱✲✳✴✳✵✷✸✱✰✵✬
into what is called planetesimals. ✚✧✗ given ❣✔
are ✛❣❛✗✔ in ✕✖✗ r✤✘ below.
the box r✗✣✤✐✬
▲✚✧✛✗✧ r✤✦❣✗✙ ✙✕✚✧✕
Larger bodies start ✯✤✧★❣✔✛
forming by r♦ ✢✤✣✣❣✙❣✤✔✜
collision,
✚✔✦
and ✛✧✚❛❣✕✚✕❣✤✔✚✣
gravitational ✚✕✕✧✚✢✕❣✤✔
attraction ✢✚✥✙✗✙
causes ✕✖✗the ❫❴❵ ❜❞❡
Why are ❢❴❡
the ❤❥❥❡❞
inner ❦❧❜❥❡❢♥
planets ❞q✉✈❵ ✇❴❤❧❡
rocky while
★✚✕✗✧❣✚✣
material ✕✤ to ✙✕❣✢♠
stick ✕✤✛✗✕✖✗✧✬
together. ✹✣✚✔✗✕✗✙❣★✚✣✙
Planetesimals q❢❴❡❞♥ are ①q♥❢❧❵
others ❜❞❡ in ②❜♥❡q③♥
mostly ❤❥ gaseous ④q❞①⑤
form?
✚✧✗
are ✚a ✣✚✧✛✗
large ✔✥★r✗✧
number ✤✯ of ✙★✚✣✣✗✧ r✤✦❣✗✙✬
smaller bodies.
✭✒✒✒✓
(iii) ■✔
In ✕✖✗
the ✯❣✔✚✣
final ✙✕✚✛✗✜
stage, ✕✖✗✙✗
these ✣✚✧✛✗
large ✔✥★r✗✧
number ✮✖✗ ✦❣✯✯✗✧✗✔✢✗
The r✗✕✐✗✗✔ ✕✗✧✧✗✙✕✧❣✚✣
difference between terrestrial ✚✔✦ ✫✤❛❣✚✔
and jovian
✤✯
of small planetesimals accrete ✕✤
✙★✚✣✣ ✩✣✚✔✗✕✗✙❣★✚✣✙ ✚✢✢✧✗✕✗ to ✯✤✧★
form ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙
planets ✢✚✔ r✗ ✚✕✕✧❣r✥✕✗✦
can be attributed ✕✤to ✕✖✗
the ✯✤✣✣✤✐❣✔✛
following
✚a ✯✗✐✗✧ ✣✚✧✛✗ r✤✦❣✗✙ ❣✔
fewer large bodies in the form ✤✯✕✖✗ ✯✤✧★ of ✢✤✔✦❣✕❣✤✔✙⑥
conditions:
✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✬
planets. ✭✒✓ ✮✖✗ ✕✗✧✧✗✙✕✧❣✚✣
(i) The terrestrial ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙ ✐✗✧✗ ✯✤✧★✗✦
planets were formed ❣✔ in
✕✖✗
the ✢✣✤✙✗
close ❛❣✢❣✔❣✕♦
vicinity ✤✯ of ✕✖✗
the ✩✚✧✗✔✕
parent ✙✕✚✧star
❖❯✺
Our ✻✼✽✾✺
SoLaR ✻❨✿❀❁❂
SYSTEM ✐✖✗✧✗ ❣✕
where ✐✚✙ ✕✤✤
it was ✐✚✧★ ✯✤✧
too warm for ✛✚✙✗✙
gases ✕✤ to
✢✤✔✦✗✔✙✗
condense ✕✤ to ✙✤✣❣✦
solid ✩✚✧✕❣✢✣✗✙✬
particles. Jovian❭✤❛❣✚✔
❃✥✧
Our ❄✤✣✚✧
Solar ✙♦✙✕✗★
system ✢✤✔✙❣✙✕✙
consists ✤✯ of ✔❣✔✗
nine ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✬
planets. The ✮✖✗ ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙ ✐✗✧✗ ✯✤✧★✗✦
planets were formed ✚✕ at ❘✥❣✕✗
quite ✚ a ✦❣✙✕✚✔✕
distant
✕✗✔✕✖
tenth ✩✣✚✔✗✕
planet t❅❅❆
2003 ❇❈ UB,,,,
❉❊❉ ✖✚✙
has ✚✣✙✤
also r✗✗✔
been ✧✗✢✗✔✕✣♦
recently ✣✤✢✚✕❣✤✔✬
location.
✙❣✛✖✕✗✦✬
sighted. The ✮✖✗ ✔✗r✥✣✚
nebula ✯✧✤★ ✐✖❣✢✖ ✤✥✧
from which our ❄✤✣✚✧
Solar ✮✖✗ ✙✤✣✚✧ ✐❣✔✦ was✐✚✙ ★✤✙✕
✭✒✒✓
(ij) The solar wind most ❣✔✕✗✔✙✗
intense ✔✗✚✧✗✧
nearer
system ❣✙
✙♦✙✕✗★ is ✙✥✩✩✤✙✗✦
supposed ✕✤ to ✖✚❛✗
have been r✗✗✔ ✯✤✧★✗✦✜
formed,
✕✖✗
the ✙✥✔⑦ so, ❣✕
sun; ✙✤✜ it r✣✗✐
blew ✤✯✯
off ✣✤✕✙
lots ✤✯of ✛✚✙
gas ✚✔✦
and
started ❣✕✙
✙✕✚✧✕✗✦ its ✢✤✣✣✚✩✙✗
collapse ✚✔✦ and ✢✤✧✗core ✯✤✧★✚✕❣✤✔
formation ✙✤★✗ some
✦✥✙✕
dust ✯✧✤★
from ✕✖✗
the ✕✗✧✧✗✙✕✧❣✚✣
terrestrial ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✬
planets. The✮✖✗
✕❣★✗ r❣✣✣❣✤✔
time 5-5.6 billion years ago and ✕✖✗
●✪●✬❍ ♦✗✚✧✙ ✚✛✤ ✚✔✦ the ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙
planets
✙✤✣✚✧ ✐❣✔✦✙ were
solar winds ✐✗✧✗ ✔✤✕not ✚✣✣ that ❣✔✕✗✔✙✗
all ✕✖✚✕ intense ✕✤ to
✐✗✧✗ ✯✤✧★✗✦
were about ❏✬❍
formed ✚r✤✥✕ r❣✣✣❣✤✔ years
4.6 billion ♦✗✚✧✙ ✚✛✤✬
ago. ❃✥✧ Our
✢✚✥✙✗
cause ✙❣★❣✣✚✧
similar ✧✗★✤❛✚✣
removal ✤✯ of ✛✚✙✗✙
gases ✯✧✤★
from ✕✖✗
the
✙✤✣✚✧
solar ✙♦✙✕✗★
system ✢✤✔✙❣✙✕✙
consists ✤✯ of ✕✖✗ sun s✕✖✗
the ✙✥✔ star), ▼
(the ✙✕✚✧❑✜ 9
❭✤❛❣✚✔ ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✬
Jovian planets.
✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✜
planets, ❍❆ 63 ★✤✤✔✙✜
moons, ★❣✣✣❣✤✔✙
millions ✤✯ of ✙★✚✣✣✗✧ r✤✦❣✗✙
smaller bodies
✭✒✒✒✓ ✮✖✗ ✕✗✧✧✗✙✕✧❣✚✣
(iii) The terrestrial ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙
planets ✚✧✗are ✙★✚✣✣✗✧
smaller ✚✔✦and
like ✱✵✴✳◆P✷◗✵
✣❣♠✗ asteroids ✚✔✦ and ❝P✸✳✴✵
comets ✚✔✦ huge ❘✥✚✔✕❣✕♦
and ✖✥✛✗ quantity
✕✖✗❣✧
their ✣✤✐✗✧
lower ✛✧✚❛❣✕♦
gravity ✢✤✥✣✦
could ✔✤✕ not ✖✤✣✦
hold ✕✖✗
the
✤✯
of ✦✥✙✕✪✛✧✚❣✔✙
dust-grains ✚✔✦ and ✛✚✙✗✙✬
gases.
✗✙✢✚✩❣✔✛
escaping ✛✚✙✗✙✬
gases.
❃✥✕
Out ✤✯of ✕✖✗
the ✔❣✔✗ planets, ★✗✧✢✥✧♦✜
nine ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✜ mercury, venus,❛✗✔✥✙✜
✗✚✧✕✖ and ★✚✧✙
earth ✚✔✦ mars ✚✧✗are ✢✚✣✣✗✦
called ✚✙ the ✷✲✲✳◆
as ✕✖✗ ♣✰✱✲✳✴✵
inner planets
⑧⑨⑩
The ❶❷❷❸
Moon
✚✙
as ✕✖✗♦
they ✣❣✗ r✗✕✐✗✗✔ ✕✖✗
lie between the ✙✥✔sun ✚✔✦and ✕✖✗ r✗✣✕ ✤✯
the belt of
✚✙✕✗✧✤❣✦✙
asteroids ✕✖✗
the ✤✕✖✗✧
other ✯❣❛✗
five ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙
planets ✚✧✗are ✢✚✣✣✗✦ the P❙✴✳◆
called ✕✖✗ outer ✮✖✗ ★✤✤✔
The moon ❣✙ is ✕✖✗
the ✤✔✣♦
only ✔✚✕✥✧✚✣
natural ✙✚✕✗✣✣❣✕✗
satellite ✤✯
of ✕✖✗
the
♣✰✱✲✳✴✵✬ Alternatively,
planets. ❚✣✕✗✧✔✚✕❣❛✗✣♦✜ ✕✖✗ the ✯❣✧✙✕
first ✯✤✥✧
four ✚✧✗
are ✢✚✣✣✗✦
called ✗✚✧✕✖✬
earth. ▲❣♠✗
Like ✕✖✗
the ✤✧❣✛❣✔
origin ✤✯
of ✕✖✗
the ✗✚✧✕✖✜
earth, ✕✖✗✧✗
there ✖✚❛✗
have
❱✳◆◆✳✵✴◆✷✱✰❲
Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are ★✚✦✗
★✗✚✔❣✔✛ ✗✚✧✕✖✪✣❣♠✗ ✚✙ ✕✖✗♦ ✚✧✗ made r✗✗✔
been ✚✕✕✗★✩✕✙
attempts ✕✤ to ✗✘✩✣✚❣✔
explain ✖✤✐
how ✕✖✗the ★✤✤✔
moon was✐✚✙
✥✩
up ✤✯
of ✧✤✢♠ and ★✗✕✚✣✙✜
rock ✚✔✦ metals, ✚✔✦ and ✖✚❛✗
have ✧✗✣✚✕❣❛✗✣♦
relatively ✖❣✛✖high ✯✤✧★✗✦✬
formed. ■✔ ❹❺❆❺✜
In 1838, ❄❣✧ ❬✗✤✧✛✗ ❻✚✧✐❣✔
Sir George Darwin ✙✥✛✛✗✙✕✗✦
suggested
✦✗✔✙❣✕❣✗✙✬ ✮✖✗ ✧✗✙✕
densities. The rest ✯❣❛✗
five ✚✧✗
are ✢✚✣✣✗✦ ❳P❩✷✱✲ ✤✧
called Jovian or ❬✚✙
Gas that ❣✔❣✕❣✚✣✣♦✜
✕✖✚✕ initially, ✕✖✗
the ✗✚✧✕✖
earth ✚✔✦ the ★✤✤✔
and ✕✖✗ moon ✯✤✧★✗✦
formed ✚ a
❬❣✚✔✕
Giant ✩✣✚✔✗✕✙✬ ❭✤❛❣✚✔ ★✗✚✔✙
planets. Jovian ✫✥✩❣✕✗✧✪✣❣♠✗✬ ❪✤✙✕
means jupiter-like. Most ✙❣✔✛✣✗
single ✧✚✩❣✦✣♦ rotating r✤✦♦✬
rapidly ✧✤✕✚✕❣✔✛ ✮✖✗ whole
body. The ✐✖✤✣✗ ★✚✙✙
mass

❼❽❾
The ❿➀➁➂➃
Solar ❿➄➅➆❾➇
System

➈➉➊➋➌➊➍
Mercury ➎➉➏➌➐
Venus ➑➒➊➓➔
Earth ➈➒➊➐
Mars →➌➣↔➓➉➊ | ↕➒➓➌➊➏
Jupiter Saturn | ➙➊➒➏➌➐
Uranus | ➛➉➣➓➌➏➉
Neptune | ➜➝➌➓➞
Pluto

➟➠➡➢➤➥➦➧➨
Distance* ➩➫➭➯➲
0.387 ➩➫➲➳➭
0.723 ➵➫➩➩➩
1.000 ➵➫➸➳➺
1.524 ➸➫➳➩➭
5.203 ➻➫➸➭➻
9.539 ➵➻➫➵➯➳
19.182 | ➭➩➫➩➸➯
30.058 ➭➻➫➲➯➸
39.785

➟➧➥➡➠➢➼➽
Density@ ➸➫➺➺
5.44 ➸➫➳➺➸
5.245 ➸➫➸➵➲
5.517 ➭➫➻➺➸
3.945 ➵➫➭➭
1.33 ➩➫➲➩
0.70 ➵➫➵➲
1.17 ➵➫➾➾
1.66 ➩➫➸➚➩➫➻
0.5-0.9

➪➤➶➠➹➡➘
Radius# ➩➫➭➯➭
0.383 ➩➫➻➺➻
0.949 ➵➫➩➩➩
1.000 ➩➫➸➭➭
0.533 ➵➵➫➵➻
11.19 ➻➫➺➾➩
9.460 ➺➫➵➵
4.11 ➭➫➯➯
3.88 ➚➩➫➭
-0.3

➴➤➢➧➷➷➠➢➧➡
Satellites ➩0 ➩0 ➵1 ➳2 ➵➾
16 ➤➬➮➹➢
about ➵➯
18 | ➤➬➮➹➢
about ➵➲
17] ➯8 ➵1
➨* ➟➠➡➢➤➥➦➧ from ➢❒➧
Distance ➱✃➮❐ the ➡➹➥
sun ➠➥
in ➤➡➢✃➮➥➮❐➠➦➤➷ unit ➠➫➧➫
astronomical ➹➥➠➢ i.e. ➤❮➧✃➤❰➧
average ❐➧➤➥
mean ➶➠➡➢➤➥➦➧ of ➢❒➧
distance ➮➱ the ➧➤✃➢❒
earth ➠➡
is ➵➺➻Ï➸➻➯Ï➩➩➩
149,598,000 Ð❐ = ➵1
km Ñ
➽@ ➟➧➥➡➠➢➼
Density ➠➥ gm/cm? Ó
in ❰❐Ò➦❐
➘# ➪➤➶➠➹➡Ô
Radius: ÕÖ➹➤➢➮✃➠➤➷
Equatorial ✃➤➶➠➹➡
radius ➾➭➲➯➫➵➭➲
6378.137 Ð❐ = ➵1
km Ñ
❚ ✁ ✂✄☎✆☎✝
THE ✞✝✟ ✁✠✂✡☛❚☎✂✝
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION ✂☞ ❚ ✁ ✁✞✄❚
OF THE EARTH ✶✌
17

❜✍✎✏✑✍
became ✏ a ✒✓✑❜✔❜✍✕✕✔✖✗✏✘✍✒
dumb-bell-shaped ❜✙✒✚ body ✏✛✒ and ✖✜✏✣✜✍✒
started ★✍✜✜✢✛★
getting ✖✍✘✏✣✏✜✍✒
separated ✒✍✘✍✛✒✢✛★
depending ✙✛ on ✜✗✍✢✣
their
✍❡✍✛✜✓✏✕✕✚
eventually ✢✜ it ❜✣✙✤✍✥
broke. ✦✜ ✧✏✖ ✏✕✖✙
It was also ✖✓★★✍✖✜✍✒
suggested ✜✗✏✜ that ✒✍✛✖✢✜✢✍✖✥ ♣✗✢✖ ✏✕✕✙✧✍✒
densities. This allowed ✗✍✏❡✢✍✣ materials ❞✕✢✤✍
heavier ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕✖ (like
✜✗✍
the ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕
material t✙✣✑✢✛★
forming ✜✗✍ the ✑✙✙✛
moon was ✧✏✖ ✖✍✘✏✣✏✜✍✒
separated ✢✣✙✛❢
iron) ✜✙
to ✖✢✛✤
sink ✜✙✧✏✣✒✖
towards ✜✗✍ the ✎✍✛✜✣✍
centre ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗
earth
t✣✙✑ ✧✗✏✜ we
from what ✧✍ ✗✏❡✍
have ✏✜ at ✘✣✍✖✍✛✜
present ✜✗✍ the ✒✍✘✣✍✖✖✢✙✛
depression ✏✛✒
and ✜✗✍
the ✕✢★✗✜✍✣
lighter ✙✛✍✖ones ✜✙to ✑✙❡✍
move ✜✙✧✏✣✒✖
towards ✜✗✍ the
✙✎✎✓✘✢✍✒
occupied ❜✚ by ✜✗✍
the ♦✏✎✢t✢✎
Pacific ✩✎✍✏✛✥
Ocean. ✖✓✣t✏✎✍✥ s✢✜✗ ✘✏✖✖✏★✍ ✙t ✜✢✑✍ ✢✜ ✎✙✙✕✍✒
surface. With passage of time it cooled further t✓✣✜✗✍✣
❍✙✧✍❡✍✣✱
However, ✜✗✍ the ✘✣✍✖✍✛✜
present ✖✎✢✍✛✜✢✖✜✖
scientists ✒✙ do ✛✙✜not ✏✛✒
and ✖✙✕✢✒✢t✢✍✒
solidified ✏✛✒
and ✎✙✛✒✍✛✖✍✒
condensed ✢✛✜✙ into ✏a ✖✑✏✕✕✍✣
smaller ✖✢✭✍✥
size.
✏✎✎✍✘✜ ✍✢✜✗✍✣ ✙t ✜✗✍ ✍❛✘✕✏✛✏✜✢✙✛✖✥
accept either of the explanations. It is now ✦✜ ✢✖ ✛✙✧ ♣✗✢✖ ✕✏✜✍✣
This later ✕✍✒
led ✜✙
to ✜✗✍
the ✒✍❡✍✕✙✘✑✍✛✜
development ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✙✓✜✍✣
outer
★✍✛✍✣✏✕✕✚
generally ❜✍✕✢✍❡✍✒
believed ✜✗✏✜that ✜✗✍the t✙✣✑✏✜✢✙✛
formation ✙t of ✑✙✙✛✱
moon, ✖✓✣t✏✎✍
surface ✢✛ in ✜✗✍
the t✙✣✑
form ✙t of ✏ crust. ❉✓✣✢✛★
a ✎✣✓✖✜✥ During ✜✗✍ the
✏✖
as ✏
a ✖✏✜✍✕✕✢✜✍
satellite ✙t
of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗✱
earth, ✢✖ is ✏✛
an ✙✓✜✎✙✑✍
outcome ✙t of ✪★✢✏✛✜
‘giant t✙✣✑✏✜✢✙✛
formation ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✑✙✙✛✱
moon, ✒✓✍due ✜✙to ✜✗✍
the ★✢✏✛✜
giant ✢✑✘✏✎✜✱
impact,
✢✑✘✏✎✜✐
impact’ ✙✣ ✧✗✏✜ ✢✖
or what is ✒✍✖✎✣✢❜✍✒
described ✏✖ as ✫✜✗✍
“the ❜✢★
big ✖✘✕✏✜✬✥
splat”. ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗ ✧✏✖ t✓✣✜✗✍✣
earth was further ✗✍✏✜✍✒
heated ✓✘✥up. ✦✜It ✢✖
is ✜✗✣✙✓★✗
through
A❆ ❜✙✒✚
body ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✖✢✭✍
size ✙tof ✙✛✍
one ✜✙ to ✜✗✣✍✍
three ✜✢✑✍✖
times ✜✗✏✜that ✙tof ✜✗✍
the process of differentiation that the ✍✏✣✜✗
✘✣✙✎✍✖✖ ✙t ✒✢tt✍✣✍✛✜✢✏✜✢✙✛ ✜✗✏✜ ✜✗✍ earth
✑✏✣✖
mars ✎✙✕✕✢✒✍✒
collided ✢✛✜✙
into ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗
earth ✖✙✑✍✜✢✑✍
sometime ✖✗✙✣✜✕✚shortly t✙✣✑✢✛★
forming ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕
material ★✙✜ got ✖✍✘✏✣✏✜✍✒
separated ✢✛✜✙ into ✒✢tt✍✣✍✛✜
different
✏t✜✍✣
after ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗
earth was✧✏✖ t✙✣✑✍✒✥
formed. ✦✜ It ❜✕✏✖✜✍✒
blasted ✏ a ✕✏✣★✍
large layers. ❧✜✏✣✜✢✛★
✕✏✚✍✣✖✥ Starting t✣✙✑
from ✜✗✍
the ✖✓✣t✏✎✍
surface ✜✙ to ✜✗✍
the ✎✍✛✜✣✏✕
central
✘✏✣✜
part ✙tof ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗
earth ✢✛✜✙
into ✖✘✏✎✍✥
space. This♣✗✢✖ ✘✙✣✜✢✙✛
portion ✙t of ✘✏✣✜✖✱
parts, we✧✍ ✗✏❡✍
have ✕✏✚✍✣✖
layers ✕✢✤✍
like ✜✗✍
the ✎✣✓✖✜✱
crust, ✑✏✛✜✕✍✱
mantle,
❜✕✏✖✜✍✒ ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕ ✜✗✍✛ ✎✙✛✜✢✛✓✍✒
blasted material then continued to orbit the ✜✙ ✙✣❜✢✜ ✜✗✍ ✙✓✜✍✣
outer ✎✙✣✍
core ✏✛✒
and ✢✛✛✍✣
inner ✎✙✣✍✥
core. ✾✣✙✑
From ✜✗✍
the ✎✣✓✖✜
crust ✜✙ to ✜✗✍
the
✍✏✣✜✗
earth ✏✛✒
and ✍❡✍✛✜✓✏✕✕✚
eventually t✙✣✑✍✒formed ✢✛✜✙ into ✜✗✍
the ✘✣✍✖✍✛✜
present ✎✙✣✍✱
core, ✜✗✍
the ✒✍✛✖✢✜✚
density ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕
material ✢✛✎✣✍✏✖✍✖✥
increases. We s✍
✑✙✙✛
moon ✏❜✙✓✜
about ♠✥♠♠
4.44 ❜✢✕✕✢✙✛ ✚✍✏✣✖ ✏★✙✥
billion years ago. ✖✗✏✕✕
shall discuss in detail the properties of each ✙t
✒✢✖✎✓✖✖ ✢✛ ✒✍✜✏✢✕ ✜✗✍ ✘✣✙✘✍✣✜✢✍✖ ✙t ✍✏✎✗ of
✜✗✢✖
this ✕✏✚✍✣
layer ✢✛
in ✜✗✍
the ✛✍❛✜
next ✎✗✏✘✜✍✣✥
chapter.
❊❱✮✯✰✲✳✮✴
EVOLUTION ✮❖ OF ✲✵✷
THE ❊✸✹✲✵
EARTH
❉✙
Do you✚✙✓ ✤✛✙✧
know ✜✗✏✜that ✜✗✍
the ✘✕✏✛✍✜
planet ✍✏✣✜✗
earth ✢✛✢✜✢✏✕✕✚ ✧✏✖
initially was ❣❙❲❯❤❬❫❲❩
Evolution ❲❭ ❥❬❨❲❵❳❴❘❝❘ ❦❩♥
of Atmosphere and qr♥❝❲❵❳❴❘❝❘
Hydrosphere
✏a ❜✏✣✣✍✛✱
barren, ✣✙✎✤✚ rocky ✏✛✒and ✗✙✜ hot ✙❜✺✍✎✜
object with ✧✢✜✗ ✏a ✜✗✢✛
thin ♣✗✍ ✘✣✍✖✍✛✜
The present ✎✙✑✘✙✖✢✜✢✙✛
composition ✙t of ✍✏✣✜✗✐✖
earth’s ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
atmosphere
✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
atmosphere ✙t of ✗✚✒✣✙★✍✛
hydrogen ✏✛✒ and ✗✍✕✢✓✑✥
helium. This ♣✗✢✖ ✢✖is ✢✖
is ✎✗✢✍t✕✚
chiefly ✎✙✛✜✣✢❜✓✜✍✒
contributed ❜✚ by ✛✢✜✣✙★✍✛
nitrogen ✏✛✒ and ✙❛✚★✍✛✥
oxygen.
t✏✣
far t✣✙✑
from ✜✗✍ the ✘✣✍✖✍✛✜
present ✒✏✚ day ✘✢✎✜✓✣✍
picture ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗✥
earth. ✉✙✓ will
You ✧✢✕✕ ❜✍be ✒✍✏✕✢✛★
dealing with✧✢✜✗ ✜✗✍the ✎✙✑✘✙✖✢✜✢✙✛
composition ✏✛✒ and
❍✍✛✎✍✱
Hence, ✜✗✍✣✍ there ✑✓✖✜must ✗✏❡✍have ❜✍✍✛ been ✖✙✑✍ some ✍❡✍✛✜✖✻
events-— ✖✜✣✓✎✜✓✣✍
structure ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗✐✖
earth’s ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
atmosphere ✢✛ in ✈✗✏✘✜✍✣
Chapter ✇✥ 8.
✘✣✙✎✍✖✖✍✖✱
processes, which ✧✗✢✎✗ ✑✏✚may ✗✏❡✍have ✎✏✓✖✍✒
caused ✜✗✢✖ this ✎✗✏✛★✍
change ♣✗✍✣✍ ✏✣✍
There are ✜✗✣✍✍
three ✖✜✏★✍✖
stages ✢✛ in ✜✗✍
the ✍❡✙✕✓✜✢✙✛
evolution ✙t of
t✣✙✑
from ✣✙✎✤✚✱
rocky, ❜✏✣✣✍✛
barren ✏✛✒ and ✗✙✜ hot ✍✏✣✜✗
earth ✜✙ to ✏a ❜✍✏✓✜✢t✓✕
beautiful ✜✗✍
the present atmosphere. The first stage ✢✖
✘✣✍✖✍✛✜ ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍✥ ♣✗✍ t✢✣✖✜ ✖✜✏★✍ is
✘✕✏✛✍✜
planet with ✧✢✜✗ ✏✑✘✕✍
ample ✏✑✙✓✛✜amount ✙t ✧✏✜✍✣ ✏✛✒
of water and ✑✏✣✤✍✒
marked ❜✚ by ✜✗✍
the ✕✙✖✖
loss ✙tof ✘✣✢✑✙✣✒✢✏✕
primordial ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍✥
atmosphere.
✎✙✛✒✓✎✢❡✍ ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍ t✏❡✙✓✣✢✛★
conducive atmosphere favouring the existence ✜✗✍ ✍❛✢✖✜✍✛✎✍ ✦✛
In ✜✗✍
the ✖✍✎✙✛✒
second ✖✜✏★✍✱
stage, ✜✗✍
the ✗✙✜
hot ✢✛✜✍✣✢✙✣
interior ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗
earth
✙t
of ✕✢t✍✥
life. ✦✛
In ✜✗✍
the t✙✕✕✙✧✢✛★
following ✖✍✎✜✢✙✛✱
section, you ✚✙✓ will✧✢✕✕ t✢✛✒
find ✎✙✛✜✣✢❜✓✜✍✒
contributed ✜✙ to ✜✗✍
the ✍❡✙✕✓✜✢✙✛
evolution ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍✥
atmosphere.
✙✓✜
out ✗✙✧how ✜✗✍ the ✘✍✣✢✙✒✱
period, ❜✍✜✧✍✍✛
between ✜✗✍ the ♠✱✼✽✽
4,600 ✑✢✕✕✢✙✛
million ✾✢✛✏✕✕✚✱
Finally, ✜✗✍the ✎✙✑✘✙✖✢✜✢✙✛
composition ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
atmosphere was ✧✏✖
✚✍✏✣✖ ✏✛✒
years and ✜✗✍ the ✘✣✍✖✍✛✜✱
present, ✕✍✒ led ✜✙
to ✜✗✍
the ✍❡✙✕✓✜✢✙✛
evolution ✙t of
✑✙✒✢t✢✍✒
modified ❜✚ by ✜✗✍the ✕✢❡✢✛★ ✧✙✣✕✒ ✜✗✣✙✓★✗
living world through ✜✗✍ the
✕✢t✍
life ✙✛on ✜✗✍
the ✖✓✣t✏✎✍
surface ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✘✕✏✛✍✜✥
planet.
✘✣✙✎✍✖✖ ✙t ①②③④③⑤⑥⑦④②⑧⑤⑨⑤✥
process of photosynthesis.
♣✗✍ ✍✏✣✜✗
The earth ✗✏✖ has ✏ a ✕✏✚✍✣✍✒
layered ✖✜✣✓✎✜✓✣✍✥
structure. ✾✣✙✑ From
♣✗✍ ✍✏✣✕✚
The early ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍✱
atmosphere, with ✧✢✜✗ ✗✚✒✣✙★✍✛
hydrogen ✏✛✒ and
✜✗✍
the ✙✓✜✍✣✑✙✖✜
outermost ✍✛✒ end ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
atmosphere ✜✙ to ✜✗✍
the
✎✍✛✜✣✍ ✗✍✕✢✓✑✱
helium, ✢✖ is ✖✓✘✘✙✖✍✒
supposed ✜✙ to ✗✏❡✍
have ❜✍✍✛ been ✖✜✣✢✘✘✍✒
stripped ✙tt off
centre ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗✱
earth, ✜✗✍
the ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕
material ✜✗✏✜ that ✍❛✢✖✜✖
exists ✢✖is
✛✙✜ ✓✛✢t✙✣✑✥ ♣✗✍ ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✢✎ ✑✏✜✜✍✣ ✗✏✖ ✜✗✍ ✏✖
as ✏ a ✣✍✖✓✕✜
result ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✖✙✕✏✣ ✧✢✛✒✖✥ This
solar winds. ♣✗✢✖ ✗✏✘✘✍✛✍✒
happened
not uniform. The atmospheric matter has the
✕✍✏✖✜
least ✒✍✛✖✢✜✚✥
density. ✾✣✙✑ From ✜✗✍ the ✖✓✣t✏✎✍
surface ✜✙ to ✒✍✍✘✍✣
deeper
✛✙✜
not ✙✛✕✚
only ✢✛in ✎✏✖✍
case ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗✱
earth, ❜✓✜ but ✏✕✖✙
also ✢✛ in ✏✕✕
all ✜✗✍
the
✒✍✘✜✗✖✱
depths, ✜✗✍ the ✍✏✣✜✗✐✖
earth’s ✢✛✜✍✣✢✙✣
interior ✗✏✖ has ✒✢tt✍✣✍✛✜ ✭✙✛✍✖
different zones
✜✍✣✣✍✖✜✣✢✏✕
terrestrial ✘✕✏✛✍✜✖✱
planets, which✧✗✢✎✗ were ✧✍✣✍ ✖✓✘✘✙✖✍✒
supposed ✜✙ to
✏✛✒
and ✍✏✎✗ each ✙t of ✜✗✍✖✍
these ✎✙✛✜✏✢✛✖
contains ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕✖
materials with ✧✢✜✗ ✗✏❡✍ ✕✙✖✜ ✜✗✍✢✣ ✘✣✢✑✙✣✒✢✏✕ ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
have lost their primordial atmosphere through ✜✗✣✙✓★✗
✒✢tt✍✣✍✛✜
different ✎✗✏✣✏✎✜✍✣✢✖✜✢✎✖✥
characteristics.
✜✗✍
the ✢✑✘✏✎✜
impact ✙t of ✖✙✕✏✣ ✧✢✛✒✖✥
solar winds.
❉✓✣✢✛★
During ✜✗✍ the ✎✙✙✕✢✛★
cooling ✙t of ✜✗✍
the ✍✏✣✜✗✱
earth, ★✏✖✍✖
gases ✏✛✒ and
✿❀❁ ❁❂❃ ❄❅❇
How was the ❈❂❋❇●❇■
layered ❃❄●❏❑❄❏●❇
structure ❀▲
of ❄❅❇
the
✧✏✜✍✣ vapour
water ❡✏✘✙✓✣ were ✧✍✣✍ ✣✍✕✍✏✖✍✒
released t✣✙✑ from ✜✗✍ the ✢✛✜✍✣✢✙✣
interior
❇❂●❄❅
earth ■❇▼❇❈❀◆❇■P
developed?
✖✙✕✢✒
solid ✍✏✣✜✗✥
earth. This♣✗✢✖ ✖✜✏✣✜✍✒
started ✜✗✍ the ✍❡✙✕✓✜✢✙✛
evolution ✙t of ✜✗✍
the
✘✣✍✖✍✛✜
present ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍✥
atmosphere. The ♣✗✍ ✍✏✣✕✚early ✏✜✑✙✖✘✗✍✣✍
atmosphere
✕✏✣★✍✕✚
largely ✎✙✛✜✏✢✛✍✒
contained water ✧✏✜✍✣ vapour,
❡✏✘✙✓✣✱ ✛✢✜✣✙★✍✛✱
nitrogen,
◗❘❙❘❯❲❳❨❘❩❬
Development ❲❭ of ❪❫❬❴❲❵❳❴❘❝❘
Lithosphere ✎✏✣❜✙✛
carbon ✒✢✙❛✢✒✍✱
dioxide, ✑✍✜✗✏✛✍✱
methane, ✏✑✑✙✛✢✏ammonia ✏✛✒ ❡✍✣✚
and very
♣✗✍ ✍✏✣✜✗
The ✧✏✖ ✑✙✖✜✕✚
earth was mostly ✢✛
in ✏ ❡✙✕✏✜✢✕✍ ✖✜✏✜✍
a volatile state ✒✓✣✢✛★
during ✕✢✜✜✕✍
little ✙t
of t✣✍✍
free ✙❛✚★✍✛✥
oxygen. The ♣✗✍ ✘✣✙✎✍✖✖
process ✜✗✣✙✓★✗
through which ✧✗✢✎✗
✢✜✖
its ✘✣✢✑✙✣✒✢✏✕
primordial ✖✜✏★✍✥ ❉✓✍
stage. Due ✜✙to ★✣✏✒✓✏✕
gradual ✢✛✎✣✍✏✖✍
increase ✜✗✍
the ★✏✖✍✖
gases were✧✍✣✍ ✙✓✜✘✙✓✣✍✒
outpoured t✣✙✑ from ✜✗✍ the ✢✛✜✍✣✢✙✣
interior ✢✖ is
✢✛
in ✒✍✛✖✢✜✚
density ✜✗✍the ✜✍✑✘✍✣✏✜✓✣✍
temperature ✢✛✖✢✒✍inside ✗✏✖
has ✎✏✕✕✍✒ degassing. ✈✙✛✜✢✛✓✙✓✖
called ⑩⑧❶❷⑤⑤⑨⑦❶✥ Continuous volcanic ❡✙✕✎✏✛✢✎
✢✛✎✣✍✏✖✍✒✥
increased. As❆✖ ✏a ✣✍✖✓✕✜
result ✜✗✍
the ✑✏✜✍✣✢✏✕
material ✢✛✖✢✒✍
inside ✍✣✓✘✜✢✙✛✖
eruptions ✎✙✛✜✣✢❜✓✜✍✒
contributed water ✧✏✜✍✣ vapour
❡✏✘✙✓✣ ✏✛✒ and ★✏✖✍✖
gases
✶✑
18 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

➊➋➌➍➌➎➏➐➑➍
Geological ➒➏➓➋
Time ➔➐➑➍➋
Scale
✽✾✿❀
Eons ✽r❁
Era P❡r✐✾❂
Period ✽❃✾❄❅
Epoch ❆❇❡❈ ❉❡❁r❀
Age/ Years ▲✐●❡❈
Life/ ❍❁■✾r
Major ✽❏❡✿❑❀
Events
▼❡●✾r❡
Before Pr❡❀❡✿❑
Present
◗✉◆❘❙❚♥◆❚❯
Quaternary ❱❲❳❲❨❙♥❙
Holocene ❩0 ❬- ❭❩❪❩❩❩
10,000 ❫❲❴❙❚♥
Modern ❫◆♥ Man
❵❳❙❜❢❘❲❨❙♥❙
Pleistocene | 10,000 ❬- ❣
❭❩❪❩❩❩ 2 ❥❜❳❳❜❲♥
million ❱❲❥❲
Homo ❦◆❧❜❙♥❢
Sapiens
❻◆❜♥❲➅❲❜❨
Cainozoic ♠❙❚❘❜◆❚❯
Tertiary ❵❳❜❲❨❙♥❙
Pliocene ❣ ❬ q ❥❜❳❳❜❲♥
2 - 5 million s◆❚❳❯
Early ❱✉❥◆♥ ✈♥❨❙❢❘❲❚
Human Ancestor
➈④❚❲❥
(From ❹q 65 ❫❜❲❨❙♥❙
Miocene q5 ❬- ❣①
24 ❥❜❳❳❜❲♥
million ✈❧❙③ ④❳❲⑤❙❚❜♥⑥
Ape: Flowering ❵❳◆♥❘❢Plants
❥❜❳❳❜❲♥ ❯❙◆❚❢
million years ◆♥❴ ♠❚❙❙❢
and Trees
❘❲
to ❘⑩❙
the ⑦❳❜⑥❲❨❙♥❙
Oligocene ❣①
24 ❬- ⑧⑨
37 ❫◆
Ma ✈♥❘⑩❚❲❧❲❜❴ Ape
Anthropoid ✈❧❙
❧❚❙❢❙♥❘
present s❲❨❙♥❙
Eocene ⑧⑨
37 ❬- q❶
58 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ❷◆❸❸❜❘❢
Rabbits ◆♥❴ and ❱◆❚❙
Hare
❘❜❥❙❢➉
times) ❵◆❳◆❙❲❨❙♥❙
Palaeocene | q⑨
57 ❬- ❹q
65 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ❦❥◆❳❳
Small ❫◆❥❥◆❳❢
Mammals ③:
❷◆❘❢
Rats —❺ ❫❜❨❙
Mice
❫❙❢❲➅❲❜❨
Mesozoic ❻❚❙❘◆❨❙❲✉❢
Cretaceous ❹q
65 ❬- ❭①①
144 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million s❼❘❜♥❨❘❜❲♥
Extinction ❲❽ of ❾❜♥❲❢◆✉❚❢
Dinosaurs
❹q ❬nen❣①q ❿✉❚◆❢❢❜❨
Jurassic ❭①①
144 - ❣❩❶
❬ 208 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ✈⑥❙ ❲❽ ❾❜♥❲❢◆✉❚❢
Age of Dinosaurs
❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
❫◆❥❥◆❳❢
Mammals ♠❚❜◆❢❢❜❨
Triassic ❣❩❶
208 ❬- ❣①q
245 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ④❚❲⑥❢
Frogs ◆♥❴and ❘✉❚❘❳❙❢
turtles
❵❙❚❥❜◆♥
Permian ❣①q ❬ ❣❶❹ ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
245 - 286 Million ❷❙❧❘❜❳❙ ❴❲❥❜♥◆❘❙❬❚❙❧❳◆❨❙
Reptile dominate-replace
◆❥❧⑩❜❸❜◆♥❢
amphibians
❻◆❚❸❲♥❜❽❙❚❲✉❢
Carboniferous ❣❶❹
286 ❬- ⑧❹❩
360 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ④❜❚❢❘
First ❷❙❧❘❜❳❙❢③
Reptiles:
❵◆❳◆❙❲➅❲❜❨
Palaeozoic ➀❙❚❘❙❸❚◆❘❙❢③ ❻❲◆❳
Vertebrates: ❸❙❴❢
Coal beds
❣①q
245 ❬- q⑨❩
570 ❾❙➁❲♥❜◆♥
Devonian ⑧❹❩
360 ❬- ①❩❶
408 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ✈❥❧⑩❜❸❜◆♥❢
Amphibians
❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ❦❜❳✉❚❜◆♥
Silurian ①❩❶
408 ❬- ①⑧❶
438 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ④❜❚❢❘
First ❘❚◆❨❙
trace ❲❽ of ❳❜❽❙
life ❲♥
on ❳◆♥❴③
land:
❵❳◆♥❘❢
Plants
⑦❚❴❲➁❜❨❜◆♥
Ordovician ①⑧❶
438 ❬- q❩q
505 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ④❜❚❢❘
First ④❜❢⑩
Fish
❻◆❥❸❚❜◆♥
Cambrian q❩q
505 - 570 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
❬ q⑨❩ Million ➂❲
No ❘❙❚❚❙❢❘❚❜◆❳
terrestrial ➃❜❽❙Life ③:
❫◆❚❜♥❙ ➄♥➁❙❚❘❙❸❚◆❘❙
Marine Invertebrate
❵❚❲❘❙❚❲➅❲❜❨
Proterozoic q⑨❩
570 ❬- ❣❪q❩❩
2,500 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ❦❲❽❘❬❸❲❴❜❙❴
Soft-bodied ◆❚❘⑩❚❲❧❲❴❢
arthropods
✈❚❨⑩❙◆♥
Archean ❣❪q❩❩
2,500 ❬- ⑧❪❶❩❩
3,800 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million | ➆❳✉❙
Blue ⑥❚❙❙♥ ✈❳⑥◆❙③
green Algae:
❵❚❙❬
Pre- ➇♥❜❨❙❳❳✉❳◆❚ ❸◆❨❘❙❚❜◆
Unicellular bacteria
❱◆❴❙◆♥
Hadean
❻◆❥❸❚❜◆♥
ween ⑧❪❶❩❩
3,800 ❬- ①❪❶❩❩
4,800 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ⑦❨❙◆♥❢
Oceans ◆♥❴ and ❻❲♥❘❜♥❙♥❘❢
Continents
q⑨❩ ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
illion
❬- ①❪❶❩❩
4,800 ❽❲❚❥
form —❺ ⑦❨❙◆♥
Ocean ◆♥❴ and
❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ✈❘❥❲❢❧⑩❙❚❙ ◆❚❙
Atmosphere are ❚❜❨⑩
rich ❜♥in
❻◆❚❸❲♥
Carbon ❴❜❲❼❜❴❙
dioxide
⑦❚❜⑥❜♥
Origin ❲❽
of q❪❩❩❩
5,000 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ⑦❚❜⑥❜♥
Origin ❲❽ of ❘⑩❙
the ❢✉♥
sun
❦❘◆❚❢
Stars q❪❩❩❩
5,000 ❬-
❭⑧❪⑨❩❩
13,700
❦✉❧❙❚♥❲➁◆
Supernova ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ❭❣❪❩❩❩
12,000 ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
Million ⑦❚❜⑥❜♥
Origin ❲❽
of ❘⑩❙
the ✉♥❜➁❙❚❢❙
universe
➆❜⑥
Big ➆◆♥⑥
Bang ❭⑧❪⑨❩❩ ❫❜❳❳❜❲♥
13,700 Million

t✒
to t✓✔
the ✕t✖✒✗✘✓✔✙✔✚
atmosphere. As ✛✗ t✓✔
the ✔✕✙t✓
earth ❤✒✒✜✔✢✣
cooled, t✓✔the t✓✕t
that t✓✔
the ✒❤✔✕★✗
oceans ✕✙✔are ✕✗as ✒✜✢
old ✕✗as ✮✣✬✬✬
4,000 ✖✧✜✜✧✒★
million
✇✕t✔✙ vapour
water ✤✕✘✒✥✙ ✙✔✜✔✕✗✔✢
released ✗t✕✙t✔started✢ ✦✔tt✧★✦
getting ✭✔✕✙✗✚ ②✒✖✔t✧✖✔
years. Sometime ✕✙✒✥★✢
around ✯✣✰✬✬
3,800 ✖✧✜✜✧✒★ ✭✔✕✙✗
million years
❤✒★✢✔★✗✔✢✚
condensed. The ❝✓✔ ❤✕✙✩✒★
carbon ✢✧✒✪✧✢✔
dioxide ✧★ in t✓✔the ✕✦✒✣
ago, ✜✧✫✔
life ✩✔✦✕★
began t✒ to ✔✤✒✜✤✔✚
evolve. ❛✒✇✔✤✔✙✣
However, ✕✙✒✥★✢
around
✕t✖✒✗✘✓✔✙✔
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and t✓✔
✦✒t ✢✧✗✗✒✜✤✔✢ ✧★ ✙✕✧★✇✕t✔✙ ✕★✢ the
✷✣♦✬✬✱✯✣✬✬✬
2,500-3,000 ✖✧✜✜✧✒★ ✭✔✕✙✗ ✩✔✫✒✙✔
million years before t✓✔
the ✘✙✔✗✔★t✣
present,
t✓✔
the ✘✙✒❤✔✗✗
process ✒✫ of ✘✓✒t✒✗✭★t✓✔✗✧✗
photosynthesis ✦✒t got ✔✤✒✜✤✔✢✚
evolved. ✲✧✫✔
Life
t✔✖✘✔✙✕t✥✙✔
temperature ✫✥✙t✓✔✙
further ✢✔❤✙✔✕✗✔✢
decreased ❤✕✥✗✧★✦
causing ✖✒✙✔more
✇✕✗ ❤✒★✫✧★✔✢ t✒ t✓✔ ✒❤✔✕★✗ ✫✒✙ ✕ ✜✒★✦ t✧✖✔✚
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
❤✒★✢✔★✗✕t✧✒★
condensation ✕★✢ and ✖✒✙✔
more ✙✕✧★✗✚ ❝✓✔ ✙✕✧★✇✕t✔✙
rains. The rainwater ❖❤✔✕★✗
Oceans ✩✔✦✕★began t✒ to ✓✕✤✔
have t✓✔the ❤✒★t✙✧✩✥t✧✒★
contribution ✒✫ of
✫✕✜✜✧★✦
falling ✒★t✒
onto t✓✔
the ✗✥✙✫✕❤✔
surface ✦✒t got ❤✒✜✜✔❤t✔✢
collected ✧★ in t✓✔
the ✒✪✭✦✔★
oxygen t✓✙✒✥✦✓
through t✓✔the ✘✙✒❤✔✗✗
process ✒✫ ♣✳✴✵✴✸✹✺✵✳✻✸✼✸✚
of photosynthesis.
✢✔✘✙✔✗✗✧✒★✗
depressions t✒to ✦✧✤✔
give ✙✧✗✔
rise t✒
to ✒❤✔✕★✗✚ ❝✓✔ ✔✕✙t✓❞✗
oceans. The earth’s ❊✤✔★t✥✕✜✜✭✣
Eventually, ✒❤✔✕★✗ ✇✔✙✔ ✗✕t✥✙✕t✔✢
oceans were ✇✧t✓ ✒✪✭✦✔★✣
saturated with oxygen,
✒❤✔✕★✗ ✇✔✙✔ ✫✒✙✖✔✢
oceans were ✇✧t✓✧★ ♦✬✬
formed within 500 ✖✧✜✜✧✒★ ✭✔✕✙✗
million years ✕★✢
and ✷✣✬✬✬
2,000 ✖✧✜✜✧✒★ ✭✔✕✙✗ ✕✦✒✣
million years ago, ✒✪✭✦✔★
oxygen ✩✔✦✕★
began t✒to
✫✙✒✖
from t✓✔
the ✫✒✙✖✕t✧✒★
formation ✒✫ of t✓✔
the ✔✕✙t✓✚ ❝✓✧✗ t✔✜✜✗
earth. This tells ✥✗
us ✫✜✒✒✢
flood t✓✔
the ✕t✖✒✗✘✓✔✙✔✚
atmosphere.
❚ ✁ ✂✄☎✆☎✝
THE ✞✝✟ ✁✠✂✡☛❚☎✂✝
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION ✂☞ ❚ ✁ ✁✞✄❚
OF THE EARTH ✶✌
19

❖✍✎✏✎✑
Origin ✒✓ of ✔✎✓✕
Life ✙✣✥✣✤r
living ✛✧✉✛✜✚✤✮✘✫
substance. The ✖✗✘ ✩✘✮✦✩✪
record ✦★of ✙✣★✘
life ✜✗✚✜
that ✘✲✣✛✜✘✪
existed
✦✤
on ✜✗✣✛
this ✢✙✚✤✘✜
planet ✣✤ in ✪✣★★✘✩✘✤✜
different ✢✘✩✣✦✪✛
periods ✣✛ is ★✦✧✤✪
found ✣✤ in
✖✗✘ ✙✚✛✜
The last ✢✗✚✛✘
phase ✣✤ in ✜✗✘
the ✘✥✦✙✧✜✣✦✤
evolution ✦★ of ✜✗✘
the ✘✚✩✜✗
earth
✩✦✮✰✛ ✖✗✘ ❛✣✮✩✦✛✮✦✢✣✮
rocks ✣✤ in ✜✗✘
the ★✦✩❛
form ✦★ of ★✦✛✛✣✙✛✫
fossils. The microscopic
✩✘✙✚✜✘✛
relates ✜✦to ✜✗✘
the ✦✩✣r✣✤
origin ✚✤✪and ✘✥✦✙✧✜✣✦✤
evolution ✦★ life. ✬✜
of ✙✣★✘✫ It ✣✛
is
structures ✮✙✦✛✘✙✭
✛✜✩✧✮✜✧✩✘✛ closely ✩✘✙✚✜✘✪
related ✜✦to ✜✗✘
the ✢✩✘✛✘✤✜
present ★✦✩❛form
undoubtedly ✮✙✘✚✩
✧✤✪✦✧✉✜✘✪✙✭ clear ✜✗✚✜
that ✜✗✘the ✣✤✣✜✣✚✙
initial ✦✩
or ✘✥✘✤
even ✜✗✘ the of ✉✙✧✘
✦★ blue ✚✙r✚✘ have ✉✘✘✤
algae ✗✚✥✘ been ★✦✧✤✪
found ✣✤ in r✘✦✙✦r✣✮✚✙
geological
✚✜❛✦✛✢✗✘✩✘
atmosphere ✦★ of ✜✗✘
the ✘✚✩✜✗
earth was✯✚✛ ✤✦✜
not ✮✦✤✪✧✮✣✥✘
conducive ★✦✩ for ★✦✩❛✚✜✣✦✤✛
formations ✜✗✚✜that ✚✩✘ are ❛✧✮✗
much ✦✙✪✘✩
older ✜✗✚✤
than ✜✗✘✛✘ ✯✘✩✘
these were
✜✗✘ ✪✘✥✘✙✦✢❛✘✤✜ ✦★ ✙✣★✘✫ t✦✪✘✩✤ ✛✮✣✘✤✜✣✛✜✛
the development of life. Modern scientists refer ✩✘★✘✩ ✛✦❛✘
some s✱✳✳✳3,000 ❛✣✙✙✣✦✤
million years ✭✘✚✩✛ ✚r✦✫ago. ✬✜ It ✮✚✤
can ✉✘ be
✜✦
to ✜✗✘
the ✦✩✣r✣✤
origin ✦★of ✙✣★✘
life ✚✛ as ✚ a ✰✣✤✪
kind ✦★of ✮✗✘❛✣✮✚✙
chemical ✚✛✛✧❛✘✪
assumed ✜✗✚✜ that ✙✣★✘life ✉✘r✚✤
began ✜✦ to ✘✥✦✙✥✘
evolve ✛✦❛✘✜✣❛✘
sometime
✩✘✚✮✜✣✦✤✱ ✯✗✣✮✗ ★✣✩✛✜
reaction, which first r✘✤✘✩✚✜✘✪
generated ✮✦❛✢✙✘✲
complex ✦✩r✚✤✣✮
organic 3,800 ❛✣✙✙✣✦✤
s✱✸✳✳ million years ✭✘✚✩✛ ✚r✦✫ ✖✗✘ ✛✧❛❛✚✩✭
ago. The summary ✦★ of
❛✦✙✘✮✧✙✘✛
molecules ✚✤✪ and ✚✛✛✘❛✉✙✘✪
assembled ✜✗✘❛✫ them. This ✖✗✣✛ ✘✥✦✙✧✜✣✦✤
evolution of life from unicellular bacteria ✜✦
✦★ ✙✣★✘ ★✩✦❛ ✧✤✣✮✘✙✙✧✙✚✩ ✉✚✮✜✘✩✣✚ to ✜✗✘
the
✚✛✛✘❛✉✙✚r✘ ✯✚✛ ✛✧✮✗ ✜✗✚✜ ✜✗✘✭ ✮✦✧✙✪
assemblage was such that they could duplicate ✪✧✢✙✣✮✚✜✘ ❛✦✪✘✩✤
modern ❛✚✤ man ✣✛ is r✣✥✘✤
given ✣✤in ✜✗✘
the ●✘✦✙✦r✣✮✚✙
Geological Time ✖✣❛✘
themselves ✮✦✤✥✘✩✜✣✤r
✜✗✘❛✛✘✙✥✘✛ inanimate ❛✚✜✜✘✩
converting ✣✤✚✤✣❛✚✜✘ matter ✣✤✜✦ into ❙✮✚✙✘
Scale ✦✤ on ✢✚r✘
page ♣✸✫18.

—___._ ❊✴❊✵✷✹✺❊✺
EXERCISES ___

✻✼
1. ▼✽✾✿❀❁✾❂
Multiple ❃❄❅❀❃❂ choice ❆✽❂❇✿❀❅❈❇✼
questions.
❉❀❋ ❲❄❀❃❄ ❅❈❂
(i) Which one ❅❍of ✿❄❂
the ❍❅✾✾❅■❀❈❏
following ❍❀❏✽❑❂❇
figures ❑❂❁❑❂❇❂❈✿❇
represents ✿❄❂ the ▲❏❂
age ❅❍of ✿❄❂
the ❂▲❑✿❄◆
earth?
❉▲❋
(a) P✼◗
4.6 ❘❀✾✾❀❅❈ ❯❂▲❑❇
million years ❉❃❋
(c) P✼◗
4.6 ❜❀✾✾❀❅❈ ❯❂▲❑❇
billion years

❉❜❋
(b) ✻❱✼❳
13.7 ❜❀✾✾❀❅❈ ❯❂▲❑❇
billion years ❉❨❋
(d) ✻❱✼❳
13.7 ✿❑❀✾✾❀❅❈ ❯❂▲❑❇
trillion years

❉❀❀❋ ❲❄❀❃❄ ❅❈❂

(ii) Which one ❅❍of ✿❄❂
the ❍❅✾✾❅■❀❈❏
following ❄▲❇has ✿❄❂
the ✾❅❈❏❂❇✿
longest ❨✽❑▲✿❀❅❈◆
duration?
❉▲❋
(a) ❩❅❈❇
Eons ❉❃❋
(c) ❩❑▲
Era

❉❜❋
(b) ❬❂❑❀❅❨
Period ❉❨❋
(d) ❩❁❅❃❄
Epoch

❉❀❀❀❋
(iii) ❲❄❀❃❄ ❅❈❂
Which one ❅❍ of ✿❄❂
the ❍❅✾✾❅■❀❈❏
following ❀❇is ❈❅✿
not ❑❂✾▲✿❂❨
related ✿❅ to ✿❄❂
the ❍❅❑❘▲✿❀❅❈
formation ❅❑ or ❘❅❨❀❍❀❃▲✿❀❅❈
modification
❅❍
of ✿❄❂the ❁❑❂❇❂❈✿
present ▲✿❘❅❇❁❄❂❑❂◆
atmosphere?
❉▲❋
(a) ❭❅✾▲❑ ■❀❈❨❇
Solar winds ❉❃❋
(c) ❪❂❏▲❇❇❀❈❏
Degassing
❉❜❋
(b) ❪❀❍❍❂❑❂❈✿❀▲✿❀❅❈
Differentiation ❉❨❋
(d) ❬❄❅✿❅❇❯❈✿❄❂❇❀❇
Photosynthesis

❉❀❫❋
(iv) ❲❄❀❃❄ ❅❈❂
Which one ❅❍of ✿❄❂
the ❍❅✾✾❅■❀❈❏
following ❑❂❁❑❂❇❂❈✿❇
represents ✿❄❂ the ❀❈❈❂❑
inner ❁✾▲❈❂✿❇◆
planets?
❉▲❋
(a) ❬✾▲❈❂✿❇
Planets ❜❂✿■❂❂❈
between ✿❄❂ the ❇✽❈
sun ▲❈❨and ✿❄❂the ❂▲❑✿❄
earth

❉❜❋
(b) ❬✾▲❈❂✿❇
Planets ❜❂✿■❂❂❈
between ✿❄❂ the ❇✽❈
sun ▲❈❨and ✿❄❂
the ❜❂✾✿
belt ❅❍ of ▲❇✿❂❑❅❀❨❇
asteroids

❉❃❋
(c ) ❬✾▲❈❂✿❇
Planets ❀❈ in ❏▲❇❂❅✽❇
gaseous ❇✿▲✿❂
state
❉❨❋
(d) ❬✾▲❈❂✿❇ ■❀✿❄❅✽✿ ❇▲✿❂✾✾❀✿❂❉❇❋
Planets without satellite(s)

❉❫❋
(v) ❴❀❍❂
Life ❅❈ on ✿❄❂
the ❂▲❑✿❄
earth ▲❁❁❂▲❑❂❨
appeared ▲❑❅✽❈❨
around ❄❅■ how ❘▲❈❯ ❯❂▲❑❇ ❜❂❍❅❑❂
many years before ✿❄❂
the ❁❑❂❇❂❈✿◆
present?
❉▲❋
(a) ✻❱✼❳
13.7 ❜❀✾✾❀❅❈
billion ❉❃❋
(c) P✼◗
4.6 ❜❀✾✾❀❅❈
billion

❉❜❋
(b) ❱✼❵3.8 ❘❀✾✾❀❅❈
million ❉❨❋
(d) ❱✼❵
3.8 ❜❀✾✾❀❅❈
billion

❝✼
2. ❞❈❇■❂❑
Answer ✿❄❂
the ❍❅✾✾❅■❀❈❏
following ❆✽❂❇✿❀❅❈❇
questions ❀❈in ▲❜❅✽✿
about ❱❡ ■❅❑❨❇✼
30 words.
❉❀❋
(i) ❲❄❯ ▲❑❂
Why are ✿❄❂
the ✿❂❑❑❂❇✿❑❀▲✾
terrestrial ❁✾▲❈❂✿❇
planets ❑❅❃❢❯◆
rocky?
❉❀❀❋
(ii) ❲❄▲✿ ❀❇
What is ✿❄❂
the ❜▲❇❀❃
basic ❨❀❍❍❂❑❂❈❃❂
difference ❀❈
in ✿❄❂
the ▲❑❏✽❘❂❈✿❇
arguments ❑❂✾▲✿❂❨
related ✿❅
to ✿❄❂
the ❅❑❀❏❀❈
origin ❅❍
of ✿❄❂
the
❂▲❑✿❄
earth ❏❀❫❂❈
given ❜❯by ❣:
❉▲❋
(a) ❤▲❈✿
Kant ▲❈❨and ❴▲❁✾▲❃❂
Laplace

❉❜❋
(b) ✐❄▲❘❜❂❑✾▲❀❈
Chamberlain ▲❈❨ and ▼❅✽✾✿❅❈
Moulton
✷✑
20 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✭✒✒✒✓
(iii) ❲❤✔✕ ✒✖
What is ✗✘✔✙✕
meant ✚✛ by ✕❤✘
the ✜✢✣✤✘✖✖
process ✣✥of ✦✒✥✥✘✢✘✙✕✒✔✕✒✣✙✧
differentiation?
✭✒★✓
(iv) ❲❤✔✕ was
What ✩✔✖ ✕❤✘the ✙✔✕✪✢✘
nature ✣✥ of ✕❤✘
the ✘✔✢✕❤
earth ✖✪✢✥✔✤✘
surface ✒✙✒✕✒✔✫✫✛✧
initially?

✭★✓
(v) ❲❤✔✕ were
What ✩✘✢✘ ✕❤✘the ✬✔✖✘✖ ✩❤✒✤❤ ✒✙✒✕✒✔✫✫✛
gases which initially ✥✣✢✗✘✦
formed ✕❤✘
the ✘✔✢✕❤✮✖
earth’s ✔✕✗✣✖✜❤✘✢✘✧
atmosphere?
✸✯
3. ❆✙✖✩✘✢ ✕❤✘
Answer the ✥✣✫✫✣✩✒✙✬
following ✰✪✘✖✕✒✣✙✖
questions ✒✙in ✔✚✣✪✕
about ✱✲✳ ✩✣✢✦✖✯
150 words.
✭✒✓
(i) ❲✢✒✕✘ ✔✙
Write an ✘r✜✫✔✙✔✕✣✢✛
explanatory ✙✣✕✘note ✣✙on ✕❤✘
the ✴✵✒✬
‘Big ✵✔✙✬ ✶❤✘✣✢✛✮✯
Bang Theory’.
✭✒✒✓
(ii) ▲✒✖✕
List ✕❤✘
the ✖✕✔✬✘✖
stages ✒✙ in ✕❤✘
the ✘★✣✫✪✕✒✣✙
evolution ✣✥ of ✕❤✘
the ✘✔✢✕❤
earth ✔✙✦
and ✘r✜✫✔✒✙
explain ✘✔✤❤
each ✖✕✔✬✘
stage ✒✙
in
✚✢✒✘✥✯
brief.

P✹♦✺✻✼✽
Project Work ✾♦✹✿
❈✣✫✫✘✤✕
Collect ✒✙✥✣✢✗✔✕✒✣✙
information ✔✚✣✪✕
about ✕❤✘
the ✜✢✣❀✘✤✕
project ❁❂✕✔✢✦✪✖✕❃
“Stardust” ✭✩✘✚✖✒✕✘❄
(website: ✇✇✇❅❇❉❊❅●❍■❏❑■▼◆❊❉❅❖◗❘◆
wiww.sci.edu/public.html
✔✙✦
and ✇✇✇❅❙❚❇❘❅●❍■✓
wiuwu.nasm.edu) ✔✫✣✙✬ along ✕❤✘
the ✥✣✫✫✣✩✒✙✬
following ✫✒✙✘✖✯
lines.
✭✒✓
(i) ❲❤✒✤❤ ✒✖
Which is ✕❤✘
the ✔✬✘✙✤✛
agency ✕❤✔✕
that ❤✔✖ launched ✕❤✒✖
has ✫✔✪✙✤❤✘✦ this ✜✢✣❀✘✤✕✧
project?
✭✒✒✓
(ii) ❲❤✛ ✔✢✘
Why are ✖✤✒✘✙✕✒✖✕✖
scientists ✒✙✕✘✢✘✖✕✘✦
interested ✒✙in ✤✣✫✫✘✤✕✒✙✬
collecting ❂✕✔✢✦✪✖✕✧
Stardust?

✭✒✒✒✓
(iii) ❲❤✘✢✘ ✥✢✣✗
Where from ❤✔✖
has ✕❤✘
the ❂✕✔✢✦✪✖✕
Stardust ✚✘✘✙
been ✤✣✫✫✘✤✕✘✦✧
collected?
 ▲ P◗❘❳❨❩
CHAPTER

INTERIOR ✣❖
■◆✚✛✜✢✣✜ OF ✚✤✛
THE ✥❆✜✚✤
EARTH
3
❤
hat✁ ✂✄ ②✄☎ ✆✝
do you ✞✆✟✠ about
imagine ✡✄☎✁ ✁❤✠ the ✟ ✁☎☛✠
nature ❙✦✧★✩❊✪
SOURCES ✦✫
OF ✬✭✫✦★✮✯✰✱✦✭
INFORMATION ✯✲✦✧✰
ABOUT ✰✳❊
THE ✬✭✰❊★✱✦★
INTERIOR
\ \ | ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth?
☛✁❤☞ ✌✄ Do you②✄☎ ✆✝ imagine ✞✆✟✠ ✆✁ it ✁✄
to be✡✠ ❚❤✠ ✠earth’s
The ☛✁❤✴❛ ☛radius✂✆☎❛ ✆❛is ✵❡✶✷✸
6,370 ✎✝✓km. ✹✄ No ✄✟✠
one ✏can✟
❲ a ❛✄✍✆✂ solid ball✡ ✍✍ ✍✆✎✠like ✏☛✆✏✎✠✁
cricket ball ✡ ✍✍ ✄☛ or a ☛✠ ✏❤ ✁❤✠
reach centre ✄♦
the ✏✠✟✁☛✠ of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth☛✁❤ and ✟✂ ✝ make✎✠
❤✄✍✍✄✑
hollow ball ✡ ✍✍ with
✑✆✁❤ a ✁❤✆✏✎ thick ✏✄✒✠☛cover ✄♦ of ☛✄✏✎❛
rocks ✆✓✠✓ i.e. ✄✡❛✠☛✒ ✁✆✄✟❛ ✄☛
observations or ✏✄✍✍✠✏✁ ✝❧✍✠❛ ✄♦
collect ❛samples of ✁❤✠
the ✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍✓
material.
✍✆✁❤✄❛❧❤✠☛✠☞
lithosphere? ✔ Have ②✄☎ ✠✒✠☛
✒✠ you ever ❛✠✠✟
seen ❧❤✄✁✄✞☛
photographs ❧❤❛ ❯✟✂✠☛
Under ❛☎✏❤
such ✏✄✟✂✆✁✆✄✟❛❡
conditions, you ②✄☎ ✝ may② ✑✄✟✂✠☛
wonder ❤✄✑ how
✄☛
or ✆✝ ✞✠❛ ✄♦
images ✒✄✍✏ ✟✆✏ ✠☛☎❧✁✆✄✟
of a volcanic eruption ✄✟ on ✁❤✠ the scientists ✁✠✍✍
❛✏✆✠✟✁✆❛✁❛ tell ☎❛ ✡✄☎✁ ✁❤✠
us about the ✠earth’s
☛✁❤✴❛ ✆✟✁✠☛✆✄☛
interior and✟✂
✁✠✍✠✒✆❛✆✄✟
television ❛✏☛✠✠✟☞screen? t ✟ ②✄☎ ☛✠✏✄✍✍✠✏✁
Can you recollect the ✁❤✠ ✁❤✠
the ✁②❧✠
type ✄♦of ✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍❛ ✁❤
materials that✁ ✠✕✆❛✁
exist at✁ ❛☎✏❤
such ✂✠❧✁❤❛✓
depths.
✠✝✠☛✞✠✟✏✠
emergence ✄♦ of ❤✄✁
hot ✝✄✍✁✠✟
molten ✍lava, ✒ ❡ ✂☎❛✁❡
dust, ❛✝✄✎✠❡
smoke, ♦✆☛✠ fire Most ✄♦
▼✄❛✁ of ✄☎☛
our ✎✟✄✑✍✠✂✞✠
knowledge about ✡✄☎✁ ✁❤✠the ✆✟✁✠☛✆✄☛
interior ✄♦of
✟✂ ✝
and magma✞✝ ♦✍✄✑✆✟✞
flowing ✄☎✁ out ✄♦ of ✁❤✠ ✒✄✍✏ ✟✆✏ ✏☛
the volcanic crater?✁✠☛☞ ✁❤✠ ✠ ☛✁❤ ✆❛ ✍ ☛✞✠✍② ✡ ❛✠✂
the earth is largely based on estimates ✄✟ ✠❛✁✆✝ ✁✠❛ and✟✂
❚❤✠ ✆✟✁✠☛✆✄☛
The interior ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth
☛✁❤ ✏can✟ be ✡✠ ☎✟✂✠☛❛✁✄✄✂
understood ✄✟✍② only
✆✟♦✠☛✠✟✏✠❛✓
inferences. ✺✠✁❡ Yet, a ❧ part☛✁ ✄♦
of ✁❤✠
the ✆✟♦✄☛✝
information ✁✆✄✟ ✆❛
is
✡② ✆✟✂✆☛✠✏✁ ✄✡✁ ✆✟✠✂ ✁❤☛✄☎✞❤
obtained through ✂✆☛✠✏✁ direct ✄✡❛✠☛✒
observations✁✆✄✟❛ and ✟✂
by indirect ✠✒✆✂✠✟✏✠❛
evidences as❛ ✟✠✆✁❤✠☛ neither any ✟② ✄✟✠one ❤ has❛ ✟✄☛nor
✟ ✍②❛✆❛ ✄♦
analysis of ✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍❛✓
materials.
✟② ✄✟✠ ✏ ✟ ☛✠ ✏❤ ✁❤✠ ✆✟✁✠☛✆✄☛
any one can reach the interior of the earth. ✄♦ ✁❤✠ ✠ ☛✁❤✓
❚❤✠ ✏✄✟♦✆✞☎☛
The configuration ✁✆✄✟ ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the ❛☎☛♦
surface ✏✠ ✄♦of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth ☛✁❤ ❉✻✼✽✾✿
Direct ❀❁❂✼✾✽❃
Sources
✆❛ ☛✞✠✍② a ❧☛✄✂☎✏✁
is ✍largely product ✄♦ of ✁❤✠ processes ✄❧✠☛
the ❧☛✄✏✠❛❛✠❛ operating ✁✆✟✞ ❚❤✠ ✝✄❛✁
The most ✠easily ✒ ✆✍ ✡✍✠ ❛✄✍✆✂
❛✆✍② available solid ✠earth
☛✁❤ ✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍
material
✆✟
in ✁❤✠
the ✆✟✁✠☛✆✄☛
interior ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth.☛✁❤✓ ✐✕✄✞✠✟✆✏
Exogenic as❛ well ✑✠✍✍ as❛ ✆❛
is ❛☎☛♦
surface ✏✠ ☛✄✏✎
rock ✄☛ or ✁❤✠
the ☛✄✏✎❛
rocks ✑✠ we ✞✠✁ from ✝✆✟✆✟✞
get ♦☛✄✝ mining
✠✟✂✄✞✠✟✆✏
endogenic ❧☛✄✏✠❛❛✠❛
processes are ☛✠ ✏✄✟❛✁
constantly ✟✁✍② ❛❤ shaping ❧✆✟✞ ☛✠ ❛✓ ❄✄✍✂
areas. Gold ✝✆✟✠❛mines ✆✟ in ❅✄☎✁❤ ✖♦☛✆✏ are☛✠ as❛ ✂✠✠❧
South Africa deep
✁❤✠ ✟✂❛✏ ❧✠✓ A✖ ❧☛✄❧✠☛
the ✍landscape. proper ☎✟✂✠☛❛✁
understanding ✟✂✆✟✞ ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the as❛ ✶3 ✙- ❇4 ✎✝✓ Going ✡✠②✄✟✂
km. ❄✄✆✟✞ beyond ✁❤✆❛ this ✂✠❧✁❤
depth ✆❛ is ✟✄✁
not
❧❤②❛✆✄✞☛
physiographic ❧❤✆✏ ✏❤ ☛ ✏✁✠☛ ✄♦
character of a ☛✠✞✆✄✟
region ☛✠✝ remains ✆✟❛ ❧✄❛❛✆✡✍✠ ❛ ✆✁ ✆❛ ✒✠☛② ❤✄✁ ✁ ✁❤✆❛
possible as it is very hot at this depth. Besides ✂✠❧✁❤✓ ♣✠❛✆✂✠❛
✝✆✟✆✟✞❡ scientists ❤
mining, ❛✏✆✠✟✁✆❛✁❛ have✒✠ ✁taken
✎✠✟ ☎❧up a ✟☎✝✡✠☛
number ✄♦ of
✆✟✏✄✝❧✍✠✁✠
incomplete ✆♦ if ✁❤✠
the ✠♦♦✠✏✁❛
effects ✄♦ of ✠✟✂✄✞✠✟✆✏
endogenic ❧☛✄✏✠❛❛✠❛processes
projects ✁✄
❧☛✄❈✠✏✁❛ penetrate✁✠ ✂✠✠❧✠☛
to ❧✠✟✠✁☛ deeper ✂✠❧✁❤❛
depths ✁✄ to ✠✕❧✍✄☛✠
explore
☛✠ ✆✞✟✄☛✠✂✓
are ignored. ✔☎✝ Human✟ ✍✆♦✠ life ✆❛ ☛✞✠✍② ✆✟♦✍☎✠✟✏✠✂
is ✍largely influenced ✁❤✠ conditions ✆✟
the ✏✄✟✂✆✁✆✄✟❛ in ✁❤✠
the ✏☛☎❛✁
crustal ✍ ❧✄☛✁✆✄✟❛✓
portions. ❅✏✆✠✟✁✆❛✁❛
Scientists
✡②
by ✁❤✠the ❧❤②❛✆✄✞☛
physiography ❧❤② ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the ☛✠✞✆✄✟✓ ❚❤✠☛✠♦✄☛✠❡
region. Therefore, world ✄✒✠☛
✑✄☛✍✂ over are ☛✠ ✑✄☛✎✆✟✞
working ✄✟ on ✁✑✄
two ✝major❈✄☛ ❧☛✄❈✠✏✁❛
projects
✆✁
it ✆❛
is ✟✠✏✠❛❛
necessary ☛② ✁❤that✁ ✄✟✠
one ✞✠✁❛ ✏✗☎ ✆✟✁✠✂ ✑✆✁❤
gets acquainted with ❛☎✏❤
such as❛ s✌✠✠❧ “Deep ❋✏✠ Ocean✟ ✌☛✆✍✍✆✟✞
Drilling ●☛✄❈✠✏✁❍
Project” and ✟✂
✁❤✠
the ♦✄☛✏✠❛
forces ✁❤ ✁ ✆✟♦✍☎✠✟
that influence ✟✂❛✏
✏✠ ✍landscape ❧✠ s✘✟✁✠✞☛
“Integrated ✁✠✂ ❋✏✠ Ocean✟ ✌☛✆✍✍✆✟✞
Drilling ●☛✄❈✠✏✁❍✓
Project”. The ❚❤✠
✂✠✒✠✍✄❧✝✠✟✁✓
development. To ❚✄ ☎✟✂✠☛❛✁
understand ✟✂ ✑❤②why ✁❤✠ the ✠earth ☛✁❤ ✂✠✠❧✠❛✁
deepest ✂☛✆✍✍ drill at✁ ❞✄✍ Kola, ❡ ✆✟ ✖☛✏✁✆✏ ❋✏✠
in Arctic Ocean,✟❡ ❤ has❛ ❛✄
so
❛❤
shakes✎✠❛ ✄☛or ❤✄✑
how a ✁❛☎✟ tsunami ✝✆ ✑ wave✒✠ ✆❛is ✞✠✟✠☛
generated, ✁✠✂❡ ✆✁ it ♦far☛ ☛✠ ✏❤✠✂ a ✂✠❧✁❤
reached depth ✄♦ of ❢❏
12 ✎✝✓ ❚❤✆❛ and
km. This ✟✂ ✝ many ✟②
✆❛
is ✟✠✏✠❛❛
necessary ☛② ✁❤
that✁ ✑✠we ✎✟✄✑
know ✏✠☛✁ certain ✆✟ ✂✠✁
details✆✍❛ ✄♦of ✁❤✠
the ✂✠✠❧
deep ✂☛✆✍✍✆✟✞
drilling ❧☛✄❈✠✏✁❛projects ❤ have✒✠ ❧☛✄✒✆✂✠✂
provided ✍large ☛✞✠
✆✟✁✠☛✆✄☛
interior ✄♦ of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth.☛✁❤✓ ✘✟ In ✁❤✠
the ❧☛✠✒✆✄☎❛
previous ✏❤ ❧✁✠☛❡
chapter, volume of information through the analysis ✄♦
✒✄✍☎✝✠ ✄♦ ✆✟♦✄☛✝ ✁✆✄✟ ✁❤☛✄☎✞❤ ✁❤✠ ✟ ✍②❛✆❛ of
②✄☎ ❤
you have✒✠ ✟✄✁✠✂
noted ✁❤ that✁ ✁❤✠ the ✠earth-forming
☛✁❤✙♦✄☛✝✆✟✞ ✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍❛ ✏✄✍✍✠✏✁✠✂
materials collected at✁ ✂✆♦♦✠☛✠✟✁
different ✂✠❧✁❤❛✓
depths.
✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍❛ ❤
materials have ✒✠ ✡✠✠✟
been ✂✆❛✁☛✆✡☎✁✠✂
distributed ✆✟ in ✁❤✠ form ✄♦
the ♦✄☛✝ of
❱✄✍✏ ✟✆✏ ✠☛☎❧✁✆✄✟
Volcanic eruption ♦✄☛✝❛ ✟✄✁❤✠☛ ❛✄☎☛✏✠
forms another source ✄♦ of
②✠☛❛ ♦☛✄✝ ✄✡✁ ✆✟✆✟✞ ✂✆☛✠✏✁
obtaining direct ✆✟♦✄☛✝
information.✁✆✄✟✓ As✖❛ and✟✂ ✑❤✠✟
when ✁❤✠ the
✍layers from ✁❤✠ crust ✁✄
the ✏☛☎❛✁ to ✁❤✠
the ✏✄☛✠✓
core. ✘✁ It ✆❛
is ✆✟✁✠☛✠❛✁✆✟✞
interesting
✝✄✍✁✠✟
molten ✝ ✁✠☛✆ ✍ ♠✝
material ✞✝ ❑ ✆❛
(magma) is ✁❤☛✄✑✟
thrown ✄✟✁✄ onto ✁❤✠the
✁✄ know ❤✄✑
to ✎✟✄✑ scientists ❤
how ❛✏✆✠✟✁✆❛✁❛ have ✒✠ ✞gathered
✁❤✠☛✠✂ ✏✠ ✄♦
❛☎☛♦
surface of ✁❤✠
the ✠earth,☛✁❤❡ ✂☎☛✆✟✞ ✒✄✍✏ ✟✆✏ ✠☛☎❧✁✆✄✟
during volcanic eruption
✆✟♦✄☛✝
information ✁✆✄✟ about✡✄☎✁ ✁❤✠❛✠
these ✍layers ②✠☛❛ and ✟✂ ✑❤ what ✁ are ☛✠ ✆✁
it ✡✠✏✄✝✠❛
becomes available ✒ ✆✍ ✡✍✠ ♦✄☛ ✡✄☛ ✁✄☛② analysis.
for ✍laboratory ✟ ✍②❛✆❛✓
✁❤✠
the ✏❤ ☛ ✏✁✠☛✆❛✁✆✏❛ ✄♦
characteristics of ✠each✏❤ ✄♦of ✁❤✠❛✠
these ✍layers.②✠☛❛✓ This❚❤✆❛ However, ✆✁
✔✄✑✠✒✠☛❡ it ✆❛
is ✂✆♦♦✆✏☎✍✁
difficult ✁✄ ❛✏✠☛✁ ✆✟ ✁❤✠
to ascertain the ✂✠❧✁❤
depth ✄♦ of
✆❛
is ✠✕
exactly what ✁ ✁❤✆❛
✏✁✍② ✑❤ this ✏❤ ❧✁✠☛ ✂✠
chapter deals✍❛ ✑✆✁❤✓
with. ✁❤✠ source ✄♦
the ❛✄☎☛✏✠ such ✝
of ❛☎✏❤ ✞✝ ✓
magma.
 ✷✷
22 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

■✑✒✓✔✕✖✗
Indirect ✘✙✚✔✖✕✛
Sources ✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜
information ✢♠✧✰✬
about ✬✱✫
the ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪
interior ✧★of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth.

❆✜✢✣✤✥✦✥ ✧★ ✸✫✜✯✫✶ ✴✫ ✥✱✢✣✣

Hence, we shall ✮✦✥✯✰✥✥
discuss ✦✬
it ✦✜
in ✥✧✭✫
some ✮✫✬✢✦✣✳
detail.
Analysis of ✩✪✧✩✫✪✬✦✫✥
properties ✧★ of ✭✢✬✬✫✪
matter ✦✜✮✦✪✫✯✬✣✤
indirectly
✩✪✧♦✦✮✫✥
provides information about ✬✱✫
✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜ ✢♠✧✰✬ the ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪✳
interior. We ✲✫ ❊❇✔✗❈❉✚❇❍✕
Earthquake
❦✜✧✴
know ✬✱✪✧✰✵✱
through ✬✱✫ the ✭✦✜✦✜✵
mining ✢✯✬✦♦✦✬✤ activity ✬✱✢✬ that
✬✫✭✩✫✪✢✬✰✪✫
temperature ✢✜✮ and ✩✪✫✥✥✰✪✫
pressure ✦✜✯✪✫✢✥✫ increase with ✴✦✬✱ ✬✱✫
the ❚✱✫ ✥✬✰✮✤
The study ✧★
of ✥✫✦✥✭✦✯ ✴✢♦✫✥ ✩✪✧♦✦✮✫✥
seismic waves provides ✢ a ✯✧✭✩✣✫✬✫
complete
✦✜✯✪✫✢✥✦✜✵
increasing ✮✦✥✬✢✜✯✫
distance ★✪✧✭ from ✬✱✫ the ✥✰✪★✢✯✫
surface ✬✧✴✢✪✮✥
towards ✩✦✯✬✰✪✫
picture ✧★of ✬✱✫
the ✣✢✤✫✪✫✮
layered ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪✳ ❆✜ ✫✢✪✬✱♥✰✢❦✫
interior. An earthquake
✬✱✫
the ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪
interior ✦✜ in ✮✫✫✩✫✪
deeper ✮✫✩✬✱✥✳depths. t✧✪✫✧♦✫✪✶
Moreover, ✦✬ it ✦✥
is ✦✜
in ✥✦✭✩✣✫ ✴✧✪✮✥ ✦✥
simple words is ✥✱✢❦✦✜✵
shaking ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. ✐✬ ✦✥ ✢
Itisa
✢✣✥✧
also ❦✜✧✴✜
known ✬✱✢✬ that ✬✱✫ the ✮✫✜✥✦✬✤
density ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣
material ✢✣✥✧also ✜✢✬✰✪✢✣
natural ✫♦✫✜✬✳
event. ✐✬It ✦✥
is ✯✢✰✥✫✮
caused ✮✰✫ due ✬✧
to ✪✫✣✫✢✥✫
release ✧★of
✦✜✯✪✫✢✥✫✥
increases with ✴✦✬✱ ✮✫✩✬✱✳
depth. ✐✬ It ✦✥
is ✩✧✥✥✦♠✣✫
possible ✬✧ to ★✦✜✮
find ✬✱✫
the ✫✜✫✪✵✤✶ ✴✱✦✯✱ ✵✫✜✫✪✢✬✫✥
energy, which generates waves✴✢♦✫✥ ✬✱✢✬
that ✬✪✢♦✫✣
travel ✦✜
in
✪✢✬✫
rate ✧★
of ✯✱✢✜✵✫
change ✧★ of ✬✱✫✥✫
these ✯✱✢✪✢✯✬✫✪✦✥✬✦✯✥✳
characteristics. r✜✧✴✦✜✵ Knowing ✢✣✣
all ✮✦✪✫✯✬✦✧✜✥✳
directions.
✬✱✫
the ✬✧✬✢✣
total ✬✱✦✯❦✜✫✥✥
thickness ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✶
earth, ✥✯✦✫✜✬✦✥✬✥
scientists ✱✢♦✫ have
✫✥✬✦✭✢✬✫✮
estimated ✬✱✫ ♦✢✣✰✫✥ ✧★
the values of ✬✫✭✩✫✪✢✬✰✪✫✶
temperature, ✩✪✫✥✥✰✪✫ pressure ❲❏❁
Why ❑❃▲▼does ❀❏▲ the ▲✽✼❀❏
earth ▼❏✽◆▲❖
shake?
✢✜✮
and ✬✱✫
the ✮✫✜✥✦✬✤
density ✧★ of ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣✥
materials ✢✬ at ✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✬
different ✮✫✩✬✱✥✳
depths. ❚✱✫ ✪✫✣✫✢✥✫
The release ✧★ of ✫✜✫✪✵✤
energy ✧✯✯✰✪✥
occurs ✢✣✧✜✵
along ✢ a ★✢✰✣✬✳
fault. A❆
❚✱✫ ✮✫✬✢✦✣✥
The details ✧★ of ✬✱✫✥✫
these ✯✱✢✪✢✯✬✫✪✦✥✬✦✯✥
characteristics with ✴✦✬✱ ★✢✰✣✬
fault is a sharp break in the crustal ✪✧✯❦✥✳
✦✥ ✢ ✥✱✢✪✩ ♠✪✫✢❦ ✦✜ ✬✱✫ ✯✪✰✥✬✢✣ rocks.
✪✫★✫✪✫✜✯✫
reference ✬✧ to ✫✢✯✱
each ✣✢✤✫✪layer ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪
interior ✢✪✫ are ❘✧✯❦✥
Rocks ✢✣✧✜✵along ✢ a ★✢✰✣✬
fault ✬✫✜✮
tend ✬✧to ✭✧♦✫
move ✦✜ in ✧✩✩✧✥✦✬✫
opposite
✮✦✥✯✰✥✥✫✮ ✣✢✬✫✪ ✦✜ ✬✱✦✥
discussed later in this chapter. ✯✱✢✩✬✫✪✳ ✮✦✪✫✯✬✦✧✜✥✳
directions. As ❆✥ ✬✱✫
the ✧♦✫✪✣✤✦✜✵
overlying ✪✧✯❦
rock ✥✬✪✢✬✢
strata ✩✪✫✥✥
press
❆✜✧✬✱✫✪ ✥✧✰✪✯✫
Another source ✧★ of ✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜
information ✢✪✫ are ✬✱✫
the ✬✱✫✭✶
them, ✬✱✫the ★✪✦✯✬✦✧✜
friction ✣✧✯❦✥
locks ✬✱✫✭
them ✬✧✵✫✬✱✫✪✳
together. ✸✧✴✫♦✫✪✶
However,
✭✫✬✫✧✪✥
meteors ✬✱✢✬that ✢✬ at ✬✦✭✫✥
times ✪✫✢✯✱
reach ✬✱✫ the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. ✸✧✴✫♦✫✪✶
However, ✬✱✫✦✪
their ✬✫✜✮✫✜✯✤
tendency ✬✧ to ✭✧♦✫
move ✢✩✢✪✬
apart ✢✬at ✥✧✭✫
some ✩✧✦✜✬
point ✧★of
✦✬
it ✭✢✤
may ♠✫be ✜✧✬✫✮
noted ✬✱✢✬ that ✬✱✫
the ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣
material ✬✱✢✬ that ♠✫✯✧✭✫✥
becomes ✬✦✭✫
time ✧♦✫✪✯✧✭✫✥
overcomes ✬✱✫ the ★✪✦✯✬✦✧✜✳
friction. As❆✥ ✢a ✪✫✥✰✣✬✶
result, ✬✱✫the
✢♦✢✦✣✢♠✣✫
available ★✧✪for ✢✜✢✣✤✥✦✥
analysis ★✪✧✭ from ✭✫✬✫✧✪✥✶
meteors, ✦✥ is ✜✧✬
not ★✪✧✭
from ♠✣✧✯❦✥
blocks ✵✫✬ get ✮✫★✧✪✭✫✮
deformed ✢✜✮ and ✫♦✫✜✬✰✢✣✣✤✶
eventually, ✬✱✫✤ they ✥✣✦✮✫
slide
✬✱✫
the ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪
interior ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. The ❚✱✫ ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣
material ✢✜✮ and ✬✱✫
the ✩✢✥✬
past one another abruptly. This causes ✢
✧✜✫ ✢✜✧✬✱✫✪ ✢♠✪✰✩✬✣✤✳ ❚✱✦✥ ✯✢✰✥✫✥ a
✥✬✪✰✯✬✰✪✫ ✧♠✥✫✪♦✫✮ ✦✜ ✬✱✫ ✭✫✬✫✧✪✥
structure observed in the meteors are similar ✢✪✫ ✥✦✭✦✣✢✪ ✪✫✣✫✢✥✫
release ✧★ of ✫✜✫✪✵✤✶
energy, ✢✜✮ and ✬✱✫
the ✫✜✫✪✵✤ ✴✢♦✫✥ ✬✪✢♦✫✣
energy waves travel
✬✧
to ✬✱✢✬
that ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. They ❚✱✫✤ ✢✪✫ are ✥✧✣✦✮
solid ♠✧✮✦✫✥
bodies ✦✜
in ✢✣✣
all ✮✦✪✫✯✬✦✧✜✥✳
directions. The ❚✱✫ ✩✧✦✜✬ ✴✱✫✪✫ ✬✱✫
point where the ✫✜✫✪✵✤
energy ✦✥ is
✮✫♦✫✣✧✩✫✮
developed ✧✰✬ out ✧★ of ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣✥
materials ✥✢✭✫ same ✢✥✶ as, ✧✪or ✥✦✭✦✣✢✪
similar ✪✫✣✫✢✥✫✮
released ✦✥ is ✯✢✣✣✫✮
called ✬✱✫ ❢❃P◗▼ ✧★
the focus of ✢✜
an ✫✢✪✬✱♥✰✢❦✫✶
earthquake,
✬✧✶
to, ✧✰✪
our ✩✣✢✜✫✬✳
planet. ✸✫✜✯✫✶
Hence, ✬✱✦✥ this ♠✫✯✧✭✫✥
becomes yet ✤✫✬ ✢✜✧✬✱✫✪
another ✢✣✬✫✪✜✢✬✦♦✫✣✤✶
alternatively, ✦✬ it ✦✥
is ✯✢✣✣✫✮
called ✬✱✫
the ❏❁❤❃P▲❂❀✼▲✳
hypocentre. The ❚✱✫
✥✧✰✪✯✫
source ✧★ of ✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜
information ✢♠✧✰✬ about ✬✱✫ the ✦✜✬✫✪✦✧✪
interior ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✜✫✪✵✤ ✴✢♦✫✥ ✬✪✢♦✫✣✣✦✜✵
energy waves travelling ✦✜ in ✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✬
different ✮✦✪✫✯✬✦✧✜✥
directions
✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. ✪✫✢✯✱
reach ✬✱✫ the ✥✰✪★✢✯✫✳
surface. The ❚✱✫ ✩✧✦✜✬
point ✧✜ on ✬✱✫
the ✥✰✪★✢✯✫✶
surface,
❚✱✫ ✧✬✱✫✪
The other ✦✜✮✦✪✫✯✬indirect ✥✧✰✪✯✫✥ sources ✦✜✯✣✰✮✫ include ✜✫✢✪✫✥✬
nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. ✐✬
✬✧ ✬✱✫ ★✧✯✰✥✶ ✦✥ ✯✢✣✣✫✮ ▲❤✿P▲❂❀✼▲✳ It ✦✥
is
✵✪✢♦✦✬✢✬✦✧✜✶
gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic ✢✯✬✦♦✦✬✤✳
✭✢✵✜✫✬✦✯ ★✦✫✣✮✶ ✢✜✮ ✥✫✦✥✭✦✯ activity. ✬✱✫
the ★✦✪✥✬
first ✧✜✫
one ✬✧ to ✫✻✩✫✪✦✫✜✯✫
experience ✬✱✫ ✴✢♦✫✥✳ ✐✬
the waves. It ✦✥
is ✢
a ✩✧✦✜✬
point
❚✱✫ ✵✪✢♦✦✬✢✬✦✧✜
The gravitation ★✧✪✯✫
force ✹❣✺
(g) ✦✥
is ✜✧✬
not ✬✱✫
the ✥✢✭✫
same ✢✬
at ✮✦✪✫✯✬✣✤
directly ✢♠✧♦✫
above ✬✱✫ the ★✧✯✰✥✳
focus.
✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✬
different ✣✢✬✦✬✰✮✫✥
latitudes ✧✜ on ✬✱✫
the ✥✰✪★✢✯✫✳
surface. ✐✬ It ✦✥
is ✵✪✫✢✬✫✪
greater
✜✫✢✪
near ✬✱✫
the ✩✧✣✫✥
poles ✢✜✮and ✣✫✥✥
less ✢✬at ✬✱✫
the ✫♥✰✢✬✧✪✳
equator. This ❚✱✦✥ ✦✥ is ❊❇✔✗❈❉✚❇❍✕ ❯❇❛✕✛
Earthquake Waves
♠✫✯✢✰✥✫
because ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✮✦✥✬✢✜✯✫
distance ★✪✧✭ from ✬✱✫the ✯✫✜✬✪✫
centre ✢✬ at ✬✱✫
the
✫♥✰✢✬✧✪
equator ♠✫✦✜✵being ✵✪✫✢✬✫✪
greater ✬✱✢✜ than ✬✱✢✬
that ✢✬ at ✬✱✫
the ✩✧✣✫✥✳
poles. ❆✣✣ ✜✢✬✰✪✢✣
All natural ✫✢✪✬✱♥✰✢❦✫✥
earthquakes ✬✢❦✫ take ✩✣✢✯✫
place ✦✜ in ✬✱✫
the
❚✱✫ ✵✪✢♦✦✬✤
The ♦✢✣✰✫✥ ✢✣✥✧
gravity values also ✮✦★★✫✪
differ ✢✯✯✧✪✮✦✜✵
according ✬✧ to ✬✱✫
the ✣✦✬✱✧✥✩✱✫✪✫✳
lithosphere. You ❡✧✰ will✴✦✣✣ ✣✫✢✪✜
learn ✢♠✧✰✬about ✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✬
different
✭✢✥✥
mass of material. The uneven distribution ✧★
✧★ ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣✳ ❚✱✫ ✰✜✫♦✫✜ ✮✦✥✬✪✦♠✰✬✦✧✜ of ✣✢✤✫✪✥
layers ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱
earth ✣✢✬✫✪
later ✦✜ in ✬✱✦✥
this ✯✱✢✩✬✫✪✳
chapter. ✐✬ It ✦✥
is
✭✢✥✥
mass ✧★ of ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣ ✴✦✬✱✦✜ ✬✱✫
material within the ✫✢✪✬✱
earth ✦✜★✣✰✫✜✯✫✥
influences ✥✰★★✦✯✦✫✜✬ ✬✧ ✜✧✬✫ ✱✫✪✫ ✬✱✢✬ ✬✱✫ ✣✦✬✱✧✥✩✱✫✪✫
sufficient to note here that the lithosphere refers ✪✫★✫✪✥
✬✱✦✥ ♦✢✣✰✫✳ The
this value. ❚✱✫ ✪✫✢✮✦✜✵
reading ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✵✪✢♦✦✬✤
gravity ✢✬ at ✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✬
different ✬✧
to ✬✱✫
the ✩✧✪✬✦✧✜
portion ✧★ of ✮✫✩✬✱
depth ✰✩ up ✬✧to ❱❳❳
200 ❦✭km ★✪✧✭
from ✬✱✫the
✩✣✢✯✫✥
places ✦✥ is ✦✜★✣✰✫✜✯✫✮
influenced ♠✤ by ✭✢✜✤
many ✧✬✱✫✪other ★✢✯✬✧✪✥✳
factors. ✥✰✪★✢✯✫
surface ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. An ❆✜ ✦✜✥✬✪✰✭✫✜✬
instrument ✯✢✣✣✫✮ called
❚✱✫✥✫ ✪✫✢✮✦✜✵✥
These readings ✮✦★★✫✪differ ★✪✧✭
from ✬✱✫the ✫✻✩✫✯✬✫✮ ♦✢✣✰✫✥✳
expected values. ➅✥✫✦✥✭✧✵✪✢✩✱❨
‘seismograph’ ✪✫✯✧✪✮✥records ✬✱✫ ✴✢♦✫✥ ✪✫✢✯✱✦✜✵
the waves reaching ✬✱✫ the
❙✰✯✱
Such ✢ a ✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✯✫
difference ✦✥ is ✯✢✣✣✫✮
called ❣✼✽✾✿❀❁
gravity ✽❂❃❄✽❅❁✳
anomaly. ✥✰✪★✢✯✫✳
surface. A❆ ✯✰✪♦✫
curve ✧★of ✫✢✪✬✱♥✰✢❦✫
earthquake waves ✴✢♦✫✥ ✪✫✯✧✪✮✫✮
recorded
●✪✢♦✦✬✤
Gravity ✢✜✧✭✢✣✦✫✥
anomalies ✵✦♦✫ give ✰✥us ✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜
information ✢♠✧✰✬ about ✧✜
on ✬✱✫
the ✥✫✦✥✭✧✵✪✢✩✱
seismograph ✦✥ is ✵✦♦✫✜
given ✦✜ in ❩✦✵✰✪✫
Figure ❬✳❭✳
3.1. ❪✧✬✫
Note
✬✱✫
the distribution of mass of the material ✦✜
✮✦✥✬✪✦♠✰✬✦✧✜ ✧★ ✭✢✥✥ ✧★ ✬✱✫ ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣ in ✬✱✫
the ✬✱✢✬ ✬✱✫ ✯✰✪♦✫ ✥✱✧✴✥ ✬✱✪✫✫
that the curve shows three distinct sections ✮✦✥✬✦✜✯✬ ✥✫✯✬✦✧✜✥
✯✪✰✥✬
crust ✧★ of ✬✱✫the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. t✢✵✜✫✬✦✯
Magnetic ✥✰✪♦✫✤✥ surveys ✢✣✥✧ also ✫✢✯✱
each ✪✫✩✪✫✥✫✜✬✦✜✵
representing ✮✦★★✫✪✫✜✬ different ✬✤✩✫✥ types ✧★ ✴✢♦✫
of wave
✩✪✧♦✦✮✫
provide ✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜
information ✢♠✧✰✬ about ✬✱✫ the ✮✦✥✬✪✦♠✰✬✦✧✜
distribution ✧★ of ✩✢✬✬✫✪✜✥✳
patterns. ♣✢✪✬✱♥✰✢❦✫
Earthquake waves ✴✢♦✫✥ ✢✪✫ are ♠✢✥✦✯✢✣✣✤
basically ✧★of ✬✴✧
two
✭✢✵✜✫✬✦✯
magnetic ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣✥
materials ✦✜ in ✬✱✫
the ✯✪✰✥✬✢✣
crustal ✩✧✪✬✦✧✜✶
portion, ✢✜✮ and ✬✤✩✫✥
types — ❫ ❜❃❑❁
body ❴✽✾▲▼
waves ✢✜✮ and ▼◗✼❢✽P▲
surface ❴✽✾▲▼✳
waves. ❵✧✮✤
Body
✬✱✰✥✶
thus, ✩✪✧♦✦✮✫
provide ✦✜★✧✪✭✢✬✦✧✜
information ✢♠✧✰✬ about ✬✱✫ the ✴✢♦✫✥ ✢✪✫
waves are ✵✫✜✫✪✢✬✫✮
generated ✮✰✫ due ✬✧ to ✬✱✫
the ✪✫✣✫✢✥✫
release ✧★
of ✫✜✫✪✵✤
energy
✮✦✥✬✪✦♠✰✬✦✧✜
distribution ✧★ of ✭✢✬✫✪✦✢✣✥
materials ✦✜ in ✬✱✦✥
this ✩✢✪✬✳
part. ❙✫✦✥✭✦✯
Seismic ✢✬
at ✬✱✫
the ★✧✯✰✥
focus ✢✜✮
and ✭✧♦✫
move ✦✜ in ✢✣✣
all ✮✦✪✫✯✬✦✧✜✥
directions ✬✪✢♦✫✣✣✦✜✵
travelling
✢✯✬✦♦✦✬✤
activity ✦✥is ✧✜✫
one ✧★of ✬✱✫
the ✭✧✥✬
most ✦✭✩✧✪✬✢✜✬
important ✥✧✰✪✯✫✥sources ✧★ of ✬✱✪✧✰✵✱
through ✬✱✫ the ♠✧✮✤
body ✧★ of ✬✱✫
the ✫✢✪✬✱✳
earth. ✸✫✜✯✫✶
Hence, ✬✱✫
the ✜✢✭✫
name

MIKK,
a ae Dorion
ao
■INTERIOR
✁✂✄■☎✄ ☎✆ ✁✝✂ ✂✞✄✁✝
OF THE EARTH ✷✟
23

❜✠✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✑ The

body waves. ✒✓✎ ❜✠✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏ ✔✕✖✎✗✌✘✖
body waves ☞✔✖✓ ✖✓✎
interact with the ♣✗✠♣✌✛✌✖✔✠✕✑
propagation. As ✢✏ ✌a ✗✎✏s❝✖❞
result, ✔✖it ✘✗✎✌✖✎✏
creates ✡✎✕✏✔✖☛
density
✏s✗✙✌✘✎
surface ✗✠✘✚✏ and ✛✎✕✎✗✌✖✎
rocks ✌✕✡ generate ✕✎☞new ✏✎✖
set ✠✙ ☞✌✍✎✏
of waves ✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✘✎✏
differences ✔✕in ✖✓✎
the ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝
material ❝✎✌✡✔✕✛
leading ✖✠ to ✏✖✗✎✖✘✓✔✕✛
stretching
✘✌❝❝✎✡
called ✏s✗✙✌✘✎ ☞✌✍✎✏✑ These
surface waves. ✒✓✎✏✎ waves
☞✌✍✎✏ ✜✠✍✎
move ✌❝✠✕✛
along ✌✕✡
and ✏❛s✎✎✣✔✕✛
squeezing ✠✙ of ✖✓✎ material. ✤✖✓✎✗
the ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝✑ Other ✖✓✗✎✎
three
✖✓✎
the ✏s✗✙✌✘✎✑ ✒✓✎ velocity
surface. The ✍✎❝✠✘✔✖☛ ✠✙ ☞✌✍✎✏ ✘✓✌✕✛✎✏
of waves changes ✌✏ as waves ✍✔❜✗✌✖✎ ♣✎✗♣✎✕✡✔✘s❝✌✗
☞✌✍✎✏ vibrate perpendicular ✖✠ to ✖✓✎
the ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
direction ✠✙of
✖✓✎☛
they ✖✗✌✍✎❝
travel ✖✓✗✠s✛✓
through ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝✏ ☞✔✖✓ ✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖
materials with different ♣✗✠♣✌✛✌✖✔✠✕✑
propagation. The ✒✓✎ ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
direction ✠✙ ✍✔❜✗✌✖✔✠✕✏ ✠✙
of vibrations of
✡✎✕✏✔✖✔✎✏✑ ✒✓✎ ✡✎✕✏✎✗
densities. The denser ✖✓✎the ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝❞
material, ✖✓✎
the ✓✔✛✓✎✗
higher ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏
S-waves ✔✏ is ♣✎✗♣✎✕✡✔✘s❝✌✗
perpendicular ✖✠ to ✖✓✎ ☞✌✍✎ ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
the wave direction
✔✏
is ✖✓✎ ✍✎❝✠✘✔✖☛✑ Their
the velocity. ✒✓✎✔✗ ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
direction ✌❝✏✠
also ✘✓✌✕✛✎✏
changes ✌✏ as ✔✕ ✖✓✎ ✍✎✗✖✔✘✌❝ ♣❝✌✕✎✑ ✐✎✕✘✎❞
in the vertical plane. Hence, they create ✖✗✠s✛✓✏
✖✓✎☛ ✘✗✎✌✖✎ troughs
✖✓✎☛
they ✗✎✙❝✎✘✖
reflect ✠✗
or ✗✎✙✗✌✘✖ ☞✓✎✕ ✘✠✜✔✕✛
refract when coming ✌✘✗✠✏✏
across ✌✕✡
and ✘✗✎✏✖✏
crests ✔✕
in ✖✓✎
the ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝
material ✖✓✗✠s✛✓
through which☞✓✔✘✓ ✖✓✎☛
they
✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝✏ ☞✔✖✓ ✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖
materials with different ✡✎✕✏✔✖✔✎✏✑
densities. ♣✌✏✏✑
pass. ❙s✗✙✌✘✎ ☞✌✍✎✏ ✌✗✎
Surface waves are ✘✠✕✏✔✡✎✗✎✡
considered ✖✠ to ❜✎
be ✖✓✎
the
✜✠✏✖
most ✡✌✜✌✛✔✕✛ ☞✌✍✎✏✑
damaging waves.
P-waves S-waves Surface
waves ❊✥✦✧★✦✩✪✦
Emergence ✫✬
of ✭✮✯✰✫✱
Shadow ✳✫✩✦
Zone

"| i,\ ! ✴✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎

Earthquake waves ☞✌✍✎✏ ✛✎✖ get ✗✎✘✠✗✡✎✡
recorded ✔✕ in ✏✎✔✏✜✠✲
seismo-
✛✗✌♣✓✏
graphs ❝✠✘✌✖✎✡
located ✌✖ at ✙✌✗
far ✠✙✙ locations. ✐✠☞✎✍✎✗❞
off ❝✠✘✌✖✔✠✕✏✑ However,
|| ✖✓✎✗✎
there ✎t✔✏✖
exist ✏✠✜✎
some ✏♣✎✘✔✙✔✘
specific ✌✗✎✌✏ ☞✓✎✗✎ ✖✓✎
areas where ☞✌✍✎✏
the waves
Arrival times
✌✗✎
are ✕✠✖ reported. ❙s✘✓
not ✗✎♣✠✗✖✎✡✑ Such ✌ a ✣✠✕✎
zone ✔✏ is ✘✌❝❝✎✡
called ✖✓✎ the
➅✏✓✌✡✠☞
‘shadow ✣✠✕✎✵✑zone’. The ✒✓✎ ✏✖s✡☛study ✠✙ of ✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖
different ✎✍✎✕✖✏ events
●❍❏❑▲❡ ✗✎✍✎✌❝✏ that ✙✠✗
reveals ✖✓✌✖ for ✎✌✘✓
each ✎✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎❞
earthquake, ✖✓✎✗✎ there ✎t✔✏✖✏
exists
Figure ▼◆❖
3.1 P: ◗❘▲❯❱❲❑❘❳❡
Earthquake ❨❘❩❡❬
Waves
✌✕
an ✌❝✖✠✛✎✖✓✎✗
altogether ✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖ shadow ✣✠✕✎✑
different ✏✓✌✡✠☞ zone. ✶✔✛s✗✎
Figure ✸✑✹3.2
✒✓✎✗✎ ✌✗✎
There are ✖☞✠ two ✖☛♣✎✏
types ✠✙of ❜✠✡☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✑ They
body waves. ✒✓✎☛ ✺✌✻ and ✺❜✻
(a) ✌✕✡ (b) ✏✓✠☞
show ✖✓✎ shadow ✣✠✕✎✏
the ✏✓✌✡✠☞ zones ✠✙ of ✼P ✌✕✡
and
✌✗✎ called ✼
are ✘✌❝❝✎✡ and ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏✑
P ✌✕✡ S-waves. ✼✲☞✌✍✎✏
P-waves ✜✠✍✎ move ✙✌✏✖✎✗
faster ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏✑
S-waves. ✽✖ ☞✌✏ ✠❜✏✎✗✍✎✡
It was observed ✖✓✌✖ that ✏✎✔✏✜✠✛✗✌♣✓✏
seismographs
✌✕✡
and ✌✗✎ the ✙✔✗✏✖
are ✖✓✎ first ✖✠ to ✌✗✗✔✍✎
arrive ✌✖at ✖✓✎
the ✏s✗✙✌✘✎✑ ✒✓✎✏✎
surface. These ❝✠✘✌✖✎✡
located ✌✖ at ✌✕☛
any ✡✔✏✖✌✕✘✎
distance within☞✔✖✓✔✕ ❧✾✿ 105° ➦ ✙✗✠✜
from ✖✓✎the
✌✗✎ ✌❝✏✠ ✘✌❝❝✎✡ ➅♣✗✔✜✌✗☛ ☞✌✍✎✏✵✑
are also called ‘primary waves’. The P-waves ✒✓✎ ✼✲☞✌✍✎✏ ✎♣✔✘✎✕✖✗✎❞
epicentre, ✗✎✘✠✗✡✎✡
recorded ✖✓✎ the ✌✗✗✔✍✌❝
arrival ✠✙ both ✼
of ❜✠✖✓ P ✌✕✡
and
✌✗✎
are ✏✔✜✔❝✌✗
similar ✖✠ to ✏✠s✕✡ ☞✌✍✎✏✑ They
sound waves. ✒✓✎☛ ✖✗✌✍✎❝
travel ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏✑
S-waves. ✐✠☞✎✍✎✗❞
However, ✖✓✎ the ✏✎✔✏✜✠✛✗✌♣✓✏
seismographs ❝✠✘✌✖✎✡ located
through ✛✌✏✎✠s✏❞
✖✓✗✠s✛✓ gaseous, ❝✔❛s✔✡ liquid ✌✕✡
and ✏✠❝✔✡
solid ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝✏✑
materials. ❜✎☛✠✕✡ ❧❀✿ ➦ ✙✗✠✜
beyond 145’ from ✎♣✔✘✎✕✖✗✎❞ epicentre, ✗✎✘✠✗✡record ✖✓✎ the ✌✗✗✔✍✌❝
arrival
❙✲☞✌✍✎✏
S-waves ✌✗✗✔✍✎
arrive ✌✖ at ✖✓✎
the ✏s✗✙✌✘✎
surface with☞✔✖✓ ✏✠✜✎
some ✖✔✜✎ time of ✼✲☞✌✍✎✏❞
✠✙ P-waves, ❜s✖ but ✕✠✖ not ✖✓✌✖
that ✠✙ of ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏✑
S-waves. Thus, ✒✓s✏❞ ✌a
❝✌✛✑ ✒✓✎✏✎ ✌✗✎
lag. These are ✘✌❝❝✎✡
called ✏✎✘✠✕✡✌✗☛
secondary waves. ☞✌✍✎✏✑ An ✢✕ ✣✠✕✎ between ❧✾✿
zone ❜✎✖☞✎✎✕ 105’ ➦ ✌✕✡
and ❧❀✿145’ ➦ ✙✗✠✜
from ✎♣✔✘✎✕✖✗✎
epicentre was ☞✌✏
important ✙✌✘✖
✔✜♣✠✗✖✌✕✖ about ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏
fact ✌❜✠s✖ S-waves ✔✏ is ✖✓✌✖
that ✖✓✎☛
they ✘✌✕can ✔✡✎✕✖✔✙✔✎✡
identified ✌✏ as ✖✓✎ shadow ✣✠✕✎
the ✏✓✌✡✠☞ zone ✙✠✗ for ❜✠✖✓
both ✖✓✎ the ✖☛♣✎✏
types
✖✗✌✍✎❝
travel ✠✕❝☛
only ✖✓✗✠s✛✓
through ✏✠❝✔✡ solid ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝✏✑
materials. This ✒✓✔✏ ✠✙ ☞✌✍✎✏✑ The
of waves. entire ✣✠✕✎
✒✓✎ ✎✕✖✔✗✎ beyond ❧✾✿
zone ❜✎☛✠✕✡ 105° ➦ ✡✠✎✏
does ✕✠✖
not
✘✓✌✗✌✘✖✎✗✔✏✖✔✘ ✠✙ ✖✓✎
characteristic of the S-waves is quite ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏ ✔✏ ❛s✔✖✎ receive ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏✑
✗✎✘✎✔✍✎ S-waves. The shadow ✣✠✕✎
✒✓✎ ✏✓✌✡✠☞ zone ✠✙ of ❙✲☞✌✍✎
S-wave ✔✏ is
important. ✽✖
✔✜♣✠✗✖✌✕✖✑ It ✓✌✏has ✓✎❝♣✎✡
helped ✏✘✔✎✕✖✔✏✖✏
scientists ✖✠ to ✜s✘✓ ❝✌✗✛✎✗ ✖✓✌✕ ✖✓✌✖
much larger than that of the P-waves. The ✠✙ ✖✓✎ ✼✲☞✌✍✎✏✑ ✒✓✎
s✕✡✎✗✏✖✌✕✡
understand ✖✓✎ the ✏✖✗s✘✖s✗✎
structure ✠✙ of ✖✓✎
the ✔✕✖✎✗✔✠✗
interior ✠✙ of ✖✓✎
the shadow ✣✠✕✎
✏✓✌✡✠☞ zone ✠✙ of ✼✲☞✌✍✎✏
P-waves ✌♣♣✎✌✗✏appears ✌✏ as ✌ a ❜✌✕✡
band
earth. ❭✎✙❝✎✘✖✔✠✕
✎✌✗✖✓✑ Reflection ✘✌s✏✎✏ causes waves☞✌✍✎✏ ✖✠ to ✗✎❜✠s✕✡
rebound ✌✗✠s✕✡
around ✖✓✎ the ✎✌✗✖✓ between ❧✾✿
earth ❜✎✖☞✎✎✕ 105° ➦ ✌✕✡
and ❧❀✿ 145° ➦ ✌☞✌☛
away
☞✓✎✗✎✌✏ ✗✎✙✗✌✘✖✔✠✕
whereas refraction ✜✌✚✎✏ makes waves ☞✌✍✎✏ ✜✠✍✎ move ✔✕ in ✙✗✠✜
from ✖✓✎
the ✎♣✔✘✎✕✖✗✎✑
epicentre. The shadow ✣✠✕✎
✒✓✎ ✏✓✌✡✠☞ zone ✠✙ of ❙✲☞✌✍✎✏
S-waves
✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖
different ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕✏✑
directions. The ✒✓✎ variations
✍✌✗✔✌✖✔✠✕✏ ✔✕ in ✖✓✎
the ✔✏
is ✕✠✖
not ✠✕❝☛
only ❝✌✗✛✎✗
larger ✔✕ in ✎t✖✎✕✖
extent ❜s✖ but ✔✖ it ✔✏
is ✌❝✏✠
also a ✌ ❝✔✖✖❝✎
little
✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
direction ✠✙ ☞✌✍✎✏ ✌✗✎
of waves are ✔✕✙✎✗✗✎✡ ☞✔✖✓ ✖✓✎
inferred with the ✓✎❝♣
help ✠✙ of over ❀✾
✠✍✎✗ 40 ♣✎✗
per ✘✎✕✖
cent ✠✙ of ✖✓✎
the ✎✌✗✖✓
earth ✏s✗✙✌✘✎✑
surface. ❢✠s You ✘✌✕can
✖✓✎✔✗ ✗✎✘✠✗✡ ✠✕ ✏✎✔✏✜✠✛✗✌♣✓✑
their record on seismograph. The surface ✒✓✎ ✏s✗✙✌✘✎ ✡✗✌☞
draw ✖✓✎ shadow ✣✠✕✎
the ✏✓✌✡✠☞ zone ✙✠✗ for ✌✕☛any ✎✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎
earthquake
☞✌✍✎✏ ✌✗✎
waves are ✖✓✎
the ❝✌✏✖
last ✖✠ to ✗✎♣✠✗✖
report ✠✕ on ✏✎✔✏✜✠✛✗✌♣✓✑
seismograph. ♣✗✠✍✔✡✎✡
provided you ☛✠s ✚✕✠☞know ✖✓✎ the ❝✠✘✌✖✔✠✕
location ✠✙ of ✖✓✎
the ✎♣✔✘✎✕✖✗✎✑
epicentre.
✒✓✎✏✎ waves
These ☞✌✍✎✏ ✌✗✎ are ✜✠✗✎
more ✡✎✏✖✗s✘✖✔✍✎✑
destructive. They ✒✓✎☛ ✘✌s✏✎
cause ✺❙✎✎
(See ✖✓✎
the ✌✘✖✔✍✔✖☛
activity ❜✠t box ✠✕ on ♣✌✛✎
page ✹❁ 28 ✖✠to ✚✕✠☞
know ✓✠☞ how ✖✠ to
✡✔✏♣❝✌✘✎✜✎✕✖
displacement ✠✙ of ✗✠✘✚✏❞
rocks, ✌✕✡and ✓✎✕✘✎❞
hence, ✖✓✎ the ✘✠❝❝✌♣✏✎
collapse ❝✠✘✌✖✎
locate ✖✓✎
the ✎♣✔✘✎✕✖✗✎
epicentre ✠✙ of ✌a ❛s✌✚✎
quake ✎✍✎✕✖✻✑
event).
✠✙
of ✏✖✗s✘✖s✗✎✏
structures ✠✘✘s✗✏✑
occurs.
Types ✫✬
❚❂❃✦❄ of ❊✯✧❅✮❆❇✯❈✦❄
Earthquakes
❪✧✫❃✯★✯❅❉✫✩
Propagation ✫✬
of ❊✯✧❅✮❆❇✯❈✦
Earthquake ♦✯✈✦❄
Waves ✺✔✻ ✒✓✎ ✜✠✏✖
(i) The most ✘✠✜✜✠✕
common ✠✕✎✏ones ✌✗✎
are ✖✓✎
the ❅✦✪❅✫✩❉✪
tectonic
❫✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖
Different ✖☛♣✎✏
types ✠✙of ✎✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎
earthquake waves☞✌✍✎✏ ✖✗✌✍✎❝
travel ✔✕in ✎✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎✏✑
earthquakes. These are ✛✎✕✎✗✌✖✎✡
✒✓✎✏✎ ✌✗✎ generated ✡s✎due ✖✠
to
✡✔✙✙✎✗✎✕✖
different ✜✌✕✕✎✗✏✑
manners. As ✢✏ ✖✓✎☛
they ✜✠✍✎ or ♣✗✠♣✌✛✌✖✎❞
move ✠✗ propagate, ✏❝✔✡✔✕✛
sliding ✠✙
of ✗✠✘✚✏
rocks ✌❝✠✕✛
along ✌ a ✙✌s❝✖
fault ♣❝✌✕✎✑
plane.
✖✓✎☛
they ✘✌s✏✎ ✍✔❜✗✌✖✔✠✕ ✔✕
cause vibration in ✖✓✎
the ❜✠✡☛
body ✠✙of ✖✓✎
the ✗✠✘✚✏
rocks ✺✔✔✻
(ii) A✢ ✏♣✎✘✔✌❝
special ✘❝✌✏✏
class ✠✙
of ✖✎✘✖✠✕✔✘
tectonic ✎✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎
earthquake ✔✏ is
✖✓✗✠s✛✓ ☞✓✔✘✓ ✖✓✎☛
through which they ♣✌✏✏✑
pass. ✼✲☞✌✍✎✏ ✍✔❜✗✌✖✎
P-waves vibrate ✏✠✜✎✖✔✜✎✏
sometimes ✗✎✘✠✛✕✔✏✎✡
recognised ✌✏ as ✈✫❋✪✯✩❉✪
volcanic
♣✌✗✌❝❝✎❝
parallel ✖✠
to ✖✓✎
the ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
direction ✠✙of ✖✓✎ ☞✌✍✎✑ This
the wave. ✒✓✔✏ ✎t✎✗✖✏
exerts earthquake. ✐✠☞✎✍✎✗❞
✎✌✗✖✓❛s✌✚✎✑ However, ✖✓✎✏✎
these ✌✗✎
are ✘✠✕✙✔✕✎✡
confined
♣✗✎✏✏s✗✎
pressure ✠✕on ✖✓✎
the ✜✌✖✎✗✔✌❝
material ✔✕ in ✖✓✎
the ✡✔✗✎✘✖✔✠✕
direction ✠✙of ✖✓✎
the ✖✠
to ✌✗✎✌✏
areas ✠✙of ✌✘✖✔✍✎ ✍✠❝✘✌✕✠✎✏✑
active volcanoes.
✷✑
24 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

P-wave shadow zone ✭✈✮ ❚✒✓ ✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓✚

(v) The earthquakes ✖✒✔✖
that ✛✜✜✘✕
occur ✢✣
in ✖✒✓
the ✔✕✓✔✚
areas
✛♦
of ✤✔✕✥✓
large ✕✓✚✓✕✈✛✢✕✚
reservoirs ✔✕✓
are ✕✓♦✓✕✕✓✦
referred ✖✛
to ✔✚
as
r✧★✧r✩✪✫r ✫✬✯✰✱✧✯ ✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓✚✲
reservoir induced earthquakes.

▼✧✳★✰r✫✬✴
Measuring ✵✳r✶✸✹✰✳✺✧★
Earthquakes
❚✒✓ ✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓
The earthquake ✓✈✓✣✖✚
events ✔✕✓
are ✚✜✔✤✓✦
scaled ✓✢✖✒✓✕
either
✔✜✜✛✕✦✢✣✥
according ✖✛
to ✖✒✓ ❛✔✥✣✢✖✘✦✓
na nude) ol ✛✕
or ✢✣✖✓✣✚✢✖✻
intensity ✛♦
of ✖✒✓
the
✚✒✛✜✙✲ ❚✒✓ ❛✔✥✣✢✖✘✦✓ ✚✜✔✤✓ ✢✚ ✙✣✛s✣
shock. The\ magnitude Scale is known as the✔✚ ✖✒✓
❘✫✱✸✶✧r scale.
Richter ★✱✳✼✧✲ ❚✒✓e ❛✔✥✣✢✖✘✦✓
magnitude relates✕✓✤✔✖✓✚ to✖✛ the
✖✒✓
✓✣✓✕✥✻
energy ✕✓✤✓✔✚✓✦ ✦✘✕✢✣✥ the
released—during ✖✒✓ quake,✗✘✔✙✓✲ The ❚✒✓
❛✔✥✣✢✖✘✦✓
magnitude ✢✚ is ✓♠✽✕✓✚✚✓✦
e ✢✣ ✔✾✚✛✤✘✖✓ lute ✣✘❛✾✓✕✚✿
numbers,
\0-10.
❀❁❂❀✲ Ph an ❃✖✔✤✢✔✣
❚✒✓
Mercalli, ✔✣
▼✧r✱✳✼✼✫✿
✢✣✖✓✣✚✢✖✻
intensi ✚✜✔✤✓
Italian ✚✓✢✚❛✛✤✛✥✢✚✖✲
✢✚
i s
seismologist. The
✣✔❛✓✦
named ✔♦✖✓✕
after
❚✒✓ ✢✣✖✓✣✚✢✖✻
intensity
✚✜✔✤✓ takes
“scale ✖✔✙✓✚ ✢✣✖✛into ✔✜✜✛✘✣✖
account ✖✒✓ ✈✢✚✢✾✤✓ damage
the visible ✦✔❛✔✥✓
✜✔✘✚✓✦
caused ✾✻by ✖✒✓
the ✓✈✓✣✖✲ ❚✒✓ ✕✔✣✥✓
event. The range ✛♦ of ✢✣✖✓✣✚✢✖✻
intensity ✚✜✔✤✓
scale
✢✚
i ♦✕✛❛OD ❂❁❂✐✲
-12.
ete

❊❄❄❅❆❇❈
EFFECTS ❖❄
OF ❊❉●❇❍■❏❉❑❅
EARTHQUAKE
S-wave shadow zone Earthquake ✢✚
▲✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓ is ✔a ✣✔✖✘✕✔✤
natural ✒✔◆✔✕✦✲
hazard. The❚✒✓ ♦✛✤✤✛s✢✣✥
following
Quake ✔✕✓
are ✖✒✓ the ✢❛❛✓✦✢✔✖✓
immediate ✒✔◆✔✕✦✛✘✚ hazardous ✓♦♦✓✜✖✚ effects ✛♦ of
✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓❡
earthquake:
P◗❙
(i) ❯✕✛✘✣✦
Ground ❱✒✔✙✢✣✥Shaking
(ii) ❲✢♦♦✓✕✓✣✖✢✔✤
P◗◗❙ Differential ✥✕✛✘✣✦ ground ✚✓✖✖✤✓❛✓✣✖
settlement
(iii) ❳✔✣✦
P◗◗◗❙ Land ✔✣✦ and ❛✘✦ mud ✚✤✢✦✓✚
slides
P◗❨❙
(iv) ❱✛✢✤Soil ✤✢✗✘✓♦✔✜✖✢✛✣
liquefaction
P❨❙ Ground ✤✘✕✜✒✢✣✥
(v) ❯✕✛✘✣✦ lurching
P❨◗❙ ❩✈✔✤✔✣✜✒✓✚
(vi) Avalanches
P❨◗◗❙ Ground ✦✢✚✽✤✔✜✓❛✓✣✖
(vii) ❯✕✛✘✣✦ displacement
(viii) ❬✤✛✛✦✚
P❨◗◗◗❙ Floods ♦✕✛❛ from ✦✔❛ dam ✔✣✦and ✤✓✈✓✓
levee ♦✔✢✤✘✕✓✚
failures
(ix) ❬✢✕✓✚
P◗❭❙ Fires
P❭❙ Structural ✜✛✤✤✔✽✚✓
(x) ❱✖✕✘✜✖✘✕✔✤ collapse
(xi) ❬✔✤✤✢✣✥
P❭◗❙ Falling ✛✾❪✓✜✖✚
objects
P❭◗◗❙ ❚✚✘✣✔❛✢
(xii) Tsunami
❚✒✓ ♦✢✕✚✖
The first ✚✢♠
six ✤✢✚✖✓✦
listed ✔✾✛✈✓
above ✒✔✈✓
have ✚✛❛✓
some ✾✓✔✕✢✣✥✚
bearings
✘✽✛✣
upon ✤✔✣✦♦✛✕❛✚✿landforms, while s✒✢✤✓ ✛✖✒✓✕✚
others ❛✔✻ may ✾✓ be
✜✛✣✚✢✦✓✕✓✦ ✖✒✓ ✓♦♦✓✜✖✚
considered the effects causing immediate ✜✔✘✚✢✣✥ ✢❛❛✓✦✢✔✖✓
❜❝❞❢❣❤ ❥❦❧ ♥♣t ♣✉✇ ♥①t ② ③♣❣④⑤⑥❢♣⑦❤ ⑧⑤♣✇⑨⑩ ❶⑨✉❤❷
✜✛✣✜✓✕✣
concern ✖✛ to ✖✒✓
the ✤✢♦✓life ✔✣✦
and ✽✕✛✽✓✕✖✢✓✚
properties ✛♦ of ✽✓✛✽✤✓
people ✢✣ in
✖✒✓
the ✕✓✥✢✛✣✲
region. The ❚✒✓ ✓♦♦✓✜✖
effect ✛♦
of ✖✚✘✣✔❛✢ s✛✘✤✦ ✛✜✜✘✕
tsunami would occur
✭✢✢✢✮
(iii) ❃✣
In ✖✒✓
the ✔✕✓✔✚
areas ✛♦of ✢✣✖✓✣✚✓
intense ❛✢✣✢✣✥
mining ✔✜✖✢✈✢✖✻✿
activity, ✛✣✤✻
only ✢♦ if ✖✒✓
the ✓✽✢✜✓✣✖✕✓
epicentre ✛♦ of ✖✒✓
the ✖✕✓❛✛✕
tremor ✢✚ is ✾✓✤✛s
below
✚✛❛✓✖✢❛✓✚
sometimes ✖✒✓ the ✕✛✛♦✚
roofs ✛♦of ✘✣✦✓✕✥✕✛✘✣✦
underground ✛✜✓✔✣✢✜
oceanic waters s✔✖✓✕✚ ✔✣✦ and ✖✒✓ the ❛✔✥✣✢✖✘✦✓
magnitude ✢✚ is
❛✢✣✓✚
mines ✜✛✤✤✔✽✚✓
collapse ✜✔✘✚✢✣✥
causing ❛✢✣✛✕
minor ✖✕✓❛✛✕✚✲
tremors. ✚✘♦♦✢✜✢✓✣✖✤✻
sufficiently ✒✢✥✒✲ high. ❫★✰✬✳❴✫★
Tsunamis ✔✕✓ s✔✈✓✚
are waves
❚✒✓✚✓ ✔✕✓
These are ✜✔✤✤✓✦
called ✱✪✼✼✳❸★✧
collapse ✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓✚✲
earthquakes. ✥✓✣✓✕✔✖✓✦
generated ✾✻ by ✖✒✓ the ✖✕✓❛✛✕✚
tremors ✔✣✦ and ✣✛✖ not ✔✣ an
✭✢✈✮ Ground ✚✒✔✙✢✣✥
(iv) ❯✕✛✘✣✦ shaking ❛✔✻ may ✔✤✚✛
also ✛✜✜✘✕
occur ✦✘✓
due ✖✛to ✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓
earthquake ✢✣ in ✢✖✚✓✤♦✲ ❚✒✛✘✥✒ ✖✒✓
itself. Though the ✔✜✖✘✔✤
actual ✗✘✔✙✓
quake
✖✒✓
the ✓♠✽✤✛✚✢✛✣
explosion ✛♦ of ✜✒✓❛✢✜✔✤
chemical ✛✕ or ✣✘✜✤✓✔✕
nuclear ✔✜✖✢✈✢✖✻
activity ✤✔✚✖✚ lasts ♦✛✕for ✔ a ♦✓s
few ✚✓✜✛✣✦✚✿
seconds, ✢✖✚its ✓♦♦✓✜✖✚
effects ✔✕✓
are
✦✓✈✢✜✓✚✲ Such ✖✕✓❛✛✕✚
devices. ❱✘✜✒ tremors ✔✕✓are ✜✔✤✤✓✦
called ✧❹❸✼✪★✫✪✬
explosion ✦✓✈✔✚✖✔✖✢✣✥ ✽✕✛✈✢✦✓✦ ✖✒✓
devastating provided the magnitude of the ❛✔✥✣✢✖✘✦✓ ✛♦ ✖✒✓
✓✔✕✖✒✗✘✔✙✓✚✲
earthquakes. ✗✘✔✙✓
quake ✢✚ is ❛✛✕✓
more ✖✒✔✣ than q 5 ✛✣
on ✖✒✓
the ❵✢✜✒✖✓✕
Richter ✚✜✔✤✓✲
scale.
■INTERIOR
✁✂✄■☎✄ ☎✆ ✁✝✂ ✂✞✄✁✝
OF THE EARTH ✷✟
25

> Yt
A view of the destruction caused by tidal oe i Wo
waves in Marina Beach, India rR \
\
108 Tamil Wat J A view of the destruction caused
= 1,567 Lanka
Maidves 45004 | by tidal waves in Thailand
a INDIAN
OCEAN

Asian death toll

Wen by a oe
= ‘ > Sx a G . =

People walk through debris of their houses destroyed by

tidal waves on the coastal area in Colombo, Sri Lanka A view of the destruction caused by tidal waves
in Indonesia

❋✠✡☛☞✡✌✍✎
Frequency ✏✑
of ✒✓✠✔✕☛☞✓✖✡
Earthquake ✗✍✍☞✠✠✡✌✍✡✘
Occurrences ❙✺✻✼✽✺✼✻✾
STRUCTURE ❖✿
OF ✺❀✾
THE ❁❆✻✺❀
EARTH

❚✙✚ ✚✛✜✢✙✣✤✛✥✚
The earthquake ✦✧is ✛a ★✛✢✤✜✛✩
natural ✙✛❤✛✜✪✫
hazard. ✬✭ Ifa✛ ✢✜✚✮✯✜
tremor ❂❃❄
The ❅❇❈❉❊
Crust
✯✭
of high magnitude takes place, it can ✱✛✤✧✚
✙✦♦✙ ✮✛♦★✦✢✤✪✚ ✢✛✥✚✧ ✰✩✛✱✚✲ ✦✢ ✱✛★ cause
✙✚✛✳✴
heavy ✪✛✮✛♦✚
damage ✢✯ to ✢✙✚
the ✩✦✭✚
life ✛★✪
and ✰✜✯✰✚✜✢✴
property ✯✭ of ✬✢
It ✦✧
is ✢✙✚
the ✯✤✢✚✜✮✯✧✢
outermost ✧✯✩✦✪ solid ✰✛✜✢
part ✯✭of ✢✙✚
the ✚✛✜✢✙✫
earth. ✬✢It ✦✧
is
✰✚✯✰✩✚✫
people. ♣✯✵✚✳✚✜✲
However, ★✯✢not ✛✩✩
all ✢✙✚
the ✰✛✜✢✧
parts ✯✭of ✢✙✚
the ♦✩✯✶✚
globe ✶✜✦✢✢✩✚
brittle ✦★in ★✛✢✤✜✚✫
nature. The ❚✙✚ ✢✙✦✱✥★✚✧✧
thickness ✯✭ of ✢✙✚
the ✱✜✤✧✢
crust
★✚✱✚✧✧✛✜✦✩✴
necessarily ✚♥✰✚✜✦✚★✱✚
experience ✮✛✸✯✜
major ✧✙✯✱✥✧✫
shocks. We ✹✚ ✧✙✛✩✩
shall ✳✛✜✦✚✧ ✤★✪✚✜
varies under ✢✙✚ the ✯✱✚✛★✦✱
oceanic ✛★✪and ✱✯★✢✦★✚★✢✛✩
continental ✛✜✚✛✧✫
areas.
✶✚
be ✪✦✧✱✤✧✧✦★♦
discussing ✢✙✚
the ✪✦✧✢✜✦✶✤✢✦✯★
distribution ✯✭ of ✚✛✜✢✙✣✤✛✥✚✧
earthquakes Oceanic ✱✜✤✧✢
●✱✚✛★✦✱ crust ✦✧ is ✢✙✦★★✚✜
thinner ✛✧ as ✱✯✮✰✛✜✚✪
compared ✢✯ to ✢✙✚
the
✛★✪ ✳✯✩✱✛★✯✚✧ with
and volcanoes ✵✦✢✙ ✧✯✮✚
some ✪✚✢✛✦✩✧
details ✦★ in ✢✙✚
the ★✚♥✢
next
✱✯★✢✦★✚★✢✛✩
continental ✱✜✤✧✢✫ crust. The ❚✙✚ ✮✚✛★
mean ✢✙✦✱✥★✚✧✧
thickness ✯✭ of
✯✱✚✛★✦✱
oceanic ✱✜✤✧✢crust ✦✧ is ❍ 5 ✥✮ ✵✙✚✜✚✛✧ ✢✙✛✢
km whereas that ✯✭
of ✢✙✚
the
✱✯★✢✦★✚★✢✛✩
continental ✦✧ is ✛✜✯✤★✪
around ❝❏ 30 ✥✮✫
km. The❚✙✚ ✱✯★✢✦★✚★✢✛✩
continental
✱✜✤✧✢
crust ✦✧is ✢✙✦✱✥✚✜
thicker ✦★ in ✢✙✚
the ✛✜✚✛✧
areas ✯✭of ✮✛✸✯✜
major ✮✯✤★✢✛✦★
mountain
✧✴✧✢✚✮✧✫
systems. ✬✢ It ✦✧
is ✛✧
as ✮✤✱✙
much ✛✧ 70 ✥✮
as s❏ km ✢✙✦✱✥
thick ✦★in ✢✙✚
the
♣✦✮✛✩✛✴✛★
Himalayan ✜✚♦✦✯★✫region.
✬✢
It ✦✧
is ✮✛✪✚
made ✤✰ up ✯✭ of ✙✚✛✳✦✚✜
heavier ✜✯✱✥✧rocks ✙✛✳✦★♦
having
✪✚★✧✦✢✴
density ✯✭ of ❝ g/cm®.❑✫ This
3 ♦❞✱✮ ❚✙✦✧ ✢✴✰✚
type ✯✭ of ✜✯✱✥
rock ✭✯✤★✪
found ✦★ in
✢✙✚
the ✯✱✚✛★✦✱
oceanic ✱✜✤✧✢crust ✦✧ is ✶✛✧✛✩✢✫ ❚✙✚ ✮✚✛★
basalt. The mean ✪✚★✧✦✢✴
density
✯✭
of ✮✛✢✚✜✦✛✩
material ✦★ in ✯✱✚✛★✦✱
oceanic ✱✜✤✧✢crust ✦✧ g/cm*.❑✫
2.7 ♦❞✱✮
is ▲✫s

❂❃❄
The ▼◆P❊◗❄
Mantle
❚✙✚ ✰✯✜✢✦✯★
The portion ✯✭ of ✢✙✚
the ✦★✢✚✜✦✯✜
interior ✶✚✴✯★✪
beyond ✢✙✚the ✱✜✤✧✢
crust ✦✧
is
A❫ ❴❵❜❡
view ❢❣
of ✐❥❜
the ❦❧q❧r❜❦ ❫q❧t ✉❜✐✈
damaged Aman Setu ❧✐
at ✐❥❜
the ✇①②
LOC ✱✛✩✩✚✪
called ✢✙✚the ✮✛★✢✩✚✫ ❚✙✚ ✮✛★✢✩✚
mantle. The mantle ✚♥✢✚★✪✧
extends ✭✜✯✮from
❵t
in ③④❵⑤
Uri, ❦✈❜
due ✐❢
to ❧t
an ❜❧④✐❥⑥✈❧⑦❜
earthquake
Moho’s ✪✦✧✱✯★✢✦★✤✦✢✴
❘✯✙✯❯✧ discontinuity ✢✯ to ✛a ✪✚✰✢✙
depth ✯✭ 2,900 ✥✮✫
of ▲✲❱❏❏ km.
✱✙✛✰✢✚✜✫ Note ✢✙✛✢
chapter. ❳✯✢✚ that ✢✙✚
the ✣✤✛✥✚✧
quakes ✯✭ of ✙✦♦✙
high ❚✙✚ ✤✰✰✚✜
The upper ✰✯✜✢✦✯★
portion ✯✭of ✢✙✚
the ✮✛★✢✩✚
mantle ✦✧ is ✱✛✩✩✚✪
called
✮✛♦★✦✢✤✪✚✲
magnitude, i.e. 8+ are quite rare; they ✯✱✱✤✜
✦✫✚✫ ♠❨ ✛✜✚ ✣✤✦✢✚ ✜✛✜✚❩ ✢✙✚✴ occur ✓✘✔✕✡✌✏✘❛✕✡✠✡✫
asthenosphere. The ❚✙✚ word
✵✯✜✪ ✓✘✔✕✡✌✏
astheno ✮✚✛★✧
means
✯★✱✚
once ✦★
in ❬❭▲ ✴✚✛✜✧ whereas
1-2 years ✵✙✚✜✚✛✧ ✢✙✯✧✚
those ✯✭ ‘tiny’ ✢✴✰✚✧
of ❪✢✦★✴❯ types ✵✚✛✥✫ ✬✢
weak. It ✦✧
is ✱✯★✧✦✪✚✜✚✪
considered ✢✯to ✶✚
be ✚♥✢✚★✪✦★♦
extending ✤✰✢✯
upto ❲❏❏
400
✯✱✱✤✜
occur ✛✩✮✯✧✢
almost ✚✳✚✜✴
every ✮✦★✤✢✚✫
minute. ✥✮✫
km. ✬✢
It ✦✧
is ✢✙✚
the ✮✛✦★
main ✧✯✤✜✱✚
source ✯✭ of ✮✛♦✮✛
magma ✢✙✛✢that ✭✦★✪✧
finds
✷✑
26 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

Lithosphere ✵✙✙✤ ✛✙✧✙✕✓✙✣

been released ✗✚✒ out ✐✤in ✒✘✙
the ✛✙✢✙✤✒
recent ❡✕✓✒★
past. The✰✘✙ ✧✕✖✙✛
layer
(crust and upper ✵✙✧✗✔ ✒✘✙
below the ✓✗✧✐✣
solid ✢✛✚✓✒
crust ✐✓ is ✮✕✤✒✧✙★
mantle. ✩✒ It ✘✕✓
has ✘✐✥✘✙✛
higher
most solid mantle) ✣✙✤✓✐✒✖
density ✒✘✕✤than ✒✘✕✒that ✗✜ of ✒✘✙
the ✢✛✚✓✒★
crust. The✰✘✙ ✮✕✤✒✧✙
mantle
✢✗✤✒✕✐✤✓
contains ✕ ✔✙✕❧✙✛ zone
a weaker P✗✤✙ ✢✕✧✧✙✣
called ❛◗❘❙❅♥❯◗❲❙❅❳❅★
asthenosphere.
✩✒
It ✐✓
is ✜✛✗✮
from ✒✘✐✓
this ✒✘✕✒
that ✒✘✙the ✮✗✧✒✙✤
molten ✛✗✢❧
rock ✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧✓
materials
✜✐✤✣
find ✒✘✙✐✛
their way✔✕✖ ✒✗ to ✒✘✙
the ✓✚✛✜✕✢✙★
surface. The ✰✘✙ ✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧
material ✐✤ in
✒✘✙
the ✚❡❡✙✛
upper ✮✕✤✒✧✙
mantle ❡✗✛✒✐✗✤
portion ✐✓ is ✢✕✧✧✙✣
called ♠❛❩♠❛★
magma.
❬✤✢✙
Once ✐✒ it ✓✒✕✛✒✓
starts ✮✗✦✐✤✥
moving ✒✗✔✕✛✣✓
towards ✒✘✙ the ✢✛✚✓✒
crust ✗✛or ✐✒
it
✛✙✕✢✘✙✓
reaches ✒✘✙ the ✓✚✛✜✕✢✙✾
surface, ✐✒ it ✐✓
is ✛✙✜✙✛✛✙✣
referred ✒✗ to ✕✓
as ❭❛❪❛★
lava.
✰✘✙ ✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧
The material ✒✘✕✒that ✛✙✕✢✘✙✓
reaches ✒✘✙ the ✥✛✗✚✤✣
ground ✐✤✢✧✚✣✙✓
includes
✧✕✦✕
lava ✜✧✗✔✓✾
flows, ❡✖✛✗✢✧✕✓✒✐✢
pyroclastic ✣✙✵✛✐✓✾ ✦✗✧✢✕✤✐✢ bombs,
debris, volcanic ✵✗✮✵✓✾
✕✓✘
ash ✕✤✣and ✣✚✓✒
dust ✕✤✣ and ✥✕✓✙✓
gases ✓✚✢✘ such ✕✓ as ✤✐✒✛✗✥✙✤
nitrogen
✢✗✮❡✗✚✤✣✓✾
compounds, ✓✚✧❡✘✚✛ sulphur ✢✗✮❡✗✚✤✣✓
compounds ✕✤✣ and ✮✐✤✗✛
minor
✕✮✗✚✤✒✓
amounts ✗✜ of ✢✘✧✗✛✙✤✙✾
chlorene, ✘✖✣✛✗✥✙✤
hydrogen ✕✤✣ and ✕✛✥✗✤★
argon.

❫✼♦❴❵❜✼✺❞
Volcanoes
❢✗✧✢✕✤✗✙✓ ✕✛✙
Volcanoes are ✢✧✕✓✓✐✜✐✙✣
classified ✗✤
on ✒✘✙ ✵✕✓✐✓ ✗✜
the basis of ✤✕✒✚✛✙
nature
6,378 km
✗✜
of ✙✛✚❡✒✐✗✤
eruption ✕✤✣
and ✒✘✙
the ✜✗✛✮
form ✣✙✦✙✧✗❡✙✣
developed ✕✒ at ✒✘✙
the
✈✇①②③④
Figure ⑤⑥⑦
3.4 ⑧: ⑨⑩④
The ✇❶❷④③✇❸③
interior ❸❹
of ❷⑩④
the ④❺③❷⑩
earth
✓✚✛✜✕✢✙★
surface. s✕❣✗✛
Major ✒✖❡✙✓
types ✗✜ ✦✗✧✢✕✤✗✙✓ ✕✛✙
of volcanoes are ✕✓
as ✜✗✧✧✗✔✓❤
follows:

✐✒✓ ✔✕✖ ✒✗
its way to ✒✘✙
the ✓✚✛✜✕✢✙
surface ✣✚✛✐✤✥ ✦✗✧✢✕✤✐✢
during volcanic ❥❙❃❅❭❦
Shield ♣❯❭q❛♥❯❅◗
Volcanoes
✙✛✚❡✒✐✗✤✓★
eruptions. ✩✒ It ✘✕✓
has ✕ a ✣✙✤✓✐✒✖
density ✘✐✥✘✙✛
higher ✒✘✕✤
than ✒✘✙
the t✕✛✛✐✤✥
Barring ✒✘✙ ✵✕✓✕✧✒ ✜✧✗✔✓✾
the basalt flows, ✒✘✙
the ✓✘✐✙✧✣ ✦✗✧✢✕✤✗✙✓
shield volcanoes
✢✛✚✓✒❝✓
crust’s ✪✫★✬
(3.4 ✥✭✢✮
g/cm’). ✸ ✯★ The
✰✘✙ ✢✛✚✓✒
crust ✕✤✣
and ✒✘✙
the ✕✛✙
are ✒✘✙
the ✧✕✛✥✙✓✒
largest ✗✜
of ✕✧✧
all ✒✘✙ ✦✗✧✢✕✤✗✙✓ ✗✤
the volcanoes on ✒✘✙
the ✙✕✛✒✘★
earth.
✚❡❡✙✛✮✗✓✒
uppermost ❡✕✛✒ part ✗✜ of ✒✘✙
the ✮✕✤✒✧✙
mantle ✕✛✙
are ✢✕✧✧✙✣
called ✰✘✙ ✉✕✔✕✐✐✕✤
The ✦✗✧✢✕✤✗✙✓ ✕✛✙
Hawaiian volcanoes are ✒✘✙
the ✮✗✓✒
most ✜✕✮✗✚✓
famous
✧✐✒✘✗✓❡✘✙✛✙★✩✒✓
lithosphere. Its ✒✘✐✢❧✤✙✓✓
thickness ✛✕✤✥✙✓
ranges ✜✛✗✮
from ✱✲✳✴✲✲
10-200 ❧✮★
km.
✰✘✙ ✧✗✔✙✛
The lower ✮✕✤✒✧✙
mantle ✙❚✒✙✤✣✓ ✵✙✖✗✤✣ ✒✘✙
extends beyond the
✕✓✒✘✙✤✗✓❡✘✙✛✙★ ✩✒ ✐✓ ✐✤ ✓✗✧✐✣
asthenosphere. It is in solid state. ✓✒✕✒✙★
✶✹✺
The ✻✼✽✺
Core

❆✓ ✐✤✣✐✢✕✒✙✣
As indicated ✙✕✛✧✐✙✛✾
earlier, ✒✘✙ the ✙✕✛✒✘✿✚✕❧✙
earthquake wave ✔✕✦✙
velocities helped in understanding ✒✘✙
✦✙✧✗✢✐✒✐✙✓ ✘✙✧❡✙✣ ✐✤ ✚✤✣✙✛✓✒✕✤✣✐✤✥ the
✙❚✐✓✒✙✤✢✙
existence ✗✜ of ✒✘✙
the ✢✗✛✙
core ✗✜ of ✒✘✙
the ✙✕✛✒✘★ ✰✘✙ ✢✗✛✙✳
earth. The core-
✮✕✤✒✧✙ ✵✗✚✤✣✕✛✖ ✐✓
mantle boundary is ✧✗✢✕✒✙✣
located ✕✒ at ✒✘✙
the ✣✙❡✒✘
depth ✗✜ of
✴✾❀✲✲
2,900 ❧✮★ ✰✘✙ ✗✚✒✙✛
km. The outer ✢✗✛✙
core ✐✓is ✐✤
in ✧✐✿✚✐✣
liquid ✓✒✕✒✙ ✔✘✐✧✙
state while
✒✘✙
the ✐✤✤✙✛
inner ✢✗✛✙
core ✐✓is ✐✤
in ✓✗✧✐✣
solid ✓✒✕✒✙★
state. The✰✘✙ ✣✙✤✓✐✒✖
density ✗✜ of
✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧
material ✕✒at ✒✘✙
the ✮✕✤✒✧✙
mantle ✢✗✛✙ ✵✗✚✤✣✕✛✖ ✐✓
core boundary is ✕✛✗✚✤✣
around
g/cm? ✸ ✕✤✣
❁5 ✥✭✢✮ and ✕✒at ✒✘✙
the ✢✙✤✒✛✙
centre ✗✜ of ✒✘✙
the ✙✕✛✒✘
earth ✕✒at ❂✾✫✲✲
6,300 ❻⑩✇④❼❽ ❾❸❼❿❺❶❸
Shield Volcano
❧✮✾
km, ✒✘✙
the ✣✙✤✓✐✒✖ ✦✕✧✚✙ ✐✓
density value is ✕✛✗✚✤✣
around ✱✫✥✭✢✮ 13g/cm*.✸★ The
✰✘✙
✢✗✛✙
core ✐✓
is ✮✕✣✙
made ✚❡ up ✗✜ ✦✙✛✖ ✘✙✕✦✖
of very heavy ✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧
material ✮✗✓✒✧✖
mostly
✢✗✤✓✒✐✒✚✒✙✣
constituted by ✵✖ ✤✐✢❧✙✧
nickel ✕✤✣and ✐✛✗✤★
iron. ✩✒It ✐✓
is ✓✗✮✙✒✐✮✙✓
sometimes
✛✙✜✙✛✛✙✣ ✒✗ ✕✓ ✒✘✙ ♥❃❄❅
referred to as the nife layer. ✧✕✖✙✛★
❱❖❇❈❉❊❖●❍ AND
VOLCANOES ❉❊■ VOLCANIC
❱❖❇❈❉❊❏❈ ❑❉❊■▲❖▼◆❍
LANDFORMS
❨✗✚ ✮✕✖
You may ✘✕✦✙
have ✓✙✙✤
seen ❡✘✗✒✗✥✛✕❡✘✓
photographs ✗✛ or ❡✐✢✒✚✛✙✓
pictures ✗✜of
✦✗✧✢✕✤✗✙✓ ✗✤
volcanoes on ✕
a ✤✚✮✵✙✛
number ✗✜ of ✗✢✢✕✓✐✗✤✓★
occasions. A❆ volcano
✦✗✧✢✕✤✗
✐✓
is ✕
a ❡✧✕✢✙ ✔✘✙✛✙ ✥✕✓✙✓✾
place where gases, ✕✓✘✙✓
ashes ✕✤✣✭✗✛
and/or ✮✗✧✒✙✤
molten
✛✗✢❧
rock material — lava — escape to the ground. A❆
✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧ r ✧✕✦✕ r ✙✓✢✕❡✙ ✒✗ ✒✘✙ ✥✛✗✚✤✣★
voleano ✐✓
✦✗✧✢✕✤✗ is ✢✕✧✧✙✣
called ✕✤ an ✕✢✒✐✦✙ ✦✗✧✢✕✤✗ ✐✜
active volcano if ✒✘✙
the
✮✕✒✙✛✐✕✧✓
materials ✮✙✤✒✐✗✤✙✣
mentioned ✕✛✙ ✵✙✐✤✥ ✛✙✧✙✕✓✙✣
are being released ✗✛
or ✘✕✦✙
have ➀✇❶❽④③
Cinder ➀❸❶④
Cone
■INTERIOR
✁✂✄■☎✄ ☎✆ ✁✝✂ ✂✞✄✁✝
OF THE EARTH ✷✟
27

❡✠✡☛☞✌❡✍✎ ✏✑❡✍❡ volcanoes

examples. These ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍ ✡✖❡ are ☛✓✍✗✌✘
mostly ☛✡✙❡made ☛✓✖❡
more ✗✑✡✕ 50 ☛✎
than ♠✱ m. ✲✕✙✢✒✢✙✉✡✌ flows ☛✡✘
Individual ✚✌✓✇✍ may ❡✠✗❡✕✙
extend
up ✓✚
✉☞ ✛✡✍✡✌✗✜ ✡a ✗✘☞❡
of basalt, type ✓✚ of ✌✡✒✡
lava ✗✑✡✗
that ✢✍ ✒❡✖✘ ✚✌✉✢✙
is very fluid for ✑✉✕✙✖❡✙✍
✚✓✖ hundreds ✓✚ of ❧☛✎
km. The✏✑❡ ❉✫✭✭✮✯
Deccan ✳r✮✧★
Traps ✚✖✓☛
from
✇✑❡✕ ❡✖✉☞✗❡✙✎
when For ✗✑✢✍
erupted. ✣✓✖ this ✖❡✡✍✓✕✜
reason, ✗✑❡✍❡ ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍
these volcanoes India, ☞✖❡✍❡✕✗✌✘
✲✕✙✢✡✜ presently ✔✓✒❡✖✢✕s
covering ☛✓✍✗most ✓✚ of ✗✑❡
the
✡✖❡
are ✕✓✗
not ✍✗❡❡☞✎
steep. They✏✑❡✘ become
✛❡✔✓☛❡ ❡✠☞✌✓✍✢✒❡
explosive ✢✚ if Maharashtra ☞✌✡✗❡✡✉✜
▼✡✑✡✖✡✍✑✗✖✡ plateau, ✡✖❡are ✡a ☛✉✔✑
much ✌✡✖s❡✖
larger ✚✌✓✓✙
flood
✍✓☛❡✑✓✇ ✇✡✗❡✖ s❡✗✍
somehow water into ✗✑❡
gets ✢✕✗✓ ✒❡✕✗✤ ✓✗✑❡✖✇✢✍❡✜
the vent; otherwise, ✛✡✍✡✌✗ ☞✖✓✒✢✕✔❡✎
basalt province. ✲✗It ✢✍ ✛❡✌✢❡✒❡✙ ✗✑✡✗
is believed initially ✗✑❡
that ✢✕✢✗✢✡✌✌✘ the
✗✑❡✘
they ✡✖❡
are ✔✑✡✖✡✔✗❡✖✢✍❡✙
characterised by ✛✘ ✌✓✇t❡✠☞✌✓✍✢✒✢✗✘✎
low-explosivity. The✏✑❡ ✗✖✡☞ formations covered a much ✌✡✖s❡✖
trap ✚✓✖☛✡✗✢✓✕✍ ✔✓✒❡✖❡✙ ✡ ☛✉✔✑ larger ✡✖❡✡
area
upcoming ✌✡✒✡
✉☞✔✓☛✢✕s lava ☛✓✒❡✍
moves ✢✕ in ✗✑❡ form ✓✚
the ✚✓✖☛ of ✡a ✚✓✉✕✗✡✢✕
fountain ✗✑✡✕
than ✗✑❡
the ☞✖❡✍❡✕✗✎
present.
✡✕✙
and ✗✑✖✓✇✍
throws ✓✉✗out ✗✑❡
the ✔✓✕❡
cone ✡✗ at ✗✑❡
the ✗✓☞
top ✓✚
of ✗✑❡ ✒❡✕✗
the vent
✡✕✙ ✙❡✒❡✌✓☞✍ ✢✕✗✓ ✔✢✕✙❡✖
and develops into cinder cone. ✔✓✕❡✎ ✴✩✵✶✸✭✫✮✯
Mid-Ocean ✹✩✵✺✫
Ridge ✬✥♦✭✮✯✥✫★
Volcanoes

❈✥✦✧✥★✩✪✫
Composite ✬✥♦✭✮✯✥✫★
Volcanoes
✏✑❡✍❡ volcanoes
These ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍ ✓✔✔✉✖
occur ✢✕ in ✗✑❡
the ✓✔❡✡✕✢✔
oceanic ✡✖❡✡✍✎
areas.
✏✑❡✖❡ ✢✍
There is ✡
a ✍✘✍✗❡☛
system ✓✚ of ☛✢✙t✓✔❡✡✕
mid-ocean ✖✢✙s❡✍
ridges ☛✓✖❡
more
✏✑❡✍❡ volcanoes
These ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍ ✡✖❡ are ✔✑✡✖✡✔✗❡✖✢✍❡✙
characterised by ✛✘ ✗✑✡✕
than ✻✱✜✱✱✱ km ✌✓✕s
70,000 ❧☛ long ✗✑✡✗
that ✍✗✖❡✗✔✑❡✍
stretches ✗✑✖✓✉s✑
through
❡✖✉☞✗✢✓✕✍ ✓✚ ✔✓✓✌❡✖ ✡✕✙ ☛✓✖❡ ✒✢✍✔✓✉✍
eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas ✌✡✒✡✍ ✡✌✌
all ✗✑❡
the ✓✔❡✡✕ ✛✡✍✢✕✍✎ The
ocean basins. ✏✑❡ ✔❡✕✗✖✡✌
central ☞✓✖✗✢✓✕
portion ✓✚
of ✗✑✢✍
this
✗✑✡✕ ✏✑❡✍❡ volcanoes
✛✡✍✡✌✗✎ These
than basalt. ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍ ✓✚✗❡✕
often ✖❡✍✉✌✗
result ✢✕in ✖✢✙s❡
ridge ❡✠☞❡✖✢❡✕✔❡✍ frequent ❡✖✉☞✗✢✓✕✍✎
experiences ✚✖❡q✉❡✕✗ eruptions. We ♣❡ ✍✑✡✌✌
shall
❡✠☞✌✓✍✢✒❡
explosive ❡✖✉☞✗✢✓✕✍✎
eruptions. Along ✇✢✗✑ ✌✡✒✡✜
✰✌✓✕s with lava, ✌✡✖s❡
large ✛❡ ✙✢✍✔✉✍✍✢✕s
be discussing ✗✑✢✍ in ✙❡✗✡✢✌
this ✢✕ in ✗✑❡
detail ✢✕ the ✕❡✠✗
next ✔✑✡☞✗❡✖✎
chapter.
quantities ✓✚
q✉✡✕✗✢✗✢❡✍ of ☞✘✖✓✔✌✡✍✗✢✔
pyroclastic ☛✡✗❡✖✢✡✌
material ✡✕✙and ✡✍✑❡✍
ashes
find ✗✑❡✢✖
✚✢✕✙ ✇✡✘ ✗✓
their way to ✗✑❡
the s✖✓✉✕✙✎ ✏✑✢✍ ☛✡✗❡✖✢✡✌
ground. This material ❱❖✼✽✾◆✿✽ ❀✾◆❆❁❖❂❃❄
Votcanic LANDFORMS
✡✔✔✉☛✉✌✡✗❡✍
accumulates ✢✕ in ✗✑❡ ✒✢✔✢✕✢✗✘ ✓✚
the vicinity of ✗✑❡ ✒❡✕✗ ✓☞❡✕✢✕s✍
the vent openings
✌❡✡✙✢✕s
leading ✗✓ formation ✓✚
to ✚✓✖☛✡✗✢✓✕ of ✌✡✘❡✖✍✜
layers, ✡✕✙
and ✗✑✢✍
this ☛✡❧❡✍
makes ❅❇❊❋●❍❏❑▲
Intrusive P◗❋❘❍
Forms
✗✑❡
the ☛✓✉✕✗✍
mounts ✡☞☞❡✡✖
appear ✡✍
as ✔✓☛☞✓✍✢✗❡ ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍✎
composite volcanoes.
✏✑❡ ✌✡✒✡
The lava ✗✑✡✗
that ✢✍ is ✖❡✌❡✡✍❡✙
released ✙✉✖✢✕s ✒✓✌✔✡✕✢✔
during volcanic
❡✖✉☞✗✢✓✕✍
eruptions ✓✕ on ✔✓✓✌✢✕s
cooling ✙❡✒❡✌✓☞✍
develops ✢✕✗✓into ✢s✕❡✓✉✍
igneous
✖✓✔❧✍✎ ✏✑❡ ✔✓✓✌✢✕s
rocks. The cooling ☛✡✘
may ✗✡❧❡
take ☞✌✡✔❡
place ❡✢✗✑❡✖
either ✓✕
on
✖❡✡✔✑✢✕s ✗✑❡ ✍✉✖✚✡✔❡ ✓✖ ✡✌✍✓
reaching the surface or also while the lava ✢✍
✇✑✢✌❡ ✗✑❡ ✌✡✒✡ is
✍✗✢✌✌ in ✗✑❡
still ✢✕ the ✔✖✉✍✗✡✌
crustal ☞✓✖✗✢✓✕✎
portion. ❙❡☞❡✕✙✢✕s
Depending ✓✕ on ✗✑❡
the
✌✓✔✡✗✢✓✕
location ✓✚of ✗✑❡
the ✔✓✓✌✢✕s
cooling ✓✚
of ✗✑❡
the ✌✡✒✡✜ igneous ✖✓✔❧✍
lava, ✢s✕❡✓✉✍ rocks
✡✖❡
are ✔✌✡✍✍✢✚✢❡✙
classified ✡✍as ✈✥♦✭✮✯✩✭ rocks ❯✔✓✓✌✢✕s
volcanic r✥✭❚★ (cooling ✡✗at ✗✑❡
the
✍✉✖✚✡✔❡❲
surface) ✡✕✙ rocks ❯✔✓✓✌✢✕s
✧♦❳✪✥✯✩✭ r✥✭❚★
and plutonic (cooling ✢✕in ✗✑❡
the
✔✖✉✍✗❲✎ ✏✑❡ ✌✡✒✡
crust). The lava ✗✑✡✗
that ✔✓✓✌✍ within ✗✑❡
cools ✇✢✗✑✢✕ the ✔✖✉✍✗✡✌
crustal
☞✓✖✗✢✓✕✍
portions ✡✍✍✉☛❡✍
assumes ✙✢✚✚❡✖❡✕✗
different ✚✓✖☛✍✎ ✏✑❡✍❡ ✚✓✖☛✍
forms. These forms
✡✖❡ ✔✡✌✌❡✙ ✩✯✪r❳★✩✈✫ ✐✥r✦★✎ ❨✓☛❡ ✓✚
are called intrusive forms. Some of the forms✗✑❡ ✚✓✖☛✍
❩❬❭❪❬❫❴❵❜ ❝❬❞❢❣❤❬
Composite Volcano ✡✖❡
are ✍✑✓✇✕
shown ✢✕ Figure ❛✎♠✎
in ✣✢s✉✖❡ 3.5.
❈✮♦✵✫r✮
Caldera
Lava Volcanic neck
✏✑❡✍❡ ✡✖❡
These are ✗✑❡
the ☛✓✍✗
most ❡✠☞✌✓✍✢✒❡
explosive ✓✚of ✗✑❡
the ❡✡✖✗✑❥✍
earth’s Plateau with radiating dykes

✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍✎ They
volcanoes. ✏✑❡✘ ✡✖❡ usually ✍✓
are ✉✍✉✡✌✌✘ so ❡✠☞✌✓✍✢✒❡
explosive ✗✑✡✗
that Ash cone with Caldera with cinder
cone on floor
✇✑❡✕ ✗✑❡✘
when they ❡✖✉☞✗
erupt ✗✑❡✘
they ✗❡✕✙
tend ✗✓
to ✔✓✌✌✡☞✍❡
collapse ✓✕ on Lava
Mesa
Cinder
:
-
volcanic dome
——
✗✑❡☛✍❡✌✒❡✍ ✖✡✗✑❡✖ ✗✑✡✕ ✛✉✢✌✙✢✕s
themselves rather than building any tall ✡✕✘ ✗✡✌✌ < | FO ee
✍✗✖✉✔✗✉✖❡✎ ✏✑❡ ✔✓✌✌✡☞✍❡✙
structure. The collapsed ✙❡☞✖❡✍✍✢✓✕✍
depressions ✡✖❡
are ✔✡✌✌❡✙
called
Composite
Voleano\,
_
a
< _ Ash flows:

✭✮♦✵✫r✮★✎ ✏✑❡✢✖ ❡✠☞✌✓✍✢✒❡✕❡✍✍

calderas. Their indicates ✗✑✡✗
explosiveness ✢✕✙✢✔✡✗❡✍ that yj jiqteroded: (4
✗✑❡
the ☛✡s☛✡
magma ✔✑✡☛✛❡✖
chamber ✍✉☞☞✌✘✢✕s
supplying ✗✑❡
the ✌✡✒✡ is ✕✓✗
lava ✢✍ not jy laccolith,

✓✕✌✘
only ✑✉s❡ is ✡✌✍✓
✛✉✗ ✢✍
huge but in ✔✌✓✍❡
also ✢✕ ✒✢✔✢✕✢✗✘✎
close vicinity.

❦♦✥✥✵
Flood ♥✮★✮♦✪
Basalt ①r✥✈✩✯✭✫★
Provinces
✏✑❡✍❡ volcanoes
These ✒✓✌✔✡✕✓❡✍ ✓✉✗☞✓✉✖
outpour ✑✢s✑✌✘ fluid ✌✡✒✡
highly ✚✌✉✢✙ lava ✗✑✡✗
that
✚✌✓✇✍ for ✌✓✕s
flows ✚✓✖ long ✙✢✍✗✡✕✔❡✍✎
distances. ❨✓☛❡
Some ☞✡✖✗✍
parts ✓✚of ✗✑❡
the
✇✓✖✌✙ ✡✖❡
world are ✔✓✒❡✖❡✙
covered by ✛✘ ✗✑✓✉✍✡✕✙✍
thousands ✓✚ of ✍q✎ km ✓✚
sq. ❧☛ of
✗✑✢✔❧ ✛✡✍✡✌✗ ✌✡✒✡
thick basalt lava ✚✌✓✇✍✎ ✏✑❡✖❡ ✔✡✕
flows. There ✛❡ ✡a ✍❡✖✢❡✍
can be series ✓✚
of
✚✌✓✇✍ ✇✢✗✑ ✍✓☛❡ ✚✌✓✇✍ ✡✗✗✡✢✕✢✕s ✗✑✢✔❧✕❡✍✍
flows with some flows attaining thickness of ✓✚ ②❴③④⑤❜
Figure ⑥⑦⑧ ❝❬❞❢❣❤❴❢ ⑩❣❤❶❷❬⑤❭❫
3.5 ⑨: Volcanic Landforms
✷✑
28 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

rs✉✈✇①③✉✈④
Batholiths ❾❷➁❸➃❽❼
conduit ❺⑧❷❻ ❶⑩⑥❷➍➅ ➎❼
from below. It ⑧⑩➀⑩❻❶⑥⑩➀
resembles ❼❿⑩ the ➀➃⑧❺⑦❾⑩
surface
A ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩
⑤ ❶❷❸❹ ❷❺
large body of ❻⑦⑨❻⑦❼❽❾
magmatic ❻⑦❼⑩⑧❽⑦⑥
material ❼❿⑦❼
that ❾❷❷⑥➀
cools ❸❷❻⑩➀ ❷❺ ❾❷❻➂❷➀❽❼⑩
➄❷⑥❾⑦➁❽❾ domes of composite volcano,
volcanic ➄❷⑥❾⑦➁❷➇ ❷➁⑥❹ only
❽➁
in ❼❿⑩
the ❸⑩⑩➂⑩⑧
deeper ❸⑩➂❼❿
depth ❷❺of ❼❿⑩
the ❾⑧➃➀❼
crust ❸⑩➄⑩⑥❷➂➀
develops ❽➁ in ❼❿⑩
the
❼❿⑩➀⑩
these ⑦⑧⑩
are ⑥❷❾⑦❼⑩❸
located ⑦❼at ❸⑩⑩➂⑩⑧
deeper ❸⑩➂❼❿➀➅
depths. ➎❼ It ❾⑦➁ ❶⑩
can be
❺❷⑧❻
form ❷❺of ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩
large ❸❷❻⑩➀➅ ➆❿⑩❹ ⑦➂➂⑩⑦⑧
domes. They appear ❷➁on ❼❿⑩
the ➀➃⑧❺⑦❾⑩
surface
⑧⑩⑨⑦⑧❸⑩❸ ⑦➀ ❼❿⑩ ⑥❷❾⑦⑥❽➀⑩❸ ➀❷➃⑧❾⑩ ❷❺
regarded as the localised source of lava that ⑥⑦➄⑦ ❼❿⑦❼
❷➁⑥❹ ❺❽➁❸➀
finds ❽❼➀ ➍⑦❹ ❼❷
its way to ❼❿⑩
the ➀➃⑧❺⑦❾⑩➅ ➆❿⑩ ➏⑦⑧➁⑦❼⑦➈⑦
surface. The Karnataka
only ⑦❺❼⑩⑧
after ❼❿⑩
the ❸⑩➁➃❸⑦❼❽❷➁⑦⑥ processes ⑧⑩❻❷➄⑩
denudational ➂⑧❷❾⑩➀➀⑩➀ remove
plateau is spotted with domal ❿❽⑥⑥➀
➂⑥⑦❼⑩⑦➃ ❽➀ ➀➂❷❼❼⑩❸ ➍❽❼❿ ❸❷❻⑦⑥ hills ❷❺
of ⑨⑧⑦➁❽❼⑩
granite
❼❿⑩
the ❷➄⑩⑧⑥❹❽➁⑨
overlying ❻⑦❼⑩⑧❽⑦⑥➀➅ ➆❿⑩❹ ❾❷➄⑩⑧
materials. They cover ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩
large ⑦⑧⑩⑦➀➇
areas, ⑧❷❾➈➀➅
rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, ⑦⑧⑩
➐❷➀❼ ❷❺ ❼❿⑩➀⑩➇ ➁❷➍ ⑩➑❺❷⑥❽⑦❼⑩❸➇ are
⑦➁❸ ⑦❼ ❼❽❻⑩➀➇ ⑦➀➀➃❻⑩ ❸⑩➂❼❿ ❼❿⑦❼ ❻⑦❹
and at times, assume depth that may be several ❶⑩ ➀⑩➄⑩⑧⑦⑥ ⑩➑⑦❻➂⑥⑩➀
examples ❷❺ of ⑥⑦❾❷⑥❽❼❿➀
lacoliths ❷⑧ ❶⑦❼❿❷⑥❽❼❿➀➅
or batholiths.
➈❻➅ ➆❿⑩➀⑩ ⑦⑧⑩
km. These are ⑨⑧⑦➁❽❼❽❾ ❶❷❸❽⑩➀➅ ➉⑦❼❿❷⑥❽❼❿➀
granitic bodies. Batholiths ⑦⑧⑩ are
❼❿⑩
the ❾❷❷⑥⑩❸ portion ❷❺
cooled ➂❷⑧❼❽❷➁ of ❻⑦⑨❻⑦
magma ❾❿⑦❻❶⑩⑧➀➅
chambers. ➊s➒✇①③✉✈➓
Lapolith, ➔✈s➋✇①③✉✈ and ↔③①①④
Phacolith s→➣ Sills
➊s➋✇①③✉✈④
Lacoliths ⑤➀ ⑦➁❸
As ➍❿⑩➁ ❼❿⑩
and when the ⑥⑦➄⑦
lava ❻❷➄⑩➀ upwards, ⑦
moves ➃➂➍⑦⑧❸➀➇ a
These ⑦⑧⑩
➆❿⑩➀⑩ are ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩
large ❸❷❻⑩➌➀❿⑦➂⑩❸
dome-shaped ❽➁❼⑧➃➀❽➄⑩ ❶❷❸❽⑩➀
intrusive bodies portion ❷❺
➂❷⑧❼❽❷➁ of ❼❿⑩
the ➀⑦❻⑩
same ❻⑦❹
may ❼⑩➁❸
tend ❼❷to ❻❷➄⑩
move ❽➁
in ⑦
a
➍❽❼❿ ⑦a ⑥⑩➄⑩⑥
with ❶⑦➀⑩ ⑦➁❸
level base and ❾❷➁➁⑩❾❼⑩❸ ❶❹ ⑦a ➂❽➂⑩➌⑥❽➈⑩
connected by pipe-like ❿❷⑧❽↕❷➁❼⑦⑥
horizontal ❸❽⑧⑩❾❼❽❷➁ ➍❿⑩⑧⑩➄⑩⑧ ❽❼
direction wherever it ❺❽➁❸➀
finds ⑦ ➍⑩⑦➈
a weak

❆✒✓✔✕✔✓✖ ✗: ✘✙✒✚✓✔✛✜
Activity Locating ✚✛
an ✢✣✔✒✤✛✓✥✤
Epicentre

✦✧★
For ✩✪✫✬
this ✭✧✮
you ✯✫✰✰
will ✱✲✲✳
need
❉✴✵✴
Data ✶✸✹✺
from ✻ 3 ✼✽✾✼✺✹✿✸✴❀❁
seismograph ✼✵✴✵✾✹❂✼ stations ✴❃✹❄✵
about ✵❁✽ the ✵✾✺✽
time ✹✶ of ✴✸✸✾❅✴❇
arrival ✹✶ of ❈❊●✴❅✽✼❍
P-waves, ■❊●✴❅✽✼❏
S-waves.
P★✧❑✲✳✮★✲
Procedure
▲❏
1. ▼✾❂◆
Find ✵❁✽the ✵✾✺✽
time ✹✶ of ✴✸✸✾❅✴❇
arrival ✹✶ of ❈P ✴❂◆
and ■❊●✴❅✽✼
S-waves ✹✶ of ✵❁✽ given ❖❄✴◗✽
the ✿✾❅✽❂ quake ✶✹✸ for ✵❁✽
the ✵❁✸✽✽
three ✼✵✴✵✾✹❂✼
stations ✶✹✸ ●❁✾❘❁
for which
②✹❄ ❁✴❅✽
you have ✵❁✽the ◆✴✵✴❏
data.
❙❏
2. ❚✹✺❀❄✵✽
Compute ✵❁✽ the ✵✾✺✽
time ❇✴✿ ❃✽✵●✽✽❂ ✵❁✽
lag between the ✴✸✸✾❅✴❇
arrival ✹✶ of ❈ P ✴❂◆
and ■❊●✴❅✽✼
S-waves ✶✹✸ for ✽✴❘❁
each ✼✵✴✵✾✹❂❯
station; ✾✵ is ❘✴❇❇✽◆
it ✾✼ called ✵✾✺✽
time
lag. ❧❱✹✵✽
❇✴✿❏ (Note ✵❁✴✵
that ✾✵ is ◆✾✸✽❘✵❇②
it ✾✼ directly ✸✽❇✴✵✽◆
related ✵✹ the ◆✾✼✵✴❂❘✽
to ✵❁✽ distance ✹✶ of ✵❁✽
the ✼✽✾✼✺✹✿✸✴❀❁
seismograph ✶✸✹✺ from ✵❁✽ the ✶✹❘❄✼❏❲
focus.)
❳❨ ❩❬✬✫❑
Basic ★✮✰✲
rule ❭: ✦✧★
For ✲❪✲★✭
every ✬✲❑✧✱✳
second ✧❫ of ✩✫❴✲
time ✰❬❵❛
lag, ✩✪✲
the ✲❬★✩✪❜✮❬❝✲
earthquake ✫✬ is ★✧✮❵✪✰✭
roughly ❞ 8 ❝❴
km ❬✯❬✭
away from ❫★✧❴ ✭✧✮❨you.
3. ❡✼✾❂✿
✻❏ Using ✵❁✽ rule ❖❄✹✵✽◆
the ✸❄❇✽ above, ❘✹❂❅✽✸✵
quoted ✴❃✹❅✽❍ convert ✵❁✽ the ✵✾✺✽
time ❇✴✿ into ◆✾✼✵✴❂❘✽
lag ✾❂✵✹ distance ❧( ❢ # ✼✽❘✹❂◆✼
seconds ✹✶ of ✵✾✺✽
time ❇✴✿ lag ❣* ❤❲
8)
✶✹✸
for ✽✴❘❁
each ✼✵✴✵✾✹❂❏
station.
✐❏
4. ❥❂On ✴ a ✺✴❀
map ❇✹❘✴✵✽
locate ✵❁✽ the ✼✽✾✼✺✹✿✸✴❀❁
seismograph ✼✵✴✵✾✹❂✼❏
stations.
❦❏ Draw ❘✾✸❘❇✽✼❍
5. ❉✸✴● circles, ✵✴◗✾❂✿
taking ✵❁✽ the ✼✽✾✼✺✹✿✸✴❀❁
seismograph ✼✵✴✵✾✹❂✼ stations ✴✼ the ❘✽❂✵✸✽❍
as ✵❁✽ centre, with ●✾✵❁ ✵❁✽
the ✸✴◆✾❄✼
radius ✽❖❄✴❇ equal ✵✹ to ✵❁✽
the
◆✾✼✵✴❂❘✽
distance you ②✹❄ ❁✴❅✽have ❘✴❇❘❄❇✴✵✽◆
calculated ✾❂ in ✵❁✽
the ❀✸✽❅✾✹❄✼
previous ✼✵✽❀❏ step. ❧❉✹
(Do ❂✹✵
not ✶✹✸✿✽✵
forget ✵✹to ❘✹❂❅✽✸✵
convert ◆✾✼✵✴❂❘✽
distance ✴✼ as ❀✽✸
per
✵❁✽
the ✺✴❀map ✼❘✴❇✽❏❲
scale.)
♠❏ ♥❁✽✼✽ ❘✾✸❘❇✽✼
6. These ●✾❇❇ ✾❂✵✽✸✼✽❘✵
circles will intersect ✽✴❘❁
each ✹✵❁✽✸
other ✾❂ in ✴a ❀✹✾❂✵❏ ♥❁✾✼ ❀✹✾❂✵
point. This point ✾✼ is ✵❁✽
the ❇✹❘✴✵✾✹❂
location ✹✶ of ✵❁✽
the ✽❀✾❘✽❂✵✸✽❏
epicentre.
♦❂
In ❂✹✸✺✴❇
normal ❀✸✴❘✵✾❘✽❍
practice, ✵❁✽ the ✽❀✾❘✽❂✵✸✽✼
epicentres ✴✸✽ are ❇✹❘✴✵✽◆
located ❄✼✾❂✿using ❘✹✺❀❄✵✽✸
computer ✺✹◆✽❇✼❏ ♥❁✽② ✵✴◗✽
models. They take ✾❂✵✹
into ✴❘❘✹❄❂✵
account
✵❁✽
the ✼✵✸❄❘✵❄✸✽
structure ✹✶ of ✵❁✽ earth’s ❘✸❄✼✵❏
the ✽✴✸✵❁t✼ crust. The ♥❁✽ ❇✹❘✴✵✾✹❂✼
locations with ●✾✵❁ ✴❘❘❄✸✴❘②
accuracy within ●✾✵❁✾❂ ✴a ✶✽●few ❁❄❂◆✸✽◆
hundred ✺✽✵✸✽✼ metres
❘✴❂
can be❃✽ ✴❘❁✾✽❅✽◆❏
achieved. The ♥❁✽ ❀✸✹❘✽◆❄✸✽
procedure ✹❄✵❇✾❂✽◆
outlined ❁✽✸✽ here ✾✼ is ✴a ✺❄❘❁
much ✼✾✺❀❇✾✶✾✽◆ ❅✽✸✼✾✹❂ ✹✶
simplified version ●❁✴✵ ✾✼
of what is ❂✹✸✺✴❇❇②
normally
◆✹❂✽❍
done, ✴❇✵❁✹❄✿❁
although ✵❁✽ the ❀✸✾❂❘✾❀❇✽
principle ✾✼ is ✵❁✽
the ✼✴✺✽❏
same.
♦❂
In ✵❁✽ following ◆✾✴✿✸✴✺❍
the ✶✹❇❇✹●✾❂✿ diagram, ✵❁✽ the ✽❀✾❘✽❂✵✸✽
epicentre ✾✼ is ❇✹❘✴✵✽◆
located ❄✼✾❂✿
using ✵❁✾✼ procedure. ♦✵
this ❀✸✹❘✽◆❄✸✽❏ also ❘✹❂✵✴✾❂✼
It ✴❇✼✹ contains ✴ a
✵✴❃❇✽
table ✿✾❅✾❂✿ necessary ◆✴✵✴❏
giving ❂✽❘✽✼✼✴✸② ♣❁② ◆✹❂t✵
data. Why don’t you②✹❄ ✵✸②try ✶✹✸ ②✹❄✸✼✽❇✶ q
for yourself?

❉✴✵✴
Data

❳★★✫❪❬✰ ✩✫❴✲
Arrival time ✧❫of
➙✩❬✩✫✧✱
Station P➛✯❬❪✲✬
P-waves ➙➛✯❬❪✲✬
S-waves
➜✧✮★
Hour ➝✫✱❨
Min. ➙✲❑❨
Sec. ➜✧✮★
Hour ➝✫✱❨
Min. ➙✲❑❨
Sec.

■▲
$1 ➞✻
03 ❙✻
23 ❙➞
20 ➞✻
03 ❙✐
24 ✐❦
45

■❙
$2 ➞✻
03 ❙❙
22 ▲➟
17 ➞✻
03 ❙✻
23 ❦➟
57

■✻
$3 ➞✻
03 ❙❙
22 ➞➞
OO ➞✻
03 ❙✻
23 ❦❦
55

■❘✴❇✽
Scale ✹✶
of ✵❁✽ map ▲❘✺
the ✺✴❀ lcm ➠ = ✐➞◗✺
40km
■INTERIOR
✁✂✄■☎✄ ☎✆ ✁✝✂ ✂✞✄✁✝
OF THE EARTH ✷✟
29

♣❀❁❂❃❄
plane. ❅❉ It ❋❁●
may ❍❃❉get ❏❃❑❉❃▲
rested ◆❂ in ▲◆❖❖❃❏❃❂❉
different ❖P❏❋❑❄
forms. ❅❂ In ❫❙◆❀❃ ❉❙❃
while the ❉❙◆❝t
thick ❙P❏◆❜P❂❉❁❀
horizontal ▲❃♣P❑◆❉❑
deposits ❁❏❃
are
❝❁❑❃
case ◆❉it ▲❃◗❃❀P♣❑
develops ◆❂❉Pinto ❁ a ❑❁❘❝❃❏
saucer ❑❙❁♣❃❚
shape, ❝P❂❝❁◗❃
concave ❝❁❀❀❃▲
called ❑◆❀❀❑❄
sills.
❉P
to ❉❙❃
the ❑t● ❯P▲●❚ ◆❉
sky body, it ◆❑
is ❝❁❀❀❃▲
called ❧❱❳❨❧❩❬❭❄
lapolith. A❪ wavy❫❁◗●
❋❁❑❑
mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found ❁❉
P❖ ◆❂❉❏❘❑◆◗❃ ❏P❝t❑❚ ❁❉ ❉◆❋❃❑❚ ◆❑ ❖P❘❂▲ at ❢❣❥❡s
Dykes
❉❙❃ ❯❁❑❃ P❖
the base of ❑●❂❝❀◆❂❃❑
synclines P❏ or ❁❉
at ❉❙❃
the ❉P♣
top P❖of ❁❂❉◆❝❀◆❂❃
anticline ❦❙❃❂ ❉❙❃
When the ❀❁◗❁
lava ❋❁t❃❑
makes ◆❉❑ ❫❁● ❉❙❏P❘❍❙
its way through ❝❏❁❝t❑
cracks
◆❂
in ❖P❀▲❃▲
folded ◆❍❂❃P❘❑
igneous ❝P❘❂❉❏●❄
country. ✐❘❝❙ ❫❁◗● ❋❁❉❃❏◆❁❀❑
Such wavy materials
❙❁◗❃ ❁❂▲
and ❉❙❃the ❖◆❑❑❘❏❃❑
fissures ▲❃◗❃❀P♣❃▲
developed ◆❂ in ❉❙❃
the ❀❁❂▲❚
land, ◆❉it
have ❁ a ▲❃❖◆❂◆❉❃
definite ❝P❂▲❘◆❉
conduit ❉P to ❑P❘❏❝❃ ❯❃❂❃❁❉❙ ◆❂
source beneath in
❉❙❃
the ❖P❏❋
form P❖ of ❋❁❍❋❁
magma ❝❙❁❋❯❃❏❑
chambers ❴❑❘❯❑❃❵❘❃❂❉❀●
(subsequently
❑P❀◆▲◆❖◆❃❑ ❁❀❋P❑❉ ♣❃❏♣❃❂▲◆❝❘❀❁❏ ❉P
solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.❉❙❃ ❍❏P❘❂▲❄
▲❃◗❃❀P♣❃▲
developed ❁❑ ❯❁❉❙P❀◆❉❙❑❞❄ These
as batholiths). ❛❙❃❑❃ ❁❏❃are ❝❁❀❀❃▲
called ❉❙❃
the ❅❉
It ❍❃❉❑
gets ❝PP❀❃▲
cooled ◆❂ in ❉❙❃
the ❑❁❋❃
same ♣P❑◆❉◆P❂
position ❉Pto ▲❃◗❃❀P♣
develop ❁ a
♣❙❁❝P❀◆❉❙❑❄
phacoliths. ❫❁❀❀✇❀◆t❃ ❑❉❏❘❝❉❘❏❃❄
wall-like structure. ✐❘❝❙Such ❑❉❏❘❝❉❘❏❃❑
structures ❁❏❃are ❝❁❀❀❃▲
called
❛❙❃ ❂❃❁
The near ❏ ❙ P ❏◆❜P ❂❉❁❀ bodies
horizontal ❯P ▲◆❃ ❑ P❖ of ❉❙the❃ ▲●t❃❑❄ ❛❙❃❑❃ ❁❏❃
dykes. These are ❉❙❃
the ❋P❑❉
most ❝P❋❋P❂❀●
commonly ❖P❘❂▲found
◆❂❉❏❘❑◆◗❃
intrusive ◆❍❂❃P❘❑
igneous ❏P❝t❑rocks ❁❏❃ are ❝❁❀❀❃▲
called s❩❧❧sill P❏
or ◆❂❉❏❘❑◆◗❃
intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra ❁❏❃❁❄
❖P❏❋❑ ◆❂ ❉❙❃ ❫❃❑❉❃❏❂ ♠❁❙❁❏❁❑❙❉❏❁ area.
sheet, ▲❃♣❃❂▲◆❂❍
s❭❡❡❬❚ depending P❂ on ❉❙❃
the ❉❙◆❝t❂❃❑❑
thickness P❖ of ❉❙❃
the ♥♦qrq ✉✈q
These are ①②③r④⑤q✈q⑤
considered ⑥♦q
the ⑦qq⑤q✈r
feeders ⑦②✈
for ⑥♦q
the q✈⑧⑨⑥④②③r
eruptions
❋❁❉❃❏◆❁❀❄
material. The ❛❙❃ ❉❙◆❂❂❃❏
thinner P❂❃❑ones ❁❏❃are ❝❁❀❀❃▲
called ❑❙❃❃❉❑
sheets ⑥♦✉⑥
that ⑩q⑤
led ⑥②
to ⑥♦q
the ⑤q❶q⑩②⑨❷q③⑥
development ②⑦
of ⑥♦q
the ❸q①①✉③
Deccan ⑥✈✉⑨r❹
traps.

— ❊✠❊✡☛☞✌❊✌
EXERCISES —_

✶✳
1. ▼✍✎✏✑✒✎✓
Multiple ✔✕✖✑✔✓
choice ✗✍✓✘✏✑✖✙✘✳
questions.
✭✑✮ ❲✕✑✔✕ ✖✙✓
(i) Which one ✖✚ the ✚✖✎✎✖✛✑✙✜
of ✏✕✓ following ✓✢✣✏✕✗✍✢✤✓
earthquake waves ✛✢✥✓✘ ✑✘ is ✦✖✣✓
more ✧✓✘✏✣✍✔✏✑✥✓★
destructive?

✭✢✮
(a) ✩✪✛✢✥✓✘
P-waves ✭✔✮
(c) ✫✍✣✚✢✔✓ ✛✢✥✓✘
Surface waves

✭✬✮
(b) ✫✪✛✢✥✓✘
S-waves ✭✧✮
(d) ✯✖✙✓
None ✖✚ the ✢✬✖✥✓
of ✏✕✓ above

✭✑✑✮ ❲✕✑✔✕ ✖✙✓

(ii) Which one ✖✚ the ✚✖✎✎✖✛✑✙✜
of ✏✕✓ is ✢
following ✑✘ a ✧✑✣✓✔✏
direct ✘✖✍✣✔✓
source ✖✚ information ✢✬✖✍✏
of ✑✙✚✖✣✦✢✏✑✖✙ about ✏✕✓
the
✑✙✏✓✣✑✖✣
interior ✖✚
of ✏✕✓
the ✓✢✣✏✕★
earth?

✭✢✮
(a) ✰✢✣✏✕✗✍✢✤✓
Earthquake waves ✛✢✥✓✘ ✭✔✮ Gravitational ✚✖✣✔✓
(c) ✱✣✢✥✑✏✢✏✑✖✙✢✎ force

✭✬✮ ✲✖✎✔✢✙✖✓✘
(b) Volcanoes ✭✧✮ Earth ✦✢✜✙✓✏✑✘✦
(d) ✰✢✣✏✕ magnetism

✭✑✑✑✮ ❲✕✑✔✕ ✏❤✒✓

(iii) Which type ✖✚ ✥✖✎✔✢✙✑✔ ✓✣✍✒✏✑✖✙✘
of volcanic eruptions ✕✢✥✓
have ✔✢✍✘✓✧
caused ✴✓✔✔✢✙ ✵✣✢✒ ✚✖✣✦✢✏✑✖✙✘★
Deccan Trap formations?
✭✢✮
(a) ✫✕✑✓✎✧
Shield ✭✔✮
(c) ❈✖✦✒✖✘✑✏✓
Composite

✭✬✮
(b) ✸✎✖✖✧
Flood ✭✧✮
(d) ❈✢✎✧✓✣✢
Caldera

✭✑✥✮ ❲✕✑✔✕ ✖✙✓

(iv) Which one ✖✚ the ✚✖✎✎✖✛✑✙✜
of ✏✕✓ following ✧✓✘✔✣✑✬✓✘
describes ✏✕✓ the ✎✑✏✕✖✘✒✕✓✣✓✹
lithosphere:

✭✢✮ upper ✢✙✧

(a) ✍✒✒✓✣ lower ✦✢✙✏✎✓
and ✎✖✛✓✣ mantle ✭✔✮ crust ✢✙✧
(c) ✔✣✍✘✏ and ✔✖✣✓
core

✭✬✮ crust ✢✙✧

(b) ✔✣✍✘✏ upper ✦✢✙✏✎✓
and ✍✒✒✓✣ mantle ✭✧✮
(d) ✦✢✙✏✎✓
mantle ✢✙✧ and ✔✖✣✓
core

✺✳
2. ❆✙✘✛✓✣ the ✚✖✎✎✖✛✑✙✜
Answer ✏✕✓ following ✗✍✓✘✏✑✖✙✘
questions ✑✙ in ✢✬✖✍✏
about ✻✼ 30 ✛✖✣✧✘✳
words.
✭✑✮ What
❲✕✢✏ ✢✣✓are ✬✖✧❤
body ✛✢✥✓✘★
waves?
✭✑✑✮ ✯✢✦✓
Name ✏✕✓ the ✧✑✣✓✔✏
direct ✘✖✍✣✔✓✘
sources ✖✚ information ✢✬✖✍✏
of ✑✙✚✖✣✦✢✏✑✖✙ about ✏✕✓
the ✑✙✏✓✣✑✖✣
interior ✖✚
of ✏✕✓
the ✓✢✣✏✕✳
earth.

✭✑✑✑✮ Why
❲✕❤ ✧✖ earthquake ✛✢✥✓✘
do ✓✢✣✏✕✗✍✢✤✓ waves ✧✓✥✓✎✖✒ shadow ✽✖✙✓★
develop ✘✕✢✧✖✛ zone?
✭✑✥✮ ❇✣✑✓✚✎❤
Briefly ✓✾✒✎✢✑✙
explain ✏✕✓the ✑✙✧✑✣✓✔✏
indirect ✘✖✍✣✔✓✘
sources ✖✚ of ✑✙✚✖✣✦✢✏✑✖✙
information ✖✚ of ✏✕✓
the ✑✙✏✓✣✑✖✣
interior ✖✚of ✏✕✓
the
✓✢✣✏✕
earth ✖✏✕✓✣
other ✏✕✢✙
than ✏✕✖✘✓
those ✖✚ seismic ✢✔✏✑✥✑✏❤✳
of ✘✓✑✘✦✑✔ activity.
✻✳
3. ❆✙✘✛✓✣ the ✚✖✎✎✖✛✑✙✜
Answer ✏✕✓ following ✗✍✓✘✏✑✖✙✘
questions ✑✙ in ✢✬✖✍✏ 150 ✛✖✣✧✘✳
about ✶✿✼ words.
✭✑✮
(i) ❲✕✢✏ ✢✣✓
What are ✏✕✓
the ✓✚✚✓✔✏✘
effects ✖✚
of ✒✣✖✒✢✜✢✏✑✖✙
propagation ✖✚ earthquake ✛✢✥✓✘
of ✓✢✣✏✕✗✍✢✤✓ waves ✖✙ the ✣✖✔✤
on ✏✕✓ rock ✦✢✘✘
mass
✏✕✣✖✍✜✕ ✛✕✑✔✕ ✏✕✓❤
through which they travel? ✏✣✢✥✓✎★
✭✑✑✮
(ii) ❲✕✢✏ ✧✖
What understand ✬❤
❤✖✍ ✍✙✧✓✣✘✏✢✙✧
do you intrusive ✚✖✣✦✘★
by ✑✙✏✣✍✘✑✥✓ forms? ❇✣✑✓✚✎❤
Briefly ✧✓✘✔✣✑✬✓
describe ✥✢✣✑✖✍✘
various
intrusive ✚✖✣✦✘✳
✑✙✏✣✍✘✑✥✓ forms.
PCHAPTER
◗❙❯❱❲❳

ay
DISTRIBUTION ❊●
❀❁❂❃❄❁❅❇❃❁❊❋ OF ❍❏❑▲❋❂
OCEANS
▲❋▼ ◆❊❋❃❁❋❑❋❃❂
AND CONTINENTS

■In ✁✂✄
the ☎✆✄✝✞✟✠✡
previous ☛✂❤☎✁✄✆✱
chapter, you ☞✟✠ ✂❤✝✄
have ✡✁✠✌✞✄✌
studied ✁✂✄ the ✁✂✄✟✆☞t
theory” ✞in ✵✏✵❝✍ 1912. This❚✂✞✡ was
✇❤✡ ✆✄✕❤✆✌✞
regarding✕ ✁✂✄ the
✞interior
✁✄✆✞✟✆ ✟✐of ✁✂✄
the ✄❤✆✁✂✍
earth. You ✎✟✠ ❤✆✄
are ❤✉✆✄❤✌☞
already ✐❤❡✞✉✞❤✆
familiar ✌✞✡✁✆✞❜✠✁✞✟
distribution ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ✟☛✄❤
oceans✡ ❤ and✌ ✁✂✄
the ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡✍
continents.
✇✞✁✂ ✁✂✄
with ✇✟✆✉✌ ❡❤☎✍
the world map. You ✎✟✠ ♦know ✟✇ ✁✂❤✁
that ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡
continents ✤☛☛✟✆✌✞ ✕ ✁✟
According ✔✄✕✄ ✄✆✱ ❤✉✉
to Wegener, all ✁✂✄
the ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡
continents
☛✟✝✄✆
cover ❝✏ 29 ☎✄✆
per ☛✄
cent✁ ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ✡✠✆✐❤☛✄
surface ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ✄❤✆✁✂
earth ✐✟✆❡✄✌
formed ❤ a ✡✞ ✕✉✄ ☛✟
single ✁✞ ✄ ✁❤✉ ❡❤✡✡✱
continental mass, ❤ a ❡✄✕❤
mega ✟☛✄❤ocean
❤and✌ ✁✂✄the ✆✄❡❤✞
remainder ✌✄✆ ✞✡ is ✠ ✌✄✆ ✟☛✄❤
under oceanic✞☛ waters.
✇❤✁✄✆✡✍ ✡✠✆✆✟✠
surrounded ✌✄✌ ❜☞ by ✁✂✄
the ✡❤❡✄✍
same. The❚✂✄ ✡✠☎✄✆
super ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁
continent
❚✂✄ ☎✟✡✞✁✞✟
The positions✡ ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡ ❤and✌ ✁✂✄
continents the ✟☛✄❤
ocean ✇❤✡ namcdgiii@
was ❤❡✄✌ ❨✤✦✿✤♣✤✱ which ✇✂✞☛✂ ❡✄❤meant ✁ ❤✉✉
all ✄❤✆✁✂✍
earth.
❜✟✌✞✄✡✱
bodies, ❤✡ as we✇✄ ✡✄✄
see ✁✂✄❡
them ✞in ✁✂✄ the ❡❤☎✱map, ✂❤✝✄have not ✟✁ ❚✂✄ ❡✄✕❤❛✟☛✄❤ ✇❤✡ ☛❤✉✉✄✌
The mega-ocean was called4q@giiaaaSSD, ❨✤✦❚✖✤❩✤❬❬✤✱
❜✄✄
been ✁✂✄ the ✡❤❡✄
same ✞in ✁✂✄ the ☎❤✡✁✍
past. ✑✟✆✄✟✝✄✆✱
Moreover, ✞✁ it ✞✡
is now ✟✇ ❡✄❤
meaning ✞ ✕ ❤✉✉ ✇❤✁✄✆✍ ✖✄
all water. He ❤✆✕✠✄✌
argued ✁✂❤✁✱
that, ❤✆✟✠
around✌ ❝❭❭ 200
❤a well-accepted
✇✄✉✉❛❤☛☛✄☎✁✄✌ ✐❤☛✁ fact ✁✂❤✁that ✟☛✄❤ oceans ✡ ❤ and✌ ❡✞✉✉✞✟
million years ☞✄❤✆✡ ❤✕✟✱ ago, ✁✂✄the ✡✠☎✄✆
super ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✱
continent,
☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡ will
continents ✇✞✉✉ not✟✁ ☛✟ ✁✞ ✠✄ ✁✟
continue to ✄enjoy
✒✟☞ ✁✂✄✞✆
their ❨❤ ✕❤✄❤✱ ❜✄✕❤
Pangaea, began ✁✟ to ✡☎✉✞✁✍
split. ❨❤ ✕❤✄❤ ✐✞✆✡✁
Pangaea first ❜✆✟♦✄
broke
☎✆✄✡✄
present ✁ ☎✟✡✞✁✞✟
positions✡ ✞in ✁✞❡✄✡ times ✁✟to ☛✟❡✄✍
come. ■✐ If ✁✂✞✡
this ✞✡is ✞into✁✟ ✁✇✟ ✉❤✆✕✄ ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁❤✉
two large continental masses a ❡❤✡✡✄✡ ❤✡ ❩❤✠✆❤✡✞❤
✡✟✱
so, ✁✂✄
the s✠✄✡✁✞✟
question ❤✆✞✡✄✡
arises what ✇✂❤✁ were
✇✄✆✄ ✁✂✄✞✆
their ☎✟✡✞✁✞✟
positions✡ ❤ ✌ @SEEea
and ✿✟ ✌✇❤ ❤✉❤ ✌ ✐✟✆❡✞ forming✕ ✁✂✄ ✟✆✁✂✄✆ ❤and✌
the northern
✞in ✁✂✄
the ☎❤✡✁✓ ✔✂☞ ❤and✌ ✂✟✇
past? Why how ✌✟
do ✁✂✄☞
they ☛✂❤change ✕✄ ✁✂✄✞✆
their ✡✟✠✁✂✄✆
southern ☛✟❡☎✟ components ✄ ✁✡ ✆✄✡☎✄☛✁✞✝✄✉☞✍
respectively. ❬✠❜✡✄❛ Subse-
☎✟✡✞✁✞✟ ✡✓ ♣✝✄ ✞✐ ✞✁ ✞✡ ✁✆✠✄ ✁✂❤✁ ✁✂✄
positions? Even if it is true that the continents ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡ s✠✄
quently, ✁✉☞✱ ❩❤✠✆❤✡✞❤
Laurasia ❤ and✌ ✿✟ ✌✇❤ ❤✉❤ ✌
Gondwanaland
❤and✌ ✟☛✄❤
oceans✡ ✂❤✝✄
have ☛✂❤ changed ✕✄✌ ❤and✌ ❤✆✄ are ☛✂❤
changing ✕✞ ✕ ☛✟ ✁✞ ✠✄✌ ✁✟
continued to ❜✆✄❤♦
break ✞into ✁✟ various
✝❤✆✞✟✠✡ ✡❡❤✉✉✄✆
smaller
✁✂✄✞✆
their ☎✟✡✞✁✞✟
positions,✡✱ you
☞✟✠ ❡❤☞ ✇✟ ✌✄✆ ❤✡
may wonder as ✁✟ to ✂✟✇how ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡ ✁✂❤✁
continents that ✄❪✞✡✁
exist ✁✟✌❤☞✍ ✝❤✆✞✄✁☞ ✟✐
today. A✤ variety of ✄✝✞✌✄
evidence ☛✄
✡☛✞✄ ✁✞✡✁✡ ♦know
scientists ✟✇ ✁✂✞✡✍
this. ✖✟✇How ✂❤✝✄
have ✁✂✄☞
they ✌✄✁✄✆❡✞
determined ✄✌ ✇❤✡ ✟✐✐✄✆✄✌
was offered ✞in ✡✠☎☎✟✆✁
support ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁❤✉ ✌✆✞✐✁✍
continental drift.
✁✂✄✞✆
their ✄❤✆✉✞✄✆
earlier ☎✟✡✞✁✞✟
positions? ✡✓ You
✎✟✠ will
✇✞✉✉ ✐✞find✌ ✁✂✄
the ❤ ✡✇✄✆✡
answers ❬✟❡✄
Some ✟✐ of ✁✂✄✡✄
these ❤✆✄are ✕✞✝✄
given ❜✄✉✟✇✍
below.
✁✟
to ✡✟❡✄
some ✟✐ of ✁✂✄✡✄
these ❤ and✌ ✆✄✉❤✁✄✌
related s✠✄✡✁✞✟
questions✡ ✞in ✁✂✞✡ this
☛✂❤☎✁✄✆✍
chapter. ❫❴❵❞❢❣❥❢
Evidence ❵❣
in ❦❧♠♠♥qr
Support ♥✈
of r①❢
the ②♥❣r❵❣❢❣r③④
Continental ⑤q❵✈r
Drift
❈❖✗✘✙✗✚✗✘✛✜
CONTINENTAL ✥❘✙✢✘ DRIFT ⑥✫✯
The ⑦✪✮⑧✫✲✸✻
Matching ✹✼ of ⑨✹✸✮✲✸✯✸✮✴
Continents ⑩❶✲✻❷❸✪❹❷❺✲✮❻
(Jig-Saw-Fit)
Observe ✁✂✄
✣❜✡✄✆✝✄ the ✡✂❤☎✄
shape ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ☛✟❤✡✁✉✞
coastline✄ ✟✐of ✁✂✄ ✤✁✉❤ ✁✞☛
the Atlantic ❚✂✄ ✡✂✟✆✄✉✞
The shorelines ✄✡ ✟✐ ✤✐✆✞☛❤ ❤and✌ ❬✟✠✁✂
of Africa ✤❡✄✆✞☛❤
South America
✣☛✄❤ ✍ ✎✟✠ ✇✞✉✉ ❜✄ ✡✠✆☎✆✞✡✄✌
Ocean. You will be surprised by the symmetry❜☞ ✁✂✄ ✡☞❡❡✄✁✆☞ ✐❤☛✞
facing✕ ✄❤☛✂
each ✟✁✂✄✆
other ✂❤✝✄have ❤ a ✆✄❡❤✆♦❤❜✉✄
remarkable ❤ and✌
✟✐
of ✁✂✄
the ☛✟❤✡✁✉✞
coastlines ✄✡ ✟on ✄✞✁✂✄✆
either ✡✞✌✄
side ✟✐
of ✁✂✄
the ✟☛✄❤
ocean. ✍ ✦✟
No ✠unmistakable
❡✞✡✁❤♦❤❜✉✄ ❡❤✁☛✂✍match. ■✁ It ❡❤☞
may ❜✄ ✟✁✄✌ ✁✂❤✁
be noted that ❤ a
✇✟ ✌✄✆✱ ❡❤
wonder, many☞ ✡☛✞✄ ✁✞✡✁✡ ✁✂✟✠✕✂✁
scientists thought ✟✐ of ✁✂✞✡
this ❡❤☎
map ☎✆✟✌✠☛✄✌
produced ✠✡✞ using✕ ❤ a ☛✟❡☎✠✁✄✆
computer ☎✆✟✕✆❤❡❡✄
programme
✡✞❡✞✉❤✆✞✁☞
similarity ❤ and✌ ☛✟ ✡✞✌✄✆✄✌ ✁✂✄
considered the ☎✟✡✡✞❜✞✉✞✁☞
possibility ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the
✁✟
to ✐✞
find✌ ✁✂✄
the ❜✄✡✁
best ✐✞✁
fit ✟✐
of ✁✂✄ ✤✁✉❤ ✁✞☛ ❡❤✆✕✞
the Atlantic ✇❤✡
margin was
✁✇✟ ✤❡✄✆✞☛❤✡✱ ♣✠✆✟☎✄
two Americas, Europe ❤ and✌ Africa,
✤✐✆✞☛❤✱ ✁✟ to ❜✄
be ✟ once☛✄ ☎✆✄✡✄ ✁✄✌ ❜☞
presented by ❼✠✉✉❤✆✌
Bullard ✞in ✵✏✷❽✍1964. ■✁It ☎✆✟✝✄✌
proved ✁✟to ❜✄
be
✒✟✞ ✄✌ ✁✟✕✄✁✂✄✆✍ ✧✆✟❡ ✁✂✄ ♦ ✟✇
joined together. From the known records of the ✆✄☛✟✆✌✡ ✟✐ ✁✂✄ s✠✞✁✄
quite ☎✄✆✐✄☛✁✍
perfect. The❚✂✄ ❡❤✁☛✂
match was ✇❤✡ ✁✆✞✄✌
tried ❤✁at ✵✱❭❭❭❛
1,000-
✂✞✡✁✟✆☞
history ✟✐ of ✡☛✞✄
science,☛✄✱ ✞✁it was
✇❤✡ Abraham
❆★✩✪✫✪✬ ✭✩✮✯✰✲✳✴✱
Ortelius, ❤ a
✐❤✁✂✟❡
fathom ✉✞ line✄ ✞instead
✡✁✄❤✌ ✟✐ of ✁✂✄
the ☎✆✄✡✄
present ✁ ✡✂✟✆✄✉✞
shoreline.✄✍
❉✠✁☛✂
Dutch ❡❤☎ map ❡❤♦✄✆✱
maker, who ✇✂✟ ✐✞✆✡✁
first ☎✆✟☎✟✡✄✌
proposed ✡✠☛✂ such ❤ a
☎✟✡✡✞❜✞✉✞✁☞
possibility ❤✡ as ✄❤✆✉☞
early ❤✡ as ✵✶✏✷✍ ❆✸✮✹✸✲✹ ✺✯✰✰✯✻✩✲✸✲
1596. Antonio Pellegrini
❾✹⑧❿✴
Rocks ✹✼of ❸✪✬✯ ❆✻✯ Across
Same Age ❆⑧✩✹✴✴ ✮✫✯the ✭⑧✯✪✸✴
Oceans
✌✆✄✇
drew ❤❡❤☎✡✂✟✇✞
a map showing✕ ✁✂✄ the ✁✂✆✄✄
three ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡ ✁✟✕✄✁✂✄✆✍
continents together.
✖✟✇✄✝✄✆✱
However, ✞✁ ✇❤✡ Alfred
it was ❆✰✼✩✯✽ ✾✯✻✯✸✯✩➋❤
Wegener—a ✿✄✆❡❤ German ❚✂✄ ✆❤✌✞✟❡✄✁✆✞☛
The radiometric ✌❤✁✞
dating✕ ❡✄✁✂✟✌✡
methods ✌✄✝✄✉✟☎✄✌
developed ✞in
❡✄✁✄✟✆✟✉✟✕✞✡✁
meteorologist who ✇✂✟ ☎✠✁put ✐✟✆✁✂
forth ❤ a ☛✟❡☎✆✄✂✄
comprehensive ✡✞✝✄ ✁✂✄
the ✆✄☛✄
recent✁ ☎✄✆✞✟✌
period ✂❤✝✄
have ✐❤☛✞✉✞✁❤✁✄✌
facilitated ☛✟✆✆✄✉❤✁✞
correlating✕ ✁✂✄
the
❤✆✕✠❡✄ ✁ ✞ ✁✂✄ ✐✟✆❡ ✟✐ ➇✁✂✄ ☛✟
argument in the form of “the continental drift ✁✞ ✄ ✁❤✉ ✌✆✞✐✁ ✆✟☛♦
rock ✐✟✆❡❤✁✞✟
formation ✐✆✟❡
from ✌✞✐✐✄✆✄
different✁ ☛✟ ✁✞ ✄ ✁✡ ❤☛✆✟✡✡
continents across
 DISTRIBUTION
❉ OF ✝✠✡☛✞✁
✁✂✄ ☎✆✂ ✝✞ ✝✟ OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
☛✞❉ ✠✝✞✂ ✞✡✞✂✁ 31
✸☞

the vast ocean. The belt of ancient rocks of

t✌✍ ✎✏✑t ✒✓✍✏✔✕ ❚✌✍ ✖✍✗t ✒✘ ✏✔✓✙✍✔t ✚✒✓✛✑ ✒✘ Force for Drifting
❋❄❅❇❈ ❊❄❅ ●❅❍❊❏❍❑▲

2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches

✷✜✢✢✢ ✣✙✗✗✙✒✔ ✤✍✏✚✑ ✘✚✒✣ ✥✚✏✦✙✗ ✓✒✏✑t ✣✏t✓✌✍✑
Wegener
❲✍ ✩ ✍ ✔✍ ✚ ✑ suggested
✉✩ ✩✍ ✑t ✍ ♠ t that
✌✏t t the
✌✍ ✣ movement
✒ ✎✍✣ ✍ ✔t
with those ✘✚✒✣
✇✙t✌ t✌✒✑✍ from western
✇✍✑t✍✚✔ Africa.
✧✘✚✙✓✏✕ The earliest
❚✌✍ ✍✏✚✗✙✍✑t
responsible for the drifting of the continents
✚✍✑★✒✔✑✙✖✗✍ ✘✒✚ t✌✍ ♠✚✙✘t✙✔✩ ✒✘ t✌✍ ✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✑
marine ♠✍★✒✑✙t✑
✣✏✚✙✔✍ deposits ✏✗✒✔✩
along t✌✍
the ✓✒✏✑t✗✙✔✍
coastline ✒✘
of ❙✒✉t✌
South
was caused by
✇✏✑ ✓✏✉✑✍♠ pole-fleeing ✘✒✚✓✍
✖✤ ★✒✗✍◆✘✗✍✍✙✔✩ force ✏✔♠and t✙♠✏✗
tidal ✘✒✚✓✍✕
force.
America
✧✣✍✚✙✓✏ ✏✔♠and Africa are ✒✘
✧✘✚✙✓✏ ✏✚✍ of t✌✍
the Jurassic age.
❆✉✚✏✑✑✙✓ ✏✩✍✕
The polar-fleeing force relates to the ✚✒t✏t✙✒✔
❚✌✍ ★✒✗✏✚ ◆✘✗✍✍✙✔✩ ✘✒✚✓✍ ✚✍✗✏t✍✑ t✒ t✌✍ rotation
This suggests t✌✏t
❚✌✙✑ ✑✉✩✩✍✑t✑ that t✌✍
the ✒✓✍✏✔
ocean ♠✙♠
did ✔✒t
not ✍✪✙✑t
exist ★✚✙✒✚
prior
of t✌✍
✒✘ the ✍✏✚t✌✕
earth. You are ✏✇✏✚✍
♦✒✉ ✏✚✍ aware ✒✘ of t✌✍
the ✘✏✓t
fact t✌✏t
that t✌✍
the
to t✌✏t
t✒ that t✙✣✍✕
time.
earth ✙✑
✍✏✚t✌ is ✔✒t
not ✏ a ★✍✚✘✍✓t
perfect ✑★✌✍✚✍❡
sphere; ✙t it ✌✏✑
has ✏a bulge
✖✉✗✩✍ ✏t at
the ✍❖✉✏t✒✚✕
t✌✍ equator. This❚✌✙✑ bulge
✖✉✗✩✍ ✙✑is ♠✉✍
due t✒ to t✌✍
the ✚✒t✏t✙✒✔
rotation
Tillite
✫ ✐✬✬✐✭✮
of tthe
✒✘ ✌✍ ✍✏ earth.
✚t✌ ✕ The second ✘force
❚✌✍ ✑✍✓✒✔♠ ✒✚✓✍ t✌✏tthat was✇✏ ✑

It ✙✑
■t is t✌✍
the ✑✍♠✙✣✍✔t✏
sedimentary rock ✘formed
✚✤ ✚✒✓✛ ✒✚✣✍♠ ✒✉t out ✒✘ of suggested by
✑✉✩✩✍✑t✍♠ ✖✤ Wegener—the
❲✍✩✍✔✍✚◗t✌✍ t✙♠✏✗ tidal ✘✒✚✓✍◗✙✑
force—is ♠✉✍ due
deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana system
♠✍★✒✑✙t✑ ✒✘ ✩✗✏✓✙✍✚✑✕ ❚✌✍ ❞✒✔♠✏✇✏✔✏ ✑✤✑t✍✣ to t✌✍
t✒ the ✏tt✚✏✓t✙✒✔
attraction ✒✘ of t✌✍
the ✣✒✒✔
moon ✏✔♠ and t✌✍the ✑✉✔
sun t✌✏t
that
of ✑✍♠✙✣✍✔t✑
✒✘ sediments ✘✚✒✣ from ■✔♠✙✏
India ✙✑
is ✛✔✒✇✔
known t✒ to ✌✏✎✍
have ✙t✑its develops t✙♠✍✑
♠✍✎✍✗✒★✑ tides ✙✔in ✒✓✍✏✔✙✓
oceanic waters.
✇✏t✍✚✑✕ Wegener
❲✍✩✍✔✍✚

counter ★✏✚t✑
✓✒✉✔t✍✚ parts ✙✔in ✑✙✪
six ♠✙✘✘✍✚✍✔t
different ✗✏✔♠✣✏✑✑✍✑
landmasses ✒✘ of t✌✍
the believed
✖✍✗✙✍✎✍♠ t that these ✘forces
✌✏t t✌✍✑✍ ✒✚✓✍ ✑ would
✇ ✒✉✗♠ become
✖✍✓✒✣✍

Southern ✯✍✣✙✑★✌✍✚✍✕
❙✒✉t✌✍✚✔ Hemisphere. At the base
✧t t✌✍ the ✑✤✑t✍✣
✖✏✑✍ t✌✍ system effective when
✍✘✘✍✓t✙✎✍ applied ✒✎✍✚
✇✌✍✔ ✏★★✗✙✍♠ over ✣✏✔✤
many ✣✙✗✗✙✒✔
million years.
✤✍✏✚✑✕

has✑ t✌✙✓
✌✏ thick✛ t✙✗✗✙t✍
tillite ✙✔♠✙✓✏t✙
indicating extensive ✏
✔✩ ✍✪t✍✔✑✙✎✍ and
✔♠ However, ✣✒✑t
✯✒✇✍✎✍✚✜ most ✒✘ of ✑✓✌✒✗✏✚✑
scholars ✓✒✔✑✙♠✍✚✍♠
considered t✌✍✑✍ these
prolonged ✩✗✏✓✙✏t✙✒✔✕
★✚✒✗✒✔✩✍♠ glaciation. ♣✒✉✔t✍✚
Counter ★✏✚t✑
parts ✒✘ of t✌✙✑
this forces t✒
✘✒✚✓✍✑ to be totally ✙✔✏♠✍❖✉✏t✍✕
✖✍ t✒t✏✗✗✤ inadequate.
succession ✏✚✍
✑✉✓✓✍✑✑✙✒✔ are ✘✒✉✔♠
found in✙✔Africa, Falkland ■✑✗✏✔♠✜
✧✘✚✙✓✏✜ s✏✗✛✗✏✔♠ Island,
Madagascar, Antarctica
▼✏♠✏✩✏✑✓✏✚✜ ✧✔t✏✚✓t✙✓✏ ✏✔♠ and Australia
✧✉✑t✚✏✗✙✏ besides
✖✍✑✙♠✍✑ Post-Drift Studies
❘❄❯❏❱●❅❍❊❏ ❳❏❨❩❍❈❯

India. ✰✎✍✚✏✗✗
■✔♠✙✏✕ Overall ✚✍✑✍✣✖✗✏✔✓✍
resemblance ✒✘ of t✌✍
the ❞✒✔♠✏✇✏✔✏
Gondawana It is interesting to note that for continental drift,
■t ✙✑ ✙✔t✍✚✍✑t✙✔✩ t✒ ✔✒t✍ t✌✏t ✘✒✚ ✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✏✗ ♠✚✙✘t✜
type sediments clearly demonstrates t✌✏t
t✤★✍ ✑✍♠✙✣✍✔t✑ ✓✗✍✏✚✗✤ ♠✍✣✒✔✑t✚✏t✍✑ that t✌✍✑✍
these most of the evidence was collected from the
✣✒✑t ✒✘ t✌✍ ✍✎✙♠✍✔✓✍ ✇✏✑ ✓✒✗✗✍✓t✍♠ ✘✚✒✣ t✌✍
landmasses had remarkably similar ✌✙✑t✒✚✙✍✑✕
✗✏✔♠✣✏✑✑✍✑ ✌✏♠ ✚✍✣✏✚✛✏✖✗✤ ✑✙✣✙✗✏✚ histories. continental ✏✚✍✏✑
✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✏✗ areas ✙✔ in t✌✍
the ✘✒✚✣
form ✒✘of ♠✙✑t✚✙✖✉t✙✒✔
distribution ✒✘ of
The glacial ttillite
❚✌✍ ✩✗✏✓✙✏✗ provides
✙✗✗✙t✍ ★✚✒ unambiguous
✎✙♠✍✑ ✉✔✏✣ ✖✙ ✩ ✉✒✉✑
flora ✏✔♠
✘✗✒✚✏ and ✘✏✉✔✏
fauna ✒✚ or ♠✍★✒✑✙t✑
deposits ✗✙✛✍
like t✙✗✗✙t✍✕
tillite. A✧ ✔✉✣✖✍✚
number
evidence ✒✘
✍✎✙♠✍✔✓✍ of ★✏✗✏✍✒✓✗✙✣✏t✍✑
palaeoclimates ✏✔♠ and ✏✗✑✒
also ✒✘
of ♠✚✙✘t✙✔✩
drifting of ♠✙✑✓✒✎✍✚✙✍✑
✒✘ discoveries ♠✉✚✙✔✩
during t✌✍the ★✒✑t
post-war period
◆✇✏✚ ★✍✚✙✒♠

of ✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✑✕
✒✘ continents. added new information to geological literature.
✏♠♠✍♠ ✔✍✇ ✙✔✘✒✚✣✏t✙✒✔ t✒ ✩✍✒✗✒✩✙✓✏✗ ✗✙t✍✚✏t✉✚✍✕

Particularly, t✌✍
❬✏✚t✙✓✉✗✏✚✗✤✜ the ✙✔✘✒✚✣✏t✙✒✔
information ✓✒✗✗✍✓t✍♠
collected ✘✚✒✣from t✌✍
the

Al
Placer Deposits
P✬✱✲✮✳ ✴✮✵✶✹✐✭✹ ocean floor mapping provided new dimensions
✒✓✍✏✔ ✘✗✒✒✚ ✣✏★★✙✔✩ ★✚✒✎✙♠✍♠ ✔✍✇ ♠✙✣✍✔✑✙✒✔✑

The occurrence ✒✘
❚✌✍ ✒✓✓✉✚✚✍✔✓✍ of ✚✙✓✌
rich ★✗✏✓✍✚
placer ♠✍★✒✑✙t✑
deposits ✒✘of ✩✒✗♠
gold for t✌✍
✘✒✚ the ✑t✉♠✤
study ✒✘ of ♠✙✑t✚✙✖✉t✙✒✔
distribution ✒✘ of ✒✓✍✏✔✑
oceans ✏✔♠ and
continents.
✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✑✕
in t✌✍
✙✔ the ❞✌✏✔✏
Ghana ✓✒✏✑t
coast ✏✔♠ and t✌✍
the ✏✖✑✒✗✉t✍
absolute ✏✖✑✍✔✓✍
absence
of ✑✒✉✚✓✍
✒✘ source ✚✒✓✛
rock ✙✔
in t✌✍
the ✚✍✩✙✒✔
region ✙✑is ✏✔
an ✏✣✏✦✙✔✩
amazing ✘✏✓t✕
fact.
Convectional Current Theory
❭✶✼❪✮✲✭✐✶✼✱✬ ❭✻✳✳✮✼✭ ✫❫✮✶✳❴
The gold bearing
❚✌✍ ✩✒✗♠ ✖✍✏✚✙✔✩ veins are ✙✔
✎✍✙✔✑ ✏✚✍ in ✥✚✏✦✙✗
Brazil ✏✔♠
and ✙tit ✙✑
is
obvious t✌✏t
✒✖✎✙✒✉✑ that t✌✍
the ✩✒✗♠
gold ♠✍★✒✑✙t✑
deposits ✒✘ of t✌✍
the ❞✌✏✔✏
Ghana Arthur
✧✚t ✌ ✉ ✚ ✯ Holmes
✒✗✣ ✍ ✑ ✙in ✔ ❵ 1930s discussed
❛ ❜ ✢ ✑ ♠✙ ✑✓ ✉✑✑✍♠ t the
✌✍

are ♠✍✚✙✎✍♠
✏✚✍ derived ✘✚✒✣
from t✌✍the ✥✚✏✦✙✗
Brazil ★✗✏t✍✏✉
plateau when
✇✌✍✔ t✌✍the possibility ✒✘
★✒✑✑✙✖✙✗✙t✤ of ✓✒✔✎✍✓t✙✒✔
convection ✓✉✚✚✍✔t✑
currents ✒★✍✚✏t✙✔✩
operating ✙✔ in
two continents lay side by side.
t✇✒ ✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✑ ✗✏✤ ✑✙♠✍ ✖✤ ✑✙♠✍✕ the mantle portion. These currents are
t ✌✍ ✣ ✏ ✔t ✗✍ ★ ✒ ✚t ✙ ✒ ✔✕ ❚✌✍ ✑✍ ✓ ✉✚ ✚✍ ✔t ✑ ✏ ✚✍

generated ♠✉✍
✩✍✔✍✚✏t✍♠ due t✒ to ✚✏♠✙✒✏✓t✙✎✍
radioactive ✍✗✍✣✍✔t✑
elements ✓✏✉✑✙✔✩
causing
Distribution of Fossils
✴✐✹✭✳✐✺✻✭✐✶✼ ✶✽ ✾✶✹✹✐✬✹ thermal ♠✙✘✘✍✚✍✔✓✍✑
t✌✍✚✣✏✗ differences ✙✔ in t✌✍
the ✣✏✔t✗✍
mantle ★✒✚t✙✒✔✕
portion.
Holmes ✏✚✩✉✍♠
✯✒✗✣✍✑ argued t✌✏t that t✌✍✚✍
there ✍✪✙✑t✑
exists ✏a ✑✤✑t✍✣
system ✒✘ of
When identical ✑★✍✓✙✍✑
❲✌✍✔ ✙♠✍✔t✙✓✏✗ species ✒✘of ★✗✏✔t✑
plants ✏✔♠and ✏✔✙✣✏✗✑
animals
such ✓✉✚✚✍✔t✑
✑✉✓✌ currents ✙✔ in t✌✍
the ✍✔t✙✚✍
entire ✣✏✔t✗✍
mantle ★✒✚t✙✒✔✕
portion. This
❚✌✙✑
adapted t✒
✏♠✏★t✍♠ to ✗✙✎✙✔✩
living ✒✔on ✗✏✔♠
land ✒✚or ✙✔
in ✘✚✍✑✌
fresh water
✇✏t✍✚ ✏✚✍are
was
✇✏✑ ✏✔an ✏tt✍✣★t
attempt t✒ to ★✚✒✎✙♠✍
provide ✏✔ an ✍✪★✗✏✔✏t✙✒✔
explanation t✒ to
found on either side of the marine barriers, ✏
✘✒✉✔♠ ✒✔ ✍✙t✌✍✚ ✑✙♠✍ ✒✘ t✌✍ ✣✏✚✙✔✍ ✖✏✚✚✙✍✚✑✜ a
the ✙✑✑✉✍
t✌✍ issue ✒✘ of ✘✒✚✓✍✜
force, ✒✔ on t✌✍the basis
✖✏✑✙ ✑ ✒✘of which
✇✌✙✓✌
problem ✏✚✙✑✍✑
★✚✒✖✗✍✣ arises ✚✍✩✏✚♠✙✔✩
regarding ✏✓✓✒✉✔t✙✔✩
accounting ✘✒✚ for ✑✉✓✌
such
contemporary
✓ ✒ ✔t ✍ ✣ ★ ✒ ✚✏ ✚ ✤ ✑✓ scientists
✙ ✍ ✔t ✙ ✑t ✑ ♠discarded
✙ ✑✓ ✏ ✚♠ ✍♠ t the
✌✍
distribution. The
♠✙✑t✚✙✖✉t✙✒✔✕ observations t✌✏t
❚✌✍ ✒✖✑✍✚✎✏t✙✒✔✑ that ✿✍✣✉✚✑
Lemurs
continental ♠✚✙✘t
✓✒✔t✙✔✍✔t✏✗ drift t✌✍✒✚✤✕
theory.
occur ✙✔
✒✓✓✉✚ in ■✔♠✙✏✜
India, ▼✏♠✏✩✏✑✓✏✚
Madagascar ✏✔♠ and Africa led ✑✒✣✍
✧✘✚✙✓✏ ✗✍♠ some
to ✓✒✔✑✙♠✍✚
t✒ consider ✏ a ✓✒✔t✙✩✉✒✉✑
contiguous ✗✏✔♠✣✏✑✑
landmass ❀✿✍✣✉✚✙✏❁
“Lemuria” Mapping of the Ocean Floor
❝✱✵✵✐✼❢ ✶✽ ✭❫✮ ❣✲✮✱✼ ✾✬✶✶✳
linking t✌✍✑✍
✗✙✔✛✙✔✩ these t✌✚✍✍
three ✗✏✔♠✣✏✑✑✍✑✕
landmasses./ ▼✍✑✒✑✏✉✚✉✑
Mesosaurus
was
✇✏✑ ✏a ✑✣✏✗✗
small ✚✍★t✙✗✍
reptile ✏♠✏★t✍♠
adapted t✒ to ✑✌✏✗✗✒✇
shallow brackish
✖✚✏✓✛✙✑✌ Detailed research of the ocean configuration
❤✍t✏✙✗✍♠ ✚✍✑✍✏✚✓✌ ✒✘ t✌✍ ✒✓✍✏✔ ✓✒✔✘✙✩✉✚✏t✙✒✔

water.
✇✏t✍✚✕ The skeletons ✒✘
❚✌✍ ✑✛✍✗✍t✒✔✑ of t✌✍✑✍
these ✏✚✍are ✘✒✉✔♠
found ✒✔✗✤only revealed that the ocean floor is not just a vast
✚✍✎✍✏✗✍♠ t✌✏t t✌✍ ✒✓✍✏✔ ✘✗✒✒✚ ✙✑ ✔✒t r✉✑t ✏ ✎✏✑t

in two localities : the Southern Cape province

✙✔ t✇✒ ✗✒✓✏✗✙t✙✍✑ ❂ t✌✍ ❙✒✉t✌✍✚✔ ♣✏★✍ ★✚✒✎✙✔✓✍ plain but
★✗✏✙✔ it ✙✑
✖✉t ✙t is ✘✉✗✗
full ✒✘
of ✚✍✗✙✍✘✕
relief. ❥✪★✍♠✙t✙✒✔✑
Expeditions t✒ to ✣✏★
map
of ❙✒✉t✌
✒✘ South Africa and ■✚✏✎✍✚
✧✘✚✙✓✏ ✏✔♠ Iraver ✘✒✚✣✏t✙✒✔✑
formations ✒✘ of ✥✚✏✦✙✗✕
Brazil. the ✒✓✍✏
t✌✍ oceanic
✔✙✓ ✘✗floor
✒✒✚ ✙in
✔ t the
✌✍ ★✒post-war period
✑t ◆✇✏ ✚ ★✍✚✙ ✒♠

The two ✗✒✓✏✗✙t✙✍✑

❚✌✍ t✇✒ localities ★✚✍✑✍✔t✗✤
presently ✏✚✍
are ♥✜❃✢✢
4,800 ✛✣km ✏★✏✚t
apart provided ✏
★✚✒✎✙♠✍♠ a ♠✍t✏✙✗✍♠
detailed ★✙✓t✉✚✍
picture ✒✘ of t✌✍
the ✒✓✍✏✔
ocean ✚✍✗✙✍✘
relief
with an ✒✓✍✏✔
✇✙t✌ ✏✔ ocean ✙✔ in between them.
✖✍t✇✍✍✔ t✌✍✣✕ and ✙✔♠✙✓✏t✍♠
✏✔♠ indicated t✌✍ the ✍✪✙✑t✍✔✓✍
existence ✒✘ of ✑✉✖✣✍✚✩✍♠
submerged
✸✑
32 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

♠✒✓✔✕✖✗✔
mountain ✘✖✔✙✚✛ ranges ✖✛ ✜✚✢✢ ✖✛
as well as ✣✚✚✤
deep ✕✘✚✔✥✦✚✛✧
trenches, ❆❀❁❂❂❃❄ ❅❄❃❇❉❂
Abyssal Plains
♠✒✛✕✢★
mostly ✢✒✥✖✕✚✣
located ✥✢✒✛✚✘
closer ✕✒to ✕✦✚
the ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕
continent ♠✖✘✙✗✔✛✩
margins.
❚✦✚ ♠✗✣✪✒✥✚✖✔✗✥
The mid-oceanic ✘✗✣✙✚✛ ✜✚✘✚ ✫✒✓✔✣
ridges were found ✕✒ ✬✚ ♠✒✛✕
to be most
❚✦✚✛✚ ✖✘✚
These are ✚❊✕✚✔✛✗❛✚
extensive ✤✢✖✗✔✛
plains ✕✦✖✕
that ✢✗✚ ✬✚✕✜✚✚✔ ✕✦✚
lie between the
✖✥✕✗❛✚
active ✗✔
in ✕✚✘♠✛
terms ✒✫ ❛✒✢✥✖✔✗✥ ✚✘✓✤✕✗✒✔✛✩
of volcanic eruptions. The❚✦✚ ✣✖✕✗✔✙
dating
✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
continental ♠✖✘✙✗✔✛
margins ✖✔✣and ♠✗✣✪✒✥✚✖✔✗✥
mid-oceanic ✘✗✣✙✚✛✩
ridges.
✒✫
of ✕✦✚
the ✘✒✥♦✛
rocks ✫✘✒♠
from ✕✦✚the ✒✥✚✖✔✗✥
oceanic ✥✘✓✛✕
crust ✘✚❛✚✖✢✚✣
revealed ❚✦✚ ✖✬★✛✛✖✢
The abyssal ✤✢✖✗✔✛
plains ✖✘✚
are ✕✦✚
the ✖✘✚✖✛ ✜✦✚✘✚ ✕✦✚
areas where the
✕✦✚
the fact that the latter is much younger ✕✦✖✔
✫✖✥✕ ✕✦✖✕ ✕✦✚ ✢✖✕✕✚✘ ✗✛ ♠✓✥✦ ★✒✓✔✙✚✘ than ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢ ✛✚✣✗♠✚✔✕✛ ✕✦✖✕ ♠✒❛✚ ✬✚★✒✔✣
continental sediments that move beyond the ✕✦✚
✕✦✚
the ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
continental ✖✘✚✖✛✩
areas. t✒✥♦✛
Rocks ✒✔ on ✚✗✕✦✚✘
either ✛✗✣✚
side ✒✫
of ♠✖✘✙✗✔✛
margins ✙✚✕
get ✣✚✤✒✛✗✕✚✣✩
deposited.
✕✦✚
the ✥✘✚✛✕
crest ✒✫ of ✒✥✚✖✔✗✥
oceanic ✘✗✣✙✚✛
ridges ✖✔✣and ✦✖❛✗✔✙
having ✚✭✓✗✪
equi-
✣✗✛✕✖✔✕
distant ✢✒✥✖✕✗✒✔✛
locations ✫✘✒♠
from ✕✦✚the ✥✘✚✛✕ ✜✚✘✚ ✫✒✓✔✣
crest were found ✕✒to
▼❇●❍❏❑▲❃❉❇❑
Mid-Oceanic ◆❇●P▲❂
Ridges
✦✖❛✚
have ✘✚♠✖✘♦✖✬✢✚
remarkable ✛✗♠✗✢✖✘✗✕✗✚✛ ✬✒✕✦ ✗✔
similarities both in ✕✚✘♠✛
terms ✒✫of ❚✦✗✛ ✫✒✘♠✛
This forms ✖✔ an ✗✔✕✚✘✥✒✔✔✚✥✕✚✣
interconnected ✥✦✖✗✔ chain ✒✫ of
✕✦✚✗✘
their ✥✒✔✛✕✗✕✓✚✔✕✛
constituents ✖✔✣ and ✕✦✚✗✘
their ✖✙✚✩
age. ♠✒✓✔✕✖✗✔
mountain ✛★✛✕✚♠ ✜✗✕✦✗✔ ✕✦✚
system within ocean. ■✕
the ✒✥✚✖✔✩ It ✗✛
is ✕✦✚
the
✢✒✔✙✚✛✕
longest ♠✒✓✔✕✖✗✔✪✥✦✖✗✔
mountain-chain ✒✔ on ✕✦✚
the ✛✓✘✫✖✥✚
surface ✒✫of ✕✦✚
the
❖✮✯✰✱
Ocean ✲✳✴✴✵Floor ✶✴✱✷✹✺✻✵✰✼✹✴✱
Configuration ✚✖✘✕✦
earth ✕✦✒✓✙✦
though ✛✓✬♠✚✘✙✚✣
submerged ✓✔✣✚✘ under ✕✦✚the ✒✥✚✖✔✗✥
oceanic
■✔
In ✕✦✗✛
this ✛✚✥✕✗✒✔
section we✜✚ ✛✦✖✢✢
shall ✔✒✕✚
note ✖a ✫✚✜
few ✕✦✗✔✙✛
things ✘✚✢✖✕✚✣
related ✜✖✕✚✘✛✩ ■✕
waters. It ✗✛
is ✥✦✖✘✖✥✕✚✘✗✛✚✣
characterised by ✬★ ✖a ✥✚✔✕✘✖✢
central ✘✗✫✕
rift
✕✒
to ✕✦✚
the ✒✥✚✖✔
ocean ✫✢✒✒✘
floor ✥✒✔✫✗✙✓✘✖✕✗✒✔
configuration ✕✦✖✕that ✦✚✢✤
help ✓✛
us ✗✔
in ✛★✛✕✚♠
system ✖✕ at ✕✦✚
the ✥✘✚✛✕✧
crest, ✖
a ✫✘✖✥✕✗✒✔✖✕✚✣
fractionated ✤✢✖✕✚✖✓
plateau ✖✔✣and
✕✦✚
the ✓✔✣✚✘✛✕✖✔✣✗✔✙
understanding ✒✫ of ✕✦✚
the ✣✗✛✕✘✗✬✓✕✗✒✔
distribution ✒✫ of flank ❢✒✔✚
✫✢✖✔♦ zone ✖✢✢
all ✖✢✒✔✙
along ✗✕✛
its ✢✚✔✙✕✦✩ ❚✦✚ ✘✗✫✕
length. The rift ✛★✛✕✚♠
system
✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✛ ✖✔✣ ✒✥✚✖✔✛✩ ❝✒✓ ✜✗✢✢
continents and oceans. You will be studying ✬✚ ✛✕✓✣★✗✔✙ ✖✕ ✕✦✚ ✥✘✚✛✕ ✗✛ ✕✦✚ ❢✒✔✚ ✒✫ ✗✔✕✚✔✛✚
at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic ❛✒✢✥✖✔✗✥
✕✦✚
the ✣✚✕✖✗✢✛
details ✒✫of ✒✥✚✖✔
ocean ✫✢✒✒✘
floor ✘✚✢✗✚✫ in ❈✦✖✤✕✚✘
relief ✗✔ Chapter activity. ■✔
✖✥✕✗❛✗✕★✩ In ✕✦✚
the ✤✘✚❛✗✒✓✛
previous ✥✦✖✤✕✚✘✧
chapter, you★✒✓ ✦✖❛✚ ✬✚✚✔
have been
✽✾✩ ❚✦✚ ✒✥✚✖✔
13. The ocean ✫✢✒✒✘
floor ♠✖★
may be ✬✚ ✛✚✙♠✚✔✕✚✣
segmented ✗✔✕✒ into ✗✔✕✘✒✣✓✥✚✣
introduced ✕✒ to ✕✦✗✛
this ✕★✤✚
type ✒✫ ❛✒✢✥✖✔✒✚✛ ✖✛
of volcanoes as ♠✗✣✪
mid-
✕✦✘✚✚
three ♠✖✿✒✘
major ✣✗❛✗✛✗✒✔✛ ✬✖✛✚✣ ✒✔
divisions based on ✕✦✚
the ✣✚✤✕✦
depth ✒✥✚✖✔✗✥ ❛✒✢✥✖✔✒✚✛✩
oceanic volcanoes.
✖✛ ✜✚✢✢ ✖✛
as well as ✕✦✚
the ✫✒✘♠✛
forms ✒✫of ✘✚✢✗✚✫✩ ❚✦✚✛✚ ✣✗❛✗✛✗✒✔✛
relief. These divisions
✖✘✚
are ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
continental ♠✖✘✙✗✔✛✧
margins, ✣✚✚✤✪✛✚✖ ✬✖✛✗✔✛ ✖✔✣
deep-sea basins and ◗✹❘✼✵✹❙✻✼✹✴✱
Distribution ✴✷
of ❯✰✵✼❱❲✻✰❳✯❘
Earthquakes ✰✱❨ ❩✴✳✮✰✱✴✯❘
and Volcanoes
♠✗✣✪✒✥✚✖✔ ✘✗✣✙✚✛✩
mid-ocean ridges. ❬✕✓✣★
Study ✕✦✚ the ♠✖✤✛
maps ✛✦✒✜✗✔✙
showing ✕✦✚ the ✣✗✛✕✘✗✬✓✕✗✒✔
distribution ✒✫ of
✛✚✗✛♠✗✥
seismic ✖✥✕✗❛✗✕★
activity ✖✔✣ ❛✒✢✥✖✔✒✚✛ ✙✗❛✚✔
and volcanoes given ✗✔ in s✗✙✓✘✚
Figure
❭✩❪✩ ❝✒✓ will
✜✗✢✢ ✔✒✕✗✥✚
notice ✖ a ✢✗✔✚
line ✒✫of ✣✒✕✛
dots ✗✔in ✕✦✚
the ✥✚✔✕✘✖✢
8 Re jj GG SED
TT TT oT oT ooo 4.2. You central
L “Higaent nosonain
| «
✤✖✘✕✛
parts ✒✫ of ✕✦✚ ♣✕✢✖✔✕✗✥ ❫✥✚✖✔
the Atlantic Ocean ✖✢♠✒✛✕
almost ✤✖✘✖✢✢✚✢
parallel ✕✒ to
el ✕✦✚ coastlines. ■✕
the ✥✒✖✛✕✢✗✔✚✛✩ It ✫✓✘✕✦✚✘
further ✚❊✕✚✔✣✛
extends ✗✔✕✒
into ✕✦✚the ■✔✣✗✖✔
Indian
4, Coobternial Joh
4 J ❫✥✚✖✔✩
Ocean. ■✕ ✬✗✫✓✘✥✖✕✚✛a ✖ ✢✗✕✕✢✚
It bifurcates little ✛✒✓✕✦
south ✒✫ the ■✔✣✗✖✔
of ✕✦✚ Indian
Lene
a t
cere bright
SS} a
gtpe See
;Level | on
+t ✛✓✬✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕
subcontinent with ✜✗✕✦ ✒✔✚ ✬✘✖✔✥✦ ♠✒❛✗✔✙
one branch moving ✗✔✕✒ into
Continental? 4 D ❴✖✛✕ ♣✫✘✗✥✖ ✖✔✣
East Africa and ✕✦✚ the ✒✕✦✚✘
other ♠✚✚✕✗✔✙
meeting ✖ a ✛✗♠✗✢✖✘
similar ✢✗✔✚ line
J
Bhs if |
1
1 a
i 4

—_a F
from ❵★✖✔♠✖✘
✫✘✒♠ Myanmar ✕✒ to ❜✚✜
New ❞✓✗✖✔✖✩
Guiana. You ❝✒✓ will
✜✗✢✢ ✔✒✕✗✥✚
notice
Gootinent
Goan
Banda. Floor
an '
h
✕✦✖✕
that ✕✦✗✛
this ✢✗✔✚
line ✒✫ of ✣✒✕✛
dots ✥✒✗✔✥✗✣✚✛
coincides with ✜✗✕✦ ✕✦✚ the ♠✗✣✪
mid-
✒✥✚✖✔✗✥ ✘✗✣✙✚✛✩ ❚✦✚ ✛✦✖✣✚✣
oceanic ridges. The shaded belt showing ✬✚✢✕ ✛✦✒✜✗✔✙
|i 1 | =--~--H
✖✔✒✕✦✚✘
another ✖✘✚✖ area ✒✫ of ✥✒✔✥✚✔✕✘✖✕✗✒✔
concentration ✥✒✗✔✥✗✣✚✛
coincides with ✜✗✕✦
a id Era) aH a ✕✦✚ ♣✢✤✗✔✚✪❡✗♠✖✢✖★✖✔ ✛★✛✕✚♠
the Alpine-Himalayan system ✖✔✣ and ✕✦✚the ✘✗♠rim ✒✫ of
Cursulathrs Arce Glgher then Each Leva.
the ❣✖✥✗✫✗✥
✕✦✚ Pacific ❫✥✚✖✔✩
Ocean. ■✔ In ✙✚✔✚✘✖✢✧
general, ✕✦✚ the ✫✒✥✗
foci ✒✫of ✕✦✚
the
✚✖✘✕✦✭✓✖♦✚
earthquake ✗✔ in ✕✦✚
the ✖✘✚✖✛
areas ✒✫of ♠✗✣✪✒✥✚✖✔✗✥
mid-oceanic ✘✗✣✙✚✛ ridges
⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩❶
Figure ❷❸❹
4.1 ❺: ❻❼❶❽❾
Ocean ⑥❿➀➀⑩
Floor
✖✘✚
are at shallow depths whereas along ✕✦✚
✖✕ ✛✦✖✢✢✒✜ ✣✚✤✕✦✛ ✜✦✚✘✚✖✛ ✖✢✒✔✙ the
♣✢✤✗✔✚✪❡✗♠✖✢✖★✖✔ belt
Alpine-Himalayan ✬✚✢✕ ✖✛ ✜✚✢✢ ✖✛
as well as ✕✦✚
the ✘✗♠rim ✒✫of ✕✦✚
the
Continental ▼❃➄P❇❉❂
➁➂❉➃❇❉▲❉➃❃❄ Margins ❣✖✥✗✫✗✥✧
Pacific, ✕✦✚the ✚✖✘✕✦✭✓✖♦✚✛
earthquakes ✖✘✚ are ✣✚✚✤✪✛✚✖✕✚✣
deep-seated ✒✔✚✛✩ ones.
❚✦✚ ♠✖✤
The map ✒✫ ❛✒✢✥✖✔✒✚✛ ✖✢✛✒
of volcanoes also ✛✦✒✜✛
shows ✖ a ✛✗♠✗✢✖✘
similar
❚✦✚✛✚ ✫✒✘♠
These form ✕✦✚
the ✕✘✖✔✛✗✕✗✒✔ ✬✚✕✜✚✚✔ ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
transition between continental
✤✖✕✕✚✘✔✩
pattern. The ❚✦✚ ✘✗♠rim ✒✫ the ❣✖✥✗✫✗✥
of ✕✦✚ Pacific ✗✛is ✖✢✛✒
also ✥✖✢✢✚✣
called ✘✗♠rim
✛✦✒✘✚✛
shores ✖✔✣
and ✣✚✚✤✪✛✚✖ ✬✖✛✗✔✛✩ They
deep-sea basins. ❚✦✚★ ✗✔✥✢✓✣✚
include
✒✫ ❛✒✢✥✖✔✒✚✛
of fire due to the existence of active volcanoes ✗✔
✫✗✘✚ ✣✓✚ ✕✒ ✕✦✚ ✚❊✗✛✕✚✔✥✚ ✒✫ ✖✥✕✗❛✚ in
✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
continental ✛✦✚✢✫✧
shelf, ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
continental ✛✢✒✤✚✧
slope, ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✖✢
continental
✕✦✗✛
this ✖✘✚✖✩
area.
✘✗✛✚
rise ✖✔✣
and ✣✚✚✤✪✒✥✚✖✔✗✥ trenches. ❫✫
deep-oceanic ✕✘✚✔✥✦✚✛✩ Of ✕✦✚✛✚✧
these, ✕✦✚
the
✣✚✚✤✪✛✚✖
deep-sea ✕✘✚✔✥✦✚✛
trenches ✖✘✚ are ✕✦✚
the ✖✘✚✖✛ ✜✦✗✥✦ ✖✘✚
areas which are ✒✫
of
❤✐❥❦❧♥q
Concept ✐roF ✉❧✈
SEA ✇①✐✐②
FLooR ✉♥②❧✈③④❥⑤
SPREADING
✥✒✔✛✗✣✚✘✖✬✢✚ ✗✔✕✚✘✚✛✕ ✗✔
considerable interest in so far as the✛✒ ✫✖✘ ✖✛ ✕✦✚
✣✗✛✕✘✗✬✓✕✗✒✔
distribution ✒✫ of ✒✥✚✖✔✛
oceans ✖✔✣ and ✥✒✔✕✗✔✚✔✕✛
continents ✗✛ is ♣✛ ♠✚✔✕✗✒✔✚✣
As mentioned ✖✬✒❛✚✧
above, ✕✦✚
the ✤✒✛✕✪✣✘✗✫✕
post-drift ✛✕✓✣✗✚✛
studies
✥✒✔✥✚✘✔✚✣✩
concerned. ✤✘✒❛✗✣✚✣
provided ✥✒✔✛✗✣✚✘✖✬✢✚
considerable ✗✔✫✒✘♠✖✕✗✒✔
information ✕✦✖✕ ✜✖✛ ✔✒✕
that was not
DISTRIBUTION
❉ OF ✝✠✡☛✞✁
✁✂✄ ☎✆✂ ✝✞ ✝✟ OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
☛✞❉ ✠✝✞✂ ✞✡✞✂✁ 33
✸✸

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e Yokanic Eruptons
ar 1a @ HotSpots
T I T I I I I I I T
Figure ✶✹
✰✱✲✳✴✵ 4. ✺
2 ✻: ✼✱✽✾✴✱✿✳✾✱❀❁
Distribution ❀❂
of ✵❃✴✾❄❅✳❃❆✵✽
earthquakes ❃❁❇
and volcanoes
❈❀❊❋❃❁❀✵✽

available at the time Wegener put forth his

❛☞❛✌✍❛✎✍✏ ❛✑ ✑✒✏ ✑✌✓✏ ❡✏✔✏✕✏✖ ✗✘✑ ✙✚✖✑✒ ✒✌✛ (iv) The
✭✌☞✮ ❚✒✏ ✛✏✜✌✓✏✕✑✛sediments on
✚ ✕ ✑✒✏ the ocean
✚❝✏❛ ✕ floor
✙✍✚✚ ✖ ❛ ✖✏ are
concept of continental drift. Particularly, the
❝✚✕❝✏✗✑ ✚✙ ❝✚✕✑✌✕✏✕✑❛✍ ✜✖✌✙✑✢ ✣❛✖✑✌❝✘✍❛✖✍✤✥ ✑✒✏ unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
✘✕✏✉✗✏❝✑✏✜✍✤ ☞✏✖✤ ✑✒✌✕✢ ②❝✌✏✕✑✌✛✑✛ t✏✖✏

mapping ✚✙
✓❛✗✗✌✕✔ of ✑✒✏
the ✚❝✏❛✕
ocean ✙✍✚✚✖
floor ❛✕✜
and ✗❛✍❛✏✚✓❛✔✕✏✑✌❝
palaecomagnetic expecting, ✌✙
✏✉✗✏❝✑✌✕✔✥ if ✑✒✏
the ✚❝✏❛✕
ocean ✙✍✚✚✖✛
floors were
t✏✖✏ ❛✛ as ✚✍✜
old
studies ✚✙
✛✑✘✜✌✏✛ of ✖✚❝s✛
rocks ✙✖✚✓
from ✚❝✏❛✕✌❝
oceanic ✖✏✔✌✚✕✛
regions ✖✏☞✏❛✍✏✜
revealed as the continent, to have a complete✏
❛ ✛ ✑✒✏ ❝✚ ✕✑✌ ✕✏✕✑ ✥ ✑✚ ✒❛ ☞✏ ❛ ❝✚ ✓✗✍ ✏✑

the following facts :

✑✒✏ ✙✚✍✍✚t✌✕✔ ✙❛❝✑✛ ✦ sequence ✚✙
✛✏★✘✏✕❝✏ of ✛✏✜✌✓✏✕✑✛
sediments ✙✚✖
for ❛
a ✗✏✖✌✚✜
period ✚✙
of ✓✘❝✒
much
(i)
✭✌✮ It was
■✑ t❛✛ realised
✖✏❛✍✌✛✏✜ ✑✒❛✑ ❛✍✍that all along
❛✍✚✕✔ ✑✒✏ ✓✌✜✧ the mid- longer ✜✘✖❛✑✌✚✕✢
✍✚✕✔✏✖ duration. ❧✚t✏☞✏✖✥
However, ✕✚t✒✏✖✏
nowhere was the
t❛✛ ✑✒✏

oceanic ✖✌✜✔
✚❝✏❛✕✌❝ ridges,
✏✛✥ volcanic eruptions
☞✚✍❝❛ ✕✌❝ ✏✖✘✗✑✌✚ are
✕✛ ❛✖✏ sediment ❝✚✍✘✓✕
✛✏✜✌✓✏✕✑ column ✙✚✘✕✜
found ✑✚ to ✎✏
be ✚✍✜✏✖
older ✑✒❛✕
than
common ❛✕✜
❝✚✓✓✚✕ and ✑✒✏✤
they ✎✖✌✕✔
bring ✒✘✔✏
huge ❛✓✚✘✕✑✛
amounts ✚✙
of 200 ✓✌✍✍✌✚✕
✷✩✩ million years.
✤✏❛✖✛✢

lava ✑✚
✍❛☞❛ to ✑✒✏
the ✛✘✖✙❛❝✏
surface ✌✕
in ✑✒✌✛
this ❛✖✏❛✢
area. (v)
✭☞✮ The deep
❚✒ ✏ ✜ trenches
✏✏✗ ✑ have
✖✏✕❝✒ ✏✛ ✒❛ deep-seated
☞✏ ✜ ✏✏✗✧ ✛ ✏❛ ✑ ✏✜

(ii) The
✭✌✌✮ rocks ✏★✘✌✜✌✛✑❛✕✑
❚✒✏ ✖✚❝s✛ equidistant ✚✕
on ✏✌✑✒✏✖
either ✛✌✜✏✛
sides ✚✙
of ✑✒✏
the earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
✏❛✖✑✒★✘❛s✏ ✚❝❝✘✖✖✏✕❝✏✛ t✒✌✍✏ ✌✕ ✑✒✏ ✓✌✜✧

crest ✚
❝ ✖ ✏✛ ✑of✙ ✓
mid-oceanic
✌ ✜ ✧ ✚ ❝ ✏❛ ✕ ✌ ❝ ridges
✖ ✌ ✜ ✔ ✏✛ show
✛ ✒✚t oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have
✚❝✏❛✕✌❝ ✖✌✜✔✏ ❛✖✏❛✛✥ ✑✒✏ ★✘❛s✏ ✙✚❝✌ ✒❛☞✏

remarkable ✛✌✓✌✍❛✖✌✑✌✏✛
✖✏✓❛✖s❛✎✍✏ similarities ✌✕ in ✑✏✖✓✛
terms ✚✙ of ✗✏✖✌✚✜
period shallow ✜✏✗✑✒✛✢
✛✒❛✍✍✚t depths.
of ✙✚✖✓❛✑✌✚✕✥
✚✙ formation, ❝✒✏✓✌❝❛✍
chemical ❝✚✓✗✚✛✌✑✌✚✕✛
compositions ❛✕✜ and These facts ❛✕✜
❚✒✏✛✏ ✙❛❝✑✛ and ❛a ✜✏✑❛✌✍✏✜
detailed ❛✕❛✍✤✛✌✛
analysis ✚✙
of ✓❛✔✕✏✑✌❝
magnetic
magnetic properties. Rocks ❝✍✚✛✏✖
✓❛✔✕✏✑✌❝ ✗✖✚✗✏✖✑✌✏✛✢ ♠✚❝s✛ closer ✑✚to ✑✒✏
the properties of the rocks on either sides ✚✙
✗✖✚✗✏✖✑✌✏✛ ✚✙ ✑✒✏ ✖✚❝s✛ ✚✕ ✏✌✑✒✏✖ ✛✌✜✏✛ of ✑✒✏
the
mid-oceanic ✖✌✜✔✏✛
✓✌✜✧✚❝✏❛✕✌❝ ridges ❛✖✏are ✕✚✖✓❛✍
normal ✗✚✍❛✖✌✑✤
polarity ❛✕✜
and mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose
✓✌✜✧✚❝✏❛✕✌❝ ✖✌✜✔✏ ✍✏✜ ❧✏✛✛ ✭✪✫✬✪✮ ✑✚ ✗✖✚✗✚✛✏

are ✑✒✏
❛✖✏ the youngest.
✤✚✘✕✔✏✛✑✢ The ❚✒✏ ❛✔✏age ✚✙ of ✑✒✏
the ✖✚❝s✛
rocks his ✒✤✗✚✑
✒✌✛ hypothesis,
✒✏✛✌✛✥ s known
✕✚t ✕ ❛✛ as ✑the “sea
✒ ✏ ❤✛ floor✖
✏❛ ✙✍✚✚

increases as one moves away from the

✌✕❝✖✏❛✛✏✛ ❛✛ ✚✕✏ ✓✚☞✏✛ ❛t❛✤ ✙✖✚✓ ✑✒✏ spreading”. ❧
✛ ✗ ✖ ✏❛ ✜✌ ✕✔ ✯ ✢ Hess
✏✛ ✛ ❛ argued
✖✔ ✘ ✏✜ ✑ that
✒❛ ✑ ❝✚constant
✕✛ ✑ ❛ ✕✑

crest.
❝✖✏✛✑✢ eruptions ❛✑
✏✖✘✗✑✌✚✕✛ at ✑✒✏
the ❝✖✏✛✑
crest ✚✙ of ✚❝✏❛✕✌❝
oceanic ✖✌✜✔✏✛
ridges ❝❛✘✛✏
cause
(iii) The
✭✌✌✌✮ ocean ❝✖✘✛✑
❚✒✏ ✚❝✏❛✕ crust ✖✚❝s✛
rocks ❛✖✏
are ✓✘❝✒
much younger
✤✚✘✕✔✏✖ the ✖✘✗✑✘✖✏
✑✒✏ rupture ✚✙ of ✑✒✏
the ✚❝✏❛✕✌❝
oceanic ❝✖✘✛✑crust ❛✕✜and ✑✒✏
the ✕✏tnew
than the continental rocks. The age ofrocks
✑✒❛✕ ✑✒✏ ❝✚✕✑✌✕✏✕✑❛✍ ✖✚❝s✛✢ ❚✒✏ ❛✔✏ ✚✙ ✖✚❝s✛ lava wedges
✍❛☞❛ into ✌✑✥
t✏✜✔✏✛ ✌✕✑✚ it, ✗✘✛✒✌✕✔
pushing ✑✒✏ the ✚❝✏❛✕✌❝
oceanic ❝✖✘✛✑
crust
in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than
✌✕ ✑✒✏ ✚❝✏❛✕✌❝ ❝✖✘✛✑ ✌✛ ✕✚t✒✏✖✏ ✓✚✖✏ ✑✒❛✕ on ✏✌✑✒✏✖
✚✕ either ✛✌✜✏✢
side. The ocean ✙✍✚✚✖✥
❚✒✏ ✚❝✏❛✕ floor, ✑✒✘✛
thus ✛✗✖✏❛✜✛✢
spreads.
200 ✓✌✍✍✌✚✕
✷✩✩ million years old. ②✚✓✏
✤✏❛✖✛ ✚✍✜✢ Some ✚✙
of ✑✒✏
the ❝✚✕✑✌✕✏✕✑❛✍
continental The
❚✒✏ younger
✤✚✘✕✔✏✖ ❛✔✏ age ✚✙ of ✑✒✏
the ✚❝✏❛✕✌❝
oceanic ❝✖✘✛✑crust ❛✛as well
t✏✍✍

rock ✙✚✖✓❛✑✌✚✕✛
✖✚❝s formations ❛✖✏
are ❛✛as ✚✍✜
old ❛✛
as r✥✷✩✩
3,200 ✓✌✍✍✌✚✕
million as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does
❛✛ ✑✒✏ ✙❛❝✑ ✑✒❛✑ ✑✒✏ ✛✗✖✏❛✜✌✕✔ ✚✙ ✚✕✏ ✚❝✏❛✕ ✜✚✏✛

years.
✤✏❛✖✛✢ not ❝❛✘✛✏
✕✚✑ cause ✑✒✏
the ✛✒✖✌✕s✌✕✔
shrinking ✚✙ of ✑✒✏
the ✚✑✒✏✖✥
other, ✓❛✜✏
made ❧✏✛✛Hess
✸✑
34 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

Continental
Raft Zone

✾✿❀❁❂❃
Figure ❄❅
4. ❆
3 ❇: ❈❃❉
Sea ●❍■■❂
floor ❏❑❂❃❉▼✿◆❀
spreading

t✒✓✔✕
think ✖✗✘✙t
about t✒✚
the ✛✘✔✜✙✢✣t✓✘✔
consumption ✘✤ of t✒✚
the ✘✛✚✖✔✓✛
oceanic P▲✭✮✯
Piate ✰✯❊✮✱✲✳❊✴
TECTONICS
✛❝✙✜t✥
crust. He further maintained that the ✘✛✚✖✔
✦✚ ✤✙❝t✒✚❝ ✢✖✓✔t✖✓✔✚✧ t✒✖t t✒✚ ocean Since t✒✚
❙✓✔✛✚ the ✖✧✩✚✔t
advent ✘✤ of t✒✚
the ✛✘✔✛✚✣t
concept ✘✤of ✜✚✖
sea ✤❢✘✘❝
floor
✤❢✘✘❝
floor t✒✖t gets ✣✙✜✒✚✧
that ★✚t✜ pushed ✧✙✚ due t✘ ✩✘❢✛✖✔✓✛
to volcanic ✜✣❝✚✖✧✓✔★❡
spreading, t✒✚ the ✓✔t✚❝✚✜t
interest ✓✔in t✒✚
the ✣❝✘✗❢✚✢
problem ✘✤ of
✚❝✙✣t✓✘✔✜
eruptions ✖t at t✒✚
the ✛❝✚✜t❡
crest, ✜✓✔✕✜
sinks ✧✘✪✔down ✖tat t✒✚
the distribution ✘✤
✧✓✜t❝✓✗✙t✓✘✔ of ✘✛✚✖✔✜
oceans ✖✔✧and ✛✘✔t✓✔✚✔t✜
continents was✪✖✜
✘✛✚✖✔✓✛
oceanic t❝✚✔✛✒✚✜
trenches ✖✔✧ gets ✛✘✔✜✙✢✚✧✥
and ★✚t✜ consumed. revived. rt
❝✚✩✓✩✚✧✥ ✪✖✜ ✓✔
It was in ✵✶✷✹❡
1967, ✺✛✻✚✔✼✓✚
McKenzie ✖✔✧ and ✽✖❝✕✚❝
Parker
❚✒✚ ✗✖✜✓✛
The basic ✛✘✔✛✚✣t
concept ✘✤of ✜✚✖
sea ✤❢✘✘❝
floor ✜✣❝✚✖✧✓✔★
spreading ✒✖✜
has ✖✔✧
and ✖❢✜✘
also ✺✘❝★✖✔❡
Morgan, ✓✔✧✚✣✚✔✧✚✔t❢❛
independently ✛✘❢❢✚✛t✚✧
collected t✒✚
the
✗✚✚✔ depicted ✓✔
been ✧✚✣✓✛t✚✧ in ❜✓★✙❝✚
Figure ✫✥✬✥
4.3. ✖✩✖✓❢✖✗❢✚
available ✓✧✚✖✜
ideas ✖✔✧
and ✛✖✢✚
came ✘✙t ✪✓t✒ ✖✔✘t✒✚❝
out with another

Millions years ago: Millions years ago:

540 420

Millions years ago: Millions years ago:

300 120

Present

❱❲❳ ❨❩❬❭❩❪❫
The motions ❩❴
of ❬❲❳
the ❵❩❪❬❭❪❳❪❬❫
continents ❞❣❤❭❪✐
during ❬❲❳
the ❥❦❫❬
past ❧♠♥
540
❨❭♦♦❭❩❪ ♣❳❦❤❫q sq
million years. ✉❴❤❭❵❦✈ ✇q
1. Africa; 2. ①❩❣❬❲ ✉❨❳❤❭❵❦✈
South America;
②q ✉❪❬❦❤❵❬❭❵❦✈ ♠q
3. Antarctica; 5. ③❪❞❭❦✈
✉❣❫❬❤❦♦❭❦✈ ❧q
4. Australia; India; ④q
6. ⑤❲❭❪❦✈
China; ⑥q
7. ⑦❩❤❬❲
North
✉❨❳❤❭❵❦✈ ⑧q ⑨❣❤❩❥❳✈ ⑩q ❦❪❞ s♥q
America; 8. Europe; 9. and 10. ①❭❶❳❤❭❦
Siberia ❷❸❹❺❻❼❽❺❾
(Emilani, ❿➀➀➁➂
1992)

✾✿❀❁❂❃
Figure ❄❅❄
4.4 ❇: ❖■❏✿◗✿■◆
Position ■●
of ❘■◆◗✿◆❃◆◗❏
continents ◗❯❂■❁❀❯ ❀❃■❍■❀✿❘❉❍ ❑❉❏◗
through geological past
DISTRIBUTION
❉ OF ✝✠✡☛✞✁
✁✂✄ ☎✆✂ ✝✞ ✝✟ OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
☛✞❉ ✠✝✞✂ ✞✡✞✂✁ 35
✸☞

concept termed P✕✖✗✘

❝✌✍❝✎✏✑ ✑✎✒✓✎✔ Plate ✙✘✚✗✛✜✢✚✣✳
Tectonics. A✤ ✑✎❝✑✌✍✥❝tectonic (ii)
✧✥✥✪ North American
❙✌✒✑✩ ✤✓✎✒✥❝✦✍ ✧✇✥✑✩ ✇✎★✑✎✒✍ ✤✑♣✦✍✑✥❝ (with western Atlantic
plate ✧✦♣★✌
✏♣✦✑ ✎ (also ❝✦♣♣✎✔
called ♣✥✑✩✌★✏✩✎✒
lithospheric✥❝ ✏♣✦✑ plate)✎✪ ✥★ is ✦ a floor separated from the South American
✱♣✌✌✒ ★✎✏✦✒✦✑✎✔ ✱✒✌✓ ✑✩✎ ❢✌✭✑✩ ✤✓✎✒✥❝✦✍
massive, ✥✒✒✎✬✭♣✦✒♣✮✯★✩✦✏✎✔
✓✦★★✥♠✎✫ irregularly-shaped ★♣✦✰ slab ✌✱of ★✌♣✥✔
solid ✒✌❝✲✫
rock, plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
✏♣✦✑✎ ✦♣✌✍✬ ✑✩✎ ❯✦✒✥✰✰✎✦✍ ✥★♣✦✍✔★✪ ✏♣✦✑✎
generally ❝✌✓✏✌★✎✔
✬✎✍✎✒✦♣♣✮ composed ✌✱ of ✰✌✑✩
both ❝✌✍✑✥✍✎✍✑✦♣
continental ✦✍✔ and
(iii)
✧✥✥✥✪ South American
❢✌✭✑✩ ✤✓✎✒✥❝✦✍ ✧✇✥✑✩ ✇✎★✑✎✒✍ ✤✑♣✦✍✑✥❝ (with western Atlantic
oceanic ♣✥✑✩✌★✏✩✎✒✎✳
✌❝✎✦✍✥❝ lithosphere. ♦♣✦✑✎★
Plates ✓✌♠✎
move ✩✌✒✥✴✌✍✑✦♣♣✮
horizontally
floor separated from the North American
✱♣✌✌✒ ★✎✏✦✒✦✑✎✔ ✱✒✌✓ ✑✩✎ ❙✌✒✑✩ ✤✓✎✒✥❝✦✍
over ✑✩✎
✌♠✎✒ the ✦★✑✩✎✍✌★✏✩✎✒✎
asthenosphere ✦★ as ✒✥✬✥✔
rigid ✭✍✥✑★✳
units. The ✵✩✎
plate ✦♣✌✍✬
✏♣✦✑✎ along ✑✩✎the ❯✦✒✥✰✰✎✦✍
Caribbean ✥★♣✦✍✔★✪
islands) ✏♣✦✑✎
plate
lithosphere ✥✍❝♣✭✔✎★
♣✥✑✩✌★✏✩✎✒✎ includes ✑✩✎ the ❝✒✭★✑
crust ✦✍✔
and ✑✌✏ top ✓✦✍✑♣✎
mantle
with its ✑✩✥❝✲✍✎★★
✇✥✑✩ ✥✑★ thickness ✒✦✍✬✎
range varying between ✶✯✷✹✹
♠✦✒✮✥✍✬ ✰✎✑✇✎✎✍ 5-100
✧✥♠✪ Pacific ✏♣✦✑✎
(iv) ♦✦❝✥✱✥❝ plate
km ✥✍
✲✓ in ✌❝✎✦✍✥❝
oceanic ✏✦✒✑★
parts ✦✍✔
and ✦✰✌✭✑
about ❦✹✹200 ✲✓ km ✥✍ in ✑✩✎
the (v)
✧♠✪ India-Australia-New
❱✍✔✥✦✯✤✭★✑✒✦♣✥✦✯❙✎✇ Zealand ✏♣✦✑✎
❲✎✦♣✦✍✔ plate
continental ✦✒✎✦★✳
❝✌✍✑✥✍✎✍✑✦♣ areas. A✤ ✏♣✦✑✎
plate ✓✦✮may ✰✎ be ✒✎✱✎✒✒✎✔
referred ✑✌ to (vi) Africa
✧♠✥✪ with ✑✩✎
✤✱✒✥❝✦ ✇✥✑✩ the ✎✦★✑✎✒✍
eastern Atlantic floor ✏♣✦✑✎
✤✑♣✦✍✑✥❝ ✱♣✌✌✒ plate
as the continental plate or oceanic plate✎
✦★ ✑✩✎ ❝✌✍✑ ✥✍✎✍✑✦ ♣ ✏♣✦✑ ✎ ✌✒ ✌❝✎✦✍✥❝ ✏♣✦✑ (vii)
✧♠✥✥✪ Eurasia
✺✭✒✦★✥✦ and
✦✍✔ the
✑✩✎ adjacent
✦✔❞✦❝✎✍✑ oceanic
✌❝✎✦✍✥❝ plate.
✏♣✦✑✎✳

depending ✌✍
✔✎✏✎✍✔✥✍✬ on which
✇✩✥❝✩ ✌✱ of ✑✩✎
the ✑✇✌
two ✌❝❝✭✏✮
occupy ✦ a ♣✦✒✬✎✒
larger Some ✥✓✏✌✒✑✦✍✑
❢✌✓✎ important ✓✥✍✌✒ minor ✏♣✦✑✎★
plates ✦✒✎
are ♣✥★✑✎✔
listed
portion ✌✱
✏✌✒✑✥✌✍ of ✑✩✎
the ✏♣✦✑✎✳
plate. ♦✦❝✥✱✥❝
Pacific ✏♣✦✑✎
plate ✥★ is ♣✦✒✬✎♣✮
largely ✦✍ an below:
✰✎♣✌✇❚

oceanic ✏♣✦✑✎
✌❝✎✦✍✥❝ plate whereas
✇✩✎✒✎✦★ ✑✩✎ the ✺✭✒✦★✥✦✍
Eurasian ✏♣✦✑✎ plate ✓✦✮
may ✰✎ be (i) ❭✛✚✛✣
❳❩❬ Cocos ❪✕✖✗✘
plate ❚: ❫✎✑✇✎✎✍
Between ❯✎✍✑✒✦♣
Central America
✤✓✎✒✥❝✦

called ✦
❝✦♣♣✎✔ a ❝✌✍✑✥✍✎✍✑✦♣
continental ✏♣✦✑✎✳
plate. The theory ✌✱
✵✩✎ ✑✩✎✌✒✮ of ✏♣✦✑✎
plate and ♦✦❝✥✱✥❝
✦✍✔ Pacific ✏♣✦✑✎
plate
tectonics ✏✒✌✏✌★✎★
proposes ✑✩✦✑
that ✑✩✎
the ✎✦✒✑✩❛★
earth’s ♣✥✑✩✌★✏✩✎✒✎
lithosphere ✥★ is Nazca plate: Between ❢✌✭✑✩
South America
(ii)
✑✎❝✑✌✍✥❝★
❳❩❩❬ ❴✖❵✚✖ ❪✕✖✗✘ ❚ ❫✎✑✇✎✎✍ ✤✓✎✒✥❝✦
divided ✥✍✑✌
✔✥♠✥✔✎✔ into ★✎♠✎✍
seven ✓✦❞✌✒
major ✦✍✔ and ★✌✓✎
some ✓✥✍✌✒
minor ✏♣✦✑✎★✳
plates. and ♦✦❝✥✱✥❝
✦✍✔ Pacific ✏♣✦✑✎
plate
Young
❨✌✭✍✬ ✻✌♣✔Fold ✼✌✭✍✑✦✥✍
Mountain ✒✥✔✬✎★✫
ridges, ✑✒✎✍❝✩✎★✫
trenches, ✦✍✔❡✌✒and/or
Arabian ❪✕✖✗✘
(iii) ❜❣✖❤✢✖✜
❳❩❩❩❬ plate ❚: ✼✌★✑♣✮
Mostly ✑✩✎
the ❢✦✭✔✥
Saudi Arabian
✤✒✦✰✥✦✍
faults surround these major plates (Figure 4.5).
✱✦✭♣✑★ ★✭✒✒✌✭✍✔ ✑✩✎★✎ ✓✦❞✌✒ ✏♣✦✑✎★ ✧✻✥✬✭✒✎ ✽✳✶✪✳
landmass
♣✦✍✔✓✦★★
The major ✏♣✦✑✎★
✵✩✎ ✓✦❞✌✒ plates ✦✒✎
are ✦★
as ✱✌♣♣✌✇★
follows ❚:
(i)
✧✥✪ Antarctica and ✑✩✎
✤✍✑✦✒❝✑✥❝✦ ✦✍✔ the ★✭✒✒✌✭✍✔✥✍✬
surrounding ✌❝✎✦✍✥❝
oceanic (iv) Philippine ❪✕✖✗✘
❳❩✐❬ P❥✢✕✢❪❪✢✜✘ plate ❚: ❫✎✑✇✎✎✍
Between ✑✩✎
the Asiatic and
✤★✥✦✑✥❝ ✦✍✔

plate
✏♣✦✑✎ ♦✦❝✥✱✥❝ plate
Pacific ✏♣✦✑✎

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Figure ❃❄❅
❋✾✿❀❁❂ 4.5 ❆: ❇❈❊●❁
Major ❈❍■
and ❏✾❍●❁
minor ❑▲❈▼❂◆
plates ●❖
of ▼◗❂
the ❘●❁▲■
world
✸✑
36 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✭✒✓
(v) ❈✔✕✖✗✘✙✚
Caroline plate ✛✗✔✜✚ ✿: ✢✣✤✥✣✣✦
Between ✤✧✣ the ★✧✩✪✩✫✫✩✦✣
Philippine ❫❏❙▲❯❴P❏❵
Transform ❖P◗▲❘❙❏●■❯
Boundaries
❛✦✬ Indian ✫✪❛✤✣
and ✮✦✬✩❛✦ plate ✯✰✱✲✤✧
(North ✱✳ of ✰✣✥
New ✴✵✩✦✣❛✶
Guinea)
Where ✤✧✣
❜✧✣✲✣ crust ✩✼
the ❂✲✵✼✤ is ✦✣✩✤✧✣✲
neither ✫✲✱✬✵❂✣✬
produced ✦✱✲ nor
✭✒✷✓
(vi) ✹✺✻✘ ✛✗✔✜✚ ✿: ✰✱✲✤✧◆✣❛✼✤
Fiji plate North-east ✱✳ ✽✵✼✤✲❛✪✩❛✾
of Australia.
✬✣✼✤✲✱❃✣✬
destroyed ❛✼ as ✤✧✣
the ✫✪❛✤✣✼
plates ✼✪✩✬✣
slide ✧✱✲✩❣✱✦✤❛✪✪❃
horizontally ✫❛✼✤past
❚✧✣✼✣ ✫✪❛✤✣✼
These plates ✧❛❀✣ ❁✣✣✦ ❂✱✦✼✤❛✦✤✪❃
have been constantly ❄✱❀✩✦❅moving
✣❛❂✧
each ✱✤✧✣✲✾ ❚✲❛✦✼✳✱✲❄ ✳❛✵✪✤✼
other. Transform are ✤✧✣
faults ❛✲✣ the ✫✪❛✦✣✼
planes ✱✳ of
✱❀✣✲ ✤✧✣ ✤✧✲✱✵❅✧✱✵✤
over the globe throughout the history ✱✳
❅✪✱❁✣ ✤✧✣ ✧✩✼✤✱✲❃ of ✤✧✣
the
✼✣✫❛✲❛✤✩✱✦ generally ✫✣✲✫✣✦✬✩❂✵✪❛✲
separation ❅✣✦✣✲❛✪✪❃ perpendicular ✤✱ to ✤✧✣
the ❄✩✬◆
mid-
✣❛✲✤✧✾
earth. ✮✤ It ✩✼
is ✦✱✤not ✤✧✣ continent ✤✧❛✤
the ❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤ that ❄✱❀✣✼
moves ❛✼ as
✽✼ ✤✧✣
✱❂✣❛✦✩❂
oceanic ✲✩✬❅✣✼✾
ridges. As the ✣✲✵✫✤✩✱✦✼
eruptions ✬✱ do ✦✱✤
not ✤❛r✣
take
❁✣✪✩✣❀✣✬ by
believed ❁❃ Wegener.
❜✣❅✣✦✣✲✾ ❆✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤✼
Continents ❛✲✣ are ✫❛✲✤
part ✱✳ ofa❛
❛✪✪ along ✤✧✣
all ❛✪✱✦❅ the ✣✦✤✩✲✣
entire ❂✲✣✼✤ at ✤✧✣
crest ❛✤ the ✼❛❄✣
same ✤✩❄✣❇
time, ✤✧✣✲✣
there
✫✪❛✤✣
plate ❛✦✬ ✥✧❛✤ ❄✱❀✣✼
and what moves ✩✼ is ✤✧✣
the ✫✪❛✤✣✾ Moreover, ✩✤
plate. ♣✱✲✣✱❀✣✲❇ it
✩✼
is ❛a ✬✩✳✳✣✲✣✦✤✩❛✪
differential ❄✱❀✣❄✣✦✤
movement ✱✳ of ❛a ✫✱✲✤✩✱✦
portion ✱✳ of ✤✧✣
the
❄❛❃
may be ❁✣ ✦✱✤✣✬
noted ✤✧❛✤ that ❛✪✪all ✤✧✣
the ✫✪❛✤✣✼❇ ✥✩✤✧✱✵✤
plates, without
✫✪❛✤✣ ❛✥❛❃ ✳✲✱❄ ✤✧✣ ❛❡✩✼ ✱✳ ✤✧✣ ✣❛✲✤✧✾ ✽✪✼✱❇ ✤✧✣
plate away from the axis of the earth. Also, the
✣❡❂✣✫✤✩✱✦❇
exception, ✧❛❀✣ moved ✩✦
have ❄✱❀✣✬ in ✤✧✣ geological ✫❛✼✤❇
the ❅✣✱✪✱❅✩❂❛✪ past,
✲✱✤❛✤✩✱✦
rotation ✱✳ of ✤✧✣
the ✣❛✲✤✧
earth ✧❛✼has ✩✤✼
its ✣✳✳✣❂✤
effect ✱✦on ✤✧✣
the
and ✼✧❛✪✪
❛✦✬ continue ✤✱
shall ❂✱✦✤✩✦✵✣ move ✩✦
to ❄✱❀✣ in ✤✧✣ future ✫✣✲✩✱✬
the ✳✵✤✵✲✣ period
✼✣✫❛✲❛✤✣✬
separated ❁✪✱❂r✼
blocks ✱✳ of ✤✧✣
the ✫✪❛✤✣
plate ✫✱✲✤✩✱✦✼✾
portions.
❛✼ ✥✣✪✪✾ Wegener
as well. ❜✣❅✣✦✣✲ ✧❛✬ had ✤✧✱✵❅✧✤
thought ✱✳ all ✤✧✣
of ❛✪✪ the
❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤✼ ✤✱ ✧❛❀✣ ✩✦✩✤✩❛✪✪❃ ✣❡✩✼✤✣✬
continents to have initially existed as a super ❛✼ ❛ ✼✵✫✣✲ ❤✐❥
How ❦✐
do ❧✐♠
you ♥qt✉✈
think ♥q✇
the ①②♥✇
rate ✐③
of ④⑤②♥✇
plate
continent ✩✦
❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤ in ✤✧✣
the ✳✱✲❄
form ✱✳ of ★❛✦❅❛✣❛✾
Pangaea. ❉✱✥✣❀✣✲❇
However, movement t⑧
⑥✐⑦✇⑥✇✉♥ is ❦✇♥✇①⑥t✉✇❦⑨
determined?
✪❛✤✣✲
later ✬✩✼❂✱❀✣✲✩✣✼
discoveries ✲✣❀✣❛✪ reveal ✤✧❛✤ that ✤✧✣the ❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤❛✪
continental
❄❛✼✼✣✼❇
masses, ✲✣✼✤✩✦❅ resting ✱✦ on ✤✧✣the ✫✪❛✤✣✼❇
plates, ✧❛❀✣ have been❁✣✣✦
⑩❙▼■❯ of ❶❷❙▼■
Rates P❴ Plate ❸P❍■❵■▲▼
Movement
✥❛✦✬✣✲✩✦❅ ❛✪✪
wandering all ✤✧✲✱✵❅✧
through ✤✧✣ geological ✫✣✲✩✱✬❇
the ❅✣✱✪✱❅✩❂❛✪ period,
and ★❛✦❅❛✣❛
❛✦✬ Pangaea was ✥❛✼ ❛a ✲✣✼✵✪✤
result ✱✳ of ❂✱✦❀✣✲❅✩✦❅
converging ✱✳ of ❚✧✣ ✼✤✲✩✫✼
The of ✦✱✲❄❛✪
strips ✱✳ normal ❛✦✬
and ✲✣❀✣✲✼✣
reverse ❄❛❅✦✣✤✩❂
magnetic ✳✩✣✪✬
field
✬✩✳✳✣✲✣✦✤
different ❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤❛✪
continental ❄❛✼✼✣✼ masses ✤✧❛✤ that ✥✣✲✣
were ✫❛✲✤✼
parts ✤✧❛✤ ✫❛✲❛✪✪✣✪ ✤✧✣
that parallel the ❄✩✬◆✱❂✣❛✦✩❂
mid-oceanic ✲✩✬❅✣✼ ✧✣✪✫
ridges help
✱✳
of ✱✦✣
one ✱✲ or ✤✧✣ other ✫✪❛✤✣✼✾
the ✱✤✧✣✲ plates. ♦❂✩✣✦✤✩✼✤✼
Scientists ✵✼✩✦❅using ✤✧✣the ✼❂✩✣✦✤✩✼✤✼ determine ✤✧✣
scientists ✬✣✤✣✲❄✩✦✣ the ✲❛✤✣✼
rates ✱✳of ✫✪❛✤✣
plate
✫❛✪❛✣✱❄❛❅✦✣✤✩❂ ✬❛✤❛ ✧❛❀✣
palaeomagnetic data have determined the ✬✣✤✣✲❄✩✦✣✬ ✤✧✣ ❄✱❀✣❄✣✦✤✾ ❚✧✣✼✣ ✲❛✤✣✼ ❀❛✲❃ ❂✱✦✼✩✬✣✲❛❁✪❃✾
movement. These rates vary considerably. The ❚✧✣
✫✱✼✩✤✩✱✦✼
positions ✧✣✪✬ held ❁❃ by ✣❛❂✧
each ✱✳ of ✤✧✣
the ✫✲✣✼✣✦✤
present ❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤❛✪
continental ✽✲❂✤✩❂ ❞✩✬❅✣
Arctic Ridge ✧❛✼
has ✤✧✣
the ✼✪✱✥✣✼✤
slowest ✲❛✤✣ (less ✤✧❛✦
rate ✯✪✣✼✼ than ❹✾❺
2.5
✪❛✦✬❄❛✼✼
landmass ✩✦ in ✬✩✳✳✣✲✣✦✤ geological ✫✣✲✩✱✬✼✾
different ❅✣✱✪✱❅✩❂❛✪ periods. ❂❄❳❃✲✶❇ and ✤✧✣
cm/yr), ❛✦✬ East ★❛❂✩✳✩❂
the ❢❛✼✤ Rise ✦✣❛✲
Pacific ❞✩✼✣ near ❢❛✼✤✣✲
Easter
★✱✼✩✤✩✱✦ ✱✳ ✤✧✣ ✮✦✬✩❛✦ ✼✵❁◆❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤
Position of the Indian sub-continent ✯❄✱✼✤✪❃ (mostly Island, ✩✦
✮✼✪❛✦✬❇ in ✤✧✣ South ★❛❂✩✳✩❂
the ♦✱✵✤✧ about ❻❇❼❽❽
Pacific ❛❁✱✵✤ 3,400 r❄
km
★✣✦✩✦✼✵✪❛✲
Peninsular ✮✦✬✩❛✶ India) ✩✼ is ✤✲❛❂✣✬
traced ✥✩✤✧with ✤✧✣the ✧✣✪✫
help ✱✳of ✤✧✣
the ✥✣✼✤
west ✱✳ Chile, ✧❛✼
of ❆✧✩✪✣❇ has ✤✧✣
the ✳❛✼✤✣✼✤
fastest ✲❛✤✣ (more ✤✧❛✦
rate ✯❄✱✲✣ than
✲✱❂r✼
rocks ❛✦❛✪❃✼✣✬
analysed ✳✲✱❄ from ✤✧✣the ✰❛❅✫✵✲
Nagpur ❛✲✣❛✾ area. ❾❺
15 ❂❄❳❃✲✶✾
cm/yr).
❚✧✣✲✣ ❛✲✣
There are ✤✧✲✣✣
three ✤❃✫✣✼
types ✱✳ of ✫✪❛✤✣
plate ❁✱✵✦✬❛✲✩✣✼✿
boundaries:
❿P❏➀■
Force ❴P❏ the ❶❷❙▼■
for ▼➁■ Plate ❸P❍■❵■▲▼
Movement
❊●❍■❏❑■▲▼
Divergent ❖P◗▲❘❙❏●■❯
Boundaries
✽✤ ✤✧✣
At the ✤✩❄✣
time ✤✧❛✤ Wegener ✫✲✱✫✱✼✣✬
that ❜✣❅✣✦✣✲ proposed ✧✩✼ his ✤✧✣✱✲❃
theory
Where ✦✣✥
❜✧✣✲✣ crust ✩✼
new ❂✲✵✼✤ is ❅✣✦✣✲❛✤✣✬
generated ❛✼ as ✤✧✣
the ✫✪❛✤✣✼
plates ✫✵✪✪
pull ✱✳
of ❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤❛✪
continental ✬✲✩✳✤❇ most ✼❂✩✣✦✤✩✼✤✼
drift, ❄✱✼✤ scientists ❁✣✪✩✣❀✣✬
believed
❛✥❛❃ from ✣❛❂✧
away ✳✲✱❄ each ✱✤✧✣✲✾ ❚✧✣ ✼✩✤✣✼
other. The sites ✥✧✣✲✣
where ✤✧✣the ✤✧❛✤
that ✤✧✣
the ✣❛✲✤✧
earth ✥❛✼ was ❛ a ✼✱✪✩✬❇
solid, ❄✱✤✩✱✦✪✣✼✼
motionless ❁✱✬❃✾ body.
✫✪❛✤✣✼
plates ❄✱❀✣
move ❛✥❛❃ from ✣❛❂✧
away ✳✲✱❄ each ✱✤✧✣✲
other ❛✲✣are ❂❛✪✪✣✬
called ❉✱✥✣❀✣✲❇
However, ❂✱✦❂✣✫✤✼
concepts ✱✳ ✼✣❛
of sea ✳✪✱✱✲ ✼✫✲✣❛✬✩✦❅
floor spreading ❛✦✬ and
s✛✕✚✔❱✘✙❲
spreading s✘✜✚s✾ best-known ✣❡❛❄✫✪✣
❚✧✣ ❁✣✼✤◆r✦✱✥✦
sites. The example ✱✳ of ✤✧✣ unified ✤✧✣✱✲❃
the ✵✦✩✳✩✣✬ theory ✱✳ of ✫✪❛✤✣
plate ✤✣❂✤✱✦✩❂✼
tectonics ✧❛❀✣ have
✬✩❀✣✲❅✣✦✤ ❁✱✵✦✬❛✲✩✣✼ ✩✼ ✤✧✣ ♣✩✬◆✽✤✪❛✦✤✩❂
divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. ❞✩✬❅✣✾ ✣❄✫✧❛✼✩✼✣✬
emphasised ✤✧❛✤ both ✤✧✣
that ❁✱✤✧ the ✼✵✲✳❛❂✣
surface ✱✳ of ✤✧✣
the ✣❛✲✤✧
earth
✽✤ ✤✧✩✼❇
At this, ✤✧✣ ✽❄✣✲✩❂❛✦ ★✪❛✤✣✯✼✶
the American Plate(s) ✩✼❳❛✲✣
is/are ✼✣✫❛✲❛✤✣✬
separated and ✤✧✣
❛✦✬ the ✩✦✤✣✲✩✱✲
interior ❛✲✣ are ✦✱✤
not ✼✤❛✤✩❂
static ❛✦✬and ❄✱✤✩✱✦✪✣✼✼
motionless
from ✤✧✣
✳✲✱❄ the ❢✵✲❛✼✩❛✦
Eurasian ❛✦✬ ✽✳✲✩❂❛✦ ★✪❛✤✣✼✾
and African Plates. ❁✵✤
but ❛✲✣
are ✬❃✦❛❄✩❂✾
dynamic. The fact ✤✧❛✤
❚✧✣ ✳❛❂✤ that ✤✧✣
the ✫✪❛✤✣✼
plates ❄✱❀✣move
✩✼ ✦✱✥ ❛ ✥✣✪✪◆❛❂❂✣✫✤✣✬
is now a well-accepted fact. The mobile ✲✱❂r
✳❛❂✤✾ ❚✧✣ ❄✱❁✩✪✣ rock
❨P▲❍■❏❑■▲▼
Convergent ❖P◗▲❘❙❏●■❯
Boundaries beneath ✤✧✣
❁✣✦✣❛✤✧ rigid ✫✪❛✤✣✼
the ✲✩❅✩✬ plates ✩✼ believed ✤✱
is ❁✣✪✩✣❀✣✬ to ❁✣be
Where ✤✧✣
❜✧✣✲✣ crust ✩✼
the ❂✲✵✼✤ is ✬✣✼✤✲✱❃✣✬
destroyed ❛✼ one ✫✪❛✤✣
as ✱✦✣ plate ✬✩❀✣✬
dived moving ✩✦
❄✱❀✩✦❅ in ❛ a ❂✩✲❂✵✪❛✲
circular ❄❛✦✦✣✲✾
manner. The ❚✧✣ ✧✣❛✤✣✬
heated
✵✦✬✣✲
under ❛✦✱✤✧✣✲✾
another. The ❚✧✣ ✪✱❂❛✤✩✱✦
location ✥✧✣✲✣
where ✼✩✦r✩✦❅
sinking ✱✳
of ❄❛✤✣✲✩❛✪
material ✲✩✼✣✼rises ✤✱ to ✤✧✣
the ✼✵✲✳❛❂✣❇
surface, ✼✫✲✣❛✬✼
spreads ❛✦✬ and
❛a ✫✪❛✤✣ occurs ✩✼
plate ✱❂❂✵✲✼ is ❂❛✪✪✣✬
called ❛ a s✺❩❱✺❬✜✘✖✙
subduction ❭✖✙✚❪
zone. begins ✤✱
❁✣❅✩✦✼ to ❂✱✱✪❇ and ✤✧✣✦
cool, ❛✦✬ then ✼✩✦r✼ back ✩✦✤✱
sinks ❁❛❂r into ✬✣✣✫✣✲
deeper
❚✧✣✲✣ ❛✲✣
There are ✤✧✲✣✣
three ✥❛❃✼
ways ✩✦ in ✥✧✩❂✧
which ❂✱✦❀✣✲❅✣✦❂✣
convergence ❂❛✦
can ✬✣✫✤✧✼✾
depths. This cycle ✩✼
❚✧✩✼ ❂❃❂✪✣ is ✲✣✫✣❛✤✣✬
repeated ✱❀✣✲ over ❛✦✬ over ✤✱
and ✱❀✣✲ to
✱❂❂✵✲✾ ❚✧✣✼✣ ❛✲✣✿ ✯✩✶ ❁✣✤✥✣✣✦ ❛✦
occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and ✱❂✣❛✦✩❂ ❛✦✬ generate ✥✧❛✤
❅✣✦✣✲❛✤✣ what ✼❂✩✣✦✤✩✼✤✼
scientists ❂❛✪✪ call ❛a ❂✱✦❀✣❂✤✩✱✦
convection ❂✣✪✪ cell
continental ✫✪❛✤✣❝
❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤❛✪ plate; ✯✩✩✶ between ✤✥✱
(ii) ❁✣✤✥✣✣✦ two ✱❂✣❛✦✩❂
oceanic ✱✲
or ❂✱✦❀✣❂✤✩❀✣
convective ✳✪✱✥✾ Heat ✥✩✤✧✩✦
flow. ❉✣❛✤ within ✤✧✣the ✣❛✲✤✧
earth ❂✱❄✣✼
comes
✫✪❛✤✣✼❝
plates; ❛✦✬and ✯✩✩✩✶ between ✤✥✱
(iii) ❁✣✤✥✣✣✦ two ❂✱✦✤✩✦✣✦✤❛✪
continental ✳✲✱❄ ✤✥✱ ❄❛✩✦ ✼✱✵✲❂✣✼✿
from two main sources: radioactive decay ❛✦✬
✲❛✬✩✱❛❂✤✩❀✣ ✬✣❂❛❃ and
✫✪❛✤✣✼✾
plates. residual ✧✣❛✤✾
✲✣✼✩✬✵❛✪ ✽✲✤✧✵✲ ❉✱✪❄✣✼
heat. Arthur Holmes ✳✩✲✼✤first ❂✱✦✼✩✬✣✲✣✬
considered
DISTRIBUTION
❉ OF ✝✠✡☛✞✁
✁✂✄ ☎✆✂ ✝✞ ✝✟ OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
☛✞❉ ✠✝✞✂ ✞✡✞✂✁ 37
✸☞

this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced

t★✩✪ ✩✫✬✭ ✩✮ t★✬ ✯✰✱✲✪✳ ✴★✩✵★ ✶✭t✬✷ ✩✮✹✶✺✬✮✵✬✫

Harry Hess’ thinking about seafloor spreading.

❍✭✷✷✻ ❍✬✪✪✼ t★✩✮✽✩✮✾ ✭✿❀✺t ✪✬✭✹✶❀❀✷ ✪❁✷✬✭✫✩✮✾❂ EURASIAN PLATE
The slow ❃❀❄✬❃✬✮t
❚★✬ ✪✶❀✴ movement ❀✹ of ★❀t✳
hot, ✪❀✹t✬✮✬✫
softened ❃✭✮t✶✬
mantle
that lies below the rigid plates is the driving

as
t★✭t ✶✩✬✪ ✿✬✶❀✴ t★✬ ✷✩✾✩✫ ❁✶✭t✬✪ ✩✪ t★✬ ✫✷✩❄✩✮✾

force ✿✬★✩✮✫
✹❀✷✵✬ behind t★✬
the ❁✶✭t✬
plate ❃❀❄✬❃✬✮t❂
movement.

MOVEMENT OF THE
▼❖❅❆❇❆❈❊ ❖● ❊■❆ ❏❈◆❑▲❈ P◗▲❊❆ INDIAN PLATE

The Indian ❁✶✭t✬

❚★✬ ❘✮✫✩✭✮ plate ✩✮✵✶✺✫✬✪
includes ❙✬✮✩✮✪✺✶✭✷
Peninsular ❘✮✫✩✭
India
and t★✬
✭✮✫ the Australian continental ❁❀✷t✩❀✮✪❂
❛✺✪t✷✭✶✩✭✮ ✵❀✮t✩✮✬✮t✭✶ portions. The
❚★✬ 10 million
subduction zone
✪✺✿✫✺✵t✩❀✮ along t★✬
s❀✮✬ ✭✶❀✮✾ the ❍✩❃✭✶✭✻✭✪
Himalayas ✹❀✷❃✪
forms years ago
the ✮❀✷t★✬✷✮
t★✬ northern ❁✶✭t✬
plate ✿❀✺✮✫✭✷✻
boundary ✩✮in t★✬
the ✹❀✷❃
form ❀✹of
continent— continent convergence. In the east,
✵❀✮t✩✮✬✮t➋ ❯❱❲❳❨❲❩❲❳ ❯❱❲❬❩❭❪❩❲❯❩❂ ❘✮ t★✬ ✬✭✪t✳
38 million
it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of
✩t ✬✐t✬✮✫✪ t★✷❀✺✾★ ❫✭✽✩✮✻❀❃✭ ❴❀✺✮t✭✩✮✪ ❀✹ years ago
Myanmar t❀✴✭✷✫✪
❴✻✭✮❃✭✷ towards t★✬ the ✩✪✶✭✮✫
island ✭✷✵ are ✭✶❀✮✾
along t★✬ the
H Equator 4a 2
Java
❵ ✭ ❄✭ Trench.
❚ ✷ ✬ ✮✵ ★❂ The❚ ★✬ ✬ eastern
✭ ✪t ✬ ✷ ✮ ❃ margin
✭ ✷ ✾ ✩ ✮ ✩is✪ ✭a
spreading ❜❨❳❩ site ✶✻✩✮✾
lying t❀
to t★✬
the ✬✭✪t
east ❀✹ of Australia in

7\
❜❝❭❩❞❡❨❲❪ ❛✺✪t✷✭✶✩✭ ✩✮
»

the ✹❀✷❃
t★✬ form ❀✹of ✭✮an ❀✵✬✭✮✩✵
oceanic ✷✩✫✾✬
ridge ✩✮in ❢❣
SW ❙✭✵✩✹✩✵❂
Pacific. The❚★✬ N wv) NS
L
Western margin ✹❀✶✶❀✴✪
❣✬✪t✬✷ ✮ ❃✭✷✾✩✮ follows ❤✩✷t★✭✷
Kirthar ❴❀✺✮t✭✩✮
Mountain ❀✹ of 55 million -
Pakistan. ❘t
❙✭✽✩✪t✭✮❂ It ✹✺✷t★✬✷
further ✬✐t✬✮✫✪
extends ✭✶❀✮✾
along t★✬the ❴✭✽✷✭✮✭
Makrana years ago
coast ✭✮✫
✵❀✭✪t and joins
❥❀✩✮✪ t★✬the ❜❝❭❩❞❡❨❲❪
spreading ❜❨❳❩ site ✹✷❀❃
from t★✬ the I _
I / 5
Red ❢✬✭
❫✬✫ Sea ✷✩✹t
rift ✪❀✺t★✬✭✪t✴✭✷✫
southeastward ✭✶❀✮✾ along t★✬the ❦★✭✾❀✪
Chagos I 47
Archipelago.
❛✷✵★✩❁✬✶✭✾❀❂ The boundary ✿✬t✴✬✬✮
❚★✬ ✿❀✺✮✫✭✷✻ between ❘✮✫✩✭India LALA “\ 7
|
I

\
and t★✬
✭✮✫ the Antarctic
❛✮t✭✷✵t✩✵ ❁✶✭t✬ plate ✩✪is ✭✶✪❀
also ❃✭✷✽✬✫
marked ✿✻ by
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary)
❀✵✬✭✮✩✵ ✷✩✫✾✬ ❧❡❨❬❩❭❪❩❲❳ ♠❱♥❲❡❞❭♦♣ ✷✺✮✮✩✮✾ running \ 71 million
, \ years ago
in roughly W-E direction and merging into the
✩✮ ✷❀✺✾★✶✻ ❣qr ✫✩✷✬✵t✩❀✮ ✭✮✫ ❃✬✷✾✩✮✾ ✩✮t❀ t★✬

spreading ❜❨❳❩✉
❜❝❭❩❞❡❨❲❪ site, ✭ a ✶✩tt✶✬
little ✪❀✺t★
south ❀✹ of ✈✬✴
New ✇✬✭✶✭✮✫❂
Zealand.
India was a large island situated ❀✹✹
❘✮✫✩✭ ✴✭✪ ✭ ✶✭✷✾✬ ✩✪✶✭✮✫ ✪✩t✺✭t✬✫ off t★✬
the
Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys
❛✺✪t✷✭✶✩✭✮ ✵❀✭✪t✳ ✩✮ ✭ ❄✭✪t ❀✵✬✭✮❂ ❚★✬ ❚✬t★✻✪

Sea ✪✬❁✭✷✭t✬✫
❢✬✭ separated ✩t it ✹✷❀❃
from t★✬the Asian continent t✩✶✶
❛✪✩✭✮ ✵❀✮t✩✮✬✮t till
about ①①②
✭✿❀✺t 225 ❃✩✶✶✩❀✮
million years ago. ❘✮✫✩✭
✻✬✭✷✪ ✭✾❀❂ India ✩✪ is ✪✺❁❁❀✪✬✫
supposed
to ★✭❄✬
t❀ have ✪t✭✷t✬✫
started ★✬✷ her ✮❀✷t★✴✭✷✫
northward journey❥❀✺✷✮✬✻ ✭✿❀✺t about
200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea
①✲✲ ❃✩✶✶✩❀✮ ✻✬✭✷✪ ✭✾❀ ✭t t★✬ t✩❃✬ ✴★✬✮ ❙✭✮✾✭✬✭

broke. ❘✮✫✩✭
✿✷❀✽✬❂ India ✵❀✶✶✩✫✬✫
collided with ✴✩t★ Asia about ③✲q②✲
❛✪✩✭ ✭✿❀✺t 40-50 Figure ✒✓✔
❋✌✍✎✏✑ 4.6 ✕: ✖✗✘✑✙✑✚✛
Movement ✗✜
of ✛✢✑
the ✣✚✤✌✥✚
Indian ✦✧✥✛✑
plate
million years
❃✩✶✶✩❀✮ ✻✬✭✷✪ ✭✾❀ ago ✵✭✺✪✩✮✾
causing ✷✭❁✩✫rapid ✺❁✶✩✹t
uplift ❀✹ of t★✬
the plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event
❁✶✭t✬ t❀✴✭✷✫✪ t★✬ ❛✪✩✭t✩✵ ❁✶✭t✬✳ ✭ ❃✭❥❀✷ ✬❄✬✮t
Himalayas. The
❍✩❃✭✶✭✻✭✪❂ positions ❀✹
❚★✬ ❁❀✪✩t✩❀✮✪ of ❘✮✫✩✭
India ✪✩✮✵✬
since ✭✿❀✺t
about that occurred was the outpouring of lava and
t★✭t ❀✵✵✺✷✷✬✫ ✴✭✪ t★✬ ❀✺t❁❀✺✷✩✮✾ ❀✹ ✶✭❄✭ ✭✮✫
71 ❃✩✶✶✩❀✮
④✯ million years
✻✬✭✷✪ t✩✶✶ till t★✬
the ❁✷✬✪✬✮t
present ✭✷✬ are ✪★❀✴✮
shown ✩✮ in formation ❀✹
✹❀✷❃✭t✩❀✮ of t★✬
the ⑧✬✵✵✭✮
Deccan Traps.
❚ ✷✭❁✪❂ This started
❚★✩✪ ✪t✭✷t✬✫
the Figure 4.6. It also shows the position ❀✹
t★✬ ⑤✩✾✺✷✬ ③❂⑥❂ ❘t ✭✶✪❀ ✪★❀✴✪ t★✬ ❁❀✪✩t✩❀✮ of somewhere ✭✷❀✺✮✫
✪❀❃✬✴★✬✷✬ around ⑥✲ 60 ❃✩✶✶✩❀✮
million years ago ✭✮✫
✻✬✭✷✪ ✭✾❀ and
the ❘✮✫✩✭✮
t★✬ Indian ✪✺✿✵❀✮t✩✮✬✮t
subcontinent ✭✮✫ and t★✬the r✺✷✭✪✩✭✮
Eurasian continued ✹❀✷
✵❀✮t✩✮✺✬✫ for ✭ a ✶❀✮✾
long ❁✬✷✩❀✫
period ❀✹ of t✩❃✬❂
time. ✈❀t✬
Note t★✭t
that
plate. About
❁✶✭t✬❂ ❛✿❀✺t ✯③✲ 140 ❃✩✶✶✩❀✮
million years before t★✬
✻✬✭✷✪ ✿✬✹❀✷✬ the the ✪✺✿✵❀✮t✩✮✬✮t
t★✬ subcontinent was still ✵✶❀✪✬
✴✭✪ ✪t✩✶✶ close t❀
to t★✬
the ✬⑨✺✭t❀✷❂
equator.
present, tthe
❁✷✬✪✬✮t✳ subcontinent was
★✬ ✪✺✿✵❀✮t✩✮✬✮t located ✭✪
✴✭✪ ✶❀✵✭t✬✫ as From ③✲
⑤✷❀❃ 40 ❃✩✶✶✩❀✮
million years
✻✬✭✷✪ ✭✾❀ago ✭✮✫
and t★✬✷✬✭✹t✬✷✳
thereafter, t★✬the
south ✭✪
✪❀✺t★ as ②✲
50°S.
⑦
latitude. The
❢❂ ✶✭t✩t✺✫✬❂ ❚★✬ t✴❀two ❃✭❥❀✷
major ❁✶✭t✬✪
plates event ❀✹
✬❄✬✮t of ✹❀✷❃✭t✩❀✮
formation ❀✹ of t★✬
the ❍✩❃✭✶✭✻✭✪
Himalayas t❀❀✽took ❁✶✭✵✬❂
place.
were separated ✿✻
✴✬✷✬ ✪✬❁✭✷✭t✬✫ by t★✬ the Tethys
❚✬t★✻✪ ❢✬✭ Sea ✭✮✫ and t★✬
the Scientists ✿✬✶✩✬❄✬
❢✵✩✬✮t✩✪t✪ believe t★✭tthat tthe process ✩✪
★✬ ❁✷❀✵✬✪✪ is ✪t✩✶✶
still
Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic
❚ ✩ ✿✬t✭ ✮ ✿ ✶❀ ✵ ✽ ✴✭✪ ✵ ✶❀ ✪✬✷ t❀ t ★✬ ❛✪✩✭ t✩ ✵
continuing ✭✮✫
✵❀✮t✩✮✺✩✮✾ and t★✬the ★✬✩✾★t
height ❀✹ of t★✬
the ❍✩❃✭✶✭✻✭✪
Himalayas ✩✪ is
landmass. ⑧✺✷✩✮✾
✶✭✮✫❃✭✪✪❂ During t★✬ the ❃❀❄✬❃✬✮t
movement ❀✹ of t★✬
the ❘✮✫✩✭✮
Indian rising ✬❄✬✮
✷✩✪✩✮✾ even t❀
to t★✩✪
this ✫✭t✬❂
date.
✸✑
38 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

—__.. ❊✒❊✓✔✕✖❊✖
EXERCISES __

✶✳
1. ▼✗✘✙✚✛✘✜
Multiple ✢✣✤✚✢✜
choice ✥✗✜✦✙✚✤✧✦✳
questions.
✭✚✮ ❲✣✤ ★✩✤✧✪✦✙
(i) Who amongst ✙✣✜ the ✫✤✘✘✤✬✚✧✪
following was ✬★✦ ✙✣✜ the ✫✚✯✦✙
first ✙✤to ✢✤✧✦✚✰✜✯
consider ✙✣✜ the ✛✤✦✦✚✱✚✘✚✙✲
possibility ✤✫ of
✴✗✯✤✛✜✵ ✷✫✯✚✢★ ★✧✰
Europe, Africa ✷✩✜✯✚✢★ ✣★✹✚✧✪
and America having been ✱✜✜✧ ✘✤✢★✙✜✰
located ✦✚✰✜ side by✱✲ ✦✚✰✜✳
side.
✭★✮ ✷✘✫✯✜✰ Wegener
(a) Alfred ❲✜✪✜✧✜✯ ✭✢✮ ✷✱✯★✣★✩ ❆✯✙✜✘✚✗✦
(c) Abraham Ortelius

✭✱✮ ✷✧✙✤✧✚✤ ✺✜✘✘✜✪✯✚✧✚

(b) Antonio Pellegrini (d) ✴✰✩✤✧✰
✭✰✮ Edmond ❍✜✦✦ Hess

(ii) ✺✤✘★✯
✭✚✚✮ Polar ✫✘✜✜✚✧✪
fleeing ✫✤✯✢✜force ✯✜✘★✙✜✦
relates ✙✤P to:

(a) ✻✜✹✤✘✗✙✚✤✧
✭★✮ Revolution ✤✫ the ✴★✯✙✣
of ✙✣✜ Earth (c) ✻✤✙★✙✚✤✧
✭✢✮ Rotation ✤✫ of ✙✣✜
the ✜★✯✙✣
earth

(b) ✼✯★✹✚✙★✙✚✤✧
✭✱✮ Gravitation ✭✰✮ ✽✚✰✜✦
(d) Tides
✭✚✚✚✮ ❲✣✚✢✣ ✤✧✜
(iii) Which one ✤✫of ✙✣✜
the ✫✤✘✘✤✬✚✧✪
following ✚✦ is ✧✤✙
not ★ a ✩✚✧✤✯
minor ✛✘★✙✜✾plate?
(a) ✿★❀✢★
✭★✮ Nazca (c) ✺✣✚✘✚✛✛✚✧✜✦
✭✢✮ Philippines
✭✱✮ ✷✯★✱✚★
(b) Arabia ✭✰✮ ✷✧✙★✯✢✙✚✢★
(d) Antarctica
✭✚✹✮
(iv) ❲✣✚✢✣ ✤✧✜
Which one ✤✫ of ✙✣✜
the ✫✤✘✘✤✬✚✧✪
following ✫★✢✙✦ facts was ✬★✦ ✧✤✙ not ✢✤✧✦✚✰✜✯✜✰
considered by ✱✲ ✙✣✤✦✜ ✬✣✚✘✜
those while
✰✚✦✢✗✦✦✚✧✪
discussing ✙✣✜ the ✢✤✧✢✜✛✙
concept ✤✫ of ✦✜★
sea ✫✘✤✤✯
floor ✦✛✯✜★✰✚✧✪✾
spreading?
✭★✮ ❱✤✘✢★✧✚✢ ★✢✙✚✹✚✙✲
(a) Volcanic activity ★✘✤✧✪along ✙✣✜ the ✩✚✰♦✤✢✜★✧✚✢
mid-oceanic ✯✚✰✪✜✦✳ ridges.
✭✱✮
(b) ❙✙✯✚✛✜✦
Stripes ✤✫ of ✧✤✯✩★✘
normal ★✧✰ and ✯✜✹✜✯✦✜
reverse ✩★✪✧✜✙✚✢
magnetic ✫✚✜✘✰ field ✤✱✦✜✯✹✜✰
observed ✚✧ in ✯✤✢❁✦
rocks ✤✫of ✤✢✜★✧
ocean
✫✘✤✤✯✳
floor.
✭✢✮
(c) ❉✚✦✙✯✚✱✗✙✚✤✧
Distribution ✤✫ of ✫✤✦✦✚✘✦
fossils ✚✧ in ✰✚✫✫✜✯✜✧✙
different ✢✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙✦✳
continents.
✭✰✮ ✷✪✜
(d) Age ✤✫ of ✯✤✢❁✦
rocks ✫✯✤✩ from ✙✣✜ the ✤✢✜★✧
ocean ✫✘✤✤✯✳
floor.
✭✹✮
(v) Which one of the following is the ✙✲✛✜
❲✣✚✢✣ ✤✧✜ ✤✫ ✙✣✜ ✫✤✘✘✤✬✚✧✪ ✚✦ ✙✣✜ type ✤✫ of ✛✘★✙✜ ✱✤✗✧✰★✯✲ ✤✫
plate boundary of ✙✣✜
the ❂✧✰✚★✧
Indian ✛✘★✙✜
plate
★✘✤✧✪
along ✙✣✜the ❍✚✩★✘★✲★✧
Himalayan ✩✤✗✧✙★✚✧✦✾mountains?
✭★✮
(a) ❆✢✜★✧♦✢✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙
Ocean-continent ✢✤✧✹✜✯✪✜✧✢✜ convergence
✭✱✮
(b) ❉✚✹✜✯✪✜✧✙ ✱✤✗✧✰★✯✲
Divergent boundary
✭✢✮ ✽✯★✧✦✫✤✯✩ boundary
(c) Transform ✱✤✗✧✰★✯✲
✭✰✮
(d) ❃✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙♦✢✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙
Continent-continent ✢✤✧✹✜✯✪✜✧✢✜ convergence
❄✳
2. ✷✧✦✬✜✯ ✙✣✜
Answer the ✫✤✘✘✤✬✚✧✪
following ✥✗✜✦✙✚✤✧✦
questions ✚✧ in ★✱✤✗✙
about ❅❇ ✬✤✯✰✦✳
30 words.
✭✚✮
(i) ❲✣★✙ were
What ✬✜✯✜ ✙✣✜ the ✫✤✯✢✜✦
forces ✦✗✪✪✜✦✙✜✰
suggested by ✱✲ Wegener
❲✜✪✜✧✜✯ ✫✤✯ for ✙✣✜
the ✩✤✹✜✩✜✧✙
movement ✤✫ of ✙✣✜
the
✢✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙✦✾
continents?
✭✚✚✮
(ii) ❍✤✬
How ★✯✜are ✙✣✜
the ✢✤✧✹✜✢✙✚✤✧★✘
convectional ✢✗✯✯✜✧✙✦currents ✚✧ in ✙✣✜
the ✩★✧✙✘✜
mantle ✚✧✚✙✚★✙✜✰
initiated ★✧✰and ✩★✚✧✙★✚✧✜✰✾
maintained?
✭✚✚✚✮
(iii) ❲✣★✙ ✚✦
What is ✙✣✜
the ✩★❈✤✯
major ✰✚✫✫✜✯✜✧✢✜
difference between✱✜✙✬✜✜✧ ✙✣✜ the ✙✯★✧✦✫✤✯✩ ✱✤✗✧✰★✯✲ ★✧✰
transform boundary and ✙✣✜the
✢✤✧✹✜✯✪✜✧✙
convergent ✤✯ or ✰✚✹✜✯✪✜✧✙ ✱✤✗✧✰★✯✚✜✦ ✤✫
divergent boundaries of ✛✘★✙✜✦✾
plates?
✭✚✹✮
(iv) ❲✣★✙ was
What ✬★✦ ✙✣✜ the ✘✤✢★✙✚✤✧
location ✤✫ of ✙✣✜
the ❂✧✰✚★✧
Indian ✘★✧✰✩★✦✦
landmass ✰✗✯✚✧✪ during ✙✣✜ the ✫✤✯✩★✙✚✤✧
formation ✤✫ of ✙✣✜
the
❉✜✢✢★✧
Deccan Traps?✽✯★✛✦✾
❅✳
3. ✷✧✦✬✜✯ ✙✣✜
Answer the ✫✤✘✘✤✬✚✧✪
following ✥✗✜✦✙✚✤✧✦
questions ✚✧ in ★✱✤✗✙
about ✶●❇ ✬✤✯✰✦✳
150 words.
✭✚✮
(i) ❲✣★✙ ★✯✜
What are ✙✣✜
the ✜✹✚✰✜✧✢✜✦
evidences ✚✧ in ✦✗✛✛✤✯✙
support ✤✫ of ✙✣✜
the ✢✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙★✘
continental ✰✯✚✫✙ drift ✙✣✜✤✯✲✾
theory?
✭✚✚✮
(ii) ■✯✚✧✪
Bring ★✱✤✗✙
about ✙✣✜ ✱★✦✚✢ ✰✚✫✫✜✯✜✧✢✜
the basic difference between ✱✜✙✬✜✜✧ ✙✣✜ the ✰✯✚✫✙
drift ✙✣✜✤✯✲
theory ★✧✰ and ✺✘★✙✜
Plate
✙✜✢✙✤✧✚✢✦✳
tectonics.
✭✚✚✚✮
(iii) ❲✣★✙ were
What ✬✜✯✜ ✙✣✜ the ✩★❈✤✯
major ✛✤✦✙♦✰✯✚✫✙
post-drift ✰✚✦✢✤✹✜✯✚✜✦
discoveries ✙✣★✙ that ✯✜❈✗✹✜✧★✙✜✰
rejuvenated ✙✣✜ the ✚✧✙✜✯✜✦✙
interest
✤✫
of ✦✢✚✜✧✙✚✦✙✦
scientists ✚✧ in ✙✣✜
the ✦✙✗✰✲
study ✤✫ of ✰✚✦✙✯✚✱✗✙✚✤✧
distribution ✤✫ of ✤✢✜★✧✦
oceans ★✧✰ and ✢✤✧✙✚✧✜✧✙✦✾
continents?

❏r❑▲◆❖◗ ❘❑r❚
Project Work
✺✯✜✛★✯✜
Prepare ★
a ✢✤✘✘★✪✜
collage ✯✜✘★✙✜✰
related ✙✤
to ✰★✩★✪✜✦
damages ✢★✗✦✜✰ ✱✲ ★✧
caused by an ✜★✯✙✣✥✗★❁✜✳
earthquake.
 ❯◆✤✥

Ba
\ UNIT

a
: ■■■
III

i,
oa
▲❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝
LANDFORMS

❚✞✟✠
This ✡☛✟☞
unit ✌✍✎✏✠
deals ✑✟☞✞
with
➄« ❘✒✓✔✠
Rocks ✎☛✌and ✕✟☛✍✖✎✏✠
minerals ✗ — ✕✎✘✒✖
major ☞✙✚✍✠
types ✒✛
of ✖✒✓✔✠
rocks ✎☛✌
and ☞✞✍✟✖
their
✓✞✎✖✎✓☞✍✖✟✠☞✟✓✠
characteristics
➄¢ ✜✎☛✌✛✒✖✕✠
Landforms ✎☛✌ and ☞✞✍✟✖
their ✍♠✒✏✡☞✟✒☛
evolution
➄¢ ●✍✒✕✒✖✚✞✟✓ ✚✖✒✓✍✠✠✍✠ ✗— ✑✍✎☞✞✍✖✟☛✢✣
Geomorphic processes weathering, ✕✎✠✠
mass ✑✎✠☞✟☛✢✣
wasting, ✍✖✒✠✟✒☛
erosion
✎☛✌
and ✌✍✚✒✠✟☞✟✒☛❛
deposition; ✠✒✟✏✠
soils ✗ ✛✒✖✕✎☞✟✒☛
— formation
❈CHAPTER
✟✠✡☛☞✌

▼■ ✁✂✄☎✆ AND
MINERALS ✄ ❆ ✥❖✝✞✆
ROCKS

❤✍
he ✍✎✏✑❤
earth ✒✓ is ✔✕✖✗✕✓✍✘
composed ✕✙ ✚✎✏✒✕✛✓ ✜✒✢✘✓
of various kinds ✤❤✕✛❡❤ ✑❤✍
Though the ✢✛✖✧✍✏
number ✕✙ of ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓
elements ✖✎✜✒✢❡making
✕✙of ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓✣
elements. These ✤❤✍✓✍ ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓
elements ✎✏✍✒✢ are in ✓✕♦✒✘
solid ✛✗
up ✑❤✍the ♦✒✑❤✕✓✗❤✍✏✍
lithosphere ✎✏✍ are ♦✒✖✒✑✍✘
limited ✑❤✍❢ they ✎✏✍ are
❚ ✙✕✏✖ form ✒✢ in ✑❤✍
the ✕✛✑✍✏
outer ♦✎❢✍✏
layer ✕✙of ✑❤✍
the ✍✎✏✑❤
earth ✎✢✘
and ✔✕✖✧✒✢✍✘
combined ✒✢ in ✖✎✢❢
many ✘✒✙✙✍✏✍✢✑
different ways ❸✎❢✓ ✑✕to ✖✎✜✍
make ✛✗ up
✒✢
in ❤✕✑
hot ✎✢✘ and ✖✕♦✑✍✢
molten ✙✕✏✖ form ✒✢ in ✑❤✍
the ✒✢✑✍✏✒✕✏✣
interior. ✖✎✢❢ ✚✎✏✒✍✑✒✍✓ ✕✙of ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓✣
many varieties minerals. There ✤❤✍✏✍ ✎✏✍are ✎✑at ♦✍✎✓✑
least
✦✧✕✛✑ ★✩
About 98 ✗✍✏per ✔✍✢✑
cent ✕✙ of ✑❤✍
the ✑✕✑✎♦
total ✔✏✛✓✑
crust ✕✙ of ✑❤✍
the 2,000 ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓
➔✫→→→ minerals ✑❤✎✑ that ❤✎✚✍
have been ✧✍✍✢ ✢✎✖✍✘
named ✎✢✘ and
✍✎✏✑❤
earth is composed of eight elements ♦✒✜✍
✒✓ ✔✕✖✗✕✓✍✘ ✕✙ ✍✒❡❤✑ ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓ like ✒✘✍✢✑✒✙✒✍✘
identified ✒✢ in ✑❤✍
the ✍✎✏✑❤
earth ✔✏✛✓✑➣ ✧✛✑ ✎♦✖✕✓✑
almost ✎♦♦ all ✑❤✍
✕✪❢❡✍✢✫
oxygen, ✓✒♦✒✔✕✢✫ silicon, ✎♦✛✖✒✢✒✛✖✫
aluminium, ✒✏✕✢✫ iron, ✔✎♦✔✒✛✖✫
calcium, ✔✕✖✖✕✢♦❢
commonly ✕✔✔✛✏✏✒✢❡
occurring ✕✢✍✓
crust; but
ones ✎✏✍ are ✏✍♦✎✑✍✘
related ✑✕
the
to ✓✒✪
✓✕✘✒✛✖✫
sodium, ✗✕✑✎✓✓✒✛✖ potassium ✎✢✘ and ✖✎❡✢✍✓✒✛✖♠✤✎✧♦✍✺✣✬✭✫
magnesium (Table 5.1),
✖✎↔✕✏ ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦ ❡✏✕✛✗✓ ✑❤✎✑ ✎✏✍ ✜✢✕❸✢ ✎✓ ✖✎↔✕✏
six
✎✢✘
and ✑❤✍ the ✏✍✓✑ rest ✒✓ is ✔✕✢✓✑✒✑✛✑✍✘
constituted by ✧❢ ✑✒✑✎✢✒✛✖✫
titanium,
major mineral groups that are known as major
✏✕✔✜
rock ✙✕✏✖✒✢❡
forming ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓✣
❤❢✘✏✕❡✍✢✫
hydrogen, ✗❤✕✓✗❤✕✏✕✛✓✫
phosphorous, ✖✎✢❡✎✢✍✓✍✫ manganese, ✓✛♦✗❤✛✏✫sulphur,
✤❤✍ basic
minerals.
✧✎✓✒✔ ✓✕✛✏✔✍
source ✕✙ of ✎♦♦
all ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓
minerals ✒✓ is ✑❤✍
the ❤✕✑
✔✎✏✧✕✢✫
carbon, ✢✒✔✜✍♦ nickel ✎✢✘ and ✕✑❤✍✏
other ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓✣
elements. The hot
✮✯✰✱✲✳✴✶✿✮✵✲✷✯✸✹✻✼✱✲✽✲✾❀❁✹❂❀✵✲✼✯✻❀✵❃❁❄✻✉❁❀ ✖✎❡✖✎
magma ✒✢ in ✑❤✍the ✒✢✑✍✏✒✕✏
interior ✕✙ of ✑❤✍
the ✍✎✏✑❤✣
earth. When↕❤✍✢
Table 5.1 : The Major Elements of the Earth’s Crust
✖✎❡✖✎
magma ✔✕✕♦✓✫
cools, ✔✏❢✓✑✎♦✓
crystals ✕✙ of ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓
minerals ✎✗✗✍✎✏
appear ✎✢✘ and
❙❅❇❉❊❇ ❋❅●❍●❏❑▲
SL No. | Elements ◆② ❲●P◗❘❑❯❱❳
By Weight(%) ✎a ✓❢✓✑✍✖✎✑✒✔
systematic series of minerals are formed ✒✢
✓✍✏✒✍✓ ✕✙ ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓ ✎✏✍ ✙✕✏✖✍✘ in
❨❩ ❬①❭❪❫❴ ❵❛❩❛❜ ✓✍➙✛✍✢✔✍
sequence ✑✕ to ✓✕♦✒✘✒✙❢
solidify ✓✕ so ✎✓ as ✑✕to ✙✕✏✖
form ✏✕✔✜✓✣
rocks.
❝❩2. Silicon ❞❣✐❣❥❦❴ ❝❧❩❧❝
1. Oxygen 46.60
Minerals ✓✛✔❤
➛✒✢✍✏✎♦✓ such ✎✓ as ✔✕✎♦✫
coal, ✗✍✑✏✕♦✍✛✖
petroleum ✎✢✘ and ✢✎✑✛✏✎♦
3.♥❩ ♣✐qr❣❴❣qr s❩❨♥
27.72 natural
A.❵❩ t✈❦❴
Aluminium
✇❩❜❜
8.13
❡✎✓
gas are organic substances found in ✓✕♦✒✘✫
✎✏✍ ✕✏❡✎✢✒✔ ✓✛✧✓✑✎✢✔✍✓ ✙✕✛✢✘ ✒✢ solid,
5.✇❩ ③④✐❥❣qr
Iron
♥❩❛♥
5.00
♦✒➙✛✒✘
liquid ✎✢✘
and ❡✎✓✍✕✛✓
gaseous ✙✕✏✖✓ forms ✏✍✓✗✍✔✑✒✚✍♦❢✣
respectively.
6.❛❩ ❞❦⑤❣qr ❝❩s♥
Calcium 3.63

7.❧❩ ⑥❦⑦④⑧⑧❣qr
Sodium
❝❩✇⑨
2.83 ✧✏✒✍✙ ✒✢✙✕✏✖✎✑✒✕✢
A✦ brief information ✎✧✕✛✑ about ✓✕✖✍some ✒✖✗✕✏✑✎✢✑
important
Potassium
s❩8. Magnesium
⑩④❪❴❫⑧❣qr
2.59
❝❩❜⑨ ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓
minerals ✒✢ in ✑✍✏✖✓
terms ✕✙ of ✑❤✍✒✏
their ✢✎✑✛✏✍✎✢✘✗❤❢✓✒✔✎♦
nature and physical
⑨❩9. Others ❬⑦❶❫✈⑧
2.09
❨❩❵❨
1.41
✔❤✎✏✎✔✑✍✏✒✓✑✒✔✓
characteristics ✒✓ is ❡✒✚✍✢ ✧✍♦✕❸ ➜:
given below

✤❤✍ ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓
The elements ✒✢ in ✑❤✍
the ✍✎✏✑❤❷✓
earth’s ✔✏✛✓✑
crust ✎✏✍ are ✏✎✏✍♦❢
rarely
✙✕✛✢✘ ✍✪✔♦✛✓✒✚✍♦❢ ✧✛✑ ✎✏✍✛✓✛✎♦♦❢✔✕✖✧✒✢✍✘
found exclusively but are usually combined with ❸✒✑❤ ➝➞➟➠➡➢➤➥
PHYSICAL ➦➞➤➧➤➢➨➩➧➡➠➨➡➢➠
CHARACTERISTICS
✕✑❤✍✏
other ✍♦✍✖✍✢✑✓
elements ✑✕ to ✖✎✜✍ ✚✎✏✒✕✛✓ ✓✛✧✓✑✎✢✔✍✓✣
make various substances.
➫➀➭(i) ➯➲➅➂➃➁❾➄
External ➈➃➆❼➅❾➄crystal ➍➇➃❿ ➳ ➌➂➅➂➃➵
These substances are recognised as ✖✒✢✍✏✎♦✓✣
✤❤✍✓✍ ✓✛✧✓✑✎✢✔✍✓ ✎✏✍ ✏✍✔✕❡✢✒✓✍✘ ✎✓ form — deter-
minerals. ❿➀➁➂➌
mined ➊➆ by ➀➁➅➂➃➁❾➄
internal ❾➃➃❾➁➉➂❿➂➁➅
arrangement ➇➍ of
➅❺➂
the ❿➇➄➂➈❻➄➂❼ ➳ ➈❻➊➂❼❽
cubes, ➇➈➅❾❺➂➵
❹❺❻❼❽ ❾a ❿➀➁➂➃❾➄
Thus, mineral ➀❼ is ❾
a ➁❾➅❻➃❾➄➄➆
naturally ➇➈➈❻➃➃➀➁➉
occurring
molecules —
drons, ❺➂➲❾➉➇➁❾➄
➌➃➇➁❼❽
octahe-
prisms, ➂➅➈➏
hexagonal ➎➃➀❼❿❼❽ etc.
➀➁➇➃➉❾➁➀➈
inorganic ❼❻➊❼➅❾➁➈➂❽ substance, ❺❾➋➀➁➉ having ❾➁ an ➇➃➌➂➃➄➆
orderly ➫➀➀➭
(ii) Cleavage — tendency to break ➀➁
➸➄➂❾➋❾➉➂ ➳ ➅➂➁➌➂➁➈➆ ➅➇ ➊➃➂❾➓ in
❾➅➇❿➀➈
atomic ❼➅➃❻➈➅❻➃➂structure ❾➁➌ and ❾ definite ➈❺➂❿➀➈❾➄
a ➌➂➍➀➁➀➅➂ chemical ➉➀➋➂➁
given ➌➀➃➂➈➅➀➇➁❼
directions ➎➃➇➌❻➈➀➁➉
producing
➈➇❿➎➇❼➀➅➀➇➁
composition ❾➁➌ and ➎❺➆❼➀➈❾➄
physical ➎➃➇➎➂➃➅➀➂❼➏
properties. A➐ ➃➂➄❾➅➀➋➂➄➆ plane ❼❻➃➍❾➈➂❼
relatively ➎➄❾➁➂ surfaces — ➳ ➃➂❼❻➄➅
result
❿➀➁➂➃❾➄
mineral ➀❼ is ➈➇❿➎➇❼➂➌
composed ➇➍ of ➅➑➇
two ➇➃ or ❿➇➃➂
more ➇➍of ➀➁➅➂➃➁❾➄
internal ❾➃➃❾➁➉➂❿➂➁➅
arrangement ➇➍ of ➅❺➂
the
➂➄➂❿➂➁➅❼➏ ➒❻➅❽ ❼➇❿➂➅➀❿➂❼ ❼➀➁➉➄➂ ➂➄➂❿➂➁➅ ❿➇➄➂➈❻➄➂❼
molecules — may cleave in one ➇➃
➳ ❿❾➆ ➈➄➂❾➋➂ ➀➁ ➇➁➂ or
elements. But, sometimes single element
❿➀➁➂➃❾➄❼
minerals ➄➀➓➂ like ❼❻➄➎❺❻➃❽
sulphur, ➈➇➎➎➂➃❽
copper, ❼➀➄➋➂➃❽
silver, ➉➇➄➌❽
❿➇➃➂ directions ❾➁➌
more ➌➀➃➂➈➅➀➇➁❼ and ❾➅at ❾➁➆
any ❾➁➉➄➂
angle
➉➃❾➎❺➀➅➂
graphite ➂➅➈➏ etc. ❾➃➂
are ➍➇❻➁➌➏
found.
gold,
➅➇to ➂❾➈❺
each ➇➅❺➂➃➏
other.
MINERALS
▼ ✁✂✄☎✆✝ AND ROCKS
☎✁✞ ✄✟✠✡✝ 41
✹☛

Some MaJor MINERALS

✴❖✵✷ ✸❆✺❖✻ ✸■✽✷✻❆✾✿ ❆✽❀ AND
(iii)
✭☞☞☞✌ Fracture ✔ — ☞internal
❋ ✍ ✎✏ ✑ ✒✍ ✓ molecular
✕ ✑ ✓ ✍ ✕ ✎✖ ✗ ✘ ✖ ✓✏ ✒✖ ✎✍
THEIR
❁❂✷■✻ CHARACTERISTICS
❃❂❆✻❆❄❁✷✻■✿❁■❄✿
arrangement ✙✘
✎✍✍✎✕❛✓✗✓✕✑ so ✏✘✗✚✖✓✛
complex ✑✜✓✍✓
there ✎✍✓
are
no ✚✖✎✕✓✙
✕✘ planes ✘♥
of ✗✘✖✓✏✒✖✓✙✢
molecules; ✑✜✓ the ✏✍✣✙✑✎✖
crystal
Feldspar
❅❇❉❊●❏❑◆
will break ☞✕
✇☞✖✖ ✤✍✓✎❡ in ✎✕
an ☞✍✍✓❛✒✖✎✍
irregular ✗✎✕✕✓✍✱
manner,
not ✎✖✘✕❛
✕✘✑ along ✚✖✎✕✓✙
planes ✘♥ of ✏✖✓✎✥✎❛✓✦
cleavage. Silicon and oxygen are common elements in
P◗❘◗❯❱❲ ❳❲❨ ❱❩❬❭❪❲ ❳❫❪ ❯❱❴❴❱❲ ❪❘❪❴❪❲❵❜ ◗❲

(iv)
✭☞✥✌ Lustre ✔
▲✒✙✑✍✓ — ✎✚✚✓✎✍✎✕✏✓
appearance ✘♥
of ✎
a ✗✎✑✓✍☞✎✖
material all types of feldspar and sodium, potassium,
❳❘❘ ❵❬❝❪❜ ❱❞ ❞❪❘❨❜❝❳❫ ❳❲❨ ❜❱❨◗❢❴❣ ❝❱❵❳❜❜◗❢❴❣

without
✇ ☞ ✑✜ ✘ ✒✑ ✍ regard
✓ ❛ ✎✍ ✧ ✑✘ to ✏colour;
✘ ✖ ✘ ✒✍ ✢ ✓ each
✎✏ ✜ calcium, ❳❘❢❴◗❲◗❢❴
❯❳❘❯◗❢❴❣ aluminium ❪❵❯✐ etc. ❳❫❪
are ❞❱❢❲❨
found ◗❲in ❜❝❪❯◗❞◗❯
specific
mineral ✜✎✙
✗☞✕✓✍✎✖ has ✎ a ✧☞✙✑☞✕✏✑☞✥✓
distinctive ✖✒✙✑✍✓ lustre ✖☞❡✓like feldspar variety.
❞❪❘❨❜❝❳❫ Half ❱❞
❥❳❫◗❪❵❬✐ ❦❳❘❞ of ❵❧❪
the ❪❳❫❵❧♣❜
earth’s ❯❫❢❜❵
crust ◗❜
is
metallic, ✙☞✖❡✣✱
✗✓✑✎✖✖☞✏✱ silky, ❛✖✘✙✙✣
glossy ✓✑✏✦ etc. composed ❱❞
❯❱❴❝❱❜❪❨ of ❞❪❘❨❜❝❳❫✐
feldspar. q❵ It ❧❳❜
has ❘◗❭❧❵
light ❯❫❪❳❴
cream ❵❱ to
(v)
✭ ✥✌ ❈Colour
✘ ✖ ✘ ✒✍ ✔ — ✙some ✘✗ ✓ ✗ minerals
☞ ✕ ✓ ✍ ✎✖ ✙ ✜ have
✎✥✓ salmon ❝◗❲s
❜❳❘❴❱❲ pink ❯❱❘❱❢❫✐
colour. q❵
It ◗❜
is ❢❜❪❨
used ◗❲in ❯❪❫❳❴◗❯❜
ceramics ❳❲❨
and
characteristic
✏✜✎✍✎✏ ✑✓✍ ☞✙✑☞✏ ✏✘✖✘ colour ✒✍ ✧ determined
✓✑✓✍✗ ☞✕✓✧ glass ❴❳s◗❲❭✐
❭❘❳❜❜ making.
by ✑✜
✤✣ their
✓ ☞✍ ✗ molecular
✘✖ ✓✏ ✒✖ ✎✍ ✙ structure
✑✍ ✒✏ ✑ ✒✍ ✓ ✔ —
malachite, azurite, ✏✜✎✖✏✘✚✣✍☞✑✓
✗✎✖✎✏✜☞✑✓✱ ✎♠✒✍☞✑✓✱ chalcopyrite ✓✑✏✦✱ etc., Quartz
t✉❑◆✈①

and ✙✘✗✓
✎✕✧ some ✗☞✕✓✍✎✖✙
minerals ✎✍✓ are ✏✘✖✘✒✍✓✧
coloured ✤✣ by
It is one of the most important components of
q❵ ◗❜ ❱❲❪ ❱❞ ❵❧❪ ❴❱❜❵ ◗❴❝❱❫❵❳❲❵ ❯❱❴❝❱❲❪❲❵❜ ❱❞
impurities.
☞✗✚✒✍☞✑☞✓✙✦ For ✓✛✎✗✚✖✓✱
❋✘✍ example, ✤✓✏✎✒✙✓ because
sand and granite. It consists of silica. It is a
❜❳❲❨ ❳❲❨ ❭❫❳❲◗❵❪✐ q❵ ❯❱❲❜◗❜❵❜ ❱❞ ❜◗❘◗❯❳✐ q❵ ◗❜ ❳
of ☞✗✚✒✍☞✑☞✓✙
✘♥ impurities ♦✒✎✍✑♠ quartz ✗✎✣ may ✤✓ be white,
✇✜☞✑✓✱
hard ❴◗❲❪❫❳❘
❧❳❫❨ mineral virtually insoluble ◗❲
❥◗❫❵❢❳❘❘❬ ◗❲❜❱❘❢②❘❪ in ③❳❵❪❫✐
water. q❵Itis◗❜
green, ✍✓✧✱
❛✍✓✓✕✱ red, yellow
✣✓✖✖✘✇ ✓✑✏✦ etc.
white ❱❫
③❧◗❵❪ or ❯❱❘❱❢❫❘❪❜❜
colourless ❳❲❨
and ❢❜❪❨
used ◗❲
in ❫❳❨◗❱
radio ❳❲❨
and ❫❳❨❳❫✐
radar.
(vi)
✭✥☞✌ Streak ✔
❙✑✍✓✎❡ — ✏✘✖✘✒✍
colour ✘♥ of ✑✜✓
the ❛✍✘✒✕✧
ground ✚✘✇✧✓✍ powder
It ◗❜
q❵ is ❱❲❪
one ❱❞
of ❵❧❪
the ❴❱❜❵
most ◗❴❝❱❫❵❳❲❵
important ❯❱❴❝❱❲❪❲❵❜
components ❱❞ of
of ✎✕✣
✘♥ any ✗☞✕✓✍✎✖✦
mineral. It ✗✎✣
★✑ may ✤✓ be ✘♥ of ✑✜✓
the
granite.
❭❫❳❲◗❵❪✐
same ✏✘✖✘✒✍
✙✎✗✓ colour ✎✙ as ✑✜✓
the ✗☞✕✓✍✎✖
mineral ✘✍ or ✗✎✣
may
differ ✔
✧☞♥♥✓✍ — ✗✎✖✎✏✜☞✑✓
malachite ☞✙ is ❛✍✓✓✕
green ✎✕✧ and ❛☞✥✓✙
gives
green ✙✑✍✓✎❡✱
❛✍✓✓✕ streak, ♥✖✒✘✍☞✑✓
fluorite ☞✙ is ✚✒✍✚✖✓
purple ✘✍ or Pyroxene
④⑤◆⑥⑦❇⑧❇

green ✤✒✑
❛✍✓✓✕ but ❛☞✥✓✙
gives ✎ a white
✇✜☞✑✓ ✙✑✍✓✎❡✦streak. Pyroxene ❯❱❲❜◗❜❵
⑨❬❫❱❩❪❲❪ consists❜ ❱❞of ❯❳❘❯◗❢❴❣
calcium, ❳❘❢❴◗❲❢❴
aluminum, ❣
(vii)
✭✥☞☞✌ Transparency
❚✍✎✕✙✚✎✍✓✕✏✣ ✔ — ✑✍✎✕✙✚✎✍✓✕✑✩
transparent: ✖☞❛✜✑ light magnesium, iron and silica. ⑨❬❫❱❩❪❲❪
❴❳❭❲❪❜◗❢❴❣ ◗❫❱❲ ❳❲❨ ❜◗❘◗❯❳✐ Pyroxene ❞❱❫❴❜
forms
rays ✚✎✙✙
✍✎✣✙ pass ✑✜✍✘✒❛✜
through ✙✘ so ✑✜✎✑that ✘✤r✓✏✑✙
objects 10 ❝❪❫
⑩❶ per ❯❪❲❵
cent ❱❞
of ❵❧❪
the ❪❳❫❵❧♣❜
earth’s ❯❫❢❜❵✐
crust. q❵It ◗❜
is ❯❱❴❴❱❲❘❬
commonly
can ✤✓
✏✎✕ be ✙✓✓✕
seen ✚✖ plainly;
✎☞✕✖✣✢ ✑✍ translucent
✎✕✙✖ ✒✏ ✓✕✑ found ◗❲
❞❱❢❲❨ in ❴❪❵❪❱❫◗❵❪❜✐
meteorites. q❵ It ◗❜
is ◗❲
in ❭❫❪❪❲
green ❱❫ or ②❘❳❯s
black
✔— light rays pass through ✤✒✑
✖ ☞❛✜ ✑ ✍✎✣✙ ✚✎✙✙ ✑✜✍✘✒❛✜ but will✇☞✖✖
colour.
❯❱❘❱❢❫✐
get diffused so that objects cannot
❛✓✑ ✧☞♥♥✒✙✓✧ ✙✘ ✑✜✎✑ ✘✤r✓✏✑✙ ✏✎✕✕✘✑

be ✙✓✓✕✢
✤✓ seen; ✘✚✎♦✒✓
opaque ✔ — light
✖☞❛✜✑ will✇☞✖✖ ✕✘✑not ✚✎✙✙
pass Amphibole
❷❸❏❹❺❻⑥❉❇
at ✎✖✖✦
✎✑ all.
(viii)
✭✥☞☞☞✌ Structure
❙✑✍ ✒✏ ✑✒✍ ✓ ✔ — ✚ particular
✎✍ ✑☞✏ ✒✖✎✍ ✎✍✍ arrange-
✎✕❛✓✪ Aluminium, calcium, ❜◗❘◗❯❳❣
❼❘❢❴◗❲◗❢❴❣ ❯❳❘❯◗❢❴❣ silica, ◗❫❱❲❣
iron, ❴❳❭❲❪❜◗❢❴
magnesium
✗ment✓✕✑ ✘♥ of ✑✜ the✓ ☞✕✧ individual
☞✥☞✧ ✒✎✖ ✏ crystals;
✍✣ ✙ ✑✎✖ ✙✢ are ❵❧❪
❳❫❪ the ❴❳❽❱❫
major ❪❘❪❴❪❲❵❜
elements ❱❞ of ❳❴❝❧◗②❱❘❪❜✐
amphiboles. They❾❧❪❬

♥fine,
☞✕✓✱ ✗ medium
✓✧ ☞✒✗ ✘✍ or ✏✘✎✍coarse ✙✓ ❛✍ grained;
✎☞✕✓✧✢ form ❿
❞❱❫❴ 7 ❝❪❫
per ❯❪❲❵
cent ❱❞
of ❵❧❪
the ❪❳❫❵❧♣❜
earth’s ❯❫❢❜❵✐
crust. q❵
It ◗❜
is ◗❲
in
♥fibrous
☞✤ ✍ ✘ ✒✙ ✔ — ✙separable,
✓✚ ✎✍ ✎✤✖ ✓✱ ✧ divergent,
☞✥ ✓✍ ❛ ✓✕ ✑✱ green ❱❫
❭❫❪❪❲ or ②❘❳❯s
black ❯❱❘❱❢❫
colour ❳❲❨
and ◗❜is ❢❜❪❨
used ◗❲in ❳❜②❪❜❵❱❜
asbestos
radiating.
✍✎✧ ☞✎✑☞✕❛✦ industry.
◗❲❨❢ ❜❵ ❫❬✐ ❦❱Hornblende
❫❲②❘❪ ❲❨❪ ◗❜ is ❳❲❱❵
another form
❧❪❫ ❞❱ ❫❴ ❱ of❞
(ix)
✭☞✛✌ ❍Hardness
✎✍ ✧ ✕✓ ✙ ✙ ✔ — relative
✍ ✓✖ ✎✑☞✥ ✓ ✍ resistance
✓✙ ☞ ✙ ✑✎✕✏ ✓ amphiboles.
❳❴❝❧◗②❱❘❪❜✐

being ✙✏✍✎✑✏✜✓✧✢
✤✓☞✕❛ scratched; ✑✓✕ ten ✗☞✕✓✍✎✖✙
minerals ✎✍✓ are
selected ✑✘
✙✓✖✓✏✑✓✧ to ✗✓✎✙✒✍✓
measure ✑✜✓ the ✧✓❛✍✓✓
degree ✘♥ of Mica
➀❺➁❑

✜hardness
✎✍ ✧ ✕✓ ✙✙ ♥from ✍✘✗ ❤✪ 1-10.❤✫✦ They
❚✜ ✓✣ ✎✍ are:✓ ✩ It
q❵ comprises
❯❱ ❴ ❝ ❫◗ ❜❪ ❜ of ❝
❱❞ potassium, aluminium,
❱ ❵ ❳ ❜❜ ◗❢ ❴ ❣ ❳❘❢ ❴ ◗ ❲ ◗❢ ❴ ❣
❤✦1. ✑tale;
✎✖ ✏ ✢ 2. ✦ ❛✣
✶ gypsum;
✚ ✙ ✒✗✢ ✬✦ 3. ✏calcite;
✎✖ ✏ ☞✑ ✓✢
magnesium, iron, silica etc. It forms 4 per cent
❴❳❭❲❪❜◗❢❴❣ ◗❫❱❲❣ ❜◗❘◗❯❳ ❪❵❯✐ q❵ ❞❱❫❴❜ ➂ ❝❪❫ ❯❪❲❵
4. fluorite;
✮✦ ♥✖✒✘✍☞✑✓✢ 5. apatite; 6. feldspar;
✯✦ ✎✚✎✑☞✑✓✢ ✰✦ ♥✓✖✧✙✚✎✍✢
of the earth’s crust. q❵
❱❞ ❵❧❪ ❪❳❫❵❧♣❜ ❯❫❢❜❵✐ It ◗❜
is ❯❱❴❴❱❲❘❬
commonly ❞❱❢❲❨
found ◗❲
in
7. ♦✒✎✍✑♠✢
✼✦ quartz; ✲✦ 8. ✑✘✚✎♠✢
topaz; ✳✦ 9. ✏✘✍✒✕✧✒✗✢
corundum; igneous ❳❲❨
◗❭❲❪❱❢❜ and ❴❪❵❳❴❱❫❝❧◗❯
metamorphic ❫❱❯s❜✐
rocks. q❵
It ◗❜
is ❢❜❪❨
used ◗❲
in
10. ✧☞✎✗✘✕✧✦
❤✫✦ diamond. ❈✘✗✚✎✍✓✧ Compared ✑✘ to ✑✜☞✙
this ♥✘✍for electrical ◗❲❜❵❫❢❴❪❲❵❜✐
❪❘❪❯❵❫◗❯❳❘ instruments.
example,✓✱ ✎
✓✛✎✗✚✖ a ♥fingernail
☞✕❛✓✍ ✕✎☞✖ ☞✙ is ✶✦ 2.5✯ ✎✕✧and
glass ✘✍
❛✖✎✙✙ or ❡✕☞♥✓
knife ✤✖✎✧✓blade ☞✙ is ✯✦✯✦
5.5.
Olivine
➃❉❺➄❺⑧❇
(x)
✭✛✌ Specific ❛✍✎✥☞✑✣
❙✚✓✏☞♥☞✏ gravity ✔ — ✑✜✓the ✍✎✑☞✘
ratio ✤✓✑✇✓✓✕
between
the ✇✓☞❛✜
✑✜✓ weight ✑ ✘♥ of ✎ a ❛☞✥✓✕
given ✘✤r✓✏ object ✑ ✎✕✧ and Magnesium, iron and silica are major elements
➅❳❭❲❪❜◗❢❴❣ ◗❫❱❲ ❳❲❨ ❜◗❘◗❯❳ ❳❫❪ ❴❳❽❱❫ ❪❘❪❴❪❲❵❜

the✓ ✇
✑✜ weight
✓☞❛✜✑ ✘♥ of ✎✕an ✓♦✒✎✖
equal volume ✥✘✖✒✗✓ ✘♥ of of olivine. It is used in jewellery. It is usually a
❱❞ ❱❘◗❥◗❲❪✐ q❵ ◗❜ ❢❜❪❨ ◗❲ ❽❪③❪❘❘❪❫❬✐ q❵ ◗❜ ❢❜❢❳❘❘❬ ❳

water; ✘✤r✓✏✑
✇✎✑✓✍✢ object ✇ weighed
✓☞❛✜ ✓✧ ☞✕ in ✎☞✍air ✎✕✧and greenish ❯❫❬❜❵❳❘❣
❭❫❪❪❲◗❜❧ crystal, ❱❞❵❪❲
often ❞❱❢❲❨
found ◗❲
in ②❳❜❳❘❵◗❯
basaltic ❫❱❯s❜✐
rocks.
then ✇✓☞❛✜✓✧
✑✜✓✕ weighed ☞✕ in ✇✎✑✓✍
water ✎✕✧ and ✧☞✥☞✧✓
divide Besides these main minerals, ❱❵❧❪❫
➆❪❜◗❨❪❜ ❵❧❪❜❪ ❴❳◗❲ ❴◗❲❪❫❳❘❜❣ other ❴◗❲❪❫❳❘❜
minerals
weight ☞✕
✇✓☞❛✜✑ in ✎☞✍
air ✤✣by ✑✜✓the ✧☞♥♥✓✍✓✕✏✓
difference ✘♥ of ✑✜✓
the like ❯❧❘❱❫◗❵❪❣
❘◗s❪ chlorite, ❯❳❘❯◗❵❪❣
calcite, ❴❳❭❲❪❵◗❵❪❣
magnetite, ❧❳❪❴❳❵◗❵❪❣
haematite,
two ✇✓☞❛✜✑✙✦
✑✇✘ weights. bauxite ❳❲❨
②❳❢❩◗❵❪ and ②❳❫◗❵❪
barite ❳❫❪
are ❳❘❜❱
also ❝❫❪❜❪❲❵
present ◗❲in ❜❱❴❪
some
quantities ◗❲
➇❢❳❲❵◗❵◗❪❜ in ❵❧❪
the ❫❱❯s❜✐
rocks.
✹✑
42 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

▼✒✓✔✕✕✖✗
Metallic ▼✖✘✒✙✔✕✚
Minerals ⑥⑦✘✒❊⑧✚
Igneous ⑨❊✗⑩✚
Rocks
❚✛✜✢✜ ✣✤✥✜✦✧★✢
These minerals ✩✪✥✫✧✤✥
contain ✣✜✫✧★
metal ✩✪✥✫✜✥✫
content ✧✥✬
and ✩✧✥
can ▲✢ ✤✿✥✜✪✭✢
As rocks ♦✪✦✣
igneous ✦✪✩❦✢ form ✪✭✫
out ✪♦
of ✣✧✿✣✧
magma ✧✥✬and ★✧✯✧
lava
❜✜
be ✢✭❜✮✬✤✯✤✬✜✬
sub-divided ✤✥✫✪ into ✫✛✦✜✜
three ✫✰✱✜✢✲
types: ♦✦✪✣
from ✫✛✜
the ✤✥✫✜✦✤✪✦
interior ✪♦
of ✫✛✜
the ✜✧✦✫✛❀
earth, ✫✛✜✰ are ❦✥✪❄✥
they ✧✦✜ known
✳✤✴
(i) Pr❡✵✶✷✸✺
Precious ✻❡✼✽✾✺
metals: ✲ ✿✪★✬❀
gold, ✢✤★✯✜✦❀
silver, ✱★✧✫✤✥✭✣
platinum ✧✢
as ✱✦✤✣✧✦✰
primary ✦✪✩❦✢❁ ❚✛✜ ✤✿✥✜✪✭✢
rocks. The igneous ✦✪✩❦✢ (Ignis -❶
rocks ✳②✿✥✤✢
✜✫✩❁
etc. in ❷✧✫✤✥
✤✥ means ❸❝✤✦✜❤✴
Latin ✣✜✧✥✢ are ♦✪✦✣✜✬
‘Fire’) ✧✦✜ formed when ❄✛✜✥ ✣✧✿✣✧
magma
(ii) ❂❡rr✷✸✺
✳✤✤✴ Ferrous ✻❡✼✽✾✺
metals ✲: ✤✦✪✥
iron ✧✥✬
and ✪✫✛✜✦
other ✣✜✫✧★✢
metals ✩✪✪★✢
cools ✧✥✬and ✢✪★✤✬✤♦✤✜✢❁ ❹✪✭
solidifies. You ✧★✦✜✧✬✰ ❦✥✪❄
already know what ❄✛✧✫
✪♦✫✜✥
often ✣✤❃✜✬ ❄✤✫✛ ✤✦✪✥
mixed with to ♦✪✦✣
iron ✫✪ ✯✧✦✤✪✭✢
form various ✣✧✿✣✧
magma ✤✢❁ ❺✛✜✥ ✣✧✿✣✧
is. When magma ✤✥ in ✤✫✢
its ✭✱❄✧✦✬
upward
❦✤✥✬✢
kinds ✪♦
of ✢✫✜✜★❁
steel. ✣✪✯✜✣✜✥✫
movement ✩✪✪★✢ cools ✧✥✬
and ✫✭✦✥✢
turns ✤✥✫✪ solid ♦✪✦✣
into ✢✪★✤✬ form ✤✫ it ✤✢
is
(iii) ◆✷❅❆❇❡rr✷✸✺
✳✤✤✤✴ Non-ferrous ✻❡✼✽✾✺
metals ✲: ✤✥✩★✭✬✜
include ✣✜✫✧★✢
metals ✩✧★★✜✬
called ✤✿✥✜✪✭✢
igneous ✦✪✩❦❁ ❚✛✜ ✱✦✪✩✜✢✢
rock. The process ✪♦ of ✩✪✪★✤✥✿
cooling ✧✥✬and
★✤❦✜
like ✩✪✱✱✜✦❀ lead, ❈✤✥✩❀
copper, ★✜✧✬❀ zinc, ✫✤✥❀
tin, ✧★✭✣✤✥✤✭✣
aluminium ✢✪★✤✬✤♦✤✩✧✫✤✪✥
solidification ✩✧✥ can ✛✧✱✱✜✥
happen ✤✥ in ✫✛✜
the ✜✧✦✫✛❤✢
earth’s ✩✦✭✢✫
crust
✜✫✩❁
etc. ✪✦
or ✪✥
on ✫✛✜
the ✢✭✦♦✧✩✜
surface ✪♦ of ✫✛✜
the ✜✧✦✫✛❁
earth.
②✿✥✜✪✭✢
Igneous ✦✪✩❦✢rocks ✧✦✜ are ✩★✧✢✢✤♦✤✜✬
classified ❜✧✢✜✬ based ✪✥ on
❉❊✘●▼✒✓✔✕✕✖✗
Non-Metallic ▼✖✘✒✙✔✕✚
Minerals ✫✜❃✫✭✦✜❁
texture. ❚✜❃✫✭✦✜ ✬✜✱✜✥✬✢
Texture depends ✭✱✪✥ upon ✢✤❈✜size ✧✥✬ and
✧✦✦✧✥✿✜✣✜✥✫
arrangement ✪♦ of ✿✦✧✤✥✢
grains ✪✦ or ✪✫✛✜✦
other ✱✛✰✢✤✩✧★
physical
❚✛✜✢✜ ✣✤✥✜✦✧★✢
These minerals ✬✪
do ✥✪✫
not ✩✪✥✫✧✤✥
contain ✣✜✫✧★
metal ✩✪✥✫✜✥✫❁
content.
✩✪✥✬✤✫✤✪✥✢
conditions ✪♦ of ✫✛✜ materials. ②♦
the ✣✧✫✜✦✤✧★✢❁ If ✣✪★✫✜✥
molten ✣✧✫✜✦✤✧★
material
❙✭★✱✛✭✦❀
Sulphur, ✱✛✪✢✱✛✧✫✜✢
phosphates ✧✥✬
and ✥✤✫✦✧✫✜✢
nitrates ✧✦✜
are ✜❃✧✣✱★✜✢
examples ✤✢
is ✩✪✪★✜✬
cooled ✢★✪❄★✰
slowly ✧✫ at ✿✦✜✧✫
great ✬✜✱✫✛✢❀
depths, ✣✤✥✜✦✧★
mineral ✿✦✧✤✥✢
grains
✪♦
of ✥✪✥✮✣✜✫✧★★✤✩ minerals. ❍✜✣✜✥✫
non-metallic ✣✤✥✜✦✧★✢❁ Cement ✤✢is ✧
a ✣✤❃✫✭✦✜
mixture
✣✧✰
may ❜✜ be very large. ❙✭✬✬✜✥
✯✜✦✰ ★✧✦✿✜❁ Sudden ✩✪✪★✤✥✿cooling ✳✧✫ (at ✫✛✜
the
✪♦ ✥✪✥✮✣✜✫✧★★✤✩ ✣✤✥✜✦✧★✢❁
ofnon-metallic minerals. ✢✭✦♦✧✩✜✴
surface) ✦✜✢✭★✫✢
results ✤✥ in ✢✣✧★★
small ✧✥✬
and ✢✣✪✪✫✛
smooth ✿✦✧✤✥✢❁
grains.
②✥✫✜✦✣✜✬✤✧✫✜
Intermediate ✩✪✥✬✤✫✤✪✥✢
conditions ✪♦ of ✩✪✪★✤✥✿ ❄✪✭★✬ ✦✜✢✭★✫
cooling would result
❘❖■❏❑
Rocks
✤✥
in ✤✥✫✜✦✣✜✬✤✧✫✜
intermediate ✢✤❈✜✢ sizes ✪♦of ✿✦✧✤✥✢
grains ✣✧❦✤✥✿
making ✭✱ up
❚✛✜ ✜✧✦✫✛❤✢
The earth’s ✩✦✭✢✫
crust ✤✢is ✩✪✣✱✪✢✜✬
composed ✪♦ of ✦✪✩❦✢❁
rocks. A▲ ✤✿✥✜✪✭✢ rocks. ❯✦✧✥✤✫✜❀
igneous ✦✪✩❦✢❁ Granite, ✿✧❜❜✦✪❀
gabbro, ✱✜✿✣✧✫✤✫✜❀
pegmatite,
✦✪✩❦
rock ✤✢ is ✧✥
an ✧✿✿✦✜✿✧✫✜
aggregate ✪♦ of ✪✥✜
one ✪✦
or ✣✪✦✜
more ✣✤✥✜✦✧★✢❁
minerals. ❜✧✢✧★✫❀ ✯✪★✩✧✥✤✩ ❜✦✜✩✩✤✧
basalt, voleanic breccia ✧✥✬ and ✫✭♦♦tuff ✧✦✜
are ✢✪✣✜
some ✪♦ of
◗✪✩❦
Rock ✣✧✰ may ❜✜be ✛✧✦✬
hard ✪✦ or ✢✪♦✫
soft ✧✥✬
and ✤✥ ✯✧✦✤✜✬
in varied ✫✛✜
the ✜❃✧✣✱★✜✢
examples ✪♦ of ✤✿✥✜✪✭✢
igneous ✦✪✩❦✢❁
rocks.
colours. ❝✪✦
✩✪★✪✭✦✢❁ For ✜❃✧✣✱★✜❀
example, ✿✦✧✥✤✫✜
granite ✤✢
is ✛✧✦✬❀
hard, ✢✪✧✱✢✫✪✥✜
soapstone
✤✢ soft. ❯✧❜❜✦✪
is ✢✪♦✫❁ Gabbro ✤✢ is ❜★✧✩❦ and ❱✭✧✦✫❈✤✫✜
black ✧✥✬ quartzite ✩✧✥can ❜✜
be ❻✒❼✖❽✒✘✓✔✙❾
Sedimentary ⑨❊✗⑩✚
Rocks
✣✤★❦✰ ❄✛✤✫✜❁ ◗✪✩❦✢
milky white. Rocks ✬✪ do ✥✪✫
not ✛✧✯✜
have ✬✜♦✤✥✤✫✜
definite The ❄✪✦✬ ❸✢✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✧✦✰❤
❚✛✜ word ‘sedimentary ✤✢ derived ♦✦✪✣
is ✬✜✦✤✯✜✬ the ❷✧✫✤✥
from ✫✛✜ Latin
✩✪ ✣✱✪✢✤✫✤✪✥ ✪♦
composition of ✣✤✥✜✦✧★
mineral ✩✪ ✥✢✫✤✫✭✜✥✫✢❁
constituents. ❄✪✦✬ ✢✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✭✣❀
word ❄✛✤✩✛ ✣✜✧✥✢
sedimentum, which settling. ◗✪✩❦✢
means ✢✜✫✫★✤✥✿❁ Rocks
❝✜★✬✢✱✧✦ ✧✥✬ ❱✭✧✦✫❈
Feldspar and quartz are the most ✩✪✣✣✪✥
✧✦✜ ✫✛✜ ✣✪✢✫ common ✳✤✿✥✜✪✭✢❀
(igneous, ✢✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✧✦✰
sedimentary ✧✥✬ and ✣✜✫✧✣✪✦✱✛✤✩✴
metamorphic) ✪♦ of ✫✛✜
the
minerals ♦✪✭✥✬
✣✤✥✜✦✧★✢ found ✤✥
in ✦✪✩❦✢❁
rocks. ✜✧✦✫✛❤✢ ✢✭✦♦✧✩✜ ✧✦✜ ✜❃✱✪✢✜✬
earth’s surface are exposed to denudational ✫✪ ✬✜✥✭✬✧✫✤✪✥✧★
✧✿✜✥✫✢❀
agents, ✧✥✬ and ✧✦✜ are ❜✦✪❦✜✥
broken ✭✱ up ✤✥✫✪ ✯✧✦✤✪✭✢ ✢✤❈✜✢
into various sizes
❲❳❨❩❬❭❬❪❫
Petrology ❴❵
is ❵❛❴❳❞❛❳
science ❬❢
of ❩❬❛❣❵✐
rocks. A❥ ❧❳❨❩❬❭❬❪❴❵❨
petrologist of ♦✦✧✿✣✜✥✫✢❁
✪♦ fragments. ❙✭✩✛ Such ♦✦✧✿✣✜✥✫✢
fragments ✧✦✜ are ✫✦✧✥✢✱✪✦✫✜✬
transported
❵❨s♠❴❳❵
studies ❩❬❛❣❵
rocks ❴❞ in ♥❭❭
all ❨♣❳❴❩
their ♥❵❧❳❛❨❵ q❴t✐✉
aspects viz., ❜✰
by ✬✤♦♦✜✦✜✥✫
different ✜❃✪✿✜✥✪✭✢ exogenous ✧✿✜✥✩✤✜✢ agencies ✧✥✬ and
✈❴❞❳❩♥❭
mineral ❛❬✈❧❬❵❴❨❴❬❞✉
composition, ❨❳✇❨s❩❳✉
texture, ❵❨❩s❛❨s❩❳✉
structure, ✬✜✱✪✢✤✫✜✬❁
deposited. These ❚✛✜✢✜ ✬✜✱✪✢✤✫✢
deposits ✫✛✦✪✭✿✛
through ✩✪✣✱✧✩✫✤✪✥
compaction
❬❩❴❪❴❞✉
origin, ❬❛❛s❩❩❳❞❛❳✉
occurrence, ♥❭❨❳❩♥❨❴❬❞
alteration ♥❞♠
and ✫✭✦✥
turn ✤✥✫✪ into ✦✪✩❦✢❁rocks. ❚✛✤✢ ✱✦✪✩✜✢✢
This process ✤✢ is ✩✧★★✜✬
called
❩❳❭♥❨❴❬❞❵♣❴❧ ①❴❨♣ ❬❨♣❳❩
relationship with other ❩❬❛❣❵✐
rocks. lithification. ②✥
✾✶✼❿✶❇✶✵✽✼✶✷❅❁ In ✣✧✥✰
many ✢✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✧✦✰
sedimentary ✦✪✩❦✢❀ rocks, ✫✛✜the
★✧✰✜✦✢
layers ✪♦ of ✬✜✱✪✢✤✫✢
deposits ✦✜✫✧✤✥retain ✫✛✜✤✦
their ✩✛✧✦✧✩✫✜✦✤✢✫✤✩✢
characteristics
▲✢ ✫✛✜✦✜
As there ✤✢ is ✧
a ✩★✪✢✜
close ✦✜★✧✫✤✪✥
relation ❜✜✫❄✜✜✥
between ✦✪✩❦✢ rocks ✜✯✜✥
even ✧♦✫✜✦ lithification. ➀✜✥✩✜❀
after ★✤✫✛✤♦✤✩✧✫✤✪✥❁ Hence, we ❄✜ ✢✜✜
see ✧a ✥✭✣❜✜✦
number
✧✥✬
and ★✧✥✬♦✪✦✣✢❀
landforms, ✦✪✩❦✢rocks ✧✥✬
and ✢✪✤★✢❀
soils, ✧ a ✿✜✪✿✦✧✱✛✜✦
geographer ✪♦
of ★✧✰✜✦✢
layers ✪♦ ✯✧✦✰✤✥✿ ✫✛✤✩❦✥✜✢✢
of varying thickness ✤✥ in ✢✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✧✦✰
sedimentary
✦✜❱✭✤✦✜✢ basic ❦✥✪❄★✜✬✿✜
requires ❜✧✢✤✩ knowledge ✪♦ of ✦✪✩❦✢❁
rocks. There❚✛✜✦✜ ✧✦✜
are ✦✪✩❦✢
rocks ★✤❦✜like ✢✧✥✬✢✫✪✥✜❀
sandstone, ✢✛✧★✜ shale ✜✫✩❁
etc.
✣✧✥✰ ✬✤♦♦✜✦✜✥✫ ❦✤✥✬✢ ✪♦ ✦✪✩❦✢
many different kinds of rocks which are ❄✛✤✩✛ ✧✦✜ ➁✜✱✜✥✬✤✥✿
Depending ✭✱✪✥ upon ✫✛✜ the ✣✪✬✜
mode ✪♦ of ♦✪✦✣✧✫✤✪✥❀
formation,
✿✦✪✭✱✜✬
grouped ✭✥✬✜✦
under ✫✛✦✜✜three ♦✧✣✤★✤✜✢
families ✪✥ on ✫✛✜the ❜✧✢✤✢
basis ✪♦of ✢✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✧✦✰
sedimentary rocks are classified into three ✣✧➂✪✦
✦✪✩❦✢ ✧✦✜ ✩★✧✢✢✤♦✤✜✬ ✤✥✫✪ ✫✛✦✜✜ major
✫✛✜✤✦
their ✣✪✬✜
mode ✪♦ of ♦✪✦✣✧✫✤✪✥❁ ❚✛✜✰ ✧✦✜✲
formation. They (i) ②✿✥✜✪✭✢
are: ✳✤✴ Igneous ✿✦✪✭✱✢✲
groups: ✳✤✴ mechanically ♦✪✦✣✜✬
(i) ✣✜✩✛✧✥✤✩✧★★✰ formed — ③ ✢✧✥✬✢✫✪✥✜❀
sandstone,
◗✪✩❦✢
Rocks —③solidified
✢✪★✤✬✤♦✤✜✬ ♦✦✪✣from ✣✧✿✣✧
magma ✧✥✬ and ★✧✯✧④
lava; ✩✪✥✿★✪✣✜✦✧✫✜❀
conglomerate, ★✤✣✜✢✫✪✥✜❀ limestone, ✢✛✧★✜❀shale, ★✪✜✢✢
loess ✜✫✩❁
etc. ✧✦✜
are
(ii) ❙✜✬✤✣✜✥✫✧✦✰
✳✤✤✴ Sedimentary ◗✪✩❦✢ Rocks — ③ ✫✛✜the ✦✜✢✭★✫
result ✪♦ of ✜❃✧✣✱★✜✢④
examples; ✳✤✤✴ organically ♦✪✦✣✜✬
(ii) ✪✦✿✧✥✤✩✧★★✰ formed—③ ✿✜✰✢✜✦✤✫✜❀
geyserite,
✬✜✱✪✢✤✫✤✪✥
deposition ✪♦ of ♦✦✧✿✣✜✥✫✢
fragments ✪♦ of ✦✪✩❦✢
rocks ❜✰ by ✜❃✪✿✜✥✪✭✢
exogenous ✩✛✧★❦❀
chalk, ★✤✣✜✢✫✪✥✜❀
limestone, ✩✪✧★ coal ✜✫✩❁
etc. ✧✦✜
are ✢✪✣✜
some ✜❃✧✣✱★✜✢④
examples;
✱✦✪✩✜✢✢✜✢④ (iii) ⑤✜✫✧✣✪✦✱✛✤✩
processes; ✳✤✤✤✴ Metamorphic ◗✪✩❦✢
Rocks — ③ ♦✪✦✣✜✬
formed ✪✭✫out ✳✤✤✤✴ chemically ♦✪✦✣✜✬
(iii) ✩✛✜✣✤✩✧★★✰ formed —③ ✩✛✜✦✫❀
chert, ★✤✣✜✢✫✪✥✜❀
limestone, ✛✧★✤✫✜❀
halite,
✪♦
of ✜❃✤✢✫✤✥✿
existing ✦✪✩❦✢
rocks ✭✥✬✜✦✿✪✤✥✿
undergoing ✦✜✩✦✰✢✫✧★★✤✢✧✫✤✪✥❁
recrystallisation. ✱✪✫✧✢✛
potash ✜✫✩❁ etc. ✧✦✜ are ✢✪✣✜
some ✜❃✧✣✱★✜✢❁
examples.
MINERALS
▼ ✁✂✄☎✆✝ AND ROCKS
☎✁✞ ✄✟✠✡✝ 43
✹☛

Metamorphic Rocks
☞✌✍✎✏✑✒✓✔✕✖ ✗✑✖✘✙ major groups — foliated rocks and non-foliated
✥✧✉✢✣ ✮✣✢♦★✬ ➋ ✯✢✲✩✧✦✛✤ ✣✢✪r✬ ✧✫✤ ✫✢✫♠✯✢✲✩✧✦✛✤

rocks. Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist,

✣✢✪r✬✱ ❈✫✛✩✬✬✢✩✤♥ ✮✣✧✫✩✦✛♥ ✬✸✛✫✩✦✛♥ ✬✲✧✦✛♥ ✬✪✚✩✬✦♥
The
❚✚✛ word metamorphic ✥✛✧✫✬
✜✢✣✤ ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪ means ✭✪✚✧✫✮✛
‘change ✢✯
of ✯✢✣✥✰✱
form’.
marble, ❉♦✧✣✦❊✩✦✛
✥✧✣❞✲✛♥ quartzite ✛✦✪✱
etc. ✧✣✛
are ✬✢✥✛
some ✛❋✧✥★✲✛✬
examples ✢✯ of
These rocks form under the action of pressure,
❚✚✛✬✛ ✣✢✪r✬ ✯✢✣✥ ♦✫✤✛✣ ✦✚✛ ✧✪✦✩✢✫ ✢✯ ★✣✛✬✬♦✣✛♥
metamorphic ✣✢✪r✬✱
✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪ rocks.
volume and ✦temperature
✈✢ ✲♦✥✛ ✧✫✤ (PVT) ✪✚✧✫
✛✥★ ✛✣✧ ✦ ♦✣✛ ✳✴✵❚✶ changes.
✮✛✬✱

Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced

✷✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥ ✢✪✪♦✣✬ ✜✚✛✫ ✣✢✪r✬ ✧✣✛ ✯✢✣✪✛✤
Rock Cycle
❘❖●❍ ■❨●❏❑
down to lower levels by tectonic processes or
✤✢✜✫ ✦✢ ✲✢✜✛✣ ✲✛✈✛✲✬ ❞✸ ✦✛✪✦✢✫✩✪ ★✣✢✪✛✬✬✛✬ ✢✣

when molten ✥✧✮✥✧

✜✚✛✫ ✥✢✲✦✛✫ magma ✣✩✬✩✫✮
rising ✦✚✣✢♦✮✚
through ✦✚✛the ✪✣♦✬✦
crust Rocks do not remain in their original form for
▲✢✪r✬ ✤✢ ✫✢✦ ✣✛✥✧✩✫ ✩✫ ✦✚✛✩✣ ✢✣✩✮✩✫✧✲ ✯✢✣✥ ✯✢✣

comes ✩✫
✪✢✥✛✬ in ✪✢✫✦✧✪✦
contact with the ✪✣♦✬✦✧✲
✜✩✦✚ ✦✚✛ crustal ✣✢✪r✬
rocks ✢✣ or ✦✚✛
the long but may undergo transformation. ▲✢✪r
✲✢✫✮ ❞♦✦ ✥✧✸ ♦✫✤✛✣✮✢ ✦✣✧✫✬✯✢✣✥✧✦✩✢✫✱ Rock
underlying
♦✫✤ rocks
✛✣✲✸✩✫ ✮ ✣✢ ✪r✬ ✧ are subjected
✣✛ ✬♦❞ ✉✛✪✦✛✤ ✦✢ to ✮✣
great
✛✧ ✦ cycle ✩✬
✪✸✪✲✛ is ✧
a ✪✢✫✦✩✫♦✢♦✬
continuous ★✣✢✪✛✬✬
process ✦✚✣✢♦✮✚
through which
✜✚✩✪✚

amounts
✧✥✢ of ★
♦✫ ✦✬ ✢✯ pressure
✣✛✬✬♦✣✛ ❞✸ by ✢✈overlying rocks.
✛✣✲✸ ✩✫ ✮ ✣✢ ✪r✬✱ old ✣✢✪r✬
✢✲✤ rocks ✧✣✛
are ✦✣✧✫✬✯✢✣✥✛✤
transformed ✩✫✦✢
into ✫✛✜
new ✢✫✛✬✱
ones.
Metamorphism is a process by which already
✷✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥ ✩✬ ✧ ★✣✢✪✛✬✬ ❞✸ ✜✚✩✪✚ ✧✲✣✛✧✤✸ Igneous ✣✢✪r✬
✺✮✫✛✢♦✬ rocks ✧✣✛
are ★✣✩✥✧✣✸
primary ✣✢✪r✬
rocks ✧✫✤
and ✢✦✚✛✣
other
consolidated ✣✢✪r✬
✪✢✫✬✢✲✩✤✧✦✛✤ rocks ♦✫✤✛✣✮✢
undergo ✣✛✪✣✸✬✦✧✲✲✩✬✧✦✩✢✫
recrystallisation rocks (sedimentary and
✣✢✪r✬ ✳✬✛✤✩✥✛✫✦✧✣✸ ✧✫✤ ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪✶ ✯✢✣✥metamorphic) form
and ✣✛✢✣✮✧✫✩✬✧✦✩✢✫
✧✫✤ reorganisation ✢✯ of ✥✧✦✛✣✩✧✲✬
materials within original
✜✩✦✚✩✫ ✢✣✩✮✩✫✧✲ from these primary rocks. ✺✮✫✛✢♦✬
✯✣✢✥ ✦✚✛✬✛ ★✣✩✥✧✣✸ ✣✢✪r✬✱ Igneous ✣✢✪r✬
rocks ✪✧✫
can
rocks.
✣✢✪r✬✱ be ✪✚✧✫✮✛✤
❞✛ changed ✩✫✦✢
into ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪
metamorphic ✣✢✪r✬✱rocks. The
❚✚✛

✷✛✪✚✧✫✩✪✧✲
Mechariicat ✤✩✬✣♦★✦✩✢✫ ✧✫✤ ✣✛✢✣✮✧✫✩✬✧✦✩✢✫
distr uptior arict 1CoOr ganisation fragments
✯ derived
✣ ✧ ✮ ✥ ✛✫ ✦ ✬ ✤ out
✛ ✣✩ ✈ ✛✤ ✢ ♦✦ ✢of✯ ✩igneous and
✮✫ ✛ ✢ ♦ ✬ ✧ ✫✤

of the original minerals within rocks due to

✢✯ ✦✚✛ ✢✣✩✮✩✫✧✲ ✥✩✫✛✣✧✲✬ ✜✩✦✚✩✫ ✣✢✪r✬ ✤♦✛ ✦✢ metamorphic ✣✢✪r✬
✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪ rocks ✯✢✣✥
form ✩✫✦✢
into ✬✛✤✩✥✛✫✦✧✣✸
sedimentary
breaking
❞ ✣ ✛✧ r ✩ ✫ ✮ ✧and
✫✤ crushing
✪ ✣ ♦ ✬✚ ✩ ✫ ✮ without
✜✩✦✚✢ ♦✦ any
✧ ✫✸

appreciable ✪✚✛✥✩✪✧✲
✧★★✣✛✪✩✧❞✲✛ chemical ✪✚✧✫✮✛✬
changes ✩✬ is ✪✧✲✲✛✤
called ✤✸✫✧✥✩✪
dynamic
metamorphism.
✥✛✦✧ ✥✢ ✣★✚✩ ✬✥✱ The ❚✚ ✛ ✥✧ materials
✦✛✣✩ ✧ ✲✬ ✢of✯ ✣✢
rocks
✪r✬ Mertarearchian MOET ACh ect Metting

chemically
✪✚✛✥✩ ✪✧ ✲✲✸ ✧ alter
✲✦✛✣ ✧✫✤and ✣✛✪✣✸
recrystallise
✬✦✧ ✲✲✩ ✬✛ ✤ due
♦✛ ✦✢ to
thermal ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥✱
✦✚✛✣✥✧✲ metamorphism. There ❚✚✛✣✛ ✧✣✛ are ✦✜✢two ✦✸★✛✬
types
of ✦✚✛✣✥✧✲
✢✯ thermal ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥
metamorphism — contact ✥✛✦✧♠
➋ ✪✢✫✦✧✪✦ meta- OME AL ALLA
CECH
morphism ✧✫✤
✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥ and ✣✛✮✩✢✫✧✲
regional ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥✱
metamorphism. ✺✫ In
contact ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥
✪✢✫✦✧✪✦ metamorphism ✦✚✛ the ✣✢✪r✬
rocks ✪✢✥✛ come ✩✫ in
contact with
✪✢✫✦✧✪✦ ✜✩✦✚ ✚✢✦hot ✩✫✦✣♦✤✩✫✮
intruding ✥✧✮✥✧ magma ✧✫✤ and ✲✧✈✧lava
and ✦✚✛
✧✫✤ the ✣✢✪r
rock ✥✧✦✛✣✩✧✲✬
materials ✣✛✪✣✸✬✦✧✲✲✩✬✛
recrystallise ♦✫✤✛✣ under ✚✩✮✚high
temperatures. Quite often new materials ✯✢✣✥
✦✛✥★✛✣✧✦♦✣✛✬✱ t♦✩✦✛ ✢✯✦✛✫ ✫✛✜ ✥✧✦✛✣✩✧✲✬ form
out ✢✯
✢♦✦ of ✥✧✮✥✧
magma ✢✣ or ✲✧✈✧
lava ✧✣✛ are ✧✤✤✛✤
added ✦✢ to ✦✚✛
the ✣✢✪r✬✱
rocks.
In ✣✛✮✩✢✫✧✲
✺✫ regional ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥♥
metamorphism, ✣✢✪r✬ rocks ♦✫✤✛✣✮✢undergo Erosina

recrystallisation ✤♦✛
✣✛✪✣✸✬✦✧✲✲✩✬✧✦✩✢✫ due ✦✢ to ✤✛✯✢✣✥✧✦✩✢✫
deformation ✪✧♦✬✛✤ caused ❞✸ by Fig ❱❲❳
◗❙❯ 5.1 ❩: ❬❭❪❫
Rock ❴❵❪❛❝
Cycle
tectonic
✦ ✛ ✪ ✦✢ ✫ ✩ ✪ shearing
✬✚ ✛✧ ✣ ✩ ✫ ✮ ✦together
✢ ✮ ✛ ✦ ✚ ✛ ✣ with✜ ✩ ✦✚ high
✚ ✩ ✮✚

temperature ✢✣
✦✛✥★✛✣✧✦♦✣✛ or ★✣✛✬✬♦✣✛
pressure ✢✣ or ❞✢✦✚✱
both. ✺✫ In ✦✚✛
the ★✣✢✪✛✬✬
process
rocks. Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn
✣✢✪r✬✱ ✻✛✤✩✥✛✫✦✧✣✸ ✣✢✪r✬ ✦✚✛✥✬✛✲✈✛✬ ✪✧✫ ✦♦✣✫
of ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥
✢✯ metamorphism ✩✫ in ✬✢✥✛
some ✣✢✪r✬rocks ✮✣✧✩✫✬ grains ✢✣ or
into fragments and the fragments can be a
✩✫✦✢ ✯✣✧✮✥✛✫✦✬ ✧✫✤ ✦✚✛ ✯✣✧✮✥✛✫✦✬ ✪✧✫ ❞✛ ✧
minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such
✥✩✫✛✣✧✲✬ ✮✛✦ ✧✣✣✧✫✮✛✤ ✩✫ ✲✧✸✛✣✬ ✢✣ ✲✩✫✛✬✱ ✻♦✪✚
source ✯✢✣
✬✢♦✣✪✛ for ✯✢✣✥✧✦✩✢✫
formation ✢✯
of ✬✛✤✩✥✛✫✦✧✣✸
sedimentary ✣✢✪r✬✱
rocks. The
❚✚✛
an ✧
✧✫ arrangement
✣✣✧✫✮✛✥✛✫✦ ✢✯ of ✥✩✫✛✣✧
minerals✲✬ ✢✣ or ✮✣✧✩✫
grains✬ ✩✫ in
crustal
✪✣♦✬✦✧✲ rocks
✣✢✪r✬ (igneous,
✳✩✮✫✛✢♦✬♥ metamorphic
✥✛✦✧ ✥✢ ✣★✚✩✪ ✧✫✤ and
metamorphic
✥✛✦✧ ✥✢ ✣★✚✩ ✪ ✣✢ rocks
✪r✬ ✩is✬ ✪✧ called\
✲✲✛✤ foliation
❢✼✽✾✿❀✾✼❁ ✢ or✣
sedimentary) once
✬✛✤✩✥✛✫✦✧✣✸✶ ✢✫✪✛ ✯✢ ✣✥✛✤ formed may be
✥✧✸ ❞✛ ✪✧✣✣✩✛✤ carried
lineation. ✻✢✥✛✦✩✥✛✬
✽✾❁❧✿❀✾✼❁✱ Sometimes ✥✩✫✛✣✧✲✬minerals ✢✣ or ✥✧✦✛✣✩✧✲✬
materials ✢✯ of
down into the mantle (interior of the
✤✢✜✫ ✩✫✦✢ ✦✚✛ ✥✧✫✦✲✛ ✳✩✫✦✛✣✩✢✣ ✢✯ ✦✚✛ ✛✧✣✦✚✶ earth)
different ✮✣✢♦★✬
✤✩✯✯✛✣✛✫✦ groups ✧✣✛ are ✧✣✣✧✫✮✛✤
arranged ✩✫✦✢ into ✧✲✦✛✣✫✧✦✩✫✮
alternating
thin ✦✢
✦✚✩✫ to ✦✚✩✪r
thick ✲✧✸✛✣✬
layers ✧★★✛✧✣✩✫✮
appearing ✩✫ in ✲✩✮✚✦
light ✧✫✤and ✤✧✣r
dark through subduction process (parts or whole
✦✚✣✢♦✮✚ ✬♦❞✤♦✪✦✩✢✫ ★✣✢✪✛✬✬ ✳★✧✣✦✬ ✢✣ ✜✚✢✲✛

shades. ✻♦✪✚
✬✚✧✤✛✬✱ Such ✧ a ✬✦✣♦✪✦♦✣✛
structure ✩✫ in ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪
metamorphic of ✪✣♦✬✦✧✲
✢✯ crustal ★✲✧✦✛✬
plates ✮✢✩✫✮
going ✤✢✜✫
down ♦✫✤✛✣
under ✧✫✢✦✚✛✣
another
rocks ✩✬
✣✢✪r✬ is ✪✧✲✲✛✤
called ❜✿❁❂✾❁❃
banding ✧✫✤ and ✣✢✪r✬
rocks ✤✩✬★✲✧✸✩✫✮
displaying plate in zones of plate convergence) and ✦✚✛
★✲✧✦✛ ✩✫ ❊✢✫✛✬ ✢✯ ★✲✧✦✛ ✪✢✫✈✛✣✮✛✫✪✛✶ ✧✫✤ the
banding are called banded rocks. Types
❞✧✫✤✩✫✮ ✧✣✛ ✪✧✲✲✛✤ ❜✿❁❂❧❂ ❄✼❅❆❇✱ ❚✸★✛✬ ✢✯ of same
✬ ✧✥✛ ✥melt
✛✲✦ down
✤ ✢✜✫ due
✤ ♦✛ to✢ ✩increase
✦ ✫ ✪ ✣ ✛✧ ✬ ✛ ✩in
✫

metamorphic
✥✛✦✧ ✥✢✣★✚✩✪ ✣✢ rocks depend ♦★✢✫
✪r✬ ✤✛★✛✫✤ upon ✢✣✩✮✩✫✧✲original temperature ✩✫
✦✛✥★✛✣✧✦♦✣✛ in ✦✚✛
the ✩✫✦✛✣✩✢
interior✣ ✧✫✤
and ✦♦✣✫
turn ✩✫✦✢
into
rocks ✦✚✧✦
✣✢✪r✬ that were subjected ✦✢
✜✛✣✛ ✬♦❞✉✛✪✦✛✤ to ✥✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✬✥✱
metamorphism. molten
✥✢ ✲ ✦ ✛✫ ✥✧magma, the✛ ✢
✮ ✥✧ ♥ ✦✚ original source
✣✩ ✮✩✫ ✧ ✲ ✬✢ ♦✣ ✪✛ ✯ for
✢✣

Metamorphic ✣✢✪r✬
✷✛✦✧✥✢✣★✚✩✪ rocks ✧✣✛ are ✪✲✧✬✬✩✯✩✛✤
classified ✩✫✦✢ into ✦✜✢ two igneous rocks (Figure 5.1).
✩✮✫✛✢♦✬ ✣✢✪r✬ ✳✐✩✮♦✣✛ ◆✱P✶✱
✹✹
44 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

—___.. ❊✑❊✒✓✔✕❊✕
EXERCISES __

✶✳
1. ▼✖✗✘✙✚✗✛
Multiple ✜✢✣✙✜✛
choice ✤✖✛✥✘✙✣✦✥✳
questions.
✭✙✧ ❲✢✙✜✢ ✣✦✛
(i) Which one ✣★ of ✘✢✛
the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✫✬✛ are ✘✢✛the ✘✩✣
two ✮✫✙✦
main ✜✣✦✥✘✙✘✖✛✦✘✥
constituents ✣★ of ✪✬✫✦✙✘✛✯
granite?
✭✫✧
(a) ✰✬✣✦
Iron ✫✦✱ and ✦✙✜✲✛✗
nickel ✭✜✧
(c) ❙✙✗✙✜✫
Silica ✫✦✱and ✫✗✖✮✙✦✙✖✮
aluminium
✭✴✧
(b) ✰✬✣✦
Iron ✫✦✱ and ✥✙✗s✛✬
silver ✭✱✧
(d) ✰✬✣✦
Iron ✵✷✙✱✛
Oxide ✫✦✱and ✚✣✘✫✥✥✙✖✮
potassium
✭✙✙✧ ❲✢✙✜✢ ✣✦✛
(ii) Which one ✣★ of ✘✢✛
the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✙✥ is ✘✢✛
the ✥✫✗✙✛✦✘
salient ★✛✫✘✖✬✛
feature ✣★ of ✮✛✘✫✮✣✬✚✢✙✜
metamorphic ✬✣✜✲✥✯ rocks?
✭✫✧
(a) ✸✢✫✦✪✛✫✴✗✛
Changeable ✭✜✧
(c) ✸✬✺✥✘✫✗✗✙✦✛
Crystalline
✭✴✧
(b) ✻✖✙✘✛
Quite ✭✱✧
(d) ✼✣✗✙✫✘✙✣✦
Foliation
✭✙✙✙✧ ❲✢✙✜✢ ✣✦✛
(iii) Which one ✣★ of ✘✢✛
the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✙✥ is ✦✣✘
not ✫ a ✥✙✦✪✗✛
single ✛✗✛✮✛✦✘
element ✮✙✦✛✬✫✗✯
mineral?
✭✫✧
(a) ✽✣✗✱
Gold ✭✜✧
(c) ▼✙✜✫
Mica
✭✴✧
(b) ❙✙✗s✛✬
Silver ✭✱✧
(d) ✽✬✫✚✢✙✘✛
Graphite
✭✙s✧ ❲✢✙✜✢ ✣✦✛
(iv) Which one ✣★ of ✘✢✛
the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✙✥ is ✘✢✛
the ✢✫✬✱✛✥✘
hardest ✮✙✦✛✬✫✗✯
mineral?
✭✫✧ ✾✣✚✫✿
(a) Topaz ✭✜✧
(c) ✻✖✫✬✘✿
Quartz
✭✴✧
(b) ❀✙✫✮✣✦✱
Diamond ✭✱✧
(d) ✼✛✗✱✥✚✫✬
Feldspar
✭s✧ ❲✢✙✜✢ ✣✦✛
(v) Which one ✣★ of ✘✢✛
the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✙✥ is ✦✣✘
not ✫ a ✥✛✱✙✮✛✦✘✫✬✺
sedimentary ✬✣✜✲✯ rock?
✭✫✧ ✾✙✗✗✙✘✛
(a) Tillite ✭✜✧
(c) ❁✬✛✜✜✙✫
Breccia
✭✴✧
(b) ❁✣✬✫✷
Borax ✭✱✧
(d) ▼✫✬✴✗✛
Marble
❂✳
2. ❆✦✥✩✛✬ ✘✢✛
Answer the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✤✖✛✥✘✙✣✦✥
questions ✙✦ in ✫✴✣✖✘
about ❃❄ ✩✣✬✱✥✳
30 words.
✭✙✧ ❲✢✫✘ ✱✣
(i) What do you✺✣✖ ✮✛✫✦
mean by ✴✺ ✬✣✜✲✥✯
rocks? ❅✫✮✛ Name ✘✢✛ the ✘✢✬✛✛
three ✮✫❇✣✬
major ✜✗✫✥✥✛✥
classes ✣★ of ✬✣✜✲✥✳
rocks.
✭✙✙✧ ❲✢✫✘ ✙✥
(ii) What is ✫✦an ✙✪✦✛✣✖✥
igneous ✬✣✜✲✯ rock? ❀✛✥✜✬✙✴✛
Describe ✘✢✛ the ✮✛✘✢✣✱
method ✣★ of ★✣✬✮✫✘✙✣✦
formation ✫✦✱ and
✜✢✫✬✫✜✘✛✬✙✥✘✙✜✥
characteristics ✣★ of ✙✪✦✛✣✖✥
igneous ✬✣✜✲✳rock.
✭✙✙✙✧
(iii) ❲✢✫✘ ✙✥
What is ✮✛✫✦✘
meant by ✴✺ ✥✛✱✙✮✛✦✘✫✬✺
sedimentary ✬✣✜✲✯ rock? ❀✛✥✜✬✙✴✛
Describe ✘✢✛ the ✮✣✱✛
mode ✣★ of ★✣✬✮✫✘✙✣✦
formation ✣★ of
✥✛✱✙✮✛✦✘✫✬✺
sedimentary ✬✣✜✲✳ rock.
✭✙s✧
(iv) ❲✢✫✘ ✬✛✗✫✘✙✣✦✥✢✙✚
What relationship ✛✷✚✗✫✙✦✛✱
explained by ✴✺ ✬✣✜✲
rock ✜✺✜✗✛ ✴✛✘✩✛✛✦ ✘✢✛
cycle between the ✮✫❇✣✬
major ✘✺✚✛type ✣★
of ✬✣✜✲✯
rock?
❃✳
3. ❆✦✥✩✛✬ ✘✢✛
Answer the ★✣✗✗✣✩✙✦✪
following ✤✖✛✥✘✙✣✦✥
questions ✙✦ in ✫✴✣✖✘
about ✶❈❄ ✩✣✬✱✥✳
150 words.
✭✙✧
(i) ❀✛★✙✦✛
Define ✘✢✛ the ✘✛✬✮
term ❉✮✙✦✛✬✫✗●
‘mineral’ ✫✦✱and ✦✫✮✛ name ✘✢✛ the ✮✫❇✣✬
major ✜✗✫✥✥✛✥
classes ✣★ of ✮✙✦✛✬✫✗✥
minerals with✩✙✘✢
✘✢✛✙✬
their ✚✢✺✥✙✜✫✗
physical ✜✢✫✬✫✜✘✛✬✙✥✘✙✜✥✳
characteristics.
✭✙✙✧
(ii) ❀✛✥✜✬✙✴✛
Describe ✘✢✛ the ✦✫✘✖✬✛
nature ✫✦✱ and ✮✣✱✛
mode ✣★ of ✣✬✙✪✙✦
origin ✣★of ✘✢✛
the ✜✢✙✛★
chief ✘✺✚✛✥
types ✣★ of ✬✣✜✲
rock ✫✘at ✘✢✛
the
✛✫✬✘✢●✥
earth’s ✜✬✖✥✘✳
crust. ❡✣✩How will✩✙✗✗ you
✺✣✖ ✱✙✥✘✙✦✪✖✙✥✢
distinguish ✘✢✛✮✯ them?
✭✙✙✙✧
(iii) ❲✢✫✘ ✫✬✛
What are ✮✛✘✫✮✣✬✚✢✙✜
metamorphic ✬✣✜✲✥✯ rocks? ❀✛✥✜✬✙✴✛
Describe ✘✢✛ the ✘✺✚✛✥
types ✣★ of ✮✛✘✫✮✣✬✚✢✙✜
metamorphic ✬✣✜✲ rock
✫✦✱
and ✢✣✩how ✫✬✛ are ✘✢✛✺
they ★✣✬✮✛✱✯
formed?

Pr♦❍■❏❑ ▲♦r◆
Project Work
✸✣✗✗✛✜✘
Collect ✱✙★★✛✬✛✦✘
different ✬✣✜✲
rock ✥✫✮✚✗✛✥
samples ✫✦✱and ✘✬✺
try ✘✣
to ✬✛✜✣✪✦✙✥✛
recognise ✘✢✛✮
them ★✬✣✮
from ✘✢✛✙✬
their ✚✢✺✥✙✜✫✗
physical
✜✢✫✬✫✜✘✛✬✙✥✘✙✜✥
characteristics ✫✦✱
and ✙✱✛✦✘✙★✺
identify ✘✢✛✙✬
their ★✫✮✙✗✺✳
family.
 ❈CHAPTER
✞✟✠✡☛☞

●❊ ✁ ✂✄☎✆✝ ✥✂
GEOMORPHIC ✝❊❘❘❊❘
PROCESSES
(S)
❢✌✍✎ ✏✍✑✎✒✓✒✔ ✑✕✖✗✌ ✘✖✙ ✌✘✍ ✍✑✎✌✘ ✙✑✚
fter learning about how the earth was ❢✖✎✢✍✚
forces ✢✖✒✌✓✒✗✖✗✚✏✐
continuously ✍✏✍✛✑✌✍ elevate ✖✎ or ✕✗✓✏✜
build ✗✣ up ✣✑✎✌✚
parts
A= ✕✖✎✒❜ ✘✖✙ ✓✌ ✍✛✖✏✛✍✜ ✓✌✚ ✢✎✗✚✌ ✑✒✜ ✖✌✘✍✎
how it evolved its crust and other ✖❢of ✌✘✍the ✍✑✎✌✘✶✚
earth’s ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍
surface ✑✒✜ and ✘✍✒✢✍
hence ✌✘✍ the ✍✺✖✔✍✒✓✢
exogenic
❆✓✒✒✍✎ ✏✑✐✍✎✚❜ ✘✖✙ ✓✌✚ ✢✎✗✚✌✑✏ ✣✏✑✌✍✚
inner layers, how its crustal plates ✣✎✖✢✍✚✚✍✚
processes ❢✑✓✏ fail ✌✖
to ✍✛✍✒
even ✖✗✌out ✌✘✍
the ✎✍✏✓✍❢ ✛✑✎✓✑✌✓✖✒✚
relief variations
♠✖✛✍✜ ✑✒✜ ✑✎✍♠✖✛✓✒✔❜ ✑✒✜ ✖✌✘✍✎ ✓✒❢✖✎♠✑✌✓✖✒
moved and are moving, and other information ✖❢✌✘✍✚✗✎❢✑✢✍✖❢✌✘✍✍✑✎✌✘t❍✖❜✛✑✎✓✑✌✓✖✒✚✎✍♠✑✓✒
of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
✖✒ ✍✑✎✌✘♦✗✑✤✍✚❜ ✌✘✍ ❢✖✎♠✚ ✖❢ ✛✖✏✢✑✒✓✚♠ ✑✒✜
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and ✑✚
as ✏✖✒✔ long ✑✚
as ✌✘✍✖✣✣✖✚✓✒✔
the opposing ✑✢✌✓✖✒✚ actions ✖❢ of ✍✺✖✔✍✒✓✢
exogenic ✑✒✜ and
✑✕✖✗✌ ✌✘✍ ✎✖✢✤✚ ✑✒✜ ♠✓✒✍✎✑✏✚ ✌✘✍ ✢✎✗✚✌ ✓✚
about the rocks and minerals the crust is ✍✒✜✖✔✍✒✓✢
endogenic ❢✖✎✢✍✚ continue. ■✒
forces ✢✖✒✌✓✒✗✍t In ✔✍✒✍✎✑✏
general ✌✍✎♠✚❜
terms,
✢✖♠✣✖✚✍✜ ✖❢❜ ✓✌ ✓✚ ✌✓♠✍ ✌✖ ✤✒✖✙ ✓✒ ✜✍✌✑✓✏ ✑✕✖✗✌
composed of, it is time to know in detail about ✌✘✍
the ✍✒✜✖✔✍✒✓✢
endogenic ❢✖✎✢✍✚ forces ✑✎✍are ♠✑✓✒✏✐
mainly ✏✑✒✜ land ✕✗✓✏✜✓✒✔
building
✌✘✍ ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍ ✖❢ ✌✘✍ ✍✑✎✌✘ ✖✒ ✙✘✓✢✘ ✙✍ ✏✓✛✍t ✦✍✌
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let ❢✖✎✢✍✚
forces ✑✒✜ and ✌✘✍the ✍✺✖✔✍✒✓✢
exogenic ✣✎✖✢✍✚✚✍✚
processes ✑✎✍ are ♠✑✓✒✏✐
mainly
✗✚ ✚✌✑✎✌ ✙✓✌✘ ✌✘✓✚ ♦✗✍✚✌✓✖✒t
us start with this question. ✏✑✒✜
land wearing forces. The surface of the earth ✓✚
✙✍✑✎✓✒✔ ❢✖✎✢✍✚t ✹✘✍✚✗✎❢✑✢✍✖❢ ✌✘✍ ✍✑✎✌✘ is
sensitive. ❏✗♠✑✒✚
✚✍✒✚✓✌✓✛✍t Humans ✜✍✣✍✒✜ depend ✖✒ on ✓✌ it ❢✖✎
for ✌✘✍✓✎
their
❲✧★ ✩✪is ✫✧✬
Why the ✪✭✮✯✰✱✬
surface ✲✯ of ✫✧✬
the ✬✰✮✫✧
earth ✭✳✬✴✬✳✵
uneven? ✚✗✚✌✍✒✑✒✢✍
sustenance ✑✒✜ and ✘✑✛✍✕✍✍✒
have been ✗✚✓✒✔ using ✓✌ it ✍✺✌✍✒✚✓✛✍✏✐
extensively
❋✓✎✚✌✖❢
First of ✑✏✏❜
all, ✌✘✍✍✑✎✌✘✶
the earth’s✚ ✢✎✗✚✌✓✚✜✐✒✑♠✓✢t✷✖✗
✑✒✜
and ✓✒✌✍✒✚✓✛✍✏✐t❍✖❜✓✌
intensively. So, it ✓✚ is ✍✚✚✍✒✌✓✑✏✌✖
essential to ✗✒✜✍✎✚✌✑✒✜
understand
✑✎✍ ✙✍✏✏ ✑✙✑✎✍
aware ✌✘✑✌ that ✓✌ it ✘✑✚
crust is dynamic. You
has ♠✖✛✍✜
moved ✑✒✜ and ♠✖✛✍✚
✓✌✚
its ✒✑✌✗✎✍
nature ✓✒ in ✖✎✜✍✎
order ✌✖ to ✗✚✍
use ✓✌it ✍❢❢✍✢✌✓✛✍✏✐ ✙✓✌✘✖✗✌
effectively without
are well
✛✍✎✌✓✢✑✏✏✐ ✑✒✜ horizontally. ✸❢
and ✘✖✎✓✈✖✒✌✑✏✏✐t Of ✢✖✗✎✚✍❜
course, ✓✌
moves
it ♠✖✛✍✜
✜✓✚✌✗✎✕✓✒✔
disturbing ✓✌✚ its ✕✑✏✑✒✢✍
balance ✑✒✜ and ✜✓♠✓✒✓✚✘✓✒✔
diminishing ✓✌✚ its
vertically
✑a ✕✓✌
bit ❢✑✚✌✍✎
faster ✓✒in ✌✘✍✣✑✚✌
the past ✌✘✑✒ than ✌✘✍✎✑✌✍
the rate ✑✌
moved
✙✘✓✢✘ ✓✌it ✣✖✌✍✒✌✓✑✏ ❢✖✎ ✌✘✍ ❢✗✌✗✎✍t ♣✏♠✖✚✌
potential for the future. Almost all organisms ✑✏✏ ✖✎✔✑✒✓✚♠✚
✓✚is ♠✖✛✓✒✔ ✒✖✙t ✹✘✍ ✜✓❢❢✍✎✍✒✢✍✚ ✓✒ ✌✘✍
at which
✓✒✌✍✎✒✑✏ ✢✖✒✌✎✓✕✗✌✍✌✖
contribute to ✚✗✚✌✑✓✒ sustain ✌✘✍ the ✍✑✎✌✘✶✚
earth’s ✍✒✛✓✎✖✒♠✍✒✌t
environment.
❢✖✎✢✍✚
moving now. The differences in the internal
forces ✖✣✍✎✑✌✓✒✔
operating ❢✎✖♠ ✙✓✌✘✓✒ ✌✘✍ the ✍✑✎✌✘ ✙✘✓✢✘ ❏✖✙✍✛✍✎❜
However, ✘✗♠✑✒✚ humans ✘✑✛✍ have ✢✑✗✚✍✜
caused ✖✛✍✎ over ✗✚✍ use ✖❢ of
resources. ❑✚✍
✎✍✚✖✗✎✢✍✚t ✙✍ ♠✗✚✌❜
must, ✕✗✌ but ♠✗✚✌
must ✑✏✚✖ also ✏✍✑✛✍✓✌
from within earth which
✕✗✓✏✌
built ✗✣ up ✌✘✍
the ✢✎✗✚✌
crust ✘✑✛✍have ✕✍✍✒been ✎✍✚✣✖✒✚✓✕✏✍
responsible ❢✖✎ for ✣✖✌✍✒✌✓✑✏
potential ✍✒✖✗✔✘
Use we
enough ✌✖ to ✚✗✚✌✑✓✒
sustain ✏✓❢✍ life ✌✘✎✖✗✔✘
leave it
through ✌✘✍
✌✘✍✛✑✎✓✑✌✓✖✒✚
the variations ✓✒ in ✌✘✍✖✗✌✍✎
the outer ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍✖❢
surface of ✌✘✍ the ✢✎✗✚✌t
crust.
future. ▲✖✚✌
❢✗✌✗✎✍t Most ✖❢ of ✌✘✍✚✗✎❢✑✢✍✖❢
the surface of ✌✘✍✍✑✎✌✘
the earth ✘✑✜ had ✑✒✜
the
✹✘✍ ✍✑✎✌✘✶✚
The earth’s ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍
surface ✓✚ is ✕✍✓✒✔
being ✢✖✒✌✓✒✗✖✗✚✏✐
continuously ✘✑✚
has ✕✍✍✒ been ✚✘✑✣✍✜
shaped ✖✛✍✎ ✛✍✎✐ ✏✖✒✔
long ✣✍✎✓✖✜✚
periods ✖❢
and
of ✌✓♠✍
✚✗✕s✍✢✌✍✜
subjected ✌✖ to ✍✺✌✍✎✒✑✏
external ❢✖✎✢✍✚
forces ✓✒✜✗✢✍✜
induced ✕✑✚✓✢✑✏✏✐
basically
✻✘✗✒✜✎✍✜✚
(hundreds ✑✒✜
over very
and ✌✘✖✗✚✑✒✜✚
thousands ✖❢ ✐✍✑✎✚✼ ✑✒✜
time
✕✐ ✻✚✗✒✏✓✔✘✌✼t ✸❢
by energy (sunlight). Of course, the ✓✒✌✍✎✒✑✏
✍✒✍✎✔✐ ✢✖✗✎✚✍❜ ✌✘✍ internal
✕✍✢✑✗✚✍
because ✖❢ of ✓✌✚
its ✗✚✍
use ✑✒✜and ♠✓✚✗✚✍
misuse ✕✐
of years)
by ✘✗♠✑✒✚
humans ✓✌✚
and

❢✖✎✢✍✚
forces ✑✎✍ are ✚✌✓✏✏
still ✑✢✌✓✛✍
active ✌✘✖✗✔✘
though with ✙✓✌✘ ✜✓❢❢✍✎✍✒✌
different
✣✖✌✍✒✌✓✑✏
potential ✓✚ is ✕✍✓✒✔
being ✜✓♠✓✒✓✚✘✍✜
diminished ✑✌ at ✑a ❢✑✚✌
fast ✎✑✌✍t
its
rate. ■❢
✓✒✌✍✒✚✓✌✓✍✚t
intensities. That ✹✘✑✌ ♠✍✑✒✚❜
means, ✌✘✍ the ✍✑✎✌✘✶✚
earth’s ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍
surface ✓✚ is
✌✘✍
the ✣✎✖✢✍✚✚✍✚ ✙✘✓✢✘ ✚✘✑✣✍✜
shaped ✑✒✜ and ✑✎✍ are ✚✘✑✣✓✒✔
If
✕✍✓✒✔
being ✢✖✒✌✓✒✗✖✗✚✏✐
continuously ✚✗✕s✍✢✌✍✜ subjected ✌✖ to ✕✐by ✍✺✌✍✎✒✑✏
external
✌✘✍
processes which
the ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍
surface ✖❢ of ✌✘✍
the ✍✑✎✌✘
earth ✓✒✌✖
shaping
✛✑✎✓✍✌✓✍✚ ✖❢of ❢✖✎♠✚
❢✖✎✢✍✚✖✎✓✔✓✒✑✌✓✒✔✙✓✌✘✓✒✌✘✍✍✑✎✌✘✶✚
forces originating within the earth’s ✑✌♠✖✚✣✘✍✎✍ atmosphere
✻✚✘✑✣✍✚✼ ✑✒✜ ✌✘✍ ✒✑✌✗✎✍
into varieties
✖❢ ♠✑✌✍✎✓✑✏✚ ✖❢
forms
✙✘✓✢✘
✑✒✜
and ✕✐ by ✓✒✌✍✎✒✑✏
internal ❢✖✎✢✍✚forces ❢✎✖♠ ✙✓✌✘✓✒ ✌✘✍
from within the ✍✑✎✌✘t
earth.
(shapes) and the nature of materials of which
✓✌it ✓✚is ✢✖♠✣✖✚✍✜
composed ✖❢❜ of, ✑✎✍
are ✗✒✜✍✎✚✌✖✖✜❜
understood, ✣✎✍✢✑✗✌✓✖✒✚
✹✘✍ ✍✺✌✍✎✒✑✏
The external ❢✖✎✢✍✚forces ✑✎✍ are ✤✒✖✙✒
known ✑✚ as ❡✽✾✿❡❀❁❂
exogenic
✢✑✒✕✍✌✑✤✍✒✌✖♠✓✒✓♠✓✚✍✌✘✍✜✍✌✎✓♠✍✒✌✑✏✍❢❢✍✢✌✚
precautions
❃✾❄❂❡❅ ✑✒✜
jorces and ✌✘✍ the ✓✒✌✍✎✒✑✏
internal ❢✖✎✢✍✚forces ✑✎✍ are ✤✒✖✙✒
known ✑✚ as
can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
✖❢of ✘✗♠✑✒
human ✗✚✍ use ✑✒✜ and ✌✖ to ✣✎✍✚✍✎✛✍
preserve ✓✌ it ❢✖✎
for ✣✖✚✌✍✎✓✌✐t
❡❀❇✾✿❡❀❁❂
endogenic forces. ❃✾❄❂❡❅t The ✹✘✍ ✑✢✌✓✖✒✚
actions ✖❢ of ✍✺✖✔✍✒✓✢
exogenic
posterity.
❢✖✎✢✍✚
forces ✎✍✚✗✏✌
result ✓✒ ✙✍✑✎✓✒✔ ✜✖✙✒
in wearing down ✻✜✍✔✎✑✜✑✌✓✖✒✼
(degradation) ✖❢ of
▼◆❖P❖◗❙❚❯❱
GEOMORPHIC ❳◗❖❱◆❨❨◆❨
✎✍✏✓✍❢r✍✏✍✛✑✌✓✖✒✚
relief/elevations ✑✒✜ and ❢✓✏✏✓✒✔
filling ✗✣up ✻✑✔✔✎✑✜✑✌✓✖✒✼
(aggradation) ✖❢ of
PROCESSES

✕✑✚✓✒✚r✜✍✣✎✍✚✚✓✖✒✚❜✖✒
basins/depressions, on ✌✘✍✍✑✎✌✘✶ the earth’s✚ ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍t✹✘✍
surface. The ✷✖✗ would
You ✙✖✗✏✜ ✏✓✤✍ like ✌✖ to ✤✒✖✙
know ✌✘✍ the ♠✍✑✒✓✒✔
meaning ✖❢ of
✣✘✍✒✖♠✍✒✖✒
phenomenon ✖❢ ✙✍✑✎✓✒✔ ✜✖✙✒
of wearing down ✖❢ of ✎✍✏✓✍❢
relief ✔✍✖♠✖✎✣✘✓✢
geomorphic ✣✎✖✢✍✚✚✍✚t processes. The ✹✘✍ ✍✒✜✖✔✍✒✓✢
endogenic ✑✒✜ and
✛✑✎✓✑✌✓✖✒✚ ✖❢of ✌✘✍
variations the ✚✗✎❢✑✢✍
surface ✖❢ of ✌✘✍
the ✍✑✎✌✘
earth ✌✘✎✖✗✔✘
through ✍✺✖✔✍✒✓✢
exogenic ❢✖✎✢✍✚ forces ✢✑✗✚✓✒✔
causing ✣✘✐✚✓✢✑✏
physical ✚✌✎✍✚✚✍✚
stresses ✑✒✜ and
✍✎✖✚✓✖✒
erosion ✓✚ is ✤✒✖✙✒
known ✑✚ ✿❄❣❇❣❉❁✾❀t✹✘✍
as gradation. The ✍✒✜✖✔✍✒✓✢
endogenic ✢✘✍♠✓✢✑✏ ✑✢✌✓✖✒✚ ✖✒
chemical actions on earth materials and ✍✑✎✌✘ ♠✑✌✍✎✓✑✏✚ ✑✒✜
 Qouki

✹✑
46 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❜✒✓✔✕✓✔✕
bringing ✖❜✗✘✙
about ✚✛✖✔✕✜✢
changes ✓✔ in ✙✛✜
the ✚✗✔✣✓✕✘✒✖✙✓✗✔
configuration ◗❘❙❚❯❱❘❲❳
ENDOGENIC ❨❩❚❳❱❬❬❱❬
PROCESSES
✗✣
of ✙✛✜
the ✢✘✒✣✖✚✜
surface ✗✣ of ✙✛✜
the ✜✖✒✙✛
earth ✖✒✜ are ♦✔✗✤✔
known ✖✢ as ♣✛✜ ✜✔✜✒✕✴ ✤✓✙✛✓✔ ✙✛✜
The energy ✜✰✖✔✖✙✓✔✕
emanating ✣✒✗✰ from within the ✜✖✒✙✛
earth ✓✢ is
❣✥✦✧✦★✩✪✫✬ ✩★✦✬✥✭✭✥✭✳ ✮✓✖✢✙✒✗✯✛✓✢✰
geomorphic processes. Diastrophism ✖✔✱ and ✙✛✜ ✰✖✓✔ ✣✗✒✚✜ ❜✜✛✓✔✱ ✜✔✱✗✕✜✔✓✚
the main force behind endogenic geomorphic ✕✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚
✈✗✲✚✖✔✓✢✰ ✖✒✜
volcanism are ✜✔✱✗✕✜✔✓✚
endogenic ✕✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚ geomorphic ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢✳
processes. This♣✛✓✢ ✜✔✜✒✕✴
energy ✓✢is ✰✗✢✙✲✴
mostly ✕✜✔✜✒✖✙✜✱
generated ❜✴ by
✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢✳
processes. These♣✛✜✢✜ ✛✖✈✜have ✖✲✒✜✖✱✴
already ❜✜✜✔ been ✱✓✢✚✘✢✢✜✱
discussed ✒✖✱✓✗✖✚✙✓✈✓✙✴✵
radioactivity, ✒✗✙✖✙✓✗✔✖✲
rotational ✖✔✱and ✙✓✱✖✲
tidal ✣✒✓✚✙✓✗✔
friction ✖✔✱
and
✓✔
in ❜✒✓✜✣
briefin the ✯✒✜✚✜✱✓✔✕
✓✔ ✙✛✜ preceding ✘✔✓✙✳ ❡✜✖✙✛✜✒✓✔✕✵ ✰✖✢✢
unit. Weathering, mass ✯✒✓✰✗✒✱✓✖✲
primordial ✛✜✖✙heat ✣✒✗✰
from ✙✛✜
the ✗✒✓✕✓✔
origin ✗✣of ✙✛✜
the ✜✖✒✙✛✳
earth.
✤✖✢✙✓✔✕✵ ✜✒✗✢✓✗✔
wasting, erosion ✖✔✱ and ✱✜✯✗✢✓✙✓✗✔
deposition ✖✒✜ are ✜✇✗✕✜✔✓✚
exogenic ♣✛✓✢ ✜✔✜✒✕✴
This energy ✱✘✜due ✙✗to ✕✜✗✙✛✜✒✰✖✲
geothermal ✕✒✖✱✓✜✔✙✢
gradients ✖✔✱ and
geomorphic ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢✳
✕✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚ processes. These ♣✛✜✢✜ ✜✇✗✕✜✔✓✚
exogenic ✛✜✖✙
heat ✣✲✗✤
flow ✣✒✗✰ ✤✓✙✛✓✔ ✓✔✱✘✚✜✢
from within induces ✱✓✖✢✙✒✗✯✛✓✢✰
diastrophism
✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢
processes ✖✒✜ ✱✜✖✲✙ ✤✓✙✛
are dealt with ✓✔ ✱✜✙✖✓✲
in detail ✓✔ in ✙✛✓✢
this ✚✛✖✯✙✜✒✳
chapter. and ✈✗✲✚✖✔✓✢✰
✖✔✱ volcanism ✓✔ the ✲✓✙✛✗✢✯✛✜✒✜✳
in ✙✛✜ lithosphere. ✮✘✜ Due ✙✗ to
❆✔✴ ✜✇✗✕✜✔✓✚
Any exogenic ✜✲✜✰✜✔✙
element ✗✣ nature ✶✲✓♦✜
of ✔✖✙✘✒✜ ✤✖✙✜✒✵
(like water, ✈✖✒✓✖✙✓✗✔✢
variations ✓✔in ✕✜✗✙✛✜✒✰✖✲
geothermal ✕✒✖✱✓✜✔✙✢
gradients ✖✔✱
and ✛✜✖✙
heat ✣✲✗✤
flow
✓✚✜✵ ✤✓✔✱✵ ✜✙✚✳✵✐
ice, wind, etc.,) ✚✖✯✖❜✲✜
capable ✗✣ of ✖✚✷✘✓✒✓✔✕
acquiring ✖✔✱ and ✣✒✗✰ ✤✓✙✛✓✔✵ ✚✒✘✢✙✖✲
from within, crustal ✙✛✓✚♦✔✜✢✢
thickness ✖✔✱ and ✢✙✒✜✔✕✙✛✵
strength,
✙✒✖✔✢✯✗✒✙✓✔✕
transporting ✜✖✒✙✛ earth ✰✖✙✜✒✓✖✲✢
materials ✚✖✔ can ❜✜ be ✚✖✲✲✜✱
called ✖ a ✙✛✜
the ✖✚✙✓✗✔
action ✗✣of ✜✔✱✗✕✜✔✓✚
endogenic ✣✗✒✚✜✢
forces ✖✒✜
are ✔✗✙
not ✘✔✓✣✗✒✰
uniform
✕✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚ ✖✕✜✔✙✳ ❡✛✜✔
geomorphic agent. When these elements of ✙✛✜✢✜ ✜✲✜✰✜✔✙✢ ✗✣ ✖✔✱
and ✛✜✔✚✜
hence ✙✛✜the ✙✜✚✙✗✔✓✚✖✲✲✴
tectonically ✚✗✔✙✒✗✲✲✜✱
controlled ✗✒✓✕✓✔✖✲
original
✔✖✙✘✒✜ become ✰✗❜✓✲✜
nature ❜✜✚✗✰✜ mobile ✱✘✜ due ✙✗ to ✕✒✖✱✓✜✔✙✢✵
gradients, ✙✛✜✴ they ✚✒✘✢✙✖✲
crustal ✢✘✒✣✖✚✜
surface ✓✢ is ✘✔✜✈✜✔✳
uneven.
✒✜✰✗✈✜
remove ✙✛✜ the ✰✖✙✜✒✓✖✲✢
materials ✖✔✱ and ✙✒✖✔✢✯✗✒✙
transport ✙✛✜✰ them ✗✈✜✒
over
✢✲✗✯✜✢
slopes ✖✔✱ and ✱✜✯✗✢✓✙
deposit ✙✛✜✰ them ✖✙ at ✲✗✤✜✒
lower ✲✜✈✜✲✳
level. ❭❪❫❴❵❝❞❢❤❪❴❥
Diastrophism
●✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚
Geomorphic ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢
processes ✖✔✱ and ✕✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚
geomorphic ✖✕✜✔✙✢ agents
❆✲✲ ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢
All processes ✙✛✖✙ that ✰✗✈✜✵
move, ✜✲✜✈✖✙✜
elevate ✗✒ or ❜✘✓✲✱
build ✘✯ up
✜✢✯✜✚✓✖✲✲✴
especially ✜✇✗✕✜✔✓✚✵
exogenic, ✘✔✲✜✢✢unless ✢✙✖✙✜✱
stated ✢✜✯✖✒✖✙✜✲✴✵
separately,
✯✗✒✙✓✗✔✢
portions ✗✣ of ✙✛✜the ✜✖✒✙✛❛✢
earth’s ✚✒✘✢✙crust ✚✗✰✜ come ✘✔✱✜✒ under
✖✒✜
are ✗✔✜
one ✖✔✱
and ✙✛✜the ✢✖✰✜✳
same.
❦✫✸✭✻★✦✩✪✫✭✧✳ ♣✛✜✴ ✓✔✚✲✘✱✜❧
diastrophism. They include: ✶✓✐ (i) ✦★✦❣✥✺✫✬
orogenic
A❆ ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢
process ✓✢ is ✖ a ✣✗✒✚✜
force ✖✯✯✲✓✜✱
applied ✗✔ on ✜✖✒✙✛
earth ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢ ✓✔✈✗✲✈✓✔✕ ✰✗✘✔✙✖✓✔ ❜✘✓✲✱✓✔✕
processes involving mountain building
✰✖✙✜✒✓✖✲✢
materials ✖✣✣✜✚✙✓✔✕
affecting ✙✛✜ the ✢✖✰✜✳
same. An ❆✔ ✖✕✜✔✙
agent ✓✢ is ✖ a ✙✛✒✗✘✕✛
through ✢✜✈✜✒✜
severe ✣✗✲✱✓✔✕
folding ✖✔✱ affecting ✲✗✔✕
and ✖✣✣✜✚✙✓✔✕ long ✖✔✱
and
✰✗❜✓✲✜ ✰✜✱✓✘✰ ✶✲✓♦✜ ✒✘✔✔✓✔✕
mobile medium (like running water, moving ice✤✖✙✜✒✵ ✰✗✈✓✔✕ ✓✚✜ ✔✖✒✒✗✤
narrow ❜✜✲✙✢
belts ✗✣of ✙✛✜
the ✜✖✒✙✛❛✢ crust; ✶✓✓✐
earth’s ✚✒✘✢✙♥ (ii) ✥✩✥✫★✦❣✥✺✫✬
epeirogenic
✰✖✢✢✜✢✵
masses, wind,✤✓✔✱✵ waves
✤✖✈✜✢ ✖✔✱ and ✚✘✒✒✜✔✙✢
currents ✜✙✚✳✐ ✤✛✓✚✛
etc.) which ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢
processes ✓✔✈✗✲✈✓✔✕
involving ✘✯✲✓✣✙
uplift ✗✒ ✤✖✒✯✓✔✕ ✗✣
or warping of ✲✖✒✕✜
large
✒✜✰✗✈✜✢✵
removes, ✙✒✖✔✢✯✗✒✙✢
transports ✖✔✱ and ✱✜✯✗✢✓✙✢
deposits ✜✖✒✙✛ earth ✯✖✒✙✢
parts ✗✣ of ✙✛✜
the ✜✖✒✙✛❛✢ crust; ✶✓✓✓✐
earth’s ✚✒✘✢✙♥ (iii) ✜✖✒✙✛✷✘✖♦✜✢
earthquakes
✰✖✙✜✒✓✖✲✢✳
materials. ♠✘✔✔✓✔✕Running water, ✤✖✙✜✒✵ ✕✒✗✘✔✱✤✖✙✜✒✵
groundwater, involving ✲✗✚✖✲
✓✔✈✗✲✈✓✔✕ relatively ✰✓✔✗✒
local ✒✜✲✖✙✓✈✜✲✴ minor ✰✗✈✜✰✜✔✙✢♥
movements;
✕✲✖✚✓✜✒✢✵ ✤✓✔✱✵ waves
glaciers, wind, ✤✖✈✜✢ ✖✔✱ and ✚✘✒✒✜✔✙✢✵
currents, ✜✙✚✳✵ etc., ✚✖✔
can ✶✓✈✐
(iv) ✯✲✖✙✜
plate ✙✜✚✙✗✔✓✚✢
tectonics ✓✔✈✗✲✈✓✔✕
involving ✛✗✒✓q✗✔✙✖✲horizontal
❜✜
be ✚✖✲✲✜✱ ❣✥✦✧✦★✩✪✫✬
called geomorphic agents. ✸❣✥✺✻✭✳ ✰✗✈✜✰✜✔✙✢ ✗✣ ✚✒✘✢✙✖✲
movements of crustal plates. ✯✲✖✙✜✢✳
◆✔ the ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢
In ✙✛✜ process ✗✣ of ✗✒✗✕✜✔✴✵
orogeny, ✙✛✜ the ✚✒✘✢✙
crust ✓✢ is
❉✼ ✽✼✾ ✿❀❁❂❃
Do you think ❁✿
it ❁❄
is ❅❄❄❅❂✿❁❇❈
essential ✿✼
to ❊❁❄✿❁❂❍✾❁❄❀
distinguish severely ✱✜✣✗✒✰✜✱
✢✜✈✜✒✜✲✴ deformed ✓✔✙✗ folds. ✮✘✜
into ✣✗✲✱✢✳ Due ✙✗ to ✜✯✜✓✒✗✕✜✔✴✵
epeirogeny,
❍❅✼■✼❏❑❀❁▲
geomorphic ❇❍❅❂✿❄
agents ❇❂❊and ❍❅✼■✼❏❑❀❁▲
geomorphic there ✰✖✴
✙✛✜✒✜ may ❜✜ simple ✱✜✣✗✒✰✖✙✓✗✔✳
be ✢✓✰✯✲✜ deformation. t✒✗✕✜✔✴ Orogeny ✓✢ is
❑❏✼▲❅❄❄❅❄▼
processes? ✖a ✰✗✘✔✙✖✓✔
mountain ❜✘✓✲✱✓✔✕ building ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢process whereas ✤✛✜✒✜✖✢
✜✯✜✓✒✗✕✜✔✴
epeirogeny ✓✢ is ✚✗✔✙✓✔✜✔✙✖✲ building ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✳
continental ❜✘✓✲✱✓✔✕ process.
●✒✖✈✓✙✴
Gravity ❜✜✢✓✱✜✢
besides ❜✜✓✔✕ being ✖ a ✱✓✒✜✚✙✓✗✔✖✲
directional ✣✗✒✚✜force ♣✛✒✗✘✕✛ ✙✛✜
Through the ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢
processes ✗✣ of ✗✒✗✕✜✔✴✵
orogeny, ✜✯✜✓✒✗✕✜✔✴✵
epeirogeny,
✖✚✙✓✈✖✙✓✔✕
activating ✖✲✲ all ✱✗✤✔✢✲✗✯✜
downslope ✰✗✈✜✰✜✔✙✢
movements ✗✣ of ✰✖✙✙✜✒
matter
✜✖✒✙✛✷✘✖♦✜✢
earthquakes ✖✔✱ and ✯✲✖✙✜
plate ✙✜✚✙✗✔✓✚✢✵
tectonics, ✙✛✜✒✜ there ✚✖✔can ❜✜be
✖✲✢✗
also ✚✖✘✢✜✢
causes ✢✙✒✜✢✢✜✢
stresses ✗✔ on ✙✛✜ earth’s ✰✖✙✜✒✓✖✲✢✳
the ✜✖✒✙✛❛✢ materials. ✣✖✘✲✙✓✔✕ ❆✲✲ ✙✛✜✢✜
faulting ✖✔✱and ✣✒✖✚✙✘✒✓✔✕
fracturing ✗✣ of ✙✛✜
the ✚✒✘✢✙✳
crust. All these
◆✔✱✓✒✜✚✙ ✕✒✖✈✓✙✖✙✓✗✔✖✲ ✢✙✒✜✢✢✜✢ ✖✚✙✓✈✖✙✜
Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave ✤✖✈✜ ✖✔✱and ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢
processes ✚✖✘✢✜ cause ✯✒✜✢✢✘✒✜✵
pressure, ✈✗✲✘✰✜ volume ✖✔✱ and
✙✓✱✜
tide ✓✔✱✘✚✜✱
induced ✚✘✒✒✜✔✙✢
currents ✖✔✱ ✤✓✔✱✢✳ Without
and winds. ❡✓✙✛✗✘✙ temperature ✶rs♣✐
✙✜✰✯✜✒✖✙✘✒✜ (PVT) ✚✛✖✔✕✜✢
changes which ✤✛✓✚✛ ✓✔ in ✙✘✒✔
turn
✕✒✖✈✓✙✴
gravity ✖✔✱ and ✕✒✖✱✓✜✔✙✢
gradients ✙✛✜✒✜ ✤✗✘✲✱ ❜✜
there would be ✔✗ no induce ✰✜✙✖✰✗✒✯✛✓✢✰
✓✔✱✘✚✜ metamorphism ✗✣ of ✒✗✚♦✢✳
rocks.
✰✗❜✓✲✓✙✴
mobility ✖✔✱ and ✛✜✔✚✜
hence ✔✗ no ✜✒✗✢✓✗✔✵
erosion, ✙✒✖✔✢✯✗✒✙✖✙✓✗✔
transportation
and ✱✜✯✗✢✓✙✓✗✔
✖✔✱ deposition ✖✒✜ are ✯✗✢✢✓❜✲✜✳
possible. ❖✗✵So, ✕✒✖✈✓✙✖✙✓✗✔✖✲
gravitational ✉❑❅❁❏✼❍❅❂✽
Epeirogeny ❇❂❊
and ✼❏✼❍❅❂✽①
orogeny, ▲❁✿❅
cite ✿❀❅
the
✢✙✒✜✢✢✜✢
stresses are as important as ✙✛✜
✖✒✜ ✖✢ ✓✰✯✗✒✙✖✔✙ ✖✢ the ✗✙✛✜✒
other ❊❁②②❅❏❅❂▲❅❄③
differences.
geomorphic ✯✒✗✚✜✢✢✜✢✳
✕✜✗✰✗✒✯✛✓✚ processes. ●✒✖✈✓✙✴
Gravity ✓✢ is ✙✛✜
the ✣✗✒✚✜
force ✙✛✖✙
that
is ♦✜✜✯✓✔✕
✓✢ keeping ✘✢ us ✓✔in ✚✗✔✙✖✚✙ ✤✓✙✛ ✙✛✜
contact with the ✢✘✒✣✖✚✜
surface ✖✔✱and ✓✙ it
✓✢
is ✙✛✜
the ✣✗✒✚✜
force ✙✛✖✙
that ✢✤✓✙✚✛✜✢
switches ✗✔ the ✰✗✈✜✰✜✔✙
on ✙✛✜ movement ✗✣ of
④❞⑤⑥❫⑦❪❴❥
Volcanism
✖✲✲ surface ✰✖✙✜✒✓✖✲
all ✢✘✒✣✖✚✜ material ✗✔ on ✜✖✒✙✛✳ ❆✲✲ ✙✛✜
earth. All the ✰✗✈✜✰✜✔✙✢
movements s✗✲✚✖✔✓✢✰
Volcanism ✓✔✚✲✘✱✜✢ the ✰✗✈✜✰✜✔✙
includes ✙✛✜ movement ✗✣ of ✰✗✲✙✜✔
molten
✜✓✙✛✜✒ ✤✓✙✛✓✔
either within the earth or on the surface ✗✣
✙✛✜ ✜✖✒✙✛ ✗✒ ✗✔ ✙✛✜ ✢✘✒✣✖✚✜ of ✙✛✜
the rock ✶✰✖✕✰✖✐
✒✗✚♦ (magma) ✗✔✙✗onto ✗✒or ✙✗✤✖✒✱
toward ✙✛✜the ✜✖✒✙✛❛✢
earth’s
✜✖✒✙✛ occur ✱✘✜
earth ✗✚✚✘✒ due ✙✗ to ✕✒✖✱✓✜✔✙✢
gradients — P ✣✒✗✰
from ✛✓✕✛✜✒
higher ✢✘✒✣✖✚✜
surface ✖✔✱
and ✖✲✢✗
also ✣✗✒✰✖✙✓✗✔
formation ✗✣of ✰✖✔✴
many ✓✔✙✒✘✢✓✈✜
intrusive
✲✜✈✜✲✢
levels ✙✗to ✲✗✤✜✒
lower ✲✜✈✜✲✢✵
levels, ✣✒✗✰ high ✯✒✜✢✢✘✒✜
from ✛✓✕✛ pressure ✙✗ to ✲✗✤
low ✖✔✱ extrusive ✈✗✲✚✖✔✓✚
and ✜✇✙✒✘✢✓✈✜ volcanic ✣✗✒✰✢✳
forms. ⑧✖✔✴
Many ✖✢✯✜✚✙✢
aspects ✗✣ of
✯✒✜✢✢✘✒✜
pressure ✖✒✜✖✢areas ✜✙✚✳
etc. ✈✗✲✚✖✔✓✢✰
volcanism ✛✖✈✜
have ✖✲✒✜✖✱✴ been ✱✜✖✲✙
already ❜✜✜✔ dealt ✓✔in ✱✜✙✖✓✲
detail
 ● ✁✂✁✄☎✆✝✞ ☎✄✁✞
GEOMORPHIC ✟✟ ✟
PROCESSES ✹✠
47

✙✏✑✌✡ ✕☛✚☞✎✏☛✌✍ ✔✏
under volcanoes in ✒✓✌
the ♥✏✔✒ IT ✎✏✑
Unit ■■ and ✙✏✑✌✡
under ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍
processes ✎✏✑and ✒✓✌✔✡
their ✡✌✍♣✌☞✒✔✕✌
respective ✑✡✔✕✔✏✖
driving ✗☛✡☞✌✍✘
forces.
✔✖✏✌☛✙✍
igneous ✡☛☞✐✍
rocks ✔✏
in ✒✓✌
the ♣✡✌☞✌✑✔✏✖
preceding ☞✓✎♣✒✌✡
chapter ✔✏
in ✒✓✔✍
this It ✍✓☛✙✚✑
■✒ ✛✌☞☛✜✌ ☞✚✌✎✡
should become clear ✗✡☛✜
from ✒✓✔✍
this ☞✓✎✡✒
chart ✒✓✎✒
that ✗☛✡
for
✙✏✔✒✘
unit. ✌✎☞✓
each ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍
process ✒✓✌✡✌
there ✌❡✔✍✒✍
exists ✎a ✑✔✍✒✔✏☞✒
distinct ✑✡✔✕✔✏✖
driving ✗☛✡☞✌
force
☛✡
or ✌✏✌✡✖♦✘
energy.
❲✣✤✥ ✦✧
What do ✥✣★ ✩✧✪✦✫ volcanism
the words ✬✧✭✮✤✯✰✫✱ ✤✯✦
and ❆✍ ✒✓✌✡✌
As there ✎✡✌
are ✑✔✗✗✌✡✌✏✒
different ☞✚✔✜✎✒✔☞
climatic ✡✌✖✔☛✏✍
regions ☛✏ on
✬✧✭✮✤✯✧★✫ ✰✯✦✰✮✤✥★✈
volcanoes indicate? ✒✓✌
the ✌✎✡✒✓t✍
earth’s ✍✙✡✗✎☞✌
surface ☛✢✔✏✖
owing ✒☛to ✒✓✌✡✜✎✚
thermal ✖✡✎✑✔✌✏✒✍
gradients
Enryy Sauner = Sun+ Groaieut Cuunted by rectionte. fartor) ☞✡✌✎✒✌✑
created by latitudinal, ✍✌✎✍☛✏✎✚
✛♦ ✚✎✒✔✒✙✑✔✏✎✚❝ seasonal ✎✏✑ land ✎✏✑
and ✚✎✏✑ and
✢✎✒✌✡ ✍♣✡✌✎✑
water ✕✎✡✔✎✒✔☛✏✍❝ ✒✓✌
spread variations, the ✌❡☛✖ ✌✏✔ ☞
exogenic
❊❳✲✳✴✵✶✷
EXOGENIC ✸❘✲✷✴✺✺✴✺
PROCESSES
✖✌☛✜☛✡♣✓✔☞
geomorphic ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍
processes vary✕✎✡♦ ✗✡☛✜
from ✡✌✖✔☛✏
region ✒☛ to
r✓✌ ✌❡☛✖✌✏✔☞
The exogenic ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍
processes ✑✌✡✔✕✌
derive ✒✓✌✔✡
their ✌✏✌✡✖♦
energy ✡✌✖✔☛✏✘
region. Ther✓✌ ✑✌✏✍✔✒♦❝
density, ✒♦♣✌
type ✎✏✑
and ✑✔✍✒✡✔✛✙✒✔☛✏
distribution ☛✗ of
✗✡☛✜
from ✎✒✜☛✍♣✓✌✡✌
atmosphere ✑✌✒✌✡✜✔✏✌✑
determined by ✛♦ ✒✓✌
the ✙✚✒✔✜✎✒✌
ultimate ✕✌✖✌✒✎✒✔☛✏ ✢ ✓✔☞✓ ✚✎✡✖✌✚♦
vegetation which largely depend upon ✑✌♣ ✌✏✑ ✙♣☛✏
✌✏✌✡✖♦
energy ✗✡☛✜
from ✒✓✌
the ✍✙✏
sun ✎✏✑
and ✎✚✍☛
also ✒✓✌
the ✖✡✎✑✔✌✏✒✍
gradients
☞✡✌✎✒✌✑ ✛♦ ✒✌☞✒☛✏✔☞ ✗✎☞✒☛✡✍✘
created by tectonic factors. DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES

❲✣✻ ✦✧
Why ✻✧✼ ✥✣✰✯✽
do you think ✥✣✤✥
that ✥✣★
the ✫✭✧✾★✫
slopes ✧✪or st
❣✪✤✦✰★✯✥✫
gradients are created by tectonic ❀✤✮✥✧✪✫✈
✤✪★ ✮✪★✤✥★✦ ✿✻ ✥★✮✥✧✯✰✮ factors? PROCESS. Weathering Mass Movements
Erosion/
Transportation

Gravitational ✗☛✡☞✌
❁✡✎✕✔✒✎✒✔☛✏✎✚ force ✎☞✒✍acts ✙♣☛✏ upon ✎✚✚ all ✌✎✡✒✓
earth Gravitational/
DRIVING
materials ✓✎✕✔✏✖
✜✎✒✌✡✔✎✚✍ having ✎ a ✍✚☛♣✔✏✖
sloping ✍✙✡✗✎☞✌
surface ✎✏✑ and ✒✌✏✑tend ✒☛ to FORCE/ Molecular Stresses/
and/or Chemical
Gravitational
Force
Kinetic Energy

♣✡☛✑✙☞✌ movement ☛✗
produce ✜☛✕✌✜✌✏✒ matter ✔✏
of ✜✎✒✒✌✡ in ✑☛✢✏
down ✍✚☛♣✌ slope ENERGY Actions

✑✔✡✌☞✒✔☛✏✘
direction. ❞☛✡☞✌Force ✎♣♣✚✔✌✑
applied ♣✌✡ unit ✎✡✌✎
per ✙✏✔✒ area ✔✍ is ☞✎✚✚✌✑
called
s❂❃❄ss✘ Stress ✔✍
stress. ❅✒✡✌✍✍ is ♣✡☛✑✙☞✌✑
produced ✔✏ in a✎ ✍☛✚✔✑
solid by✛♦ ♣✙✍✓✔✏✖
pushing ❬❭❪❫❴❵
Figure ❛❜❢
6.1 ❤: ❥❵❦❫❧q✉❭✇❦q①
Denudational ②❴✇③❵④④❵④
processes q❦❧
and ✉⑤❵❭❴
their
☛✡ driving ⑦✇❴③❵④
❧❴❭⑥❭❦❪ forces
or ♣✙✚✚✔✏✖✘
pulling. This r✓✔✍ ✔✏✑✙☞✌✍
induces ✑✌✗☛✡✜✎✒✔☛✏✘
deformation. ❞☛✡☞✌✍ Forces
✎☞✒✔✏✖
acting ✎✚☛✏✖
along ✒✓✌ the ✗✎☞✌✍
faces ☛✗ of ✌✎✡✒✓ materials ✎✡✌
earth ✜✎✒✌✡✔✎✚✍ are ♣✡✌☞✔♣✔✒✎✒✔☛✏
precipitation ✎✏✑ and ✒✌✜♣✌✡✎✒✙✡✌
temperature ✌❡✌✡✒ exert ✔✏✗✚✙✌✏☞✌
influence
✍✓✌✎✡
shear ✍✒✡✌✍✍✌✍ (separating ✗☛✡☞✌✍❈✘
stresses ❇✍✌♣✎✡✎✒✔✏✖ forces). ■✒ It ✔✍is ✒✓✔✍
this ✔✏✑✔✡✌☞✒✚♦
indirectly ☛✏ on ✌❡☛✖✌✏✔☞
exogenic ✖✌☛✜☛✡♣✓✔☞
geomorphic ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍✘
processes.
✍✒✡✌✍✍
stress ✒✓✎✒ ✛✡✌✎✐✍ ✡☛☞✐✍
that breaks rocks ✎✏✑ and ☛✒✓✌✡other ✌✎✡✒✓ earth Within ✑✔✗✗✌✡✌✏✒
P✔✒✓✔✏ different ☞✚✔✜✎✒✔☞
climatic ✡✌✖✔☛✏✍
regions ✒✓✌✡✌
there ✜✎♦ ✛✌
may be
✜✎✒✌✡✔✎✚✍✘
materials. The r✓✌ ✍✓✌✎✡
shear ✍✒✡✌✍✍✌✍
stresses ✡✌✍✙✚✒result ✔✏ in ✎✏✖✙✚✎✡
angular ✚☛☞✎✚ ✕✎✡✔✎✒✔☛✏✍ ☛✗
local variations of ✒✓✌
the ✌✗✗✌☞✒✍
effects ☛✗
of ✑✔✗✗✌✡✌✏✒
different ☞✚✔✜✎✒✔☞
climatic
✑✔✍♣ ✚✎☞✌✜✌✏✒ ☛✡
displacement or ✍✚✔♣♣✎✖✌✘
slippage. ❉✌✍✔✑✌✍ Besides ✒✓✌ the ✌✚✌✜✌✏✒✍
elements ✑✙✌ due ✒☛to ✎✚✒✔✒✙✑✔✏✎✚
altitudinal ✑✔✗✗✌✡✌✏☞✌✍❝
differences, ✎✍♣✌☞✒
aspect
✖✡✎✕✔✒✎✒✔☛✏✎✚ ✍✒✡✌✍✍ ✌✎✡✒✓
gravitational stress earth materials become ✜✎✒✌✡✔✎✚✍ ✛✌☞☛✜✌ ✕✎✡✔✎✒✔☛✏✍ ✎✏✑
variations and ✒✓✌ ✕✎✡✔✎✒✔☛✏ ✔✏
the variation in ✒✓✌
the ✎✜☛✙✏✒
amount ☛✗ of
✍✙✛❋✌☞✒✌✑
subjected ✒☛ molecular ✍✒✡✌✍✍✌✍
to ✜☛✚✌☞✙✚✎✡ stresses ✒✓✎✒ that ✜✎♦ may be ✛✌ ✔✏✍☛✚✎✒✔☛✏
insolation ✡✌☞✌✔✕✌✑
received ✛♦ by ✏☛✡✒✓
north ✎✏✑
and ✍☛✙✒✓
south ✗✎☞✔✏✖
facing
☞✎✙✍✌✑
caused by ✛♦ ✎a ✏✙✜✛✌✡
number ☛✗ of ✗✎☞✒☛✡✍
factors ✎✜☛✏✖✍✒
amongst which ✢✓✔☞✓ ✍✚☛♣✌✍
slopes ✎✍as ☞☛✜♣✎✡✌✑
compared ✒☛ to ✌✎✍✒
east ✎✏✑ west ✗✎☞✔✏✖
and ✢✌✍✒ facing
✒✌✜♣✌✡✎✒✙✡✌
temperature ☞✓✎✏✖✌✍❝ changes, ☞✡♦✍✒✎✚✚✔✍✎✒✔☛✏
crystallisation ✎✏✑ and ✍✚☛♣✌✍✘ Further, ✑✙✌
slopes. ❞✙✡✒✓✌✡❝ due ✒☛ to ✑✔✗✗✌✡✌✏☞✌✍
differences ✔✏ ✢✔✏✑
in wind
melting ✎✡✌
✜✌✚✒✔✏✖ are ✒✓✌the ✜☛✍✒ most ☞☛✜✜☛✏✘
common. ♠✓✌✜✔☞✎✚ Chemical ✕✌✚☛☞✔✒✔✌✍ ✎✏✑
velocities and ✑✔✡✌☞✒✔☛✏✍❝
directions, ✎✜☛✙✏✒
amount ✎✏✑ kind ☛✗
and ✐✔✏✑ of
♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍
processes ✏☛✡✜✎✚✚♦
normally ✚✌✎✑ lead ✒☛ loosening ☛✗
to ✚☛☛✍✌✏✔✏✖ ✛☛✏✑✍
of bonds ♣✡✌☞✔♣✔✒✎✒✔☛✏❝
precipitation, ✔✒✍its ✔✏✒✌✏✍✔✒♦❝
intensity, ✒✓✌
the ✡✌✚✎✒✔☛✏
relation ✛✌✒✢✌✌✏
between
✛✌✒✢✌✌✏ ✖✡✎✔✏✍❝
between grains, ✑✔✍✍☛✚✕✔✏✖
dissolving ☛✗ of ✍☛✚✙✛✚✌
soluble ✜✔✏✌✡✎✚✍
minerals ♣✡✌☞✔♣✔✒✎✒✔☛✏
precipitation ✎✏✑ and ✌✕✎♣☛✡✎✒✔☛✏❝
evaporation, ✑✎✔✚♦daily ✡✎✏✖✌
range ☛✗ of
☛✡
or ☞✌✜✌✏✒✔✏✖
cementing ✜✎✒✌✡✔✎✚✍✘
materials. Thus, r✓✙✍❝ ✒✓✌ ✛✎✍✔☞ ✡✌✎✍☛✏
the basic reason ✒✌✜♣✌✡✎✒✙✡✌❝ ✗✡✌✌❯✔✏✖ ✎✏✑ ✒✓✎✢✔✏✖
temperature, freezing and thawing frequency, ✗✡✌❱✙✌✏☞♦❝
✒✓✎✒ leads ✒☛
that ✚✌✎✑✍ ✢✌✎✒✓✌✡✔✏✖❝ ✜✎✍✍
to weathering, mass ✜☛✕✌✜✌✏✒✍❝
movements, ✑✌♣✒✓
depth ☛✗ of ✗✡☛✍✒
frost ♣✌✏✌✒✡✎✒✔☛✏❝
penetration, ✒✓✌ the ✖✌☛✜☛✡♣✓✔☞
geomorphic
✌✡☛✍✔☛✏
erosion ✎✏✑ and ✑✌♣☛✍✔✒✔☛✏
deposition ✔✍ is ✑✌✕✌✚☛♣✜✌✏✒
development ☛✗ of ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍
processes vary✕✎✡♦ ✢✔✒✓✔✏
within ✎✏♦any ☞✚✔✜✎✒✔☞
climatic ✡✌✖✔☛✏✘
region.
✍✒✡✌✍✍✌✍
stresses ✔✏ in ✒✓✌ ✛☛✑♦ ☛✗
the body of ✒✓✌
the ✌✎✡✒✓
earth ✜✎✒✌✡✔✎✚✍✘
materials.
❆✍ ✒✓✌✡✌
As there ✎✡✌ are ✑✔✗✗✌✡✌✏✒
different ☞✚✔✜✎✒✔☞
climatic ✡✌✖✔☛✏✍
regions ☛✏ on ❲✣✤✥
What ✰✫
is ✥✣★
the ✫✧✭★
sole ✦✪✰✬✰✯❣
driving ❀✧✪✮★
force ✿★✣✰✯✦
behind ✤✭✭
all
✒✓✌
the ✌✎✡✒✓t✍
earth’s ✍✙✡✗✎☞✌
surface ✒✓✌ the ✌❡☛✖✌✏✔☞
exogenic ✖✌☛✜☛✡♣✓✔☞
geomorphic ✥✣★
the ★❨✧❣★✯✰✮
exogenic ✾✪✧✮★✫✫★✫✈
processes?
♣✡☛☞✌✍✍
processes ✌✍ vary
✕✎✡♦ ✗✡☛✜ from ✡✌✖✔☛✏region ✒☛ to ✡✌✖✔☛✏✘
region.
Temperature and precipitation are ✒✓✌
r✌✜♣✌✡✎✒✙✡✌ ✎✏✑ ♣✡✌☞✔♣✔✒✎✒✔☛✏ ✎✡✌ the ✒✢☛two Climatic ✗✎☞✒☛✡✍
♠✚✔✜✎✒✔☞ being ✌❱✙✎✚❝
factors ✛✌✔✏✖ equal, ✒✓✌the ✔✏✒✌✏✍✔✒♦
intensity
✔✜♣☛✡✒✎✏✒
important climatic elements that ☞☛✏✒✡☛✚
☞✚✔✜✎✒✔☞ ✌✚✌✜✌✏✒✍ ✒✓✎✒ control ☛✗
of ✎☞✒✔☛✏
action ☛✗ of ✌❡☛✖✌✏✔☞
exogenic ✖✌☛✜☛✡♣✓✔☞
geomorphic ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍
processes
✕✎✡✔☛✙✍ ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍✘
various processes. ✑✌♣✌✏✑✍ upon ✒♦♣✌
depends ✙♣☛✏ type ✎✏✑
and ✍✒✡✙☞✒✙✡✌
structure ☛✗ of ✡☛☞✐✍✘ r✓✌
rocks. The
❆✚✚ ✒✓✌
All the ✌❡☛✖✌✏✔☞
exogenic ✖✌☛✜☛✡♣✓✔☞
geomorphic ♣✡☛☞✌✍✍✌✍ processes ✎✡✌ are ✒✌✡✜
term ✍✒✡✙☞✒✙✡✌
structure ✔✏☞✚✙✑✌✍
includes ✍✙☞✓
such ✎✍♣✌☞✒✍
aspects ☛✗ of ✡☛☞✐✍
rocks
☞☛✕✌✡✌✑
covered ✙✏✑✌✡under ✎ a ✖✌✏✌✡✎✚
general ✒✌✡✜❝ term, ❍❄❏❑❍▲❂▼◆❏✘
denudation. The r✓✌ ✎✍
as ✗☛✚✑✍❝
folds, ✗✎✙✚✒✍❝
faults, ☛✡✔✌✏✒✎✒✔☛✏
orientation ✎✏✑
and ✔✏☞✚✔✏✎✒✔☛✏
inclination ☛✗of
✢☛✡✑
word ❖✑✌✏✙✑✌t
‘denude’ ✜✌✎✏✍means ✒☛ to ✍✒✡✔♣
strip ☛✗✗
off ☛✡or ✒☛
to ✙✏☞☛✕✌✡✘
uncover. beds, ♣✡✌✍✌✏☞✌
✛✌✑✍❝ presence ☛✡ or ✎✛✍✌✏☞✌
absence ☛✗ ❋☛✔✏✒✍❝ ✛✌✑✑✔✏✖
of joints, bedding
P✌✎✒✓✌✡✔✏✖❝
Weathering, ✜✎✍✍ wasting/movements, ✌✡☛✍✔☛✏
mass ✢✎✍✒✔✏✖◗✜☛✕✌✜✌✏✒✍❝ erosion ♣✚✎✏✌✍❝
planes, ✓✎✡✑✏✌✍✍
hardness ☛✡ or ✍☛✗✒✏✌✍✍
softness ☛✗ of ☞☛✏✍✒✔✒✙✌✏✒
constituent
✎✏✑ ✒✡✎✏✍♣☛✡✒✎✒✔☛✏ ✎✡✌ ✔✏☞✚✙✑✌✑
and transportation are included in denudation. ✔✏ ✑✌✏✙✑✎✒✔☛✏✘ minerals, chemical susceptibility ☛✗
✜✔✏✌✡✎✚✍❝ ☞✓✌✜✔☞✎✚ ✍✙✍☞✌♣✒✔✛✔✚✔✒♦ of ✜✔✏✌✡✎✚
mineral
r✓✌ ✗✚☛✢
The flow ☞✓✎✡✒
chart ❇❞✔✖✙✡✌
(Figure ❚✘❙❈ 6.1) ✖✔✕✌✍
gives ✒✓✌the ✑✌✏✙✑✎✒✔☛✏
denudation ☞☛✏✍✒✔✒✙✌✏✒✍❩ ✒✓✌ ♣✌✡✜✌✎✛✔✚✔✒♦ ☛✡ ✔✜♣✌✡✜✌✎✛✔✚✔✒♦
constituents; the permeability or impermeability
✹✑
48 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❡✒❝✓
etc. ❉✔✕✕❡r❡✖✒
Different ✒✗✘❡✙
types ✥✕ of r✥❝✚✙
rocks with✛✔✒✜ ✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖❝❡✙
differences ✔✖ in
✒✜❡✔r
their ✙✒rt❝✒tr❡
structure ✥✕✕❡r ✣✤r✗✔✖✦ r❡✙✔✙✒✤✖❝❡✙
offer varying resistances ✒✥ to
geomorphic ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙✓
✣✤r✔✥t✙ ✦❡✥✈✥r✘✜✔❝ processes. A✧ ✘✤r✒✔❝t★✤r

mum
various particular
r✥❝✚ be r❡✙✔✙✒✤✖✒
resistant ✒✥ to ✥✖❡
one ✘r✥❝❡✙✙ and ✖✥✖✪

eT
rock ✈✤✗
may ✩❡ process ✤✖✢ non-

Precipitation,
r❡✙✔✙✒✤✖✒
resistant ✒✥ to ✤✖✥✒✜❡r✓
another. And, ✧✖✢✳ t✖✢❡r ✣✤r✗✔✖✦
under varying

Se
ts ba
ht tS
❝★✔✈✤✒✔❝
climatic ❝✥✖✢✔✒✔✥✖✙✳
conditions, ✘✤r✒✔❝t★✤rparticular r✥❝✚✙ rocks ✈✤✗ may
❡✫✜✔✩✔✒
exhibit ✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖✒
different ✢❡✦r❡❡✙ degrees ✥✕ of r❡✙✔✙✒✤✖❝❡
resistance ✒✥ to

Cee
-
geomorphic ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
✦❡✥✈✥r✘✜✔❝ processes ✤✖✢ and ✜❡✖❝❡
hence ✒✜❡✗ they ✥✘❡r✤✒❡
operate
at ✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖✒✔✤★
✤✒ differential r✤✒❡✙
rates ✤✖✢
and ✦✔✣❡give r✔✙❡
rise ✒✥to ✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖❝❡✙
Lie
differences h rock i

✔✖
in ✒✥✘✥✦r✤✘✜✗✓
topography. The ✐✜❡ ❡✕✕❡❝✒✙
effects ✥✕ most ✥✕
of ✈✥✙✒ of ✒✜❡
the | ae of little chemical alteration

❡✫✥✦❡✖✔❝ ✦❡✥✈✥r✘✜✔❝ ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙

exogenic geomorphic processes are small and ✤r❡ ✙✈✤★★ ✤✖✢ xxl c xual te
alteral

✙★✥✛
slow ✤✖✢
and ✈✤✗
may ✩❡ be ✔✈✘❡r❝❡✘✒✔✩★❡
imperceptible ✔✖ in ✤a ✙✜✥r✒
short ✒✔✈❡
time Tr lay mineral xone

✙✘✤✖✳
span, but will in the long run affect ✒✜❡
✩t✒ ✛✔★★ ✔✖ ✒✜❡ ★✥✖✦ rt✖ ✤✕✕❡❝✒ the r✥❝✚✙
rocks 4 dominance of axides of ad

✙❡✣❡r❡★✗
severely ✢t❡
due ✒✥ to ❝✥✖✒✔✖t❡✢
continued ✕✤✒✔✦t❡✓fatigue. [6 |= 4] with oxides of tron and a urninduern

Finally, ✔✒
✬✔✖✤★★✗✳ boils ✢✥✛✖
it ✩✥✔★✙ down ✒✥ to ✥✖❡
one ✕✤❝✒
fact ✒✜✤✒
that ✒✜❡the
✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖❝❡✙
differences ✥✖ on ✒✜❡the ✙tr✕✤❝❡
surface ✥✕ of ✒✜❡
the ❡✤r✒✜
earth ✒✜✥t✦✜
though
❨❩❬❭❪❫
Figure ❴❵❛
6.2 ❜: ❢❣❩❤❥❦❩❧
Climatic ❪❫❬❩❤❫♠
regimes ❥♥q
and q❫✉❦①
depth ②③
of ④❫❥❦①❫❪❩♥❬
weathering
❤❥♥❦❣❫♠
mantles ⑤❥q❥✉❦❫q
(adapted ❥♥q
and ❤②q❩③❩❫q
modified ③❪②❤
from ⑥❦❪❥⑦①②⑧⑨
Strakhov, ⑩❶❴❷❸
1967)
✥r✔✦✔✖✤★★✗
originally r❡★✤✒❡✢
related ✒✥ to ✒✜❡
the ❝rt✙✒✤★
crustal ❡✣✥★t✒✔✥✖
evolution
❝✥✖✒✔✖t❡
continue ✒✥ to ❡✫✔✙✒
exist ✔✖ in ✙✥✈❡
some ✕✥r✈ form ✥r or ✒✜❡
the ✥✒✜❡r
other ✢t❡due
✒✥
to ✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖❝❡✙
differences ✔✖ in ✒✜❡
the ✒✗✘❡
type ✤✖✢and ✙✒rt❝✒tr❡
structure ✥✕ of ❡✤r✒✜
earth ❹❺❻❼❽❼❻❾
Activity
materials, ✢✔✕✕❡r❡✖❝❡✙
✈✤✒❡r✔✤★✙✳ differences ✔✖ geomorphic ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
in ✦❡✥✈✥r✘✜✔❝ processes
and ✔✖
✤✖✢ in ✒✜❡✔r
their r✤✒❡✙
rates ✥✕ of ✥✘❡r✤✒✔✥✖✓
operation. ❿✸✼❇
Mark ✺✻✷
the ❅✸✺✽✺❈❁✷ ●✸❅❈✷❀ ❞❂
latitude values of ❁✽❂❂✷✼✷✾✺
different
Some ✥✕
❙✥✈❡ of ✒✜❡
the ❡✫✥✦❡✖✔❝ geomorphic ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
exogenic ✦❡✥✈✥r✘✜✔❝ processes ❄❅✽❃✸✺✽❄
climatic ✼✷✿✽❃✷❀
regimes ✽✾ in ➀✽✿❈✼✷
Figure ➁❍➂
6.2 ✸✾❁
and
✜✤✣❡ been ✢❡✤★✒
have ✩❡❡✖ dealt ✔✖ in ✢❡✒✤✔★
detail ✜❡r❡✓
here. ❄❞❃♣✸✼✷
compare ✺✻✷
the ❁✷✺✸✽❅❀❍
details.

❲❊✭✮✯❊✰✱✲✴
WEATHERING There are ✒✜r❡❡
✐✜❡r❡ ✤r❡ three ✈✤➃✥r groups ✥✕
major ✦r✥t✘✙ ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦
of weathering
✵❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦ ✔✙
Weathering action ✥✕
is ✤❝✒✔✥✖ of ❡★❡✈❡✖✒✙
elements ✥✕ ✛❡✤✒✜❡r ✤✖✢
of weather and ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
processes ➄: ♦✔❳ (i) ❝✜❡✈✔❝✤★➅
chemical; ♦✔✔❳ (ii) ✘✜✗✙✔❝✤★
physical ✥r or
❝★✔✈✤✒❡
climate ✥✣❡r
over ❡✤r✒✜
earth ✈✤✒❡r✔✤★✙✓
materials. ✐✜❡r❡ ✤r❡
There are ✤ a ✈❡❝✜✤✖✔❝✤★➅
mechanical; ♦✔✔✔❳ biological ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦
(iii) ✩✔✥★✥✦✔❝✤★ weathering ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙✓
processes.
✖t✈✩❡r
number ✥✕ of ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙ ✛✔✒✜✔✖ weathering
processes within ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦ which
✛✜✔❝✜ Very r✤r❡★✗
➆❡r✗ rarely ✢✥❡✙
does ✤✖✗ any ✥✖❡
one ✥✕
of ✒✜❡✙❡
these ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
processes ❡✣❡r
ever
act ❡✔✒✜❡r
✤❝✒ either ✔✖✢✔✣✔✢t✤★★✗
individually ✥ror ✒✥✦❡✒✜❡r
together ✒✥ affect ✒✜❡
to ✤✕✕❡❝✒ the ✥✘❡r✤✒❡
operate ❝✥✈✘★❡✒❡★✗
completely ✩✗ by ✔✒✙❡★✕✳
itself, ✩t✒ quite ✥✕✒❡✖
but ➇t✔✒❡ often ✤a
❡✤r✒✜ materials ✔✖
earth ✈✤✒❡r✔✤★✙ in ✥r✢❡r
order ✒✥to r❡✢t❝❡
reduce ✒✜❡✈
them ✒✥ to ✢✥✈✔✖✤✖❝❡
dominance ✥✕ of ✥✖❡
one ✘r✥❝❡✙✙
process ❝✤✖can ✩❡be ✙❡❡✖✓
seen.
✕r✤✦✈❡✖✒✤★
fragmental ✙✒✤✒❡✓
state.
➈➉➊➋➌➍➎➏
Chemical ➐➊➎➑➉➊➒➌➓➔
Weathering →➒➣➍➊↔↔➊↔
Processes
✶✷✸✺✻✷✼✽✾✿ ✽❀
Weathering is ❁✷❂✽✾✷❁
defined ✸❀as ❃✷❄✻✸✾✽❄✸❅
mechanical group ✥✕
A✧ ✦r✥t✘ of ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦
weathering ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
processes ✣✔↕➅ viz; ✙✥★t✒✔✥✖✳
solution,
❁✽❀✽✾✺✷✿✼✸✺✽❞✾
disintegration and chemical ❁✷❄❞❃❆
✸✾❁ ❄✻✷❃✽❄✸❅ decom- ❝✤r✩✥✖✤✒✔✥✖✳
carbonation, ✜✗✢r✤✒✔✥✖✳
hydration, ✥✫✔✢✤✒✔✥✖oxidation ✤✖✢ and
♣❞❀✽✺✽❞✾
position ❞❂
of ✼❞❄❇❀
rocks ✺✻✼❞❈✿✻
through ✺✻✷
the ✸❄✺✽❞✾❀
actions ❞❂
of r❡✢t❝✒✔✥✖
reduction ✤❝✒ act ✥✖on ✒✜❡
the r✥❝✚✙
rocks ✒✥ to ✢❡❝✥✈✘✥✙❡✳
decompose,
●✸✼✽❞❈❀ ✷❅✷❃✷✾✺❀
various elements ❞❂ ✇✷✸✺✻✷✼ ✸✾❁
of weather and ❄❅✽❃✸✺✷❍
climate. ✢✔✙✙✥★✣❡
dissolve ✥ror r❡✢t❝❡
reduce ✒✜❡✈
them ✒✥ to a ✤ ✕✔✖❡
fine ❝★✤✙✒✔❝
clastic ✙✒✤✒❡
state
✒✜r✥t✦✜
through ❝✜❡✈✔❝✤★
chemical r❡✤❝✒✔✥✖✙
reactions ✩✗ by ✥✫✗✦❡✖✳
oxygen, ✙tr✕✤❝❡
surface
✧✙ very
As little ✥r
✣❡r✗ ★✔✒✒★❡ or ✖✥ motion ✥✕
no ✈✥✒✔✥✖ of ✈✤✒❡r✔✤★✙
materials and/or ✙✥✔★
✤✖✢➙✥r soil ✛✤✒❡r and ✥✒✜❡r
water ✤✖✢ acids. ✵✤✒❡r
other ✤❝✔✢✙✓ Water ✤✖✢
and
✒✤✚❡✙
takes ✘★✤❝❡
place ✔✖ ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦✳ ✔✒
in weathering, it ✔✙
is ✤✖ in-situ ✥r
an ■❏❑▲■▼◆ or ✤✔r
air ♦✥✫✗✦❡✖
(oxygen ✤✖✢ and ❝✤r✩✥✖
carbon ✢✔✥✫✔✢❡❳
dioxide) ✤★✥✖✦ along ✛✔✒✜
with
✥✖✪✙✔✒❡
on-site ✘r✥❝❡✙✙✓
process. ✜❡✤✒
heat ✈t✙✒
must ✩❡ be ✘r❡✙❡✖✒
present ✒✥ to ✙✘❡❡✢
speed t✘ all ❝✜❡✈✔❝✤★
up ✤★★ chemical
r❡✤❝✒✔✥✖✙✓
reactions. Over and above the carbon ✢✔✥✫✔✢❡
➛✣❡r ✤✖✢ ✤✩✥✣❡ ✒✜❡ ❝✤r✩✥✖ dioxide
Is ✺✻✽❀
❖❀ this ❅✽✺✺❅✷
littke ❃❞✺✽❞✾ ✇✻✽❄✻ ❄✸✾
motion which can ❞❄❄❈✼
occur
✘r❡✙❡✖✒
present ✔✖
in ✒✜❡ air, ✢❡❝✥✈✘✥✙✔✒✔✥✖
the ✤✔r✳ decomposition ✥✕ of ✘★✤✖✒✙
plants ✤✖✢
and
❀❞❃✷✺✽❃✷❀
sometimes ❁❈✷ due ✺❞ ✇✷✸✺✻✷✼✽✾✿ ❀s✾❞✾s❃❞❈❀
to weathering synonymous
animals ✔✖❝r❡✤✙❡✙
✤✖✔✈✤★✙ increases ✒✜❡ quantity ✥✕
the ➇t✤✖✒✔✒✗ of ❝✤r✩✥✖
carbon
✇✽✺✻ ✺✼✸✾❀♣❞✼✺✸✺✽❞✾P
with transportation? ❖❂ If ✾❞✺◗ ✇✻sP
not, why?
✢✔✥✫✔✢❡ ✐✜❡✙❡ ❝✜❡✈✔❝✤★
dioxide t✖✢❡r✦r✥t✖✢✓
underground. These chemical
✵❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦ ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
Weathering processes ✤r❡are ❝✥✖✢✔✒✔✥✖❡✢
conditioned ✩✗ by r❡✤❝✒✔✥✖✙
reactions ✥✖ on ✣✤r✔✥t✙
various ✈✔✖❡r✤★✙
minerals ✤r❡ are ✣❡r✗
very ✈t❝✜
much
many ❝✥✈✘★❡✫
✈✤✖✗ geological, ❝★✔✈✤✒✔❝✳
complex ✦❡✥★✥✦✔❝✤★✳ climatic, ✒✥✘✥✦r✤✘✜✔❝
topographic ✙✔✈✔★✤r
similar ✒✥
to ✒✜❡
the ❝✜❡✈✔❝✤★
chemical r❡✤❝✒✔✥✖✙
reactions ✔✖ in ✤
a ★✤✩✥r✤✒✥r✗✓
laboratory.
✤✖✢ vegetative ✕✤❝✒✥r✙✓
and ✣❡✦❡✒✤✒✔✣❡ Climate ✔✙
factors. ❘★✔✈✤✒❡ is ✥✕
of ✘✤r✒✔❝t★✤r
particular
✔✈✘✥r✒✤✖❝❡✓
importance. ❚✥✒ Not ✥✖★✗
only ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦
weathering ✘r✥❝❡✙✙❡✙
processes ➜➝➞◆▼■➝❏
Solution
✢✔✕✕❡r
differ ✕r✥✈
from ❝★✔✈✤✒❡
climate ✒✥
to ❝★✔✈✤✒❡✳
climate, ✩t✒ also ✒✜❡
but ✤★✙✥ the ✢❡✘✒✜
depth ✵✜❡✖
When ✙✥✈❡✒✜✔✖✦
something ✔✙
is ✢✔✙✙✥★✣❡✢
dissolved ✔✖
in ✛✤✒❡r
water ✥r
or ✤❝✔✢✙✳
acids,
✥✕
of ✒✜❡
the ✛❡✤✒✜❡r✔✖✦
weathering ✈✤✖✒★❡
mantle ♦✬✔✦tr❡
(Figure ❯✓❱❳✓
6.2). ✒✜❡ ✛✤✒❡r ✥r acid with dissolved contents ✔✙
the water or ✤❝✔✢ ✛✔✒✜ ✢✔✙✙✥★✣❡✢ ❝✥✖✒❡✖✒✙ is
● ✁✂✁✄☎✆✝✞ ☎✄✁✞
GEOMORPHIC ✟✟ ✟
PROCESSES ✹✠
49

❝✡☛☛☞✌
called s✍✎✏✑✒✍✓✳ ✔✕✖✗ ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗
solution. This process ✖✛✜✚☛✜☞✗
involves ✙☞✢✚✜✡☛
removal r✡✛✦
Many ❝☛✡✦
clay ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
minerals ✗✧☞☛☛
swell ✡✛✌
and ❝✚✛✤✙✡❝✤
contract ✌✣✙✖✛✩
during
✚♦
of ✗✚☛✖✌✗
solids ✖✛ in ✗✚☛✣✤✖✚✛
solution ✡✛✌ depends ✣✘✚✛
and ✌☞✘☞✛✌✗ upon ✧☞✤✤✖✛✩ ✡✛✌
wetting and ✌✙✦✖✛✩
drying ✡✛✌
and ✡ a ✙☞✘☞✤✖✤✖✚✛
repetition ✚♦of ✤✕✖✗
this
✗✚☛✣✥✖☛✖✤✦
solubility ✚♦of ✡
a ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛
mineral ✖✛ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✚✙
in water ✧☞✡★ ✡❝✖✌✗✳
or weak acids. ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗
process ✙☞✗✣☛✤✗
results ✖✛in ❝✙✡❝★✖✛✩
cracking ✚♦ of ✚✜☞✙☛✦✖✛✩
overlying
❖✛
On ❝✚✢✖✛✩
coming ✖✛ in ❝✚✛✤✡❝✤ ✧✖✤✕ water
contact with ✧✡✤☞✙ ✢✡✛✦many ✗✚☛✖✌✗
solids materials. ✪✡☛✤✗
✢✡✤☞✙✖✡☛✗✳ Salts ✖✛
in ✘✚✙☞ spaces ✣✛✌☞✙✩✚
pore ✗✘✡❝☞✗ undergo ✙✡✘✖✌
rapid
✌✖✗✖✛✤☞✩✙✡✤☞
disintegrate ✡✛✌ mix ✣✘
and ✢✖❞ up ✡✗ as ✗✣✗✘☞✛✗✖✚✛
suspension ✖✛ in ✡✛✌
and repeated hydration and help in ✙✚❝★
✙☞✘☞✡✤☞✌ ✕✦✌✙✡✤✖✚✛ ✡✛✌ ✕☞☛✘ ✖✛ rock
✧✡✤☞✙✳ ✪✚☛✣✥☛☞
water. Soluble ✙✚❝★ rock ♦✚✙✢✖✛✩
forming ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
minerals ☛✖★☞ like ♦✙✡❝✤✣✙✖✛✩✳ ✔✕☞ ✜✚☛✣✢☞
fracturing. The volume ❝✕✡✛✩☞✗
changes ✖✛ in ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
minerals
✛✖✤✙✡✤☞✗♥
nitrates, ✗✣☛✘✕✡✤☞✗♥
sulphates, ✡✛✌ and ✘✚✤✡✗✗✖✣✢
potassium ☞✤❝✳ etc. ✡✙☞
are due ✤✚
✌✣☞ to ✕✦✌✙✡✤✖✚✛ ✧✖☛☛ ✡☛✗✚
hydration will also ✕☞☛✘
help ✖✛in ✘✕✦✗✖❝✡☛
physical
✡♦♦☞❝✤☞✌ ✥✦ ✤✕✖✗ ✪✚♥ ✤✕☞✗☞
affected by this process. So, these minerals ✡✙☞
✘✙✚❝☞✗✗✳ ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗ are ✧☞✡✤✕☞✙✖✛✩ ✤✕✙✚✣✩✕
weathering through ☞❞♦✚☛✖✡✤✖✚✛ and ✩✙✡✛✣☛✡✙
exfoliation ✡✛✌ granular
☞✡✗✖☛✦
easily ☛☞✡❝✕☞✌
leached ✚✣✤ ✧✖✤✕✚✣✤ ☛☞✡✜✖✛✩
out without leaving ✡✛✦ any ✙☞✗✖✌✣☞
residue ✌✖✗✖✛✤☞✩✙✡✤✖✚✛✳
disintegration.
✖✛
in ✙✡✖✛✦
rainy ❝☛✖✢✡✤☞✗
climates ✡✛✌ and ✡❝❝✣✢✣☛✡✤☞
accumulate ✖✛ in ✌✙✦
dry
regions. r✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
✙☞✩✖✚✛✗✳ Minerals ☛✖★☞like ❝✡☛❝✖✣✢
calcium ❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞
carbonate ✡✛✌ and ❄❅✒❂✭✑✒✍✓
Oxidation ✭✓❂
and ❆❇❂✏❉✑✒✍✓
Reduction
❝✡☛❝✖✣✢ magnesium ✥✖❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞
calcium ✢✡✩✛☞✗✖✣✢ bicarbonate ✘✙☞✗☞✛✤ present ✖✛ in ■✛ ✧☞✡✤✕☞✙✖✛✩♥ ✚❞✖✌✡✤✖✚✛
In weathering, oxidation ✢☞✡✛✗
means ✡ a ❝✚✢✥✖✛✡✤✖✚✛
combination
☛✖✢☞✗✤✚✛☞✗
limestones ✡✙☞ are ✗✚☛✣✥☛☞
soluble ✖✛ ✧✡✤☞✙ ❝✚✛✤✡✖✛✖✛✩
in water containing ✚♦
of ✡
a ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛
mineral with ✧✖✤✕ ✚❞✦✩☞✛
oxygen ✤✚ to ♦✚✙✢
form ✚❞✖✌☞✗
oxides ✚✙ or
❝✡✙✥✚✛✖❝
carbonic ✡❝✖✌acid ✫♦✚✙✢☞✌
(formed with ✧✖✤✕ ✤✕☞the ✡✌✌✖✤✖✚✛
addition ✚♦ of hydroxides. ❖❞✖✌✡✤✖✚✛
✕✦✌✙✚❞✖✌☞✗✳ Oxidation ✚❝❝✣✙✗ ✧✕☞✙☞ ✤✕☞✙☞
occurs where there ✖✗ is
❝✡✙✥✚✛
carbon ✌✖✚❞✖✌☞
dioxide ✖✛ ✧✡✤☞✙✬♥ ✡✛✌
in water), and ✡✙☞
are ❝✡✙✙✖☞✌
carried ✡✧✡✦
away ✙☞✡✌✦ ✡❝❝☞✗✗ ✤✚ ✤✕ ☞
ready access to the atmosphere and ✡✤✢✚✗✘✕☞✙☞ ✡✛✌
✖✛ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✡✗
in water solution. ✐✡✙✥✚✛
as ✗✚☛✣✤✖✚✛✳ Carbon ✌✖✚❞✖✌☞
dioxide ✘✙✚✌✣❝☞✌
produced ✚❞✦✩☞✛✡✤☞✌
oxygenated waters. ✧✡✤☞✙✗✳ The ✔✕☞ ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
minerals ✢✚✗✤ most
✥✦
by ✌☞❝✡✦✖✛✩
decaying ✚✙✩✡✛✖❝
organic ✢✡✤✤☞✙
matter ✡☛✚✛✩along with✧✖✤✕ ✗✚✖☛
soil ❝✚✢✢✚✛☛✦
commonly ✖✛✜✚☛✜☞✌
involved ✖✛ in ✤✕✖✗
this ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗
process ✡✙☞ are ✖✙✚✛♥
iron,
✧✡✤☞✙ ✩✙☞✡✤☛✦
water greatly ✡✖✌✗ in ✤✕✖✗
aids ✖✛ reaction. ✐✚✢✢✚✛
this ✙☞✡❝✤✖✚✛✳ Common ✢✡✛✩✡✛☞✗☞♥
manganese, ✗✣☛✘✕✣✙sulphur ☞✤❝✳ etc. ■✛
In ✤✕☞
the ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗
process ✚♦ of
salt ✫✗✚✌✖✣✢
✗✡☛✤ (sodium ❝✕☛✚✙✖✌☞✬
chloride) ✖✗ is ✡☛✗✚
also ✡ rock ♦✚✙✢✖✛✩
a ✙✚❝★ forming ✚❞✖✌✡✤✖✚✛
oxidation ✙✚❝★rock ✥✙☞✡★✌✚✧✛
breakdown ✚❝❝✣✙✗ occurs ✌✣☞ due ✤✚ to ✤✕☞
the
✢✖✛☞✙✡☛ ✖✗ ✗✣✗❝☞✘✤✖✥☛☞ ✤✚ ✤✕✖✗
mineral and is susceptible to this process ✚♦
✡✛✌ ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗ of ✌✖✗✤✣✙✥✡✛❝☞ caused ✥✦
disturbance ❝✡✣✗☞✌ by ✡✌✌✖✤✖✚✛
addition ✚♦ oxygen. ❊☞✌
of ✚❞✦✩☞✛✳ Red
✗✚☛✣✤✖✚✛✳
solution. ❝✚☛✚✣✙
colour ✚♦of ✖✙✚✛ ✣✘✚✛ oxidation turns ✤✚
iron upon ✚❞✖✌✡✤✖✚✛ ✤✣✙✛✗ to ✥✙✚✧✛
brown
or ✦☞☛☛✚✧✳
✚✙ ❋✕☞✛ ✚❞✖✌✖✗☞✌
yellow. When oxidised ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
minerals ✡✙☞ are ✘☛✡❝☞✌
placed
❈✭✮✯✍✓✭✑✒✍✓
Carbonation ✖✛
in ✡✛
an ☞✛✜✖✙✚✛✢☞✛✤
environment where ✧✕☞✙☞ ✚❞✦✩☞✛
oxygen ✖✗ is ✡✥✗☞✛✤♥
absent,
reduction ✤✡★☞✗
✙☞✌✣❝✤✖✚✛ place. ✪✣❝✕
takes ✘☛✡❝☞✳ Such ❝✚✛✌✖✤✖✚✛✗
conditions ☞❞✖✗✤ exist
✐✡✙✥✚✛✡✤✖✚✛
Carbonation ✖✗ is ✤✕☞
the ✙☞✡❝✤✖✚✛
reaction ✚♦of ❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞
carbonate ✡✛✌ and ✣✗✣✡☛☛✦
usually ✥☞☛✚✧
below ✤✕☞ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✤✡✥☛☞♥
the water table, ✖✛ in ✡✙☞✡✗
areas ✚♦ of
✥✖❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞ ✧✖✤✕ ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗
bicarbonate with minerals ✡✛✌and ✖✗is ✡
a ❝✚✢✢✚✛
common ✗✤✡✩✛✡✛✤ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✡✛✌ ✧✡✤☞✙☛✚✩✩☞✌ ✩✙✚✣✛✌✳ ❊☞✌
stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
✘✙✚❝ ☞✗✗ ✕
process ☞☛✘✖✛✩ ✤✕☞
helping the ✥✙☞✡★✖
breaking✛✩ ✌ ✚✧✛ ✚♦
down of ❝✚☛✚✣✙
colour ✚♦ iron ✣✘✚✛
of ✖✙✚✛ reduction ✤✣✙✛✗
upon ✙☞✌✣❝✤✖✚✛ turns ✤✚to ✩✙☞☞✛✖✗✕
greenish
♦☞☛✌✗✘✡✙✗ ✡✛✌ ❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞ ✢✖✛☞✙✡☛✗✳
feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon ✐✡✙✥✚✛ or ✥☛✣✖✗✕
✚✙ bluish ✩✙☞✦✳
grey.
dioxide ♦✙✚✢
✌✖✚❞✖✌☞ from ✤✕☞
the ✡✤✢✚✗✘✕☞✙☞
atmosphere ✡✛✌ and ✗✚✖☛
soil ✡✖✙
air ✖✗
is These ✧☞✡✤✕☞✙✖✛✩ ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗☞✗
✔✕☞✗☞ weathering processes ✡✙☞ are ✖✛✤☞✙❏
inter-
absorbed ✥✦
✡✥✗✚✙✥☞✌ ✧✡✤☞✙♥ ✤✚
by water, to ♦✚✙✢
form ❝✡✙✥✚✛✖❝
carbonic ✡❝✖✌acid ✤✕✡✤
that ✙☞☛✡✤☞✌✳
related. ❃✦✌✙✡✤✖✚✛♥
Hydration, ❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤✖✚✛
carbonation ✡✛✌ and ✚❞✖✌✡✤✖✚✛
oxidation
✡❝✤✗
acts ✡✗
as ✡ ✧☞✡★ ✡❝✖✌✳
a weak acid. ✐✡☛❝✖✣✢
Calcium ❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞✗
carbonates ✡✛✌ and ✩✚
go ✕✡✛✌
hand ✖✛ in ✕✡✛✌
hand ✡✛✌ hasten ✤✕☞
and ✕✡✗✤☞✛ ✧☞✡✤✕☞✙✖✛✩
the weathering
✢✡✩✛☞✗✖✣✢
magnesium carbonates are dissolved ✖✛
❝✡✙✥✚✛✡✤☞✗ ✡✙☞ ✌✖✗✗✚☛✜☞✌ in ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗✳
process.
❝✡✙✥✚✛✖❝
carbonic ✡❝✖✌
acid ✡✛✌
and ✡✙☞
are ✙☞✢✚✜☞✌
removed ✖✛ in ✡a ✗✚☛✣✤✖✚✛
solution
✧✖✤✕✚✣✤ ☛☞✡✜✖✛✩
without leaving ✡✛✦any ✙☞✗✖✌✣☞
residue ✙☞✗✣☛✤✖✛✩
resulting ✖✛ in ❝✡✜☞
cave
♦✚✙✢✡✤✖✚✛✳
formation.
❑✲✻
Can ▲✵
we ◆✺P✵
give ✺✴✽✻
iron ✴◗✼❘✺✻◆
rusting ✲✼
as ✲✻
an ✵❙✲✸❚✷✵
example
✽❯
of ✽❙✺✾✲❘✺✽✻❀ How ✵✼✼✵✻❘✺✲✷
oxidation? ❱✽▲ essential ✺✼
is ▲✲❘✵✴
water ✺✻
in
❲✰✱ ✲✴✵
Why are ✶✷✲✱
clay ✸✺✻✵✴✲✷✼
minerals ✵✲✼✺✷✱
easily ✵✴✽✾✺✿✷✵❀
erodible? ✶✰✵✸✺✶✲✷ ▲✵✲❘✰✵✴✺✻◆ ❚✴✽✶✵✼✼✵✼❀
chemical weathering processes? Can ❑✲✻
✶✰✵✸✺✶✲✷
chemical ▲✵✲❘✰✵✴✺✻◆
weathering ❚✴✽✶✵✼✼✵✼
processes ✾✽✸✺✻✲❘✵
dominate
✺✻
in ▲✲❘✵✴
water ✼✶✲✴✶✵
scarce ✰✽❘
hot ✾✵✼✵✴❘✼❀
deserts?
❍❁❂✮✭✑✒✍✓
Hydration
❃✦✌✙✡✤✖✚✛
Hydration ✖✗ is ✤✕☞
the ❝✕☞✢✖❝✡☛
chemical ✡✌✌✖✤✖✚✛
addition ✚♦ ✧✡✤☞✙✳
of water.
r✖✛☞✙✡☛✗ ❳❨❩❬❭❪❫❴ ❵❡❫❛❨❡❜❭❢❣ ❳❜❤❪❡❬❬❡❬
Physical Weathering Processes
Minerals take up water and expand; ✤✕✖✗
✤✡★☞ ✣✘ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✡✛✌ ☞❞✘✡✛✌▼ this
☞❞✘✡✛✗✖✚✛
expansion ❝✡✣✗☞✗
causes ✡✛ an ✖✛❝✙☞✡✗☞
increase ✖✛ in ✤✕☞
the ✜✚☛✣✢☞
volume ✚♦ of ❥✕✦✗✖❝✡☛
Physical ✚✙ or ✢☞❝✕✡✛✖❝✡☛ ✧☞✡✤✕☞✙✖✛✩ ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗☞✗
mechanical weathering processes
✤✕☞
the ✢✡✤☞✙✖✡☛
material ✖✤✗☞☛♦
itself ✚✙ rock. ✐✡☛❝✖✣✢
or ✙✚❝★✳ Calcium ✗✣☛✘✕✡✤☞
sulphate ✌☞✘☞✛✌
depend ✚✛ on ✗✚✢☞ applied ♦✚✙❝☞✗✳
some ✡✘✘☛✖☞✌ ✔✕☞ ✡✘✘☛✖☞✌
forces. The applied
✤✡★☞✗
takes ✖✛ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✡✛✌
in water and ✤✣✙✛✗
turns ✤✚to ✩✦✘✗✣✢♥ ✧✕✖❝✕ ✖✗
gypsum, which is ♦✚✙❝☞✗ could ✥☞❦
forces ❝✚✣☛✌ be: ✫✖✬
(i) ✩✙✡✜✖✤✡✤✖✚✛✡☛
gravitational ♦✚✙❝☞✗
forces ✗✣❝✕
such ✡✗
as
more ✣✛✗✤✡✥☛☞
✢✚✙☞ unstable ✤✕✡✛ than ❝✡☛❝✖✣✢
calcium ✗✣☛✘✕✡✤☞✳ ✔✕✖✗
sulphate. This ✚✜☞✙✥✣✙✌☞✛
overburden ✘✙☞✗✗✣✙☞♥
pressure, ☛✚✡✌
load ✡✛✌
and ✗✕☞✡✙✖✛✩
shearing ✗✤✙☞✗✗▼
stress;
✘✙✚❝☞✗✗
process ✖✗ is ✙☞✜☞✙✗✖✥☛☞
reversible ✡✛✌ and ☛✚✛✩♥
long, ❝✚✛✤✖✛✣☞✌
continued ✫✖✖✬ expansion ♦✚✙❝☞✗
(ii) ☞❞✘✡✛✗✖✚✛ forces ✌✣☞due ✤✚ to ✤☞✢✘☞✙✡✤✣✙☞
temperature
✙☞✘☞✤✖✤✖✚✛
repetition ✚♦of ✤✕✖✗
this ✘✙✚❝☞✗✗ causes ♦✡✤✖✩✣☞
process ❝✡✣✗☞✗ in ✤✕☞
fatigue ✖✛ the ❝✕✡✛✩☞✗♥ crystal ✩✙✚✧✤✕
changes, ❝✙✦✗✤✡☛ growth ✚✙ or ✡✛✖✢✡☛
animal ✡❝✤✖✜✖✤✦▼
activity:
✙✚❝★✗
rocks ✡✛✌
and ✢✡✦ lead ✤✚
may ☛☞✡✌ to ✤✕☞✖✙
their ✌✖✗✖✛✤☞✩✙✡✤✖✚✛✳
disintegration. ✫✖✖✖✬ ✧✡✤☞✙ ✘✙☞✗✗✣✙☞✗
(iii) water controlled ✥✦
pressures ❝✚✛✤✙✚☛☛☞✌ ✧☞✤✤✖✛✩ ✡✛✌
by wetting and
✺✑
50 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❞✒✓✔✕✖
drying ✗✓✗✘✙✚✛
cycles. ✜✢✕✓
Many ✣✤ of ✥✦✙✚✙
these ✤✣✒✗✙✚
forces ✢✒✙
are ✢✧✧✘✔✙❞
applied ✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙✚❝
temperatures, ✥✦✔✚ internal ♠✣✷✙♠✙✕✥
this ✔✕✥✙✒✕✢✘ movement ✢♠✣✕✖ among
❜✣✥✦
both ✢✥
at ✥✦✙
the ✚★✒✤✢✗✙
surface ✢✕❞ ✩✔✥✦✔✕ ❞✔✤✤✙✒✙✕✥
and within different ✙✢✒✥✦
earth the ♠✔✕✙✒✢✘
✥✦✙ mineral ✖✒✢✔✕✚
grains ✣✤ of ✥✦✙
the ✚★✧✙✒✤✔✗✔✢✘
superficial ✘✢✓✙✒✚
layers ✣✤of
♠✢✥✙✒✔✢✘✚
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of ✥✦✙
✘✙✢❞✔✕✖ ✥✣ ✒✣✗✪ ✤✒✢✗✥★✒✙✛ ✜✣✚✥ ✣✤ the ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ✥✢✪✙✚
takes ✧✘✢✗✙
place ✒✙✖★✘✢✒✘✓✛
regularly. This ✫✦✔✚ ✧✒✣✗✙✚✚
process ✔✚ is
✧✦✓✚✔✗✢✘ ✩✙✢✥✦✙✒✔✕✖ ✧✒✣✗✙✚✚✙✚
physical weathering processes ✢✒✙ caused ❜✓
are ✗✢★✚✙❞ by ♠✣✚✥
most ✙✤✤✙✗✥✔✷✙
effective ✔✕ in ❞✒✓
dry ✗✘✔♠✢✥✙✚
climates ✢✕❞ and ✦✔✖✦ high
✥✦✙✒♠✢✘
thermal ✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
expansion ✢✕❞ and ✧✒✙✚✚★✒✙
pressure ✒✙✘✙✢✚✙✛ ✫✦✙✚✙
release. These ✙✘✙✷✢✥✔✣✕✚ ✩✦✙✒✙ ❞✔★✒✕✢✘
elevations where diurnal ✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙
temperature ✗✦✢✕✖✙✚changes
✧✒✣✗✙✚✚✙✚
processes ✢✒✙ are ✚♠✢✘✘
small ✢✕❞ slow ❜★✥
and ✚✘✣✩ but ✗✢✕can ✗✢★✚✙
cause ✢✒✙
are ❞✒✢✚✥✔✗✛
drastic. As ❛✚ ✦✢✚has ❜✙✙✕
been ♠✙✕✥✔✣✕✙❞
mentioned ✙✢✒✘✔✙✒ earlier
✖✒✙✢✥
great ❞✢♠✢✖✙
damage ✥✣ to ✥✦✙ rocks ❜✙✗✢★✚✙
the ✒✣✗✪✚ because ✣✤ of ✥✦✣★✖✦ ✥✦✙✚✙ ♠✣✷✙♠✙✕✥✚
though these movements are very small ✥✦✙✓
✢✒✙ ✷✙✒✓ ✚♠✢✘✘ they
✗✣✕✥✔✕★✙❞
continued ✤✢✥✔✖★✙
fatigue ✥✦✙the ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ✚★✤✤✙✒
suffer ❞★✙
due ✥✣ to ♠✢✪✙
make ✥✦✙
the ✒✣✗✪✚ ✩✙✢✪ ❞★✙
rocks weak due ✥✣to ✗✣✕✥✔✕★✙❞
continued ✤✢✥✔✖★✙✛
fatigue.
✒✙✧✙✥✔✥✔✣✕
repetition ✣✤of ✗✣✕✥✒✢✗✥✔✣✕
contraction ✢✕❞ and ✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕✛
expansion. ✫✦✙ ✚★✒✤✢✗✙
The surface ✘✢✓✙✒✚
layers ✣✤of ✥✦✙
the ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ✥✙✕❞
tend ✥✣to ✙t✧✢✕❞
expand
♠✣✒✙
more ✥✦✢✕
than ✥✦✙
the ✒✣✗✪
rock ✢✥ at ❞✙✧✥✦
depth ✢✕❞and ✥✦✔✚
this ✘✙✢❞✚
leads ✥✣to
❯✬✭✮✯✰✱✬✲
Unloading ✯✬✰ and ✳✴✵✯✬✶✱✮✬
Expansion ✥✦✙ ✤✣✒♠✢✥✔✣✕ ✣✤ ✚✥✒✙✚✚ ✩✔✥✦✔✕ ✥✦✙ ✒✣✗✪
the formation of stress within the rock resulting ✒✙✚★✘✥✔✕✖
❘✙♠✣✷✢✘ ✔✕
in ✦✙✢✷✔✕✖
heaving ✢✕❞ and ✤✒✢✗✥★✒✔✕✖
fracturing ✧✢✒✢✘✘✙✘
parallel ✥✣ to ✥✦✙
the
Removal ✣✤ of ✣✷✙✒✘✓✔✕✖
overlying ✒✣✗✪ load ❜✙✗✢★✚✙
rock ✘✣✢❞ because ✣✤ of
surface. s★✙
✚★✒✤✢✗✙✛ Due ✥✣ to ❞✔✤✤✙✒✙✕✥✔✢✘
differential ✦✙✢✥✔✕✖heating ✢✕❞ and
✗✣✕✥✔✕★✙❞
continued ✙✒✣✚✔✣✕
erosion ✗✢★✚✙✚ ✷✙✒✥✔✗✢✘ ✧✒✙✚✚★✒✙
causes vertical pressure
✩✔✥✦ ✥✦✙ ✒✙✚★✘✥✔✕✖
resulting ✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
expansion ✢✕❞ and ✗✣✕✥✒✢✗✥✔✣✕
contraction ✣✤ of ✚★✒✤✢✗✙
surface
✒✙✘✙✢✚✙
release with the ✒✙✚★✘✥
result ✥✦✢✥ the ★✧✧✙✒
that ✥✦✙ upper ✘✢✓✙✒✚
layers ✣✤
of
✘✢✓✙✒✚
layers ✢✕❞
and ✥✦✙✔✒
their ✚★❜✚✙❧★✙✕✥
subsequent ✙t✤✣✘✔✢✥✔✣✕
exfoliation ✤✒✣♠ from
✥✦✙
the ✒✣✗✪
rock ✙t✧✢✕❞
expand ✧✒✣❞★✗✔✕✖
producing ❞✔✚✔✕✥✙✖✒✢✥✔✣✕
disintegration ✣✤ of
✥✦✙
the ✚★✒✤✢✗✙
surface ✒✙✚★✘✥✚
results ✔✕ in ✚♠✣✣✥✦
smooth ✒✣★✕❞✙❞
rounded ✚★✒✤✢✗✙✚
surfaces
rock ♠✢✚✚✙✚✛
✒✣✗✪ masses. r✒✢✗✥★✒✙✚
Fractures will✩✔✘✘ ❞✙✷✙✘✣✧
develop ✒✣★✖✦✘✓
roughly
✔✕ rocks. ♣✕
in ✒✣✗✪✚✛ In ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ✘✔✪✙ like ✖✒✢✕✔✥✙✚❝
granites, ✚♠✣✣✥✦ smooth
✧✢✒✢✘✘✙✘
parallel ✥✣to ✥✦✙
the ✖✒✣★✕❞ surface. ♣✕
ground ✚★✒✤✢✗✙✛ In ✢✒✙✢✚
areas ✣✤of
✚★✒✤✢✗✙❞ ✢✕❞ ✒✣★✕❞✙❞ ✚♠✢✘✘
surfaced and rounded small to big boulders✥✣ ❜✔✖ ❜✣★✘❞✙✒✚
✗★✒✷✙❞
curved ✖✒✣★✕❞
ground ✚★✒✤✢✗✙❝
surface, ✢✒✗✦✙❞
arched ✤✒✢✗✥★✒✙✚
fractures ✥✙✕❞
tend
called ✻✮❁✶
✗✢✘✘✙❞ tors ✤✣✒♠
form ❞★✙due ✥✣ to ✚★✗✦
such ✙t✤✣✘✔✢✥✔✣✕✛
exfoliation.
✥✣ produce ♠✢✚✚✔✷✙
to ✧✒✣❞★✗✙ massive ✚✦✙✙✥✚
sheets ✣✒
or ✙t✤✣✘✔✢✥✔✣✕
exfoliation ✚✘✢❜✚
slabs
✣✤ rock. ♦t✤✣✘✔✢✥✔✣✕
of ✒✣✗✪✛ Exfoliation ✚✦✙✙✥✚ sheets ✒✙✚★✘✥✔✕✖
resulting ✤✒✣♠
from ❲❂❃❄
What ❅❆
is ❄❂❇
the ❈❅❉❉❇❊❇●❍❇
difference ■❇❄❏❇❇●
between ❇❑❉▲▼❅❃❄❅▲●
exfoliation
✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
expansion ❞★✙ due ✥✣ to ★✕✘✣✢❞✔✕✖
unloading ✢✕❞ and ✧✒✙✚✚★✒✙
pressure ❈▲◆❇❆
domes ❃●❈
and ❇❑❉▲▼❅❃❄❇❈
exfoliated ❄▲❊❆❖
tors?
release ♠✢✓
✒✙✘✙✢✚✙ may ♠✙✢✚★✒✙
measure ✦★✕❞✒✙❞✚
hundreds ✣✒ or ✙✷✙✕
even
✥✦✣★✚✢✕❞✚
thousands ✣✤ of ♠✙✥✒✙✚
metres ✔✕ in ✦✣✒✔✐✣✕✥✢✘ extent. ✸✢✒✖✙❝
horizontal ✙t✥✙✕✥✛ Large,
✚♠✣✣✥✦
smooth ✒✣★✕❞✙❞
rounded ❞✣♠✙✚ called ❡✴✹✮✭✱✯✻✱✮✬
domes ✗✢✘✘✙❞ exfoliation P❁❡❡◗✱✬✲❙ Thawing ✯✬✰
Freezing, ❚❱✯❳✱✬✲ and P❁✮✶✻
Frost ❨❡✰✲✱✬✲
Wedging
✰✮✼❡✶
domes ✽r✔✖★✒✙
(Figure ✾✛✿❀6.3) ✒✙✚★✘✥
result ❞★✙
due ✥✣to ✥✦✔✚
this ✧✒✣✗✙✚✚✛
process. r✒✣✚✥
Frost ✩✙✢✥✦✙✒✔✕✖
weathering ✣✗✗★✒✚ occurs ❞★✙ due ✥✣to ✖✒✣✩✥✦
growth ✣✤ of ✔✗✙
ice
✩✔✥✦✔✕
within ✧✣✒✙✚
pores ✢✕❞ and ✗✒✢✗✪✚
cracks ✣✤ of ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ❞★✒✔✕✖
during
✒✙✧✙✢✥✙❞
repeated ✗✓✗✘✙✚
cycles ✣✤of ✤✒✙✙✐✔✕✖
freezing ✢✕❞and ♠✙✘✥✔✕✖✛
melting. This ✫✦✔✚
✧✒✣✗✙✚✚
process ✔✚is ♠✣✚✥
most ✙✤✤✙✗✥✔✷✙
effective ✢✥ at ✦✔✖✦
high ✙✘✙✷✢✥✔✣✕✚
elevations ✔✕ in
♠✔❞❩✘✢✥✔✥★❞✙✚
mid-latitudes ✩✦✙✒✙ where ✤✒✙✙✐✔✕✖
freezing ✢✕❞ and ♠✙✘✥✔✕✖
melting ✔✚ is
✣✤✥✙✕ repeated. ❬✘✢✗✔✢✘
often ✒✙✧✙✢✥✙❞✛ Glacial ✢✒✙✢✚
areas ✢✒✙
are ✚★❜❭✙✗✥
subject ✥✣ to ✤✒✣✚✥
frost
✩✙❞✖✔✕✖ daily. ♣✕
wedging ❞✢✔✘✓✛ In ✥✦✔✚
this ✧✒✣✗✙✚✚❝
process, ✥✦✙ the ✒✢✥✙
rate ✣✤ of
✤✒✙✙✐✔✕✖
freezing ✔✚ important. ❘✢✧✔❞
is ✔♠✧✣✒✥✢✕✥✛ Rapid ✤✒✙✙✐✔✕✖
freezing ✣✤ of ✩✢✥✙✒
water
✗✢★✚✙✚
causes ✔✥✚
its ✚★❞❞✙✕
sudden ✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
expansion ✢✕❞ and ✦✔✖✦
high ✧✒✙✚✚★✒✙✛
pressure.
✫✦✙ ✒✙✚★✘✥✔✕✖
The resulting ✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
expansion ✢✤✤✙✗✥✚ ❭✣✔✕✥✚❝ ✗✒✢✗✪✚
affects joints, cracks
✢✕❞
and ✚♠✢✘✘
small ✔✕✥✙✒
inter ✖✒✢✕★✘✢✒
granular ✤✒✢✗✥★✒✙✚
fractures ✥✣ to ❜✙✗✣♠✙
become
✩✔❞✙✒ and ✩✔❞✙✒
wider ✢✕❞ wider ✥✔✘✘
till ✥✦✙ rock ❜✒✙✢✪✚
the ✒✣✗✪ breaks ✢✧✢✒✥✛
apart.

❥❦♥q✉✈
Figure ✇①②
6.3 ③: A④ ⑤⑥✉♥✈
large ✈⑦⑧⑨⑤❦⑥⑩❦⑨❶
exfoliation ❷⑨❸✈
dome ❦❶
in ♥✉⑥❶❦⑩✈
granite ✉⑨❹❺
rock ❪✯✭✻
Salt ❨❡✯✻❱❡❁✱✬✲
Weathering
❶✈⑥✉ (Bhuvanagiri) ⑩⑨➁❶
❻❼⑨❶♥❦✉ ❽❾❼q❿⑥❶⑥♥❦✉❦➀
near bhongir town ❦❶ ④❶❷❼✉⑥ ➂✉⑥❷✈➃❼
in Andhra Pradesh
❫✢✘✥✚
Salts ✔✕
in ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ✙t✧✢✕❞
expand ❞★✙ due ✥✣
to ✥✦✙✒♠✢✘
thermal ✢✗✥✔✣✕❝
action,
❚❡✼✵❡❁✯✻➄❁❡ Changes ✯✬✰
Temperature ➅❱✯✬✲❡✶ and ✳✴✵✯✬✶✱✮✬
Expansion
✦✓❞✒✢✥✔✣✕
hydration ✢✕❞and ✗✒✓✚✥✢✘✘✔✚✢✥✔✣✕✛
crystallisation. ✜✢✕✓
Many ✚✢✘✥✚
salts ✘✔✪✙
like
✗✢✘✗✔★♠❝ sodium, ♠✢✖✕✙✚✔★♠❝
calcium, ✚✣❞✔★♠❝ magnesium, ✧✣✥✢✚✚✔★♠
potassium ✢✕❞and
➆✢✒✔✣★✚ ♠✔✕✙✒✢✘✚
Various minerals ✔✕ in ✒✣✗✪✚
rocks ✧✣✚✚✙✚✚
possess ✥✦✙✔✒
their ✣✩✕
own ❜✢✒✔★♠
barium ✦✢✷✙
have ✢a ✥✙✕❞✙✕✗✓
tendency ✥✣ expand. ♦t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
to ✙t✧✢✕❞✛ Expansion
✘✔♠✔✥✚
limits ✣✤
of ✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕
expansion ✢✕❞ and ✗✣✕✥✒✢✗✥✔✣✕✛ ➇✔✥✦ ✒✔✚✙
contraction. With rise ✣✤
of these salts depends on temperature ✢✕❞
✥✦✙✚✙ ✚✢✘✥✚ ❞✙✧✙✕❞✚ ✣✕ ✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙ and
✔✕
in ✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙❝ every ♠✔✕✙✒✢✘
temperature, ✙✷✙✒✓ mineral ✙t✧✢✕❞✚
expands ✢✕❞and ✥✦✙✔✒
their ✥✦✙✒♠✢✘ properties. ❴✔✖✦
thermal ✧✒✣✧✙✒✥✔✙✚✛ High ✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙
temperature
✧★✚✦✙✚
pushes ✢✖✢✔✕✚✥
against ✔✥✚ its ✕✙✔✖✦❜✣★✒
neighbour ✢✕❞ and ✢✚ as ranges ❜✙✥✩✙✙✕
✒✢✕✖✙✚ between ✿❵ and ❢❵
30 ✢✕❞ ❣❤ ✣✤
50°C of ✚★✒✤✢✗✙
surface
✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙
temperature ✤✢✘✘✚❝
falls, ✢
a ✗✣✒✒✙✚✧✣✕❞✔✕✖
corresponding ✗✣✕✥✒✢✗✥✔✣✕
contraction ✥✙♠✧✙✒✢✥★✒✙✚
temperatures ✔✕ in ❞✙✚✙✒✥✚
deserts ✤✢✷✣★✒
favour ✚★✗✦
such ✚✢✘✥
salt
✥✢✪✙✚ place. ➈✙✗✢★✚✙
takes ✧✘✢✗✙✛ Because ✣✤ of ❞✔★✒✕✢✘
diurnal ✗✦✢✕✖✙✚
changes ✔✕in ✥✦✙
the expansion. ❫✢✘✥
✙t✧✢✕✚✔✣✕✛ Salt ✗✒✓✚✥✢✘✚
crystals ✔✕
in ✕✙✢✒❩✚★✒✤✢✗✙
near-surface ✧✣✒✙✚
pores
● ✁✂✁✄☎✆✝✞ ☎✄✁✞
GEOMORPHIC ✟✟ ✟
PROCESSES ✺✠
51

❝✡☛☞✌
cause ☞✍✎✏✑✑✏✒✓
splitting ✔✕ of ✏✒❞✏✖✏❞☛✡✎
individual ✓✗✡✏✒☞ ✘✏✑✙✏✒
grains within
✗✔❝r☞✚ ✘✙✏❝✙ ✌✖✌✒✑☛✡✎✎✛
rocks, which eventually ✕✡✎✎ fall ✔✕✕✜ ✢✙✏☞ ✍✗✔❝✌☞☞
off. This process ✔✕ of
✕✡✎✎✏✒✓
falling ✔✕✕
off ✔✕
of ✏✒❞✏✖✏❞☛✡✎
individual ✓✗✡✏✒☞ grains ❢✡✛ may ✗✌☞☛✎✑
result ✏✒ in
✓✗✡✒☛✎✡✗
granular ❞✏☞✏✒✑✌✓✗✡✑✏✔✒
disintegration ✔✗ or ✓✗✡✒☛✎✡✗
granular ✕✔✎✏✡✑✏✔✒✜
foliation.
❙✡✎✑
Salt ❝✗✛☞✑✡✎✎✏☞✡✑✏✔✒
crystallisation ✏☞ is ❢✔☞✑
most ✌✕✕✌❝✑✏✖✌
effective ✔✕ of ✡✎✎
all
☞✡✎✑s✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓
salt-weathering ✍✗✔❝✌☞☞✌☞✜
processes. ✣✒
In ✡✗✌✡☞
areas with✘✏✑✙
✡✎✑✌✗✒✡✑✏✒✓ ✘✌✑✑✏✒✓ ✡✒❞
alternating wetting and ❞✗✛✏✒✓
drying ❝✔✒❞✏✑✏✔✒☞
conditions ☞✡✎✑ salt
❝✗✛☞✑✡✎ ✓✗✔✘✑✙ ✏☞ ✕✡✖✔☛✗✌❞ ✡✒❞ ✑✙✌
crystal growth is favoured and the neighbouring ✒✌✏✓✙♥✔☛✗✏✒✓
✓✗✡✏✒☞
grains ✡✗✌
are ✍☛☞✙✌❞
pushed ✡☞✏❞✌✜aside. ❙✔❞✏☛❢
Sodium ❝✙✎✔✗✏❞✌
chloride ✡✒❞ and
✓✛✍☞☛❢
gypsum ❝✗✛☞✑✡✎☞
crystals ✏✒ in ❞✌☞✌✗✑
desert ✡✗✌✡☞ areas ✙✌✡✖✌heave ☛✍ up
✔✖✌✗✎✛✏✒✓
overlying ✎✡✛✌✗☞
layers ✔✕of ❢✡✑✌✗✏✡✎☞
materials ✡✒❞ ✘✏✑✙ ✑✙✌
and with the ✗✌☞☛✎✑
result
✍✔✎✛✓✔✒✡✎
polygonal ❝✗✡❝r☞
cracks ❞✌✖✌✎✔✍
develop ✡✎✎ all ✔✖✌✗
over ✑✙✌the ✙✌✡✖✌❞
heaved
surface. With salt crystal growth, chalk ♥✗✌✡r☞
☞☛✗✕✡❝✌✜ ✤✏✑✙ ☞✡✎✑ ❝✗✛☞✑✡✎ ✓✗✔✘✑✙✚ ❝✙✡✎r breaks ❪❫❴❵❛❵❜
Fig.6.4 ❣: ❤✐❥❦q❫✉✈❫❦①
Exfoliation ②❪q✉③④❫①❴⑤
(Flacking) ✉①⑥
and ❴⑦✉①⑧q✉⑦
granular
down ❢✔☞✑
❞✔✘✒ most ✗✌✡❞✏✎✛✚ followed ♥✛
readily, ✕✔✎✎✔✘✌❞ by ✎✏❢✌☞✑✔✒✌✚
limestone, ⑥❫⑨❫①✈⑩❴⑦✉✈❫❦①
disintegration
☞✡✒❞☞✑✔✒✌✚
sandstone, ☞✙✡✎✌✚
shale, ✓✒✌✏☞☞
gneiss ✡✒❞
and ✓✗✡✒✏✑✌
granite ✌✑❝✜etc. ✑✌❢✍✌✗✡✑☛✗✌ changes. ✇❡✕✔✎✏✡✑✏✔✒
temperature ❝✙✡✒✓✌☞✜ Exfoliation ❞✔❢✌☞
domes ✡✒❞
and
✑✔✗☞
tors ✗✌☞☛✎✑
result ❞☛✌
due ✑✔to ☛✒✎✔✡❞✏✒✓
unloading ✡✒❞and ✑✙✌✗❢✡✎
thermal
❇■✥✦✥✧■★✩✦ ✪★❈■✫■❈✬ AND
BIoLocicaL ACTIVITY ✩❆✭ WEATHERING
✮❊✩❈✯❊✰■❆✧ ✌❡✍✡✒☞✏✔✒
expansion ✗✌☞✍✌❝✑✏✖✌✎✛✜
respectively.
✱✏✔✎✔✓✏❝✡✎ ✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✏☞
Biological weathering is ❝✔✒✑✗✏♥☛✑✏✔✒
contribution ✑✔ to ✔✗or
✗✌❢✔✖✡✎
removal ✔✕ of ❢✏✒✌✗✡✎☞
minerals ✡✒❞ and ✏✔✒☞ions ✕✗✔❢ from ✑✙✌ the ✴■✧❆■❋■★✩❆★❊
SIGNIFICANCE ✥❋ ✮❊✩❈✯❊✰■❆✧
OF WEATHERING
✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✌✒✖✏✗✔✒❢✌✒✑
weathering environment ✡✒❞ and ✍✙✛☞✏❝✡✎
physical ❝✙✡✒✓✌☞
changes ✤✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✍✗✔❝✌☞☞✌☞
Weathering processes ✡✗✌ are ✗✌☞✍✔✒☞✏♥✎✌
responsible ✕✔✗ for
❞☛✌
due ✑✔to ✓✗✔✘✑✙
growth ✔✗ ❢✔✖✌❢✌✒✑
or movement ✔✕ of ✔✗✓✡✒✏☞❢☞✜
organisms. ♥✗✌✡r✏✒✓
breaking ❞✔✘✒ down ✑✙✌ the ✗✔❝r☞
rocks ✏✒ ✑✔ ☞❢✡✎✎✌✗
into smaller
✱☛✗✗✔✘✏✒✓
Burrowing ✡✒❞ ✘✌❞✓✏✒✓ ♥✛
and wedging by ✔✗✓✡✒✏☞❢☞
organisms ✎✏r✌ like ✕✗✡✓❢✌✒✑☞
fragments ✡✒❞and ✍✗✌✍✡✗✏✒✓
preparing ✑✙✌ ✘✡✛ ✕✔✗
the way for ✕✔✗❢✡✑✏✔✒
formation
✌✡✗✑✙✘✔✗❢☞✚
earthworms, ✑✌✗❢✏✑✌☞✚
termites, ✗✔❞✌✒✑☞
rodents ✌✑❝✜✚ etc., ✙✌✎✍
help ✏✒ in ✔✕
of ✒✔✑
not ✔✒✎✛
only ✗✌✓✔✎✏✑✙
regolith ✡✒❞ soils, ♥☛✑
and ☞✔✏✎☞✚ but ✡✎☞✔
also ✌✗✔☞✏✔✒
erosion
✌❡✍✔☞✏✒✓
exposing ✑✙✌
the ✒✌✘
new ☞☛✗✕✡❝✌☞
surfaces ✑✔ to ❝✙✌❢✏❝✡✎
chemical ✡✑✑✡❝rattack and mass movements. Biomes and ♥✏✔s
✡✒❞ ❢✡☞☞ ❢✔✖✌❢✌✒✑☞✜ ✱✏✔❢✌☞ ✡✒❞ bio-
✡✒❞
and ✡☞☞✏☞✑☞
assists ✏✒
in ✑✙✌
the ✍✌✒✌✑✗✡✑✏✔✒
penetration ✔✕ of ❢✔✏☞✑☛✗✌
moisture ✡✒❞ and ❞✏✖✌✗☞✏✑✛
diversity ✏☞ is ♥✡☞✏❝✡✎✎✛
basically ✡ a ✗✌☞☛✎✑
result ✔✕ of ✕✔✗✌☞✑☞
forests
air. ✳☛❢✡✒
✡✏✗✜ Human ♥✌✏✒✓☞
beings ♥✛ by ❞✏☞✑☛✗♥✏✒✓ ✖✌✓✌✑✡✑✏✔✒✚
disturbing vegetation, ✷✖✌✓✌✑✡✑✏✔✒✻
(vegetation) ✡✒❞and ✕✔✗✌☞✑☞
forests ❞✌✍✌✒❞
depend ☛✍✔✒ upon ✑✙✌the ❞✌✍✑✙
depth
✍✎✔☛✓✙✏✒✓
ploughing ✡✒❞and ❝☛✎✑✏✖✡✑✏✒✓
cultivating ☞✔✏✎☞✚soils, ✡✎☞✔
also ✙✌✎✍
help ✏✒ in ✔✕ ✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ❢✡✒✑✎✌☞✜
of weathering mantles. ✇✗✔☞✏✔✒ cannot ♥✌
Erosion ❝✡✒✒✔✑ be
❢✏❡✏✒✓
mixing ✡✒❞
and ❝✗✌✡✑✏✒✓
creating ✒✌✘ contacts ♥✌✑✘✌✌✒
new ❝✔✒✑✡❝✑☞ between ✡✏✗✚ air, ☞✏✓✒✏✕✏❝✡✒✑
significant ✏✕if ✑✙✌
the ✗✔❝r☞
rocks ✡✗✌
are ✒✔✑ ✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✌❞✜ That
not weathered. ✢✙✡✑
water and ❢✏✒✌✗✡✎☞
✘✡✑✌✗ ✡✒❞ minerals ✏✒ in ✑✙✌ earth ❢✡✑✌✗✏✡✎☞✜
the ✌✡✗✑✙ materials. ❢✌✡✒☞✚ ✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✡✏❞☞
means, weathering aids ❢✡☞☞ ✘✡☞✑✏✒✓✚ ✌✗✔☞✏✔✒
mass wasting, erosion
❉✌❝✡✛✏✒✓
Decaying ✍✎✡✒✑
plant ✡✒❞
and ✡✒✏❢✡✎ ❢✡✑✑✌✗
animal matter ✙✌✎✍ help ✏✒in ✑✙✌
the ✡✒❞
and ✗✌❞☛❝✑✏✔✒
reduction ✔✕ of ✗✌✎✏✌✕
relief ✡✒❞ and ❝✙✡✒✓✌☞
changes ✏✒ in
✍✗✔❞☛❝✑✏✔✒
production ✔✕ of ✙☛❢✏❝✚
humic, ❝✡✗♥✔✒✏❝
carbonic ✡✒❞ and ✔✑✙✌✗
other ✡❝✏❞☞
acids ✎✡✒❞✕✔✗❢☞ ✡✗✌ ✡ ❝✔✒☞✌❧☛✌✒❝✌
landforms are a consequence of erosion. ✔✕ ✌✗✔☞✏✔✒✜
✘✙✏❝✙ ✌✒✙✡✒❝✌
which enhance ❞✌❝✡✛decay ✡✒❞and ☞✔✎☛♥✏✎✏✑✛
solubility ✔✕ of ☞✔❢✌
some ✤✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✔✕
Weathering of ✗✔❝r☞
rocks ✡✒❞and ❞✌✍✔☞✏✑☞
deposits ✙✌✎✍☞
helps ✏✒ in ✑✙✌
the
✌✎✌❢✌✒✑☞✜ ✲✎✓✡✌ ☛✑✏✎✏☞✌
elements. Algae utilise ❢✏✒✌✗✡✎
mineral ✒☛✑✗✏✌✒✑☞
nutrients ✕✔✗ for ✌✒✗✏❝✙❢✌✒✑
enrichment ✡✒❞ and ❝✔✒❝✌✒✑✗✡✑✏✔✒☞
concentrations ✔✕ of ❝✌✗✑✡✏✒
certain
✓✗✔✘✑✙ ✡✒❞ ✙✌✎✍ ✏✒ ❝✔✒❝✌✒✑✗✡✑✏✔✒
growth and help in concentration of iron and ✔✕ ✏✗✔✒ ✡✒❞ ✖✡✎☛✡♥✎✌ ✔✗✌☞
valuable ores ✔✕ iron, ❢✡✒✓✡✒✌☞✌✚
of ✏✗✔✒✚ manganese, ✡✎☛❢✏✒✏☛❢✚
aluminium,
❢✡✒✓✡✒✌☞✌
manganese ✔❡✏❞✌☞✜ oxides. ♠✎✡✒✑Plant ✗✔✔✑☞ roots ✌❡✌✗✑exert ✡ a ❝✔✍✍✌✗
copper ✌✑❝✜✚ ✘✙✏❝✙ ✡✗✌
etc., which are ✔✕of ✓✗✌✡✑
great ✏❢✍✔✗✑✡✒❝✌
importance ✕✔✗ for
✑✗✌❢✌✒❞✔☛☞
tremendous ✍✗✌☞☞☛✗✌
pressure ✔✒ on ✑✙✌ earth ❢✡✑✌✗✏✡✎☞
the ✌✡✗✑✙ materials ✑✙✌
the ✒✡✑✏✔✒✡✎
national ✌❝✔✒✔❢✛✜ ✤✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✏☞
economy. Weathering is ✡✒an
❢✌❝✙✡✒✏❝✡✎✎✛
mechanically ♥✗✌✡r✏✒✓
breaking ✑✙✌❢them ✡✍✡✗✑✜
apart. ✏❢✍✔✗✑✡✒✑
important ✍✗✔❝✌☞☞
process ✏✒ in ✑✙✌
the ✕✔✗❢✡✑✏✔✒
formation ✔✕ of ☞✔✏✎☞✜
soils.

✴✥❖❊
Some ✴P❊★■✩✦
SPECIAL ✵❋❋❊★❈✶
EFFECTS ✥❋ ✮❊✩❈✯❊✰■❆✧
OF WEATHERING ❲✼✽✾ ✿❀❁❂❃
When rocks ❄✾❅✽✿❍❀ ❏✽❑▲✼✽✿▼✾❍◆ ❃❀◗✽
undergo weathering, some
◗❑▲✽✿▼❑❘❃
materials ❑✿✽
are ✿✽◗❀❚✽❅
removed ▲✼✿❀❄❍✼
through ❁✼✽◗▼❁❑❘
chemical
✢✙✏☞ ✙✡☞
This already ♥✌✌✒
has ✡✎✗✌✡❞✛ been ✌❡✍✎✡✏✒✌❞
explained ☛✒❞✌✗under ❀✿
or ♦✼❯❃▼❁❑❘
physical ❘✽❑❁✼▼✾❍ ❱❯ ❍✿❀❄✾❅❏❑▲✽✿
leaching by groundwater ❑✾❅
and
✍✙✛☞✏❝✡✎ ✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓ ✍✗✔❝✌☞☞✌☞
physical weathering processes ✔✕ of ☛✒✎✔✡❞✏✒✓✚
unloading, ▲✼✽✿✽❱❯
thereby ▲✼✽
the ❁❀✾❁✽✾▲✿❑▲▼❀✾
concentration ❀tof ✿✽◗❑▼✾▼✾❍
remaining
✑✙✌✗❢✡✎
thermal ❝✔✒✑✗✡❝✑✏✔✒
contraction ✡✒❞and ✌❡✍✡✒☞✏✔✒
expansion ✡✒❞ and ☞✡✎✑
salt ❳❚❑❘❄❑❱❘✽❨
(valuable) ◗❑▲✽✿▼❑❘❃
materials ▼✾❁✿✽❑❃✽❃❩
increases. ❲▼▲✼❀❄▲
Without
✇❡✕✔✎✏✡✑✏✔✒
weathering. Exfoliation is a result but not ✡
✘✌✡✑✙✌✗✏✒✓✜ ✏☞ ✡ ✗✌☞☛✎✑ ♥☛✑ ✒✔✑ a ❃❄❁✼
such ❑ ❏✽❑▲✼✽✿▼✾❍ ▲❑❂▼✾❍
a weathering taking ♦❘❑❁✽◆
place, ▲✼✽
the
process. ♣✎✡r✏✒✓
✍✗✔❝✌☞☞✜ Flaking ✔✕✕ of ❢✔✗✌
off ✔✕ more ✔✗or ✎✌☞☞
less ❝☛✗✖✌❞
curved ❁❀✾❁✽✾▲✿❑▲▼❀✾
concentration ❀t of ▲✼✽
the ❃❑◗✽ ❚❑❘❄❑❱❘✽
same valuable
☞✙✌✌✑☞
sheets ✔✕of ☞✙✌✎✎☞
shells ✕✗✔❢
from ✔✖✌✗over ✗✔❝r☞
rocks ✔✗or ♥✌❞✗✔❝r
bedrock ◗❑▲✽✿▼❑❘
material ◗❑❯may ✾❀▲not be ❱✽ ❃❄tt▼❁▼✽✾▲
sufficient ❑✾❅
and
✗✌☞☛✎✑☞
results ✏✒ in ☞❢✔✔✑✙
smooth ✡✒❞ and ✗✔☛✒❞✌❞
rounded ☞☛✗✕✡❝✌☞
surfaces ✽❁❀✾❀◗▼❁❑❘❘❯ ❚▼❑❱❘✽ ▲❀
economically viable to ✽❬♦❘❀▼▲◆
exploit, ♦✿❀❁✽❃❃
process ❑✾❅
and
✷♣✏✓☛✗✌
(Figure ✸✜✹✻✜
6.4). ✇❡✕✔✎✏✡✑✏✔✒
Exfoliation ❝✡✒
can ✔❝❝☛✗
occur ❞☛✌
due ✑✔
to ✿✽t▼✾✽❩ ❭✼▼❃ ▼❃ ❏✼❑▲ ▼❃ ❁❑❘❘✽❅ ✽✾✿▼❁✼◗✽✾▲❩
refine. This is what is called enrichment.
✌❡✍✡✒☞✏✔✒
expansion ✡✒❞and ❝✔✒✑✗✡❝✑✏✔✒ induced ♥✛
contraction ✏✒❞☛❝✌❞ by
✺✑
52 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

▼❍■■
Mass ▼❖❏❑▲❑◆P■
MoveMENTS t✒✓
the t✒✔✓✓
three ✕✖✔✗✘
forms ✖✕
of ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘✛
movements. ✜✢✣✤✔✓
Figure ✥✛✦
6.5 ✘✒✖✧✘
shows
t✒✓ relationships ✩✗✖✚✣
the ✔✓★✩t✢✖✚✘✒✢✪✘ among ✫✢✕✕✓✔✓✚t
different t✬✪✓✘
types ✖✕
of ✗✩✘✘
mass
❚✒✓✘✓ ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘
These movements t✔✩✚✘✕✓✔ transfer t✒✓ the ✗✩✘✘
mass ✖✕ of ✔✖◗❘
rock
✫✓❞✔✢✘ ✫✖✧✚ ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘♠
movements, t✒✓✢✔
their ✔✓★✩t✢✙✓
relative ✔✩t✓✘
rates ✖✕of ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t
movement
debris down t✒✓ the ✘★✖✪✓✘
slopes ✤✚✫✓✔ under t✒✓ the ✫✢✔✓◗t
direct
✩✚✫ moisture ★✢✗✢t✘✛
and ✗✖✢✘t✤✔✓ limits.
✢✚✕★✤✓✚◗✓
influence ✖✕ of ✣✔✩✙✢t✬✛
gravity. That ❚✒✩t ✗✓✩✚✘♠
means, ✩✢✔♠ ✧✩t✓✔ ✖✔
air, water or
ice ✫✖
✢◗✓ not ◗✩✔✔✬
do ✚✖t carry ✫✓❞✔✢✘
debris with✧✢t✒ t✒✓✗ them ✕✔✖✗ from ✪★✩◗✓ place t✖ to FLOW
✪★✩◗✓
place but ❞✤t ✖✚ on t✒✓the ✖t✒✓✔
other ✒✩✚✫ hand t✒✓ the ✫✓❞✔✢✘
debris ✗✩✬ may wet -
◗✩✔✔✬ ✧✢t✒ ✢t
carry with it ✩✢✔♠ ✧✩t✓✔ ✖✔
air, water or ✢◗✓✛ ❚✒✓ ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘
ice. The movements ‘ fast
mudflow,
.
✖✕
of mass may range from slow t✖
✗✩✘✘ ✗✩✬ ✔✩✚✣✓ ✕✔✖✗ ✘★✖✧ to ✔✩✪✢✫♠
rapid, \ /
✩✕✕✓◗t✢✚✣
affecting ✘✒✩★★✖✧
shallow t✖ to ✫✓✓✪
deep ◗✖★✤✗✚✘
columns ✖✕ of ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘
materials ca rt hflows,
✩✚✫ include ◗✔✓✓✪♠
and ✢✚◗★✤✫✓ creep, ✕★✖✧♠ slide ✩✚✫
flow, ✘★✢✫✓ fall. ❙✔✩✙✢t✬
and ✕✩★★✛ Gravity
~
/ solifluction
✓❡✓✔t✘
exerts ✢t✘ its ✕✖✔◗✓
force ✖✚ on ✩★★
all ✗✩tt✓✔♠
matter, both ❞✖t✒ bedrock
❞✓✫✔✖◗❘ ✩✚✫ and
the ✪✔✖✫✤◗t✘
t✒✓ products ✖✕ ✧✓✩t✒✓✔✢✚✣✛ ❯✖♠
of weathering. ✧✓✩t✒✓✔✢✚✣ ✢✘
So, weathering is
not ✩
✚✖t a ✪✔✓♥✔✓❱✤✢✘✢t✓
pre-requisite ✕✖✔ for ✗✩✘✘
mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t
movement t✒✖✤✣✒ though
it ✩✢✫✘
✢t aids ✗✩✘✘ movements. ✐✩✘✘
mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘✛ movements ✩✔✓
Mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘ are landslide~_/ /™/
✙✓✔✬ ✩◗t✢✙✓
active ✖✙✓✔ ✧✓✩t✒✓✔✓✫ ✘★✖✪✓✘ slopes ✔✩t✒✓✔rather t✒✩✚
ay HA L£/ (SAW
very over weathered than
✖✙✓✔
over ✤✚✧✓✩t✒✓✔✓✫
unweathered ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘✛ materials.
✐✩✘✘ movements ✩✔✓
Mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘ are ✩✢✫✓✫
aided by ❞✬ ✣✔✩✙✢t✬
gravity ✩✚✫ and rockslide
d J
talus creep —
é A d
soil creep
‘ i

✚✖ geomorphic ✩✣✓✚t
no ✣✓✖✗✖✔✪✒✢◗ agent ★✢❘✓ like ✔✤✚✚✢✚✣
running water, ✧✩t✓✔♠ SLIDE | : HEAVE
✣★✩◗✢✓✔✘♠
glaciers, wind,✧✢✚✫♠ waves✧✩✙✓✘ ✩✚✫ and ◗✤✔✔✓✚t✘
currents ✪✩✔t✢◗✢✪✩t✓
participate
✢✚
in t✒✓ ✪✔✖◗✓✘✘
the process ✖✕ of ✗✩✘✘
mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘✛
movements. That ❚✒✩t ✗✓✩✚✘means ✭✮✯✰✱✲
Figure ✳✴✵
6.5 ✶: ✷✲✸✹✻✮✼✽✾✿✮❀✾
Relationships ✹❁✼✽✯
among ❂✮❃❃✲✱✲✽✻
different ✻❄❀✲✾
types ✼❃
of
❁✹✾✾
mass ❁✼❅✲❁✲✽✻✾❆
movements, ✻✿✲✮✱their ✱✲✸✹✻✮❅✲
relative ✱✹✻✲✾
rates ✼❃
of ❁✼❅✲❁✲✽✻
movement
✗✩✘✘ movements ✫✖
mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘ do ✚✖tnot ◗✖✗✓come ✤✚✫✓✔under ✓✔✖✘✢✖✚ erosion ✹✽❂
and ❁✼✮✾✻✰✱✲ ✸✮❁✮✻✾ ❛✹❃✻✲✱
moisture limits ❇✿✮✻✲✿✲✹❂❆ ❈❉❉❊●
(after Whitehead, 2001)
t✒✖✤✣✒
though t✒✓✔✓ there ✢✘ is ✩ shift ❲✩✢✫✓✫
a ✘✒✢✕t (aided by ❞✬ ✣✔✩✙✢t✬❳
gravity) ✖✕ of
✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘
materials ✕✔✖✗ from ✖✚✓ one ✪★✩◗✓
place t✖ to ✩✚✖t✒✓✔✛
another. ✐✩t✓✔✢✩★✘
Materials ✐✩✘✘ movements ◗✩✚
Mass ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘ can ❞✓be ✣✔✖✤✪✓✫
grouped ✤✚✫✓✔
under
✖✙✓✔
over t✒✓the ✘★✖✪✓✘
slopes ✒✩✙✓ have t✒✓✢✔their ✖✧✚ own ✔✓✘✢✘t✩✚◗✓
resistance t✖ to t✒✔✓✓ ✗✩❤✖✔ ◗★✩✘✘✓✘❩ ❲✢❳
three major classes: (i) slow ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘♦
✘★✖✧ movements;
✫✢✘t✤✔❞✢✚✣ ✕✖✔◗✓✘ ✩✚✫ ✧✢★★ ✬✢✓★✫
disturbing forces and will yield only when force ✖✚★✬ ✧✒✓✚ ✕✖✔◗✓ ❲✢✢❳
(ii) ✔✩✪✢✫ movements; ❲✢✢✢❳
rapid ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘♦ (iii) ★✩✚✫✘★✢✫✓✘✛
landslides.
✢✘
is ✣✔✓✩t✓✔
greater t✒✩✚ than t✒✓ the ✘✒✓✩✔✢✚✣
shearing ✔✓✘✢✘t✩✚◗✓
resistance ✖✕ of t✒✓
the
✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘✛
materials. Weak ❨✓✩❘ ✤✚◗✖✚✘✖★✢✫✩t✓✫
unconsolidated ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘♠ materials,
❥❦❧♣
Slow q❧r✉✈✉✇①②
Movements
thinly ❞✓✫✫✓✫
t✒✢✚★✬ bedded ✔✖◗❘✘♠ rocks, ✕✩✤★t✘♠ steeply ✫✢✪✪✢✚✣
faults, ✘t✓✓✪★✬ dipping ③④❭❭⑤
Creep ✢✘ is ✖✚✓
one t✬✪✓
type ✤✚✫✓✔
under t✒✢✘ this ◗✩t✓✣✖✔✬
category which✧✒✢◗✒
❞✓✫✘♠ ✙✓✔t✢◗✩★ ◗★✢✕✕✘
beds, vertical cliffs ✖✔ or ✘t✓✓✪ slopes, ✩❞✤✚✫✩✚t
steep ✘★✖✪✓✘♠ abundant ◗✩✚
can ✖◗◗✤✔
occur ✖✚ on ✗✖✫✓✔✩t✓★✬
moderately ✘t✓✓✪♠ steep, ✘✖✢★ soil ◗✖✙✓✔✓✫
covered
✪✔✓◗✢✪✢t✩t✢✖✚
precipitation ✩✚✫ and t✖✔✔✓✚t✢✩★
torrential ✔✩✢✚✘ rains ✩✚✫ and ✘◗✩✔◗✢t✬
scarcity slopes. ✐✖✙✓✗✓✚t
✘★✖✪✓✘✛ Movement ✖✕ of ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘
materials ✢✘ is ✓❡t✔✓✗✓★✬
extremely
✖✕ ✙✓✣✓t✩t✢✖✚ ✓t◗✛♠ ✕✩✙✖✤✔
of vegetation etc., favour mass movements. ✗✩✘✘ ✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘✛ slow ✩✚✫
✘★✖✧ and ✢✗✪✓✔◗✓✪t✢❞★✓
imperceptible ✓❡◗✓✪t except t✒✔✖✤✣✒through
❯✓✙✓✔✩★
Several ✩◗t✢✙✩t✢✚✣
activating ◗✩✤✘✓✘ causes ✪✔✓◗✓✫✓ precede ✗✩✘✘ mass ✓❡t✓✚✫✓✫ observation. ✐✩t✓✔✢✩★✘
extended ✖❞✘✓✔✙✩t✢✖✚✛ involved ◗✩✚
Materials ✢✚✙✖★✙✓✫ can
✗✖✙✓✗✓✚t✘✛
movements. They ❚✒✓✬ ✩✔✓ are ❩: ❲✢❳(i) ✔✓✗✖✙✩★
removal ✖✕ of ✘✤✪✪✖✔t
support ❞✓
be ✘✖✢★
soil ✖✔ rock ✫✓❞✔✢✘✛
or ✔✖◗❘ debris. ⑥✩✙✓Have ✬✖✤you ✓✙✓✔
ever ✘✓✓✚
seen ✕✓✚◗✓
fence
from ❞✓★✖✧
✕✔✖✗ below t✖ materials ✩❞✖✙✓
to ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘ above t✒✔✖✤✣✒
through ✚✩t✤✔✩★ natural ✪✖✘t✘♠ telephone ✪✖★✓✘
posts, t✓★✓✪✒✖✚✓ poles ★✓✩✚lean ✫✖✧✚✘★✖✪✓
downslope ✕✔✖✗ from
or ✩✔t✢✕✢◗✢✩★
✖✔ means; ❲✢✢❳
artificial ✗✓✩✚✘♦ (ii) ✢✚◗✔✓✩✘✓
increase ✢✚ gradient ✩✚✫
in ✣✔✩✫✢✓✚t and t✒✓✢✔ ✙✓✔t✢◗✩★ ✪✖✘✢t✢✖✚
their vertical position ✩✚✫ and ✢✚ their ★✢✚✓✩✔
in t✒✓✢✔ linear
✒✓✢✣✒t
height ✖✕ slopes; ❲✢✢✢❳
of ✘★✖✪✓✘♦ (iii) ✖✙✓✔★✖✩✫✢✚✣
overloading t✒✔✖✤✣✒ through ✩★✢✣✚✗✓✚t⑦
alignment? ⑧✕ ✬✖✤ ✒✩✙✓♠
Ifyou have, t✒✩t
that ✢✘is ✫✤✓
due t✖ the ◗✔✓✓✪
to t✒✓ creep
✩✫✫✢t✢✖✚
addition ✖✕ of ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘
materials ✚✩t✤✔✩★★✬naturally ✖✔ or ❞✬by ✩✔t✢✕✢◗✢✩★
artificial
✓✕✕✓◗t✛
effect. ⑨✓✪✓✚✫✢✚✣
Depending ✤✪✖✚ upon t✒✓ the t✬✪✓type ✖✕ of ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★
material
✢✚✙✖★✙✓✫♠
involved, ✘✓✙✓✔✩★
several t✬✪✓✘
types ✖✕ of ◗✔✓✓✪ soil ◗✔✓✓✪♠
✙✢⑩✛♠ ✘✖✢★
creep viz., creep,
filling; ❲✢✙❳
✕✢★★✢✚✣♦ overloading ✫✤✓
(iv) ✖✙✓✔★✖✩✫✢✚✣ due t✖ to ✒✓✩✙✬
heavy ✔✩✢✚✕✩★★♠
rainfall,
talus ◗✔✓✓✪♠
t✩★✤✘ rock ◗✔✓✓✪♠
creep, ✔✖◗❘ rock-glacier ◗✔✓✓✪
creep, ✔✖◗❘♥✣★✩◗✢✓✔ creep ✓t◗✛♠
etc.,
saturation ✩✚✫
✘✩t✤✔✩t✢✖✚ and ★✤❞✔✢◗✩t✢✖✚
lubrication ✖✕ of ✘★✖✪✓
slope ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★✘♦
materials;
◗✩✚
can ❞✓be ✢✫✓✚t✢✕✢✓✫✛
identified. Also❶★✘✖ ✢✚◗★✤✫✓✫
included ✢✚ in t✒✢✘
this ✣✔✖✤✪
group
❲✙❳
(v) ✔✓✗✖✙✩★
removal ✖✕ of ✗✩t✓✔✢✩★
material ✖✔ or ★✖✩✫
load ✕✔✖✗from ✖✙✓✔ over t✒✓ the
✢✘
is s❵❴❝❢❴❷❸❹❝❵❺ ✧✒✢◗✒ ✢✚✙✖★✙✓✘
solifluction which involves ✘★✖✧ slow ✫✖✧✚✘★✖✪✓
downslope
✖✔✢✣✢✚✩★
original ✘★✖✪✓ surfaces; ❲✙✢❳
slope ✘✤✔✕✩◗✓✘♦ (vi) ✖◗◗✤✔✔✓✚◗✓
occurrence ✖✕ of ✕★✖✧✢✚✣
flowing ✘✖✢★soil ✗✩✘✘
mass ✖✔ or ✕✢✚✓
fine ✣✔✩✢✚✓✫
grained ✔✖◗❘ rock ✫✓❞✔✢✘
debris
✓✩✔t✒❱✤✩❘✓✘♠
earthquakes, ✓❡✪★✖✘✢✖✚✘ explosions ✖✔ or ✗✩◗✒✢✚✓✔✬♦
machinery; ✘✩t✤✔✩t✓✫ ✖✔ ★✤❞✔✢◗✩t✓✫ ✧✢t✒ ✧✩t✓✔✛
saturated or lubricated with water. This process ❚✒✢✘ ✪✔✖◗✓✘✘
❲✙✢✢❳
(vii) ✓❡◗✓✘✘✢✙✓
excessive ✚✩t✤✔✩★ natural ✘✓✓✪✩✣✓♦seepage; ❲✙✢✢✢❳ (viii) ✒✓✩✙✬
heavy is ❱✤✢t✓
✢✘ quite ◗✖✗✗✖✚
common ✢✚ in ✗✖✢✘t temperate ✩✔✓✩✘
moist t✓✗✪✓✔✩t✓ areas
✫✔✩✧✫✖✧✚
drawdown ✖✕ ✧✩t✓✔ ✕✔✖✗
of water from ★✩❘✓✘♠ reservoirs ✩✚✫
lakes, ✔✓✘✓✔✙✖✢✔✘ and ✧✒✓✔✓ ✘✤✔✕✩◗✓ ✗✓★t✢✚✣ ✖✕ ✫✓✓✪★✬
where surface melting of deeply ✕✔✖⑩✓✚ frozen ✣✔✖✤✚✫
ground
rivers ★✓✩✫✢✚✣
✔✢✙✓✔✘ leading t✖ to ✘★✖✧
slow ✖✤t✕★✖✧
outflow ✖✕ ✧✩t✓✔ ✕✔✖✗
of water from ✩✚✫
and ★✖✚✣
long ◗✖✚t✢✚✤✓✫
continued ✔✩✢✚ rain ✔✓✘✪✓◗t✢✙✓★✬♠
respectively, ✖◗◗✤✔ occur
✤✚✫✓✔
under t✒✓ the ✘★✖✪✓✘
slopes ✖✔ river ❞✩✚❘✘♦
or ✔✢✙✓✔ banks; ❲✢❡❳ (ix) ✢✚✫✢✘♥
indis- frequently. When the upper ✪✖✔t✢✖✚✘
✕✔✓❱✤✓✚t★✬✛ ❨✒✓✚ t✒✓ ✤✪✪✓✔ portions ✣✓t get
◗✔✢✗✢✚✩t✓
criminate ✔✓✗✖✙✩★removal ✖✕ of ✚✩t✤✔✩★ ✙✓✣✓t✩t✢✖✚✛
natural vegetation. saturated ✩✚✫
✘✩t✤✔✩t✓✫ ✧✒✓✚ t✒✓
and when the ★✖✧✓✔
lower ✪✩✔t✘ parts ✩✔✓ are
Heave ❲✒✓✩✙✢✚✣
❬❭❪❫❭ (heaving ✤✪ up ✖✕ soils ✫✤✓
of ✘✖✢★✘ due t✖ to ✕✔✖✘t
frost ✢✗✪✓✔✙✢✖✤✘
impervious t✖ ✧✩t✓✔ ✪✓✔◗✖★✩t✢✖✚♠
to water percolation, ✕★✖✧✢✚✣flowing ✖◗◗✤✔✘
occurs
growth and other causes), flow and slide ✩✔✓
✣✔✖✧t✒ ✩✚✫ ✖t✒✓✔ ◗✩✤✘✓✘❳♠ ❢❴❵❜ ✩✚✫ s❴❝❣❭ are ✢✚
in t✒✓ upper ✪✩✔t✘✛
the ✤✪✪✓✔ parts.
● ✁✂✁✄☎✆✝✞ ☎✄✁✞
GEOMORPHIC ✟✟ ✟
PROCESSES ✺✠
53

❘✡☛☞✌
Rapid ✍✎✏✑✒✑✓✔✕
Movements ✩★✘✪✚✜✢★✜❤★✢★✗✘
discontinuities ★✜ in ✢✖✗
the ✤✚✪✯✹
rock, ✢✖✗the ✩✗✫✤✗✗
degree ✚✭ of
✮✗✣✢✖✗✤★✜✫ ✣✜✩
weathering and ✢✖✗
the ✘✢✗✗✧✜✗✘✘
steepness ✚✭ of ✢✖✗
the ✘✥✚✧✗t
slope.
❚✖✗✘✗ ✙✚✛✗✙✗✜✢✘
These movements ✣✤✗ are ✙✚✘✢✥✦
mostly ✧✤✗✛✣✥✗✜✢
prevalent ★✜ in ❁✗✧✗✜✩★✜✫
Depending ❤✧✚✜ upon ✢✖✗ the ✢✦✧✗
type ✚✭ of ✙✚✛✗✙✗✜✢
movement ✚✭ of
✖❤✙★✩
humid climatic regions and occur ✚✛✗✤
✪✥★✙✣✢★✪ ✤✗✫★✚✜✘ ✣✜✩ ✚✪✪❤✤ over ✫✗✜✢✥✗
gentle ✙✣✢✗✤★✣✥✘
materials ✘✗✛✗✤✣✥
several ✢✦✧✗✘
types ✣✤✗are ★✩✗✜✢★✭★✗✩
identified ★✜ in ✢✖★✘
this
✢✚
to ✘✢✗✗✧
steep ✘✥✚✧✗✘t
slopes. ✬✚✛✗✙✗✜✢
Movement ✚✭ ✮✣✢✗✤✲✘✣✢❤✤✣✢✗✩
of water-saturated ✪✣✢✗✫✚✤✦t
category.
✪✥✣✦✗✦
clayey ✚✤ or ✘★✥✢✦
silty ✗✣✤✢✖
earth ✙✣✢✗✤★✣✥✘
materials ✩✚✮✜ down ✥✚✮✲✣✜✫✥✗
low-angle ❢✶✼♠❣
Slump ★✘is ✘✥★✧✧★✜✫
slipping ✚✭ of ✚✜✗
one ✚✤or ✘✗✛✗✤✣✥
several ❤✜★✢✘
units ✚✭
of
✢✗✤✤✣✪✗✘
terraces ✚✤ or ✖★✥✥✘★✩✗✘
hillsides ★✘ is ✯✜✚✮✜
known ✣✘ as ❡✰✱✳✴✵✶✷✸t
earthflow. ✤✚✪✯
rock ✩✗✻✤★✘ ✮★✢✖ ✣a ✻✣✪✯✮✣✤✩
debris with backward ✤✚✢✣✢★✚✜ ✮★✢✖
rotation with
◗❤★✢✗
Quite ✚✭✢✗✜✹
often, ✢✖✗the ✙✣✢✗✤★✣✥✘
materials ✘✥❤✙✧ slump ✙✣✯★✜✫
making ✘✢✗✧✲step- ✤✗✘✧✗✪✢
respect ✢✚
to ✢✖✗
the ✘✥✚✧✗
slope ✚✛✗✤ ✮✖★✪✖ ✢✖✗
over which the ✙✚✛✗✙✗✜✢
movement
✥★✯✗
like ✢✗✤✤✣✪✗✘
terraces ✣✜✩ and ✥✗✣✛★✜✫
leaving ✣✤✪❤✣✢✗
arcuate ✘✪✣✤✧✘
scarps ✣✢ at ✢✖✗★✤
their ✢✣✯✗✘
takes ✧✥✣✪✗
place ✐❥★✫❤✤✗
(Figure ❦t❦❧t
6.6). ♥✣✧★✩
Rapid ✤✚✥✥★✜✫
rolling ✚✤
or ✘✥★✩★✜✫
sliding
✖✗✣✩✘
heads and an accumulation bulge at the ✢✚✗t
✣✜✩ ✣✜ ✣✪✪❤✙❤✥✣✢★✚✜ ✻❤✥✫✗ ✣✢ ✢✖✗ toe.
❲✖✗✜ ✘✥✚✧✗✘
When slopes ✣✤✗ are ✘✢✗✗✧✗✤✹
steeper, ✗✛✗✜ even ✢✖✗ the ✻✗✩✤✚✪✯
bedrock
✗✘✧✗✪★✣✥✥✦
especially ✚✭ of ✘✚✭✢
soft ✘✗✩★✙✗✜✢✣✤✦
sedimentary ✤✚✪✯✘ rocks ✥★✯✗like ✘✖✣✥✗
shale ' wee, Initial position of slope
——T
✚✤
or ✩✗✗✧✥✦ ✮✗✣✢✖✗✤✗✩ ★✫✜✗✚❤✘
deeply weathered igneous ✤✚✪✯ rock ✙✣✦ may ✘✥★✩✗slide
\ ' Slump body showing
✩✚✮✜✘✥✚✧✗t
downslope.
—! backward rotation of
❆✜✚✢✖✗✤ ✢✦✧✗
Another type ★✜ in ✢✖★✘
this ✪✣✢✗✫✚✤✦
category ★✘ is ♠✼✽✵✶✷✸t
mudflow.
a | materials
■✜
In ✢✖✗
the ✣✻✘✗✜✪✗
absence ✚✭ ✛✗✫✗✢✣✢★✚✜ ✪✚✛✗✤
of vegetation cover ✣✜✩ ✮★✢✖
and with
✖✗✣✛✦ ✤✣★✜✭✣✥✥✹ ✢✖★✪✯ ✥✣✦✗✤✘
heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered ✚✭ ✮✗✣✢✖✗✤✗✩
✙✣✢✗✤★✣✥✘
materials ✫✗✢ get ✘✣✢❤✤✣✢✗✩
saturated with ✮★✢✖ water
✮✣✢✗✤ ✣✜✩ and ✗★✢✖✗✤
either —
✘✥✚✮✥✦
slowly ✚✤ or ✤✣✧★✩✥✦
rapidly ✭✥✚✮ flow ✩✚✮✜down ✣✥✚✜✫ along ✩✗✭★✜★✢✗
definite
✪✖✣✜✜✗✥✘t
channels. ■✢ It ✥✚✚✯✘
looks ✥★✯✗like ✣ a ✘✢✤✗✣✙
stream ✚✭ of ✙❤✩ ✮★✢✖★✜
mud within
✣a valley.
✛✣✥✥✗✦t When❲✖✗✜ ✢✖✗ the ✙❤✩✭✥✚✮✘
mudflows ✗✙✗✤✫✗ emerge ✚❤✢ out ✚✭ of
✪✖✣✜✜✗✥✘ ①②③④⑤⑥
Figure ⑦⑧⑦
6.6 ⑨: ⑩❶④❷❸②❹③
Slumping ❺❻
of ❼⑥❽⑤②❾
debris ❿②➀➁ ❽➂➃➄❿➂⑤❼ ⑤❺➀➂➀②❺❹
with backward rotation
channels ✚✜✢✚ onto ✢✖✗ the ✧★✗✩✙✚✜✢
piedmont ✚✤ or ✧✥✣★✜✘✹
plains, ✢✖✗✦they ✪✣✜
can
✻✗ ✛✗✤✦ ✩✗✘✢✤❤✪✢★✛✗
be very destructive ✗✜✫❤✥✭★✜✫engulfing ✤✚✣✩✘✹ roads, ✻✤★✩✫✗✘
bridges ✚✭
of ✗✣✤✢✖
earth ✩✗✻✤★✘ ✮★✢✖✚❤✢ ✻✣✪✯✮✣✤✩
debris without backward ✤✚✢✣✢★✚✜
rotation ✚✭ of
✣✜✩
and houses. Mudflows occur frequently ✚✜
✖✚❤✘✗✘t ✬❤✩✭✥✚✮✘ ✚✪✪❤✤ ✭✤✗❛❤✗✜✢✥✦ on ✢✖✗
the ✙✣✘✘
mass ★✘ is ✯✜✚✮✜
known ✣✘ as ✽❡♦✱♣q
debris q✶♣✽❡t
slide. ❁✗✻✤★✘
Debris ✭✣✥✥fall ★✘
is
✘✥✚✧✗✘
slopes ✚✭ of ✗✤❤✧✢★✜✫
erupting ✚✤ or ✤✗✪✗✜✢✥✦
recently ✗✤❤✧✢✗✩ ✛✚✥✪✣✜✚✗✘t
erupted volcanoes.
✜✗✣✤✥✦
nearly a ✣ ✭✤✗✗
free ✭✣✥✥
fall ✚✭
of ✗✣✤✢✖
earth ✩✗✻✤★✘
debris ✭✤✚✙
from ✣ ✛✗✤✢★✪✣✥
a vertical
❱✚✥✪✣✜★✪ ✣✘✖✹
Volcanic ash, ✩❤✘✢ dust ✣✜✩and ✚✢✖✗✤other ✭✤✣✫✙✗✜✢✘
fragments ✢❤✤✜ turn ✚✤
or ✚✛✗✤✖✣✜✫★✜✫
overhanging ✭✣✪✗t face. r✥★✩★✜✫
Sliding ✚✭of ★✜✩★✛★✩❤✣✥
individual ✤✚✪✯ rock
★✜✢✚
into ✙❤✩mud ✩❤✗due ✢✚ to ✖✗✣✛✦
heavy ✤✣★✜✘rains ✣✜✩and ✭✥✚✮flow ✩✚✮✜
down ✣✘ as
✙✣✘✘✗✘
masses ✩✚✮✜down ✻✗✩✩★✜✫✹
bedding, joints✚★✜✢ ✚✤
or ✭✣❤✥✢
fault ✘❤✤✭✣✪✗✘
surfaces
✢✚✜✫❤✗✘
tongues ✚✤ or ✘✢✤✗✣✙✘
streams ✚✭ of ✙❤✩mud ✪✣❤✘★✜✫
causing ✫✤✗✣✢ great ★✘
is ✱✷❀✉q✶♣✽❡t
rockslide. ✈✛✗✤
Over ✘✢✗✗✧
steep ✘✥✚✧✗✘✹
slopes, ✤✚✪✯
rock ✘✥★✩★✜✫
sliding ★✘ is
✩✗✘✢✤❤✪✢★✚✜
destruction ✢✚ to ✖❤✙✣✜
human ✖✣✻★✢✣✢★✚✜✘t
habitations.
✛✗✤✦ ✭✣✘✢
very fast ✣✜✩
and ✩✗✘✢✤❤✪✢★✛✗t
destructive. ❥★✫❤✤✗
Figure ❦t✇ 6.7 ✘✖✚✮✘
shows
A third type is the debris ✰✾✰✶✰✿❀✴❡✹
❆ ✢✖★✤✩ ✢✦✧✗ ★✘ ✢✖✗ ✩✗✻✤★✘ avalanche, which ✮✖★✪✖ ✥✣✜✩✘✥★✩✗
landslide ✘✪✣✤✘
scars ✚✛✗✤
over ✘✢✗✗✧
steep ✘✥✚✧✗✘t
slopes. r✥★✩✗✘
Slides ✚✪✪❤✤
occur
★✘ ✙✚✤✗ ✪✖✣✤✣✪✢✗✤★✘✢★✪ ✚✭ ✖❤✙★✩
is more characteristic of humid regions with ✤✗✫★✚✜✘ ✮★✢✖ ✣✘
as ✧✥✣✜✣✤
planar ✭✣★✥❤✤✗✘
failures ✣✥✚✜✫
along ✩★✘✪✚✜✢★✜❤★✢★✗✘
discontinuities ✥★✯✗ like
✚✤ ✮★✢✖✚❤✢ vegetation
or without ✛✗✫✗✢✣✢★✚✜ ✪✚✛✗✤ cover ✣✜✩ and ✚✪✪❤✤✘
occurs ★✜ in ✻✗✩✩★✜✫
bedding ✧✥✣✜✗✘
planes ✢✖✣✢that ✩★✧
dip ✘✢✗✗✧✥✦t
steeply. ♥✚✪✯
Rock ✭✣✥✥fall ★✘
is
✜✣✤✤✚✮
narrow ✢✤✣✪✯✘tracks ✚✜ on ✘✢✗✗✧
steep ✘✥✚✧✗✘t
slopes. This❚✖★✘ ✩✗✻✤★✘
debris
✭✤✗✗
free ✭✣✥✥★✜✫
falling ✚✭
of ✤✚✪✯
rock ✻✥✚✪✯✘
blocks ✚✛✗✤
over ✣✜✦
any ✘✢✗✗✧
steep ✘✥✚✧✗
slope
✣✛✣✥✣✜✪✖✗
avalanche ✪✣✜ can ✻✗ be ✙❤✪✖
much ✭✣✘✢✗✤ faster ✢✖✣✜ than ✢✖✗ the ✯✗✗✧★✜✫
keeping ★✢✘✗✥✭
itself ✣✮✣✦
away ✭✤✚✙from ✢✖✗
the ✘✥✚✧✗t
slope. ♥✚✪✯
Rock ✭✣✥✥✘
falls
✙❤✩✭✥✚✮t
mudflow. ❁✗✻✤★✘ Debris ✣✛✣✥✣✜✪✖✗
avalanche ★✘ is ✘★✙★✥✣✤
similar ✢✚ to ✘✜✚✮
snow
✚✪✪❤✤
occur ✭✤✚✙
from ✢✖✗
the ✘❤✧✗✤✭★✪★✣✥
superficial ✥✣✦✗✤✘
layers ✚✭ of ✢✖✗
the ✤✚✪✯
rock
✣✛✣✥✣✜✪✖✗t
avalanche.

❂❃ ❄❃❅❇❈ ❉❊❋❃❍❏❑❃❈
In Andes mountains ❊▲ of ▼❊❋❍◆ ❄❉❇❖❑P❏
South America
❏❃❅
and ❍◆❇ Rockies ❉❊❋❃❍❏❑❃❈
the ❙❊P❯❑❇❈ mountains ❊▲ of ❳❊❖❍◆
North
❄❉❇❖❑P❏❨ ❍◆❇❖❇
America, there ❏❖❇
are ❏
a ▲❇❩ ❬❊❭P❏❃❊❇❈ which
few volcanoes ❩◆❑P◆
❇❖❋❪❍❇❅
erupted ❅❋❖❑❃❫
during ❍◆❇ last ❅❇P❏❅❇
the ❭❏❈❍ decade ❏❃❅ ❬❇❖❴
and very
❅❇❬❏❈❍❏❍❑❃❫
devastating ❉❋❅▲❭❊❩❈
mudflows ❊PP❋❖❖❇❅
occurred ❅❊❩❃
down
❍◆❇❑❖
their ❈❭❊❪❇❈
slopes ❅❋❖❑❃❫
during ❇❖❋❪❍❑❊❃
eruption ❏❈ ❩❇❭❭ ❏❈
as well as
❏▲❍❇❖
after ❇❖❋❪❍❑❊❃❵
eruption.

❜✡✓✌✕❝☞✌✑✕
Landslides
❚✖✗✘✗ ✣✤✗
These are ✯✜✚✮✜
known ✣✘ as ✤✗✥✣✢★✛✗✥✦
relatively ✤✣✧★✩
rapid ✣✜✩
and , ii . ae i vif “J
✧✗✤✪✗✧✢★✻✥✗
perceptible ✙✚✛✗✙✗✜✢✘t ❚✖✗ ✙✣✢✗✤★✣✥✘
movements. The materials ★✜✛✚✥✛✗✩
involved ae J F 4 “S
✣✤✗
are ✤✗✥✣✢★✛✗✥✦
relatively ✩✤✦t ❚✖✗ ✘★❞✗
dry. The size ✣✜✩
and ✘✖✣✧✗
shape ✚✭of ✢✖✗
the ①②③④⑤⑥
Figure ⑦⑧➅⑨
6.7 : ➆➂❹❼❾❶②❼⑥
Landslide ❾➃➂⑤❾
scars ②❹
in ⑩➁②❿➂❶②➄
Shiwalik ➇②❷➂❶➂➈➂❹⑤➂❹③⑥❾
Himalayan ranges
✩✗✢✣✪✖✗✩
detached ✙✣✘✘
mass ✩✗✧✗✜✩✘
depends ✚✜on ✢✖✗
the ✜✣✢❤✤✗
nature ✚✭ of ❹⑥➂⑤
near ⑤②➉⑥⑤
river ⑩➂⑤➂❼➂
Sarada ➂➀at ➊❹❼②➂➋➌⑥❸➂❶ ❽❺⑤❼⑥⑤➍ ➎➀➀➂⑤
India-Nepal border, Uttar ➏⑤➂❼⑥❾➁
Pradesh
✺✑
54 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❢✒✓✔✕
face, ✒✖
an ✗✓✓✘✙✙✔✖✓✔
occurrence ✚✛✒✚
that ✜✢✣✚✢✖✤✘✢✣✛✔✣
distinguishes ✢✚
it ❢✙✗✥
from ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✢✚
it ✢✣
is ✖✗✚
not ✒a ★✙✔❡✓✗✖✜✢✚✢✗✖
pre-condition ❢✗✙ for ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✚✗to
✙✗✓r✣✦✢✜✔ ✧✛✢✓✛ ✒❢❢✔✓✚✣
rockslide which affects ✥✒✚✔✙✢✒✦✣
materials ✘★up ✚✗ to ✒
a take ★✦✒✓✔✩
✚✒r✔ place. ❨✔✒✚✛✔✙✢✖✤✕
Weathering, ✥✒✣✣❡✧✒✣✚✢✖✤
mass-wasting ✒✖✜ and
✣✘s✣✚✒✖✚✢✒✦
substantial ✜✔★✚✛✩
depth. ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✒✙✔ degradational ★✙✗✓✔✣✣✔✣✩
are ✜✔✤✙✒✜✒✚✢✗✖✒✦ processes. ❪✚ It ✢✣
is
✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✚✛✒✚that ✢✣ is ✦✒✙✤✔✦❩
largely ✙✔✣★✗✖✣✢s✦✔
responsible ❢✗✙ for
❇✪✫✬✪✪✭
Between ✮✯✰✰
mass ✬✯✰✫✱✭✲ ✯✭✳
wasting and ✮✯✰✰
mass ✓✗✖✚✢✖✘✗✘✣
continuous ✓✛✒✖✤✔✣
changes ✚✛✒✚
that ✚✛✔
the ✔✒✙✚✛❝✣
earth’s ✣✘✙❢✒✓✔
surface ✢✣is
✮♠✴✪✮✪✭✫✰✵
movements, which✬✶✱✷✶ ✫✪✸✮
term ✳♠ ✹♠✻ ✼✪✪✽
do you feel ✱✰
is ✘✖✜✔✙✤✗✢✖✤✩ ❬✣ ✢✖✜✢✓✒✚✔✜ ✢✖
undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1, ✉✢✤✘✙✔ ❫✩❴✕
✮♠✰✫
most ✯✾✾✸♠✾✸✱✯✫✪✿ ❀✶✹✿ ❁✯✭
appropriate? Why’ Can ✰♠✽✱✼✽✻✷✫✱♠✭
solifluction denudational ★✙✗✓✔✣✣✔✣
✜✔✖✘✜✒✚✢✗✖✒✦ processes ✦✢r✔like ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✒✖✜ and
❜✪ included ✻✭✳✪✸
be ✱✭✷✽✻✳✪✳ under ✸✯✾✱✳
rapid ✼✽♠✬
flow ✮♠✴✪✮✪✭✫✰✿
movements? ✚✙✒✖✣★✗✙✚✒✚✢✗✖
transportation ✒✙✔ are ✓✗✖✚✙✗✦✦✔✜
controlled s❩by r✢✖✔✚✢✓
kinetic ✔✖✔✙✤❩✩
energy.
❀✶✹ ✱✫it ✷✯✭
Why can ❜✪ and ✷✯✭❲✫
be ✯✭✳ can’t ❜✪✿
be? ❞✛✔ ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
The erosion ✒✖✜ and ✚✙✒✖✣★✗✙✚✒✚✢✗✖
transportation ✗❢ of ✔✒✙✚✛
earth
✥✒✚✔✙✢✒✦✣
materials ✢✣ is s✙✗✘✤✛✚
brought ✒s✗✘✚
about s❩by ✧✢✖✜✕
wind, ✙✘✖✖✢✖✤
running
✧✒✚✔✙✕ glaciers, ✧✒❱✔✣
water, ✤✦✒✓✢✔✙✣✕ waves ✒✖✜ ground ✧✒✚✔✙✩
and ✤✙✗✘✖✜ water. ❵❢Of
■✭
In ♠✻✸
our ✷♠✻✭✫✸✹✵
country, ✳✪❜✸✱✰ debris ✯✴✯✽✯✭✷✶✪
avalanche ✯✭✳ and
✚✛✔✣✔ ✚✛✔ ❢✢✙✣✚ ✚✛✙✔✔ ✒✤✔✖✚✣ ✒✙✔ ✓✗✖✚✙✗✦✦✔✜
these the first three agents are controlled by s❩
✽✯✭✳✰✽✱✳✪✰
landslides ♠✷✷✻✸ occur very ✴✪✸✹ ✼✸✪❧✻✪✭✫✽✹
frequently ✱✭ in ✫✶✪
the
✓✦✢✥✒✚✢✓
climatic ✓✗✖✜✢✚✢✗✖✣✩
conditions.
❍✱✮✯✽✯✹✯✰❂
Himalayas. There ❃✶✪✸✪ ✯✸✪ many ✸✪✯✰♠✭✰
are ✮✯✭✹ reasons ✼♠✸ for
this. t✭✪✵
✫✶✱✰❂ One, ✫✶✪the ❍✱✮✯✽✯✹✯✰
Himalayas ✯✸✪ are ✫✪✷✫♠✭✱✷✯✽✽✹
tectonically
❁✯✭
Can ✹♠✻
you ✷♠✮✾✯✸✪
compare ✫✶✪ three ✷✽✱✮✯✫✱✷✯✽✽✹
the ✫✶✸✪✪ climatically
✯✷✫✱✴✪❂
active. ❃✶✪✹ ✯✸✪
They are ✮♠✰✫✽✹
mostly ✮✯✳✪ made ✻✾ up ♠✼of
✷♠✭✫✸♠✽✽✪✳
controlled ✯✲✪✭✫✰✿
agents?
sedimentary ✸♠✷❄✰
✰✪✳✱✮✪✭✫✯✸✹ rocks ✯✭✳ and ✻✭✷♠✭✰♠✽✱✳✯✫✪✳
unconsolidated
✯✭✳
and ✰✪✮✱❛✷♠✭✰♠✽✱✳✯✫✪✳
semi-consolidated ✳✪✾♠✰✱✫✰❂ deposits. ❃✶✪
The
✰✽♠✾✪✰
slopes ✯✸✪ ✴✪✸✹ ✰✫✪✪✾❂
are very steep. ❁♠✮✾✯✸✪✳
Compared ✫♠ to ✫✶✪
the ❞✛✔❩ ✙✔★✙✔✣✔✖✚
They represent ✚✛✙✔✔ three ✣✚✒✚✔✣states ✗❢ of ✥✒✚✚✔✙
matter ❣ —
❍✱✮✯✽✯✹✯✰✵
Himalayas, ✫✶✪
the ❅✱✽✲✱✸✱✰
Nilgiris ❜♠✸✳✪✸✱✭✲
bordering gaseous ❤✧✢✖✜✐✕
✤✒✣✔✗✘✣ (wind), ✦✢❳✘✢✜ liquid ❤✙✘✖✖✢✖✤
(running ✧✒✚✔✙✐ water) ✒✖✜ and
❃✯✮✱✽✭✯✳✻✵ ❚✯✸✭✯✫✯❄✯✵
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, ❚✪✸✯✽✯ Kerala ✯✭✳ and ✫✶✪the solid ❤✤✦✒✓✢✔✙✐
✣✗✦✢✜ (glacier) ✙✔✣★✔✓✚✢❱✔✦❩✩
respectively. The ❞✛✔ ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✓✒✖ can s✔be
❀✪✰✫✪✸✭ ♥✶✯✫✰
Western Ghats ✯✽♠✭✲ along ✫✶✪ ✬✪✰✫ ✷♠✯✰✫
the west coast ✯✸✪ are ✜✔❢✢✖✔✜
defined ✒✣ ❥✒★★✦✢✓✒✚✢✗✖
as “application ✗❢ of ✚✛✔ r✢✖✔✚✢✓
the kinetic ✔✖✔✙✤❩ energy
✸✪✽✯✫✱✴✪✽✹
relatively ✫✪✷✫♠✭✱✷✯✽✽✹
tectonically ✰✫✯❜✽✪ stable ✯✭✳ and ✯✸✪ are associated ✧✢✚✛
✒✣✣✗✓✢✒✚✔✜ with ✚✛✔ the ✒✤✔✖✚
agent ✚✗ to ✚✛✔
the ✣✘✙❢✒✓✔
surface ✗❢ of ✚✛✔
the
✮♠✰✫✽✹
mostly ✮✯✳✪made ✻✾ up ♠✼ ✴✪✸✹ ✶✯✸✳
of very hard ✸♠✷❄✰❆
rocks; ❜✻✫✵but, ✦✒✖✜ along ✧✛✢✓✛
land ✒✦✗✖✤ which ✢✚ moves”. ♦✢✖✔✚✢✓
it ✥✗❱✔✣❦✩ Kinetic ✔✖✔✙✤❩
energy ✢✣ is
still, debris avalanches and ✽✯✭✳✰✽✱✳✪✰
✰✫✱✽✽✵ ✳✪❜✸✱✰ ✯✴✯✽✯✭✷✶✪✰ ✯✭✳ landslides ✓✗✥★✘✚✔✜
computed ✒✣ as ♦❯
KE ♣ = q'/, mv’ ✇ ✧✛✔✙✔
✈✇ ✥❱ where ①✥❝ ‘m’ ✢✣
is ✚✛✔
the ✥✒✣✣
mass
♠✷✷✻✸
occur ✫✶♠✻✲✶
though ✭♠✫ not ✯✰ as ✼✸✪❧✻✪✭✫✽✹
frequently ✯✰ as ✱✭in ✫✶✪
the ✒✖✜
and ①❱❝‘v’ ✢✣ is ✚✛✔the ❱✔✦✗✓✢✚❩✩
velocity. ②✔✖✓✔
Hence ✚✛✔ the ✔✖✔✙✤❩
energy
❍✱✮✯✽✯✹✯✰✵
Himalayas, ✱✭ these ✶✱✽✽✰❂
in ✫✶✪✰✪ ❀✶✹✿ ❈✯✭✹
hills. Why? Many ✒❱✒✢✦✒s✦✔
available ✚✗ to ★✔✙❢✗✙✥
perform ✧✗✙r work ✧✢✦✦ will ✜✔★✔✖✜
depend ✗✖ on ✚✛✔
the
✰✽♠✾✪✰
slopes ✯✸✪ are ✰✫✪✪✾✪✸
steeper ✬✱✫✶ almost ✴✪✸✫✱✷✯✽
with ✯✽✮♠✰✫ vertical ✥✒✣✣ ✗❢ ✚✛✔ ✥✒✚✔✙✢✒✦ ✒✖✜ ✚✛✔ ❱✔✦✗✓✢✚❩ ✧✢✚✛
mass of the material and the velocity with
✷✽✱✼✼✰
cliffs ✯✭✳
and ✪✰✷✯✸✾✮✪✭✫✰
escarpments ✱✭ in ✫✶✪ ❀✪✰✫✪✸✭
the Western
✧✛✢✓✛
which ✢✚ it ✢✣ moving. ❵s❱✢✗✘✣✦❩
is ✥✗❱✢✖✤✩ Obviously ✚✛✔✖ then ❩✗✘
you ✧✢✦✦will ❢✢✖✜
find
♥✶✯✫✰
Ghats ✯✭✳ and ❅✱✽✲✱✸✱✰❂
Nilgiris. ❈✪✷✶✯✭✱✷✯✽
Mechanical ✬✪✯✫✶✪✸✱✭✲
weathering
✚✛✒✚
that ✚✛✗✘✤✛
though ✚✛✔ the ✤✦✒✓✢✔✙✣
glaciers ✥✗❱✔ move ✒✚ very ✦✗✧
at ❱✔✙❩ low
✳✻✪
due ✫♠ temperature ✷✶✯✭✲✪✰
to ✫✪✮✾✪✸✯✫✻✸✪ changes ✯✭✳ and ✸✯✭✲✪✰
ranges
is ✾✸♠✭♠✻✭✷✪✳❂
✱✰ pronounced. ❃✶✪✹ ✸✪✷✪✱✴✪
They receive ✶✪✯✴✹heavy
❱✔✦✗✓✢✚✢✔✣
velocities ✜✘✔ due ✚✗ to ✚✙✔✥✔✖✜✗✘✣
tremendous ✥✒✣✣ mass ✒✙✔ are ✥✗✙✔
more
amounts ♠✼
✯✮♠✻✭✫✰ of ✸✯✱✭✼✯✽✽
rainfall ♠✴✪✸ short ✾✪✸✱♠✳✰❂
over ✰✶♠✸✫ periods.
✔❢❢✔✓✚✢❱✔
effective ✒✣ as ✚✛✔
the ✒✤✔✖✚✣agents ✗❢ of ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖
erosion ✒✖✜ and ✧✢✖✜✕
wind,
❙♠✵
So, ✫✶✪✸✪
there ✱✰ is ✯✽✮♠✰✫ direct ✸♠✷❄
almost ✳✱✸✪✷✫ rock ✼✯✽✽
fall ❧✻✱✫✪
quite s✔✢✖✤
being ✢✖ in ✤✒✣✔✗✘✣
gaseous ✣✚✒✚✔✕ state, ✒✙✔ are ✦✔✣✣less ✔❢❢✔✓✚✢❱✔✩
effective.
✼✸✪❧✻✪✭✫✽✹
frequently ✱✭ these ✾✽✯✷✪✰
in ✫✶✪✰✪ places ✯✽♠✭✲
along ✬✱✫✶ with ❞✛✔ ✧✗✙r
The work ✗❢ of ✚✛✔
the ✗✚✛✔✙
other ✚✧✗ two ✒✤✔✖✚✣
agents ✗❢ of ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖❡
erosion-
✽✯✭✳✰✽✱✳✪✰
landslides ✯✭✳ and ✳✪❜✸✱✰
debris ✯✴✯✽✯✭✷✶✪✰❂
avalanches. ✧✒❱✔✣ ✒✖✜ ✤✙✗✘✖✜ ✧✒✚✔✙
waves and ground water is not controlled s❩ ✢✣ ✖✗✚ ✓✗✖✚✙✗✦✦✔✜ by
climate. ❪✖
✓✦✢✥✒✚✔✩ In ✓✒✣✔
case ✗❢ of ✧✒❱✔✣
waves ✢✚ it ✢✣ the ✦✗✓✒✚✢✗✖
is ✚✛✔ location ✒✦✗✖✤along
✚✛✔
the ✢✖✚✔✙❢✒✓✔
interface ✗❢ of ✦✢✚✛✗
litho ✒✖✜ and ✛❩✜✙✗ hydro ✣★✛✔✙✔sphere ❣ —
❊❘❉●❏❉❑
EROSION ▲❑▼
AND ◆❖P❉●❏◗❏❉❑
DEPOSITION ✓✗✒✣✚✒✦
coastal ✙✔✤✢✗✖
region ❣ — that✚✛✒✚ ✧✢✦✦will ✜✔✚✔✙✥✢✖✔
determine ✚✛✔ the ✧✗✙r
work
of ✧✒❱✔✣✕
✗❢ waves, ✧✛✔✙✔✒✣
whereas ✚✛✔ the ✧✗✙r
work ✗❢ ground ✧✒✚✔✙
of ✤✙✗✘✖✜ water ✢✣ is
❯✙✗✣✢✗✖
Erosion ✢✖❱✗✦❱✔✣
involves ✒✓❳✘✢✣✢✚✢✗✖
acquisition ✒✖✜and ✚✙✒✖✣★✗✙✚✒✚✢✗✖
transportation ✜✔✚✔✙✥✢✖✔✜
determined ✥✗✙✔ more s❩ by ✚✛✔the ✦✢✚✛✗✦✗✤✢✓✒✦
lithological ✓✛✒✙✒✓✚✔✙character
✗❢
of ✙✗✓r debris. ❨✛✔✖
rock ✜✔s✙✢✣✩ When ✥✒✣✣✢❱✔
massive ✙✗✓r✣
rocks s✙✔✒r
break ✢✖✚✗
into ✗❢
of ✚✛✔ region. ❪❢
the ✙✔✤✢✗✖✩ If ✚✛✔
the ✙✗✓r✣
rocks ✒✙✔ are ★✔✙✥✔✒s✦✔
permeable ✒✖✜ and
✣✥✒✦✦✔✙ ❢✙✒✤✥✔✖✚✣ ✚✛✙✗✘✤✛
smaller fragments through weathering and✧✔✒✚✛✔✙✢✖✤ ✒✖✜ ✣✗✦✘s✦✔ ✧✒✚✔✙
soluble and water is available only ✚✛✔✖
✒✖✜ ✢✣ ✒❱✒✢✦✒s✦✔ ✗✖✦❩ then r✒✙✣✚
karst
✒✖❩ other ★✙✗✓✔✣✣✕
any ✗✚✛✔✙ process, ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖✒✦
erosional ✤✔✗✥✗✙★✛✢✓
geomorphic ✚✗★✗✤✙✒★✛❩
topography ✜✔❱✔✦✗★✣✩ develops. ❪✖ In ✚✛✔the ✖✔③✚ chapter ✧✔
next ✓✛✒★✚✔✙ we
agents ✦✢r✔
✒✤✔✖✚✣ running ✧✒✚✔✙✕
like ✙✘✖✖✢✖✤ water, ✤✙✗✘✖✜✧✒✚✔✙✕
groundwater, ✣✛✒✦✦
shall s✔ dealing ✧✢✚✛
be ✜✔✒✦✢✖✤ with ✚✛✔ the ✦✒✖✜❢✗✙✥✣
landforms ★✙✗✜✘✓✔✜ produced
glaciers, ✧✢✖✜
✤✦✒✓✢✔✙✣✕ wind ✒✖✜ and ✧✒❱✔✣
waves ✙✔✥✗❱✔
remove ✒✖✜ and s❩
by ✔✒✓✛
each ✗❢ of ✚✛✔
the ✒✤✔✖✚✣
agents ✗❢ of ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖✩
erosion.
✚✙✒✖✣★✗✙✚ ✢✚ ✚✗ ✗✚✛✔✙ ★✦✒✓✔✣ ✜✔★✔✖✜✢✖✤
transport it to other places depending upon ✘★✗✖ ④✔★✗✣✢✚✢✗✖
Deposition ✢✣ is ✒ a ✓✗✖✣✔❳✘✔✖✓✔
consequence ✗❢ of ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖✩
erosion. The ❞✛✔
✚✛✔
the ✜❩✖✒✥✢✓✣
dynamics ✗❢ of ✔✒✓✛
each ✗❢of ✚✛✔✣✔
these ✒✤✔✖✚✣✩ ❬s✙✒✣✢✗✖
agents. Abrasion ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖✒✦
erosional ✒✤✔✖✚✣ agents ✦✗✗✣✔ loose ✚✛✔✢✙their ❱✔✦✗✓✢✚❩
velocity ✒✖✜ and ✛✔✖✓✔
hence
s❩
by ✙✗✓r
rock ✜✔s✙✢✣
debris ✓✒✙✙✢✔✜
carried s❩ by ✚✛✔✣✔
these ✤✔✗✥✗✙★✛✢✓
geomorphic ✔✖✔✙✤❩
energy ✗✖ on ✤✔✖✚✦✔✙
gentler ✣✦✗★✔✣ slopes ✒✖✜ and ✚✛✔ the ✥✒✚✔✙✢✒✦✣
materials
✒✤✔✖✚✣
agents ✒✦✣✗
also ✒✢✜✣
aids ✤✙✔✒✚✦❩
greatly ✢✖ erosion. ❭❩
in ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖✩ By ✔✙✗✣✢✗✖✕
erosion, ✓✒✙✙✢✔✜
carried s❩ by ✚✛✔✥
them ✣✚✒✙✚ start ✚✗ to ✣✔✚✚✦✔ themselves. ❪✖
settle ✚✛✔✥✣✔✦❱✔✣✩ In
✙✔✦✢✔❢ ✜✔✤✙✒✜✔✣✕ ✢✩✔✩✕ ✚✛✔ ✦✒✖✜✣✓✒★✔
relief degrades, i.e., the landscape ✢✣ is ✧✗✙✖
worn other ✧✗✙✜✣✕
✗✚✛✔✙ words, ✜✔★✗✣✢✚✢✗✖
deposition ✢✣ is ✖✗✚
not ✒✓✚✘✒✦✦❩
actually ✚✛✔ the ✧✗✙r
work
✜✗✧✖✩ ❞✛✒✚ ✥✔✒✖✣✕
down. That though ✧✔✒✚✛✔✙✢✖✤
means, ✚✛✗✘✤✛ weathering ✒✢✜✣
aids ✗❢
of ✒✖❩
any ✒✤✔✖✚✩agent. The ❞✛✔ ✓✗✒✙✣✔✙
coarser ✥✒✚✔✙✢✒✦✣ materials ✤✔✚ get
● ✁✂✁✄☎✆✝✞ ☎✄✁✞
GEOMORPHIC ✟✟ ✟
PROCESSES ✺✺
55

❞✠✡☛☞✌✍✠❞
deposited ✎✌✏☞✍
first ✑✒❞
and ✎✌✒✠✏
finer ☛✒✠☞
ones ✓✑✍✠✏✳
later. ✔✕By ☛✎
of ✍✙✠ ✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✠❞ ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓♦
the weathered ✢✙✌✱✙ ✌☞
material) which is ✍✙✠ ✣✑☞✌✱
the basic
❞✠✡☛☞✌✍✌☛✒ depressions ✖✠✍
deposition ❞✠✡✏✠☞☞✌☛✒☞ filled ✗✡✳
get ✎✌✓✓✠❞ ✘✙✠ ☞✑✚✠
up. The same ✌✒✡✗✍
input ✎☛✏ for ☞☛✌✓
soil ✍☛ form. ✐✌✏☞✍✜
to ✎☛✏✚✳ First, ✍✙✠ ✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✠❞
the weathered
✠✏☛☞✌☛✒✑✓
erosional ✑✖✠✒✍☞ ❡✌✛✳✜ ✏✗✒✒✌✒✖
agents viz., ✢✑✍✠✏✜ ✖✓✑✱✌✠✏☞✜
running water, glaciers, ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓
material ☛✏ or ✍✏✑✒☞✡☛✏✍✠❞
transported ❞✠✡☛☞✌✍☞
deposits ✑✏✠ are ✱☛✓☛✒✌☞✠❞
colonised
✢✌✒❞ ✜ waves
wind, ✢✑❡✠☞ ✑✒❞ and ✖✏☛✗✒❞✢✑✍✠✏
groundwater ✑✱✍ act ✑☞as ✣✕ bacteria
by ✣✑✱✍✠✏✌✑ ✑✒❞ and ☛✍✙✠✏
other ✌✒✎✠✏✌☛✏
inferior ✡✓✑✒✍ ✣☛❞✌✠☞ ✓✌❴✠
plant bodies like
✑✖✖✏✑❞✑✍✌☛✒✑✓
aggradational ☛✏ or ❞✠✡☛☞✌✍✌☛✒✑✓
depositional ✑✖✠✒✍☞
agents ✑✓☞☛✳
also. ✚☛☞☞✠☞
mosses ✑✒❞ and ✓✌✱✙✠✒☞✳
lichens. Also, several ✚✌✒☛✏
P✓☞☛✜ ☞✠❡✠✏✑✓ minor
❲✙✑✍ ✙✑✡✡✠✒☞
What happens ✍☛ to ✍✙✠
the ☞✗✏✎✑✱✠
surface ☛✎ of ✍✙✠
the ✠✑✏✍✙
earth organisms ✚✑✕
☛✏✖✑✒✌☞✚☞ may ✍✑❴✠
take ☞✙✠✓✍✠✏ ✢✌✍✙✌✒ ✍✙✠
shelter within the ✚✑✒✍✓✠
mantle
❞✗✠
due ✍☛
to ✠✏☛☞✌☛✒
erosion ✑✒❞
and ❞✠✡☛☞✌✍✌☛✒
deposition ✌☞ is ✠✓✑✣☛✏✑✍✠❞
elaborated ✌✒ in ✑✒❞
and ❞✠✡☛☞✌✍☞✳ ✘✙✠
deposits. The ❞✠✑❞ dead ✏✠✚✑✌✒☞
remains ☛✎ of ☛✏✖✑✒✌☞✚☞
organisms
✍✙✠
the ✒✠t✍
next ✱✙✑✡✍✠✏
chapter ☛✒ on ✓✑✒❞✎☛✏✚☞
landforms ✑✒❞ and ✍✙✠✌✏
their ✑✒❞ plants ✙✠✓✡
and ✡✓✑✒✍☞ in ✙✗✚✗☞
help ✌✒ accumulation. ❵✌✒☛✏
humus ✑✱✱✗✚✗✓✑✍✌☛✒✳ Minor
✠❡☛✓✗✍✌☛✒✳
evolution. ✖✏✑☞☞✠☞
grasses ✑✒❞ ferns ✚✑✕
and ✎✠✏✒☞ may ✖✏☛✢❝
grow; ✓✑✍✠✏✜ ✣✗☞✙✠☞ ✑✒❞
later, bushes and
✍✏✠✠☞
trees will start ✖✏☛✢✌✒✖
✢✌✓✓ ☞✍✑✏✍ growing ✍✙✏☛✗✖✙
through ☞✠✠❞☞ ✣✏☛✗✖✙✍
seeds brought
❚✤✥✦✥ ✧★
There is ✩
a ★✤✧✪✫
shift ✬✪
of ✭✩✫✥✦✧✩✮★
materials ✧✯in ✭✩★★
mass ✌✒ ✣✕ birds
in by ✣✌✏❞☞ ✑✒❞ ✢✌✒❞✳ ❢✓✑✒✍
and wind. Plant ✏☛☛✍☞
roots ✡✠✒✠✍✏✑✍✠
penetrate
✭✬♠✥✭✥✯✫★
movements ✩★ ✰✥✮✮ ✩★
as well as ✧✯
in ✥✦✬★✧✬✯
erosion ✪✦✬✭
from ✬✯✥
one ❞☛✢✒✜
down, burrowing animals bring up ✡✑✏✍✌✱✓✠☞✜
✣✗✏✏☛✢✌✒✖ ✑✒✌✚✑✓☞ ✣✏✌✒✖ ✗✡ particles,
♣✮✩✲✥
place ✫✬
to ✫✤✥
the ✬✫✤✥✦✴
other. ✵✬✶ ✰✤✷ ✲✩✯✸✫
So, why can’t ✹✬✫✤
both ✹✥
be ✚✑☞☞
mass ☛✎ of ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓ ✣✠✱☛✚✠☞ ✡☛✏☛✗☞
material becomes porous ✑✒❞ and ☞✡☛✒✖✠❣
sponge-
✫✦✥✩✫✥✻ ✩★ ✬✯✥ ✩✯✻ ✫✤✥ ★✩✭✥✼
treated as one and the same? ✽✩✯
Can ✫✤✥✦✥
there
✓✌❴✠ ✢✌✍✙ ✑a ✱✑✡✑✱✌✍✕
like with capacity ✍☛ to ✏✠✍✑✌✒ ✢✑✍✠✏ ✑✒❞
retain water and ✍☛ to ✡✠✏✚✌✍
permit
✹✥
be ✩♣♣✦✥✲✧✩✹✮✥
appreciable ✥✦✬★✧✬✯ ✰✧✫✤✬❜✫ ✦✬✲✾★
erosion without rocks
❜✯✻✥✦✉✬✧✯✉ ✰✥✩✫✤✥✦✧✯✉✼ ✍✙✠
the ✡✑☞☞✑✖✠
passage ☛✎ of ✑✌✏
air ✑✒❞
and ✎✌✒✑✓✓✕
finally ✑ a ✚✑✍✗✏✠
mature ☞☛✌✓✜soil, ✑a
undergoing weathering?
complex ✚✌t✍✗✏✠
✱☛✚✡✓✠t mixture ☛✎ of ✚✌✒✠✏✑✓
mineral ✑✒❞ and ☛✏✖✑✒✌✱
organic
✡✏☛❞✗✱✍☞
products ✎☛✏✚☞✳
forms.
❙❖✿❀
Sort ❁❖❂❃❄❅✿❖❆
FoRMATION
❤★ ✰✥✩✫✤✥✦✧✯✉ ★✬✮✥✮✷
Is weathering solely ✦✥★♣✬✯★✧✹✮✥
responsible ✪✬✦
for ★✬✧✮
soil
❇❈❉❊
Soil ❋❍■
and ❇❈❉❊
Soil ❏❈❍❑▲❍❑▼
Contents
✪✬✦✭✩✫✧✬✯✼ ❤✪ ✯✬✫✶ ✰✤✷✼
formation? If not, why?

❨☛✗ ☞✠✠
You plants ✖✏☛✢✌✒✖
see ✡✓✑✒✍☞ growing ✌✒ in ☞☛✌✓☞✳ ❨☛✗ ✡✓✑✕
soils. You play ✌✒ in
the ✖✏☛✗✒❞
✍✙✠ ground ✑✒❞ and ✱☛✚✠come ✌✒✍☛ into ✱☛✒✍✑✱✍
contact with ✢✌✍✙ ☞☛✌✓✳
soil. ❥✥✻✬✮✬✉✷
Pedology ✧★is ★✬✧✮
soil ★✲✧✥✯✲✥✴
science. A❦ ♣✥✻✬✮✬✉✧★✫
pedologist ✧★
is ✩
a
❨☛✗ ✍☛✗✱✙
You touch ✑✒❞ and ✎✠✠✓feel ☞☛✌✓
soil ✑✒❞
and ☞☛✌✓ ✕☛✗✏ ✱✓☛✍✙✠☞
soil your clothes ★✬✧✮❧★✲✧✥✯✫✧★✫✴
soil-scientist.
while playing. ✇✑✒
✢✙✌✓✠ ✡✓✑✕✌✒✖✳ Can you ✕☛✗ ❞✠☞✱✏✌✣✠
describe ✌✍◆ it?
AP ✡✠❞☛✓☛✖✌☞✍
pedologist who ✢✙☛ ☞✍✗❞✌✠☞
studies ☞☛✌✓☞soils ❞✠✎✌✒✠☞
defines ☞☛✌✓ soil
✑☞
as ✑a ✱☛✓✓✠✱✍✌☛✒
collection ☛✎ of ✒✑✍✗✏✑✓ ✣☛❞✌✠☞ ☛✒
natural bodies on ✍✙✠
the ✠✑✏✍✙❛☞
earth’s ❇❈❉❊♥❬❈❳❪❉❍q
Soil-forming ❭❋❩❑❈❳▼
Factors
☞✗✏✎✑✱✠
surface ✱☛✒✍✑✌✒✌✒✖
containing ✓living ✌❡✌✒✖ ✚✑✍✍✠✏
matter ✑✒❞ and
☞✗✡✡☛✏✍✌✒✖
supporting ☛✏ or ✱✑✡✑✣✓✠
capable ☛✎ of ☞✗✡✡☛✏✍✌✒✖
supporting ✡✓✑✒✍☞✳plants. ✐✌❡✠
Five ✣✑☞✌✱
basic ✎✑✱✍☛✏☞
factors ✱☛✒✍✏☛✓
control ✍✙✠the ✎☛✏✚✑✍✌☛✒
formation ☛✎ of ☞☛✌✓☞r
soils:
◗☛✌✓
Soil ✌☞
is ✑ dynamic ✚✠❞✌✗✚
a ❞✕✒✑✚✌✱ medium ✌✒ ✢✙✌✱✙ ✚✑✒✕
in which many ❫✌♦ parent ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓❝
(i) ✡✑✏✠✒✍ material; ❫✌✌♦ topography; ❫✌✌✌♦
(ii) ✍☛✡☛✖✏✑✡✙✕❝ (iii) ✱✓✌✚✑✍✠❝
climate;
✱✙✠✚✌✱✑✓✜
chemical, ✡✙✕☞✌✱✑✓
physical ✑✒❞ activities ✖☛
✣✌☛✓☛✖✌✱✑✓ ✑✱✍✌❡✌✍✌✠☞
and biological go ❫✌❡♦
(iv) ✣✌☛✓☛✖✌✱✑✓ activity; ❫❡♦
biological ✑✱✍✌❡✌✍✕❝ (v) ✍✌✚✠✳
time. ❘✒
In ✎✑✱✍
fact ☞☛✌✓
soil
☛✒
on ✱☛✒☞✍✑✒✍✓✕✳
constantly. ◗☛✌✓ Soil ✌☞is ✑
a ✏✠☞✗✓✍
result ☛✎ of ❞✠✱✑✕✜
decay, ✌✍ it ✌☞
is ✑✓☞☛
also ✎☛✏✚✌✒✖ ✌✒ ✗✒✌☛✒
forming factors act in union and affect ✍✙✠
✎✑✱✍☛✏☞ ✑✱✍ ✑✒❞ ✑✎✎✠✱✍ the
the ✚✠❞✌✗✚
✍✙✠ medium ✎☛✏ for ✖✏☛✢✍✙✳
growth. ❘✍ It ✌☞
is ✑a ✱✙✑✒✖✌✒✖
changing ✑✒❞ and ✑✱✍✌☛✒
action ☛✎of ☛✒✠
one ✑✒☛✍✙✠✏✳
another.
❞✠❡✠✓☛✡✌✒✖
developing body. ✣☛❞✕✳ ❘✍ It ✙✑☞
has ✚✑✒✕
many ✱✙✑✏✑✱✍✠✏✌☞✍✌✱☞
characteristics
✍✙✑✍
that ✎✓✗✱✍✗✑✍✠
fluctuate with ✢✌✍✙ ✍✙✠ the ☞✠✑☞☛✒☞✳
seasons. ❘✍ It ✚✑✕
may be ✣✠ ✈①②③④⑤
Parent ⑥①⑤③②⑦①⑧
Material
✑✓✍✠✏✒✑✍✌❡✠✓✕
alternatively ✱☛✓❞ cold ✑✒❞ ✢✑✏✚ ☛✏
and warm or ❞✏✕ and ✚☛✌☞✍✳
dry ✑✒❞ moist.
✔✌☛✓☛✖✌✱✑✓ Parent ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓
❢✑✏✠✒✍ material ✌☞ is ✑a ✡✑☞☞✌❡✠
passive ✱☛✒✍✏☛✓
control ✎✑✱✍☛✏
factor ✌✒in
Biological ✑✱✍✌❡✌✍✕
activity ✌☞ is ☞✓☛✢✠❞
slowed ☛✏ or ☞✍☛✡✡✠❞
stopped ✌✎ if ✍✙✠
the
☞☛✌✓
soil ✎☛✏✚✑✍✌☛✒✳ Parent ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓☞
formation. ❢✑✏✠✒✍ materials ✱✑✒ can ✣✠be ✑✒✕
any ⑦④⑨
in-
☞☛✌✓ ✣✠✱☛✚✠☞ ✍☛☛
soil becomes too ✱☛✓❞
cold ☛✏or ✍☛☛
too ❞✏✕✳ Organic ✚✑✍✍✠✏
dry. s✏✖✑✒✌✱ matter
⑩⑦⑤❶
situ ☛✏
or ☛✒❣☞✌✍✠
on-site ✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✠❞
weathered ✏☛✱❴ debris ❫✏✠☞✌❞✗✑✓
rock ❞✠✣✏✌☞ (residual
✌✒✱✏✠✑☞✠☞
increases when ✢✙✠✒ ✓✠✑❡✠☞leaves ✎✑✓✓ or ✖✏✑☞☞✠☞
fall ☛✏ grasses ❞✌✠✳die. The✘✙✠
☞☛✌✓ ✱✙✠✚✌☞✍✏✕✜ ✍✙✠ ✑✚☛✗✒✍
soil chemistry, the amount of organic matter,☛✎ ☛✏✖✑✒✌✱ ✚✑✍✍✠✏✜ ☞☛✌✓☞♦
soils) ☛✏or ✍✏✑✒☞✡☛✏✍✠❞ deposits ❫✍✏✑✒☞✡☛✏✍✠❞
transported ❞✠✡☛☞✌✍☞ (transported
✍✙✠
the ☞☛✌✓
soil ✎✓☛✏✑
flora ✑✒❞and ✎✑✗✒✑✜
fauna, ✍✙✠ the ✍✠✚✡✠✏✑✍✗✏✠
temperature ✑✒❞ and ☞☛✌✓☞♦✳
soils). ◗☛✌✓
Soil ✎☛✏✚✑✍✌☛✒ depends ✗✡☛✒
formation ❞✠✡✠✒❞☞ upon ✍✙✠ the ✍✠t✍✗✏✠
texture
✍✙✠ ✚☛✌☞✍✗✏✠✜
the moisture, all change with ✍✙✠
✑✓✓ ✱✙✑✒✖✠ ✢✌✍✙ the ☞✠✑☞☛✒☞
seasons ✑☞ as ❫☞✌✛✠☞ ❞✠✣✏✌☞♦ ✑✒❞ ☞✍✏✗✱✍✗✏✠ ❫❞✌☞✡☛☞✌✍✌☛✒
(sizes of debris) and structure (disposition ☛✎
☛✎ of
✢✠✓✓ ✑☞
well ✢✌✍✙ ✚☛✏✠
as with more ✠t✍✠✒❞✠❞
extended ✡✠✏✌☛❞☞periods ☛✎ of ✍✌✚✠✳
time. individual ✖✏✑✌✒☞❷✡✑✏✍✌✱✓✠☞
✌✒❞✌❡✌❞✗✑✓ grains/particles ☛✎ of ❞✠✣✏✌☞♦
debris) ✑☞ as ✢✠✓✓
well
✘✙✑✍ ✚✠✑✒☞✜
That means, ☞☛✌✓ ✣✠✱☛✚✠☞ ✑❞❯✗☞✍✠❞
soil becomes adjusted ✍☛ to ✑☞ the ✚✌✒✠✏✑✓
as ✍✙✠ mineral ✑✒❞and ✱✙✠✚✌✱✑✓
chemical ✱☛✚✡☛☞✌✍✌☛✒
composition ☛✎ of ✍✙✠
the
✱☛✒❞✌✍✌☛✒☞ ☛✎ ✱✓✌✚✑✍✠✜ ✓✑✒❞✎☛✏✚
conditions of climate, landform and vegetation ✑✒❞ ❡✠✖✠✍✑✍✌☛✒ ✏☛✱❴
rock ❞✠✣✏✌☞❷❞✠✡☛☞✌✍☞✳
debris/deposits.
✑✒❞
and will ✢ ✌✓✓ ✱✙✑✒✖✠
change ✌✒✍✠✏✒✑✓✓✕
internally when ✢✙✠✒ ✍✙✠☞✠ these ❸✑✍✗✏✠
Nature ✑✒❞ and ✏✑✍✠
rate ☛✎of ✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✌✒✖
weathering ✑✒❞ and ❞✠✡✍✙
depth ☛✎of
✱☛✒✍✏☛✓✓✌✒✖
controlling ✱☛✒❞✌✍✌☛✒☞
conditions ✱✙✑✒✖✠✳ change. weathering ✚✑✒✍✓✠
✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✌✒✖ mantle ✑✏✠are ✌✚✡☛✏✍✑✒✍
important ✱☛✒☞✌❞✠✏✑✍✌☛✒
consideration
✗✒❞✠✏
under ✡✑✏✠✒✍parent ✚✑✍✠✏✌✑✓☞✳
materials. There ✘✙✠✏✠ ✚✑✕ may ✣✠ be
Process ❈❬
❱❳❈❩▲▼▼ of ❇❈❉❊
Soil ❭❈❳❪❋❑❉❈❍
Formation
❞✌✎✎✠✏✠✒✱✠☞
differences ✌✒ in ☞☛✌✓
soil ☛❡✠✏
over ☞✌✚✌✓✑✏
similar ✣✠❞✏☛✱❴
bedrock ✑✒❞ and
❞✌☞☞✌✚✌✓✑✏ bedrocks ✚✑✕
dissimilar ✣✠❞✏☛✱❴☞ may ✙✑❡✠
have ☞✌✚✌✓✑✏
similar ☞☛✌✓☞
soils
◗☛✌✓
Soil ✎☛✏✚✑✍✌☛✒
formation ☛✏
or ✡✠❞☛✖✠✒✠☞✌☞
pedogenesis ❞✠✡✠✒❞☞
depends ✎✌✏☞✍
first ☛✒
on ✑✣☛❡✠
above ✍✙✠✚✳
them. ✔✗✍ But ✢✙✠✒
when ☞☛✌✓☞
soils ✑✏✠ ❡✠✏✕ ✕☛✗✒✖
are very young
✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✌✒✖✳ ❘✍
weathering. It ✌☞
is ✍✙✌☞ ✢✠✑✍✙✠✏✌✒✖ ✚✑✒✍✓✠
this weathering mantle ❫❞✠✡✍✙
(depth and ✙✑❡✠
✑✒❞ have ✒☛✍not ✚✑✍✗✏✠❞
matured ✍✙✠☞✠these ☞✙☛✢
show ☞✍✏☛✒✖
strong ✓✌✒❴☞
links
✺✑
56 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✇✒✓✔ ✓✔✕
with the ✓✖✗✕
type ✘✙of ✗✚✛✕✜✓
parent ✛✘✢✣✤ ✥✦✧✘★ ✒✜
rock. Also, in ✢✚✧✕
case ✘✙of ✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧
climates ✚✜♦ and ✒✜ in ✚✛✕✚✧
areas with ✇✒✓✔ ✒✜✓✕✛s✕♦✒✚✓✕
intermediate
✧✘s✕
some ✦✒s✕✧✓✘✜✕
limestone ✚✛✕✚✧★ ✇✔✕✛✕ ✓✔✕
areas, where ✇✕✚✓✔✕✛✒✜✩
the weathering ✗✛✕✢✒✗✒✓✚✓✒✘✜
precipitation ✢✘✜♦✒✓✒✘✜✧★
conditions, ✢✚✦✢✒✪scalcium ✢✚✛✳✘✜✚✓✕
carbonate
✗✛✘✢✕✧✧✕✧
processes ✚✛✕
are ✧✗✕✢✒✙✒✢
specific ✚✜♦
and ✗✕✢✪✦✒✚✛★
peculiar, ✧✘✒✦✧ ✇✒✦✦
soils will ✜✘♦✪✦✕✧ (kanker) ✚✛✕
nodules ✽❦✯❅❦✻✮✾ are ✙✘✛s✕♦✤
formed.
✧✔✘✇
show ✢✦✕✚✛
clear ✛✕✦✚✓✒✘✜ ✇✒✓✔ ✓✔✕
relation with the ✗✚✛✕✜✓
parent ✛✘✢✣✤
rock. ✲✕s✗✕✛✚✓✪✛✕ ✚✢✓✧
Temperature acts ✒✜in ✓✇✘ ✇✚✖✧ —❆increasing
two ways ✒✜✢✛✕✚✧✒✜✩
✘✛
or ✛✕♦✪✢✒✜✩
reducing ✢✔✕s✒✢✚✦
chemical ✚✜♦ biological ✚✢✓✒♣✒✓✖✤
and ✳✒✘✦✘✩✒✢✚✦ activity.
❚✫✬✫✭✮✯✬✰✱
Topography Chemical ✚✢✓✒♣✒✓✖
✼✔✕s✒✢✚✦ activity ✒✧ is ✒✜✢✛✕✚✧✕♦
increased ✒✜ in ✔✒✩✔✕✛
higher
✲✘✗✘✩✛✚✗✔✖ ✦✒✣✕
Topography like ✗✚✛✕✜✓ materials ✒✧
parent s✚✓✕✛✒✚✦✧ is ✚✜✘✓✔✕✛
another ✓✕s✗✕✛✚✓✪✛✕✧★ ✛✕♦✪✢✕♦ ✒✜ ✢✘✘✦✕✛
temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures ✓✕s✗✕✛✚✓✪✛✕✧
✗✚✧✧✒♣✕
passive ✢✘✜✓✛✘✦
control ✙✚✢✓✘✛✤factor. The ✲✔✕ ✒✜✙✦✪✕✜✢✕
influence ✘✙ of (with ✚✜
✽✇✒✓✔ an ✕❡✢✕✗✓✒✘✜
exception ✘✙ of ✢✚✛✳✘✜✚✓✒✘✜✾
carbonation) ✚✜♦ and ✧✓✘✗✧
stops
✓✘✗✘✩✛✚✗✔✖
topography ✒✧ is ✙✕✦✓
felt ✓✔✛✘✪✩✔
through ✓✔✕ the ✚s✘✪✜✓
amount ✘✙ of ✒✜
in ✙✛✕✕❇✒✜✩
freezing ✢✘✜♦✒✓✒✘✜✧✤
conditions. That✲✔✚✓ ✒✧ ✇✔✖★ ✓✛✘✗✒✢✚✦
is why, tropical ✧✘✒✦✧
soils
✕❡✗✘✧✪✛✕
exposure ✘✙ of ✚ a ✧✪✛✙✚✢✕
surface ✢✘♣✕✛✕♦
covered ✳✖ by ✗✚✛✕✜✓
parent ✇✒✓✔ ✔✒✩✔✕✛
with higher ✓✕s✗✕✛✚✓✪✛✕✧
temperatures ✧✔✘✇ deeper ✗✛✘✙✒✦✕✧
show ♦✕✕✗✕✛ profiles
materials ✓✘
s✚✓✕✛✒✚✦✧ to ✧✪✜✦✒✩✔✓
sunlight ✚✜♦ and ✓✔✕ the ✚s✘✪✜✓
amount ✘✙ of ✚✜♦
and ✒✜in ✓✔✕
the ✙✛✘❇✕✜
frozen ✓✪✜♦✛✚
tundra ✛✕✩✒✘✜✧
regions ✧✘✒✦✧
soils ✢✘✜✓✚✒✜
contain
✧✪✛✙✚✢✕
surface ✚✜♦and ✧✪✳✴✧✪✛✙✚✢✕
sub-surface ♦✛✚✒✜✚✩✕drainage ✘♣✕✛ over ✚✜♦
and ✦✚✛✩✕✦✖
largely s✕✢✔✚✜✒✢✚✦✦✖
mechanically ✳✛✘✣✕✜broken s✚✓✕✛✒✚✦✧✤
materials.
✓✔✛✘✪✩✔
through ✓✔✕
the ✗✚✛✕✜✓
parent s✚✓✕✛✒✚✦✧✤
materials. t✘✒✦✧ ✇✒✦✦ ✳✕
Soils will be ✓✔✒✜
thin ❉✷✫✶✫✭✷❄✯✶
Biological ❊❄✹✷●✷✹✱
Activity
✘✜
on ✧✓✕✕✗
steep ✧✦✘✗✕✧
slopes ✚✜♦ and ✓✔✒✢✣
thick ✘♣✕✛over ✙✦✚✓
flat ✪✗✦✚✜♦
upland
✚✛✕✚✧✤
areas. ❛♣✕✛ gentle ✧✦✘✗✕✧
Over ✩✕✜✓✦✕ ✇✔✕✛✕ ✕✛✘✧✒✘✜
slopes where erosion ✒✧ is ✧✦✘✇
slow The ♣✕✩✕✓✚✓✒♣✕ ✢✘♣✕✛
✲✔✕ vegetative cover ✚✜♦and ✘✛✩✚✜✒✧s✧
organisms ✓✔✚✓ that ✘✢✢✪✗✖
occupy
✚✜♦
and ✗✕✛✢✘✦✚✓✒✘✜
percolation ✘✙ ✇✚✓✕✛ ✒✧
of water good, ✧✘✒✦
is ✩✘✘♦★ soil ✙✘✛s✚✓✒✘✜
formation ✓✔✕
the ✗✚✛✕✜✓ materials ✙✛✘s
parent s✚✓✕✛✒✚✦✧ from ✓✔✕ beginning ✚✜♦
the ✳✕✩✒✜✜✒✜✩ and ✚✦✧✘
also
✒✧ ♣✕✛✖ ✙✚♣✘✪✛✚✳✦✕✤
is very favourable. t✘✒✦✧ Soils ✘♣✕✛
over ✙✦✚✓
flat ✚✛✕✚✧
areas s✚✖
may ✚✓
at ✦✚✓✕✛
later ✧✓✚✩✕✧
stages ✔✕✦✗ help ✒✜ in ✚♦♦✒✜✩
adding ✘✛✩✚✜✒✢ organic s✚✓✓✕✛★
matter,
develop ✚
♦✕♣✕✦✘✗ a ✓✔✒✢✣
thick ✦✚✖✕✛ layer ✘✙ of ✢✦✚✖
clay with✇✒✓✔ ✩✘✘♦
good moisture ✛✕✓✕✜✓✒✘✜★
s✘✒✧✓✪✛✕ retention, ✜✒✓✛✘✩✕✜
nitrogen ✕✓✢✤ etc. ♠✕✚♦
Dead ✗✦✚✜✓✧plants
✚✢✢✪s✪✦✚✓✒✘✜
accumulation ✘✙ of ✘✛✩✚✜✒✢
organic s✚✓✓✕✛ giving ✓✔✕
matter ✩✒♣✒✜✩ the ✧✘✒✦
soil ✗✛✘♣✒♦✕ ✔✪s✪✧★ ✓✔✕ ✙✒✜✕✦✖ ♦✒♣✒♦✕♦
provide humus, the finely divided organic matter ✘✛✩✚✜✒✢ s✚✓✓✕✛
dark colour. In middle latitudes, the ✧✘✪✓✔
♦✚✛✣ ✢✘✦✘✪✛✤ ✵✜ s✒♦♦✦✕ ✦✚✓✒✓✪♦✕✧★ ✓✔✕ south ✘✙
of ✓✔✕
the ✧✘✒✦✤ Some ✘✛✩✚✜✒✢
soil. t✘s✕ organic ✚✢✒♦✧ acids ✇✔✒✢✔which ✙✘✛s form
✙✚✢✒✜✩
facing ✧✦✘✗✕✧
slopes ✕❡✗✘✧✕♦
exposed ✓✘ to ✧✪✜✦✒✩✔✓
sunlight ✔✚♣✕have ♦✒✙✙✕✛✕✜✓
different during ✔✪s✒✙✒✢✚✓✒✘✜
♦✪✛✒✜✩ humification ✚✒♦ aid ✒✜ decomposing ✓✔✕
in ♦✕✢✘s✗✘✧✒✜✩ the
✢✘✜♦✒✓✒✘✜✧
conditions ✘✙ ♣✕✩✕✓✚✓✒✘✜ ✚✜♦
of vegetation and ✧✘✒✦✧
soils ✚✜♦
and ✓✔✕
the ✜✘✛✓✔
north minerals ✘✙
s✒✜✕✛✚✦✧ of ✓✔✕
the ✧✘✒✦
soil ✗✚✛✕✜✓
parent s✚✓✕✛✒✚✦✧✤
materials.
✙✚✢✒✜✩
facing ✧✦✘✗✕✧
slopes with✇✒✓✔ ✢✘✘✦★ moist ✢✘✜♦✒✓✒✘✜✧
cool, s✘✒✧✓ conditions ✔✚♣✕ have Intensity ✘✙
✵✜✓✕✜✧✒✓✖ bacterial ✚✢✓✒♣✒✓✖
of ✳✚✢✓✕✛✒✚✦ activity ✧✔✘✇✧ shows ✪✗ up
✧✘s✕
some ✘✓✔✕✛
other ✧✘✒✦✧
soils ✚✜♦ ♣✕✩✕✓✚✓✒✘✜✤
and vegetation. ♦✒✙✙✕✛✕✜✢✕✧
differences ✳✕✓✇✕✕✜between ✧✘✒✦✧ soils ✘✙ of ✢✘✦♦
cold ✚✜♦and ✇✚✛s warm
✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧✤
climates. ❝✪s✪✧Humus ✚✢✢✪s✪✦✚✓✕✧
accumulates ✒✜ in ✢✘✦♦
cold ✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧
climates
❈✶✷✸✯✹✻
Climate ✚✧
as ✳✚✢✓✕✛✒✚✦ growth ✒✧
bacterial ✩✛✘✇✓✔ is ✧✦✘✇✤ ❍✒✓✔ ✪✜♦✕✢✘s✗✘✧✕♦
slow. With undecomposed
Climate ✒✧
✼✦✒s✚✓✕ is ✚✜an ✒s✗✘✛✓✚✜✓
important ✚✢✓✒♣✕ active ✙✚✢✓✘✛
factor ✒✜ in ✧✘✒✦
soil
✘✛✩✚✜✒✢
organic s✚✓✓✕✛ because ✘✙
matter ✳✕✢✚✪✧✕ of ✦✘✇ bacterial ✚✢✓✒♣✒✓✖★
low ✳✚✢✓✕✛✒✚✦ activity,
✙✘✛s✚✓✒✘✜✤
formation. The climatic elements involved ✒✜
✲✔✕ ✢✦✒s✚✓✒✢ ✕✦✕s✕✜✓✧ ✒✜♣✘✦♣✕♦ in ✧✘✒✦
soil ✦✚✖✕✛✧
layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and ✓✪✜♦✛✚
✘✙ ✗✕✚✓ ♦✕♣✕✦✘✗ ✒✜ ✧✪✳✴✚✛✢✓✒✢ ✚✜♦ tundra
development ✚✛✕
♦✕♣✕✦✘✗s✕✜✓ are ❞: ✽✒✾ moisture ✒✜
(i) s✘✒✧✓✪✛✕ in ✓✕✛s✧
terms ✘✙ of ✒✓✧
its
✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧✤
climates. ✵✜ In ✔✪s✒♦
humid ✓✛✘✗✒✢✚✦
tropical ✚✜♦ and ✕✐✪✚✓✘✛✒✚✦
equatorial
✒✜✓✕✜✧✒✓✖★
intensity, ✙✛✕✐✪✕✜✢✖ frequency ✚✜♦ duration ✘✙
and ♦✪✛✚✓✒✘✜ of ✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧★
climates, ✳✚✢✓✕✛✒✚✦ growth ✚✜♦
bacterial ✩✛✘✇✓✔ and ✚✢✓✒✘✜
action ✒✧ is ✒✜✓✕✜✧✕
intense
✗✛✕✢✒✗✒✓✚✓✒✘✜ ✕♣✚✗✘✛✚✓✒✘✜ ✚✜♦
precipitation ✴-evaporation and ✔✪s✒♦✒✓✖✿
humidity; ✚✜♦
and ♦✕✚♦ ♣✕✩✕✓✚✓✒✘✜ ✒✧
dead vegetation is ✛✚✗✒♦✦✖
rapidly ✘❡✒♦✒✧✕♦
oxidised ✦✕✚♣✒✜✩
leaving
(ii) ✓✕s✗✕✛✚✓✪✛✕
✽✒✒✾ temperature ✒✜ in ✓✕✛s✧
terms ✘✙ of ✧✕✚✧✘✜✚✦
seasonal ✚✜♦ and ♣✕✛✖ ✦✘✇
very low ✔✪s✪✧
humus ✢✘✜✓✕✜✓ content ✒✜ in ✓✔✕the ✧✘✒✦✤
soil. ✈✪✛✓✔✕✛★
Further,
♦✒✪✛✜✚✦ ♣✚✛✒✚✓✒✘✜✧✤
diurnal variations. bacteria ✚✜♦
✳✚✢✓✕✛✒✚ and ✘✓✔✕✛
other ✧✘✒✦
soil ✘✛✩✚✜✒✧s✧
organisms ✓✚✣✕ take ✩✚✧✕✘✪✧
gaseous
P✛✕✢✒✗✒✓✚✓✒✘✜
Precipitation ✩✒♣✕✧ gives ✧✘✒✦
soil ✒✓✧ moisture ✢✘✜✓✕✜✓
its s✘✒✧✓✪✛✕ content ✜✒✓✛✘✩✕✜
nitrogen ✙✛✘s from ✓✔✕ the ✚✒✛air ✚✜♦and ✢✘✜♣✕✛✓
convert ✒✓ it ✒✜✓✘
into ✚ a
✇✔✒✢✔ s✚✣✕✧
which makes ✓✔✕ the ✢✔✕s✒✢✚✦
chemical ✚✜♦ and ✳✒✘✦✘✩✒✢✚✦
biological ✢✔✕s✒✢✚✦ ✙✘✛s ✓✔✚✓ ✢✚✜ ✳✕ ✪✧✕♦
chemical form that can be used by plants. This ✳✖ ✗✦✚✜✓✧✤ ✲✔✒✧
✚✢✓✒♣✒✓✒✕✧
activities ✗✘✧✧✒✳✦✕✤ Excess ✘✙
possible. ❀❡✢✕✧✧ ✇✚✓✕✛ ✔✕✦✗✧
of water helps ✒✜ in ✓✔✕
the ✗✛✘✢✕✧✧
process ✒✧ is ✣✜✘✇✜
known ✚✧ as ✜✒✓✛✘✩✕✜
nitrogen ✙✒❡✚✓✒✘✜✤ fixation.
downward ✓✛✚✜✧✗✘✛✓✚✓✒✘✜
♦✘✇✜✇✚✛♦ transportation ✘✙ of ✧✘✒✦
soil ✢✘s✗✘✜✕✜✓✧
components r✔✒❇✘✳✒✪s★
Rhizobium, ✚ a ✓✖✗✕
type ✘✙ bacteria, ✦✒♣✕✧
of ✳✚✢✓✕✛✒✚★ lives ✒✜in ✓✔✕
the ✛✘✘✓
root
✓✔✛✘✪✩✔
through ✓✔✕ the ✧✘✒✦ (eluviation) ✚✜♦
soil ✽✕✦✪♣✒✚✓✒✘✜✾ deposits ✓✔✕
and ♦✕✗✘✧✒✓✧ the ✜✘♦✪✦✕✧
nodules ✘✙ of ✦✕✩✪s✒✜✘✪✧
leguminous ✗✦✚✜✓✧ plants ✚✜♦ and ✙✒❡✕✧
fixes ✜✒✓✛✘✩✕✜
nitrogen
✧✚s✕
same ♦✘✇✜down ✳✕✦✘✇below ✽✒✦✦✪♣✒✚✓✒✘✜✾✤
(illuviation). ✵✜ In ✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧
climates ✦✒✣✕like beneficial ✓✘
✳✕✜✕✙✒✢✒✚✦ to ✓✔✕
the ✔✘✧✓
host ✗✦✚✜✓✤
plant. The ✲✔✕ ✒✜✙✦✪✕✜✢✕
influence ✘✙ of ✦✚✛✩✕
large
✇✕✓ ✕✐✪✚✓✘✛✒✚✦
wet equatorial ✛✚✒✜✖ rainy ✚✛✕✚✧ ✇✒✓✔ ✔✒✩✔
areas with high ✛✚✒✜✙✚✦✦★
rainfall, ✚✜✒s✚✦✧
animals ✦✒✣✕ like ✚✜✓✧★
ants, ✓✕✛s✒✓✕✧★
termites, ✕✚✛✓✔✇✘✛s✧★
earthworms, ✛✘♦✕✜✓✧ rodents
✜✘✓ ✘✜✦✖ ✢✚✦✢✒✪s★ ✧✘♦✒✪s★
not only calcium, sodium, s✚✩✜✕✧✒✪s★ magnesium, ✕✓✢✤★
etc., ✒✧is s✕✢✔✚✜✒✢✚✦★
mechanical, ✳✪✓★ but, ✒✓ it ✒✧is ✜✕♣✕✛✓✔✕✦✕✧✧
nevertheless
✗✘✓✚✧✧✒✪s
potassium ✕✓✢✤ but ✚✦✧✘
etc. ✳✪✓ also ✚ major ✗✚✛✓
a s✚❁✘✛ part ✘✙of ✧✒✦✒✢✚
silica ✒✧ is ✒s✗✘✛✓✚✜✓
important ✒✜ in ✧✘✒✦
soil ✙✘✛s✚✓✒✘✜
formation ✚✧ as ✓✔✕✖
they ✛✕✇✘✛✣
rework ✓✔✕ the
✛✕s✘♣✕♦
removed ✙✛✘s from ✓✔✕the ✧✘✒✦✤
soil. r✕s✘♣✚✦
Removal ✘✙ of ✧✒✦✒✢✚
silica ✙✛✘s
from ✧✘✒✦
soil up and down. In case of earthworms, ✚✧
✪✗ ✚✜♦ ♦✘✇✜✤ ✵✜ ✢✚✧✕ ✘✙ ✕✚✛✓✔✇✘✛s✧★ as
✓✔✕
the ✧✘✒✦
soil ✒✧
is ✣✜✘✇✜
known ✚✧ as ❂✻❃✷✶✷❄✯✹✷✫❅✤
desilication. ✵✜ dry ✢✦✒s✚✓✕✧★
In ♦✛✖ climates, ✓✔✕✖
they ✙✕✕♦
feed ✘✜ on ✧✘✒✦★
soil, ✓✔✕
the ✓✕❡✓✪✛✕
texture ✚✜♦ and ✢✔✕s✒✧✓✛✖
chemistry ✘✙ of
because ✘✙
✳✕✢✚✪✧✕ of ✔✒✩✔
high ✓✕s✗✕✛✚✓✪✛✕★
temperature, ✕♣✚✗✘✛✚✓✒✘✜
evaporation ✓✔✕
the ✧✘✒✦
soil ✓✔✚✓
that ✢✘s✕✧
comes ✘✪✓ out ✘✙ of ✓✔✕✒✛
their ✳✘♦✖ body ✢✔✚✜✩✕✧✤
changes.
✕❡✢✕✕♦✧
exceeds ✗✛✕✢✒✗✒✓✚✓✒✘✜
precipitation ✚✜♦ and ✔✕✜✢✕
hence ✩✛✘✪✜♦ ✇✚✓✕✛
ground water
✒✧
is ✳✛✘✪✩✔✓
brought ✪✗ up ✓✘to ✓✔✕
the ✧✪✛✙✚✢✕
surface ✳✖ by ✢✚✗✒✦✦✚✛✖
capillary ✚✢✓✒✘✜
action
❚✷✸✻
Time

✚✜♦
and ✒✜in ✓✔✕
the ✗✛✘✢✕✧✧
process ✓✔✕ ✇✚✓✕✛ ✕♣✚✗✘✛✚✓✕✧
the water evaporates ✦✕✚♣✒✜✩
leaving ✲✒s✕ ✒✧
Time is ✓✔✕
the ✓✔✒✛♦
third ✒s✗✘✛✓✚✜✓
important ✢✘✜✓✛✘✦✦✒✜✩
controlling ✙✚✢✓✘✛
factor
behind ✧✚✦✓✧
✳✕✔✒✜♦ salts ✒✜ in ✓✔✕
the ✧✘✒✦✤ Such ✧✚✦✓✧
soil. t✪✢✔ salts ✙✘✛s
form ✒✜✓✘
into ✚ a ✒✜
in soil formation. The length of time the ✧✘✒✦
✧✘✒✦ ✙✘✛s✚✓✒✘✜✤ ✲✔✕ ✦✕✜✩✓✔ ✘✙ ✓✒s✕ ✓✔✕ soil
✢✛✪✧✓ ✒✜ ✓✔✕ ✧✘✒✦ ✣✜✘✇✜ ✚✧ ✔✚✛♦✗✚✜✧✤
crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical ✵✜ ✓✛✘✗✒✢✚✦ ✙✘✛s✒✜✩
forming ✗✛✘✢✕✧✧✕✧
processes ✘✗✕✛✚✓✕★
operate, ♦✕✓✕✛s✒✜✕✧
determines
● ✁✂✁✄☎✆✝✞ ☎✄✁✞
GEOMORPHIC ✟✟ ✟
PROCESSES ✺✠
57

♠✡☛☞✌✡☛✐✍✎
maturation ✍✏ of ✑✍✐✒✑
soils ✡✎✓
and ✔✌✍✏✐✒✕
profile ✓✕✖✕✒✍✔♠✕✎☛✗
development. A✘
■✤
Is ✥✦
it ✧★✩★✤✤✪✫✬
necessary ✦✭
to ✤★✮✪✫✪✦★
separate ✦✯★
the ✮✫✭✩★✤✤
process ✭✰
of
✑✍✐✒ s✕✙✍♠✕✑ ♠✡☛☞✌✕
soil becomes mature when✚✛✕✎ ✡✒✒ all ✑✍✐✒✜✏✍✌♠✐✎✢
soil-forming
✤✭✥✱
soil ✰✭✫✲✪✦✥✭✧
formation ✪✧✳
and ✦✯★
the ✤✭✥✱
soil ✰✭✫✲✥✧✴
forming ✩✭✧✦✫✭✱
control ✔✌✍✙✕✑✑✕✑
processes ✡✙☛ act ✏✍✌
for ✡ a ✑☞✏✏✐✙✐✕✎☛✒♣
sufficiently ✒✍✎✢ long ☛✐♠✕
time
✰✪✩✦✭✫✤❢
factors? ✓✕✖✕✒✍✔✐✎✢
developing ✡ a ✔✌✍✏✐✒✕✗
profile. ❞✍✐✒✑
Soils ✓✕✖✕✒✍✔✐✎✢
developing ✏✌✍♠ from
✌✕✙✕✎☛✒♣
recently ✓✕✔✍✑✐☛✕✓
deposited ✡✒✒☞✖✐☞♠
alluvium ✍✌ or ✢✒✡✙✐✡✒
glacial ☛✐✒✒
till ✡✌✕
are
❲✯✬ ✪✫★
Why are ✦✥✲★✵
time, ✦✭✮✭✴✫✪✮✯✬
topography ✪✧✳
and ✮✪✫★✧✦
parent ✙✍✎✑✐✓✕✌✕✓ ♣✍☞✎✢ ✡✎✓
considered young and ☛✛✕♣
they ✕❝✛✐s✐☛
exhibit ✎✍no ✛✍✌✐✣✍✎✑
horizons
✲✪✦★✫✥✪✱
material ✩✭✧✤✥✳★✫★✳
considered ✪✤as ✮✪✤✤✥✶★
passive ✩✭✧✦✫✭✱
control ✍✌
or ✍✎✒♣
only ✔✍✍✌✒♣
poorly ✓✕✖✕✒✍✔✕✓
developed ✛✍✌✐✣✍✎✑✗
horizons. ♦✍ No ✑✔✕✙✐✏✐✙
specific
✰✪✩✦✭✫✤
factors ✥✧
in ✤✭✥✱
soil ✰✭✫✲✪✦✥✭✧❢
formation? ✒✕✎✢☛✛ ✍✏ ☛✐♠✕ ✐✎ ✡s✑✍✒☞☛✕ ☛✕✌♠✑
length of time in absolute terms can be ✙✡✎ s✕ ✏✐❝✕✓
fixed
✏✍✌
for ✑✍✐✒✑
soils ☛✍
to ✓✕✖✕✒✍✔
develop ✡✎✓
and ♠✡☛☞✌✕✗
mature.

❊✷❊✸❈✹✻❊✻
EXERCISES

✼✽
1. ▼✾✱✦✥✮✱★ choice ✿✾★✤✦✥✭✧✤✽
Multiple ✩✯✭✥✩★ questions.
❀✥❁ ❲✯✥✩✯ ✭✧★
(i) Which one ✭✰
of ✦✯★
the ✰✭✱✱✭❂✥✧✴
following ✮✫✭✩★✤✤★✤
processes ✥✤ a ✴✫✪✳✪✦✥✭✧✪✱
is ✪ gradational ✮✫✭✩★✤✤❢
process?
❀✪❁
(a) ❃★✮✭✤✥✦✥✭✧
Deposition ❀✩❁ ❄✭✱✩✪✧✥✤✲
(c) Volcanism

❀❅❁
(b) ❃✥✪✤✦✫✭✮✯✥✤✲
Diastrophism ❀✳❁
(d) ❆✫✭✤✥✭✧
Erosion

❀✥✥❁ ❲✯✥✩✯ ✭✧★

(ii) Which one ✭✰
of ✦✯★ following ✲✪✦★✫✥✪✱✤
the ✰✭✱✱✭❂✥✧✴ materials ✥✤ affected ❅✬
is ✪✰✰★✩✦★✳ by ✯✬✳✫✪✦✥✭✧
hydration ✮✫✭✩★✤✤❢
process?
❀✪❁
(a) ❇✫✪✧✥✦★
Granite ❀✩❁
(c) ◗✾✪✫✦❉
Quartz

❀❅❁
(b) ❋✱✪✬
Clay ❀✳❁
(d) ❙✪✱✦✤
Salts

❀✥✥✥❁
(iii) ❃★❅✫✥✤
Debris ✪✶✪✱✪✧✩✯★ can ❅★
avalanche ✩✪✧ be ✥✧✩✱✾✳★✳
included ✥✧
in ✦✯★
the ✩✪✦★✴✭✫✬
category ✭✰❍
of:

❀✪❁
(a) ❏✪✧✳✤✱✥✳★✤
Landslides ❀✩❁
(c) ❑✪✮✥✳ flow ✲✪✤✤
Rapid ✰✱✭❂ mass ✲✭✶★✲★✧✦✤
movements

❀❅❁
(b) ❙✱✭❂ flow ✲✪✤✤
Slow ✰✱✭❂ mass ✲✭✶★✲★✧✦✤
movements ❀✳❁
(d) ❙✾❅✤✥✳★✧✩★
Subsidence

▲✽
2. ◆✧✤❂★✫ ✦✯★
Answer following ✿✾★✤✦✥✭✧✤
the ✰✭✱✱✭❂✥✧✴ questions ✥✧ about ❖P
in ✪❅✭✾✦ ❂✭✫✳✤✽
30 words.
❀✥❁
(i) ■✦ is ❂★✪✦✯★✫✥✧✴
It ✥✤ weathering ✦✯✪✦ that ✥✤
is ✫★✤✮✭✧✤✥❅✱★ for ❅✥✭❘✳✥✶★✫✤✥✦✬
responsible ✰✭✫ bio-diversity ✭✧
on ✦✯★ earth. ❚✭❂❢
the ★✪✫✦✯✽ How?
❀✥✥❁
(ii) ❲✯✪✦
What ✪✫★are ✲✪✤✤
mass ✲✭✶★✲★✧✦✤
movements ✦✯✪✦ that ✪✫★
are ✫★✪✱
real ✫✪✮✥✳
rapid ✪✧✳ perceptible? ❏✥✤✦✽
and ✮★✫✩★✮✦✥❅✱★❢ List.
❀✥✥✥❁
(iii) ❲✯✪✦
What ✪✫★ the ✶✪✫✥✭✾✤
are ✦✯★ various ✲✭❅✥✱★ and ✲✥✴✯✦✬
mobile ✪✧✳ exogenic ✴★✭✲✭✫✮✯✥✩
mighty ★❯✭✴★✧✥✩ geomorphic ✪✴★✧✦✤
agents ✪✧✳and
❂✯✪✦
what ✥✤is ✦✯★
the ✮✫✥✲★
prime job✇✭❅ ✦✯★✬
they ✮★✫✰✭✫✲❢
perform?
❀✥✶❁
(iv) Is ❂★✪✦✯★✫✥✧✴
■✤ weathering ★✤✤★✧✦✥✪✱
essential ✪✤as ✪a ✮✫★❘✫★✿✾✥✤✥✦★
pre-requisite ✥✧in ✦✯★
the ✰✭✫✲✪✦✥✭✧
formation ✭✰ soils? ❲✯✬❢
of ✤✭✥✱✤❢ Why?

❖✽
3. ◆✧✤❂★✫
Answer ✦✯★ following ✿✾★✤✦✥✭✧✤
the ✰✭✱✱✭❂✥✧✴ questions ✥✧ about ✼❱P
in ✪❅✭✾✦ 150 ❂✭✫✳✤✽
words.
❀✥❁
(i) ➇❳✾✫
“Our ★✪✫✦✯
earth ✥✤ is ✪
a ✮✱✪✬✰✥★✱✳
playfield ✰✭✫
for ✦❂✭ opposing ✴✫✭✾✮✤
two ✭✮✮✭✤✥✧✴ groups ✭✰ of ✴★✭✲✭✫✮✯✥✩
geomorphic ✮✫✭✩★✤✤★✤✽❨
processes.”
❃✥✤✩✾✤✤✽
Discuss.
❀✥✥❁
(ii) ❆❯✭✴★✧✥✩
Exogenic ✴★✭✲✭✫✮✯✥✩ processes ✳★✫✥✶★
geomorphic ✮✫✭✩★✤✤★✤ their ✾✱✦✥✲✪✦★
derive ✦✯★✥✫ ultimate ★✧★✫✴✬
energy ✰✫✭✲
from ✦✯★
the ✤✾✧❩✤
sun’s
heat. ❆❯✮✱✪✥✧✽
✯★✪✦✽ Explain.
❀✥✥✥❁
(iii) ◆✫★
Are ✮✯✬✤✥✩✪✱
physical ✪✧✳ chemical ❂★✪✦✯★✫✥✧✴
and ✩✯★✲✥✩✪✱ weathering ✮✫✭✩★✤✤★✤
processes ✥✧✳★✮★✧✳★✧✦
independent ✭✰ of ★✪✩✯
each
✭✦✯★✫❢
other? ■✰ not, ❂✯✬❢
If ✧✭✦✵ why? ❆❯✮✱✪✥✧
Explain ❂✥✦✯with ★❯✪✲✮✱★✤✽
examples.
❀✥✶❁
(iv) ❚✭❂
How ✳✭ ✬✭✾ ✳✥✤✦✥✧✴✾✥✤✯
do you distinguish ❅★✦❂★★✧
between ✦✯★ the ✮✫✭✩★✤✤
process ✭✰ of ✤✭✥✱
soil ✰✭✫✲✪✦✥✭✧
formation ✪✧✳and ✤✭✥✱❘
soil-
✰✭✫✲✥✧✴ factors? ❲✯✪✦
forming ✰✪✩✦✭✫✤❢ What ✥✤is ✦✯★
the ✫✭✱★
role ✭✰
of ✩✱✥✲✪✦★
climate ✪✧✳and ❅✥✭✱✭✴✥✩✪✱
biological ✪✩✦✥✶✥✦✬
activity ✪✤as ✦❂✭
two
✥✲✮✭✫✦✪✧✦
important ✩✭✧✦✫✭✱
control ✰✪✩✦✭✫✤
factors ✥✧in ✦✯★
the ✰✭✫✲✪✦✥✭✧
formation ✭✰ of ✤✭✥✱✤❢
soils?

❬r❭❪❫❴❵
Project ❛❭r❜
Work
❃★✮★✧✳✥✧✴
Depending ✾✮✭✧
upon ✦✯★
the ✦✭✮✭✴✫✪✮✯✬ and ✲✪✦★✫✥✪✱✤
topography ✪✧✳ materials ✪✫✭✾✧✳ ✬✭✾✵ ✭❅✤★✫✶★
around you, observe ✪✧✳
and ✫★✩✭✫✳
record
✩✱✥✲✪✦★✵ ❂★✪✦✯★✫✥✧✴
climate, possible weathering process ✪✧✳
✮✭✤✤✥❅✱★ ✮✫✭✩★✤✤ and ✤✭✥✱
soil ✩✭✧✦★✧✦✤
contents ✪✧✳
and ✩✯✪✫✪✩✦★✫✥✤✦✥✩✤✽
characteristics.
❈CHAPTER
☞✌✍✎✏✑

7
▲❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝ AND
LANDFORMS ❆ ✁ ❚✞✟✠☎
THEIR
❊❱✄✡☛❚✠✄
EVOLUTION

❢✓✔✕ ✖✔✗✓t✔✕✘✙✚ ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣

fter weathering processes t✗✤✔ have t✗✥ had ✦✔✗✙✣✩
means, ✔✗✢teach ✗✙✥ every ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦
and ✔✤✔✕✪ landform t✗✣ has ✗ a t✘✣✓✜✕✪
history
A ✓t✔✘✕
their ✗✢✓✘✜✙✣
actions ✜✙ on ✓t✔ earth ✦✗✓✔✕✘✗✧✣
the ✔✗✕✓t materials ✜❢of ✥✔✤✔✧✜✛✦✔✙✓
development ✗✙✥ and ✢t✗✙✚✔✣
changes ✓t✕✜★✚t through ✓✘✦✔♦ time. A✬
✒ ✦✗♠✘✙✚ making ★✛ up ✓t✔
the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢✓t✔of the ✔✗✕✓t✩✓t✔
earth, the ✧✗✙✥✦✗✣✣
landmass ✛✗✣✣✔✣
passes ✓t✕✜★✚t
through ✣✓✗✚✔✣
stages ✜❢
of
✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢ ✗✚✔✙✓✣ ✧✘♠✔
geomorphic agents like running water, ✚✕✜★✙✥ ✕★✙✙✘✙✚ ✖✗✓✔✕✩ ground ✥✔✤✔✧✜✛✦✔✙✓ ✣✜✦✔✖t✗✓
development somewhat comparable to the ✢✜✦✛✗✕✗✫✧✔ ✓✜ ✓t✔
✖✗✓✔✕✩ wind,
water, ✖✘✙✥✩ ✚✧✗✢✘✔✕✣✩
glaciers, waves ✖✗✤✔✣ ✛✔✕❢✜✕✦
perform ✔✕✜✣✘✜✙♦
erosion. ✣✓✗✚✔✣
stages ✜❢ of ✧✘❢✔
life — s youth,
✪✜★✓t✩ ✦✗✓★✕✔
mature ✗✙✥ and ✜✧✥old ✗✚✔♦
age.
■✓It ✘✣is ✗✧✕✔✗✥✪
already ♠✙✜✖✙ known ✓✜ ✪✜★ ✓t✗✓
to you that ✔✕✜✣✘✜✙
erosion ✢✗★✣✔✣
causes
✢t✗✙✚✔✣
changes ✜✙ on ✓t✔
the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔ earth. ❝✔✛✜✣✘✓✘✜✙
the ✔✗✕✓t♦ Deposition ❲✳✴✵ ✴✶✷
What are ✵✳✷the ✵✸✹
two ✺✻✼✹✶✵✴✽✵
important ✴✾✼✷✿✵✾ aspects ✹❀ of
❢✜✧✧✜✖✣
follows ✔✕✜✣✘✜✙ erosion ✗✙✥ and ✫✔✢✗★✣✔
because ✜❢ of ✥✔✛✜✣✘✓✘✜✙
deposition ✓✜✜✩ too, ✵✳✷
the ✷❁✹❂❃✵✺✹✽
evolution ✹❀ of ❂✴✽❄❀✹✶✻✾❅
landforms?
✢t✗✙✚✔✣
changes ✜✢✢★✕ occur ✜✙ on ✓t✔
the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t♦
earth.
✲t✔ ✔✤✜✧★✓✘✜✙✗✕✪
✬✣ ✓t✘✣
As this ✢t✗✛✓✔✕
chapter ✥✔✗✧✣ deals with ✖✘✓t ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣
landforms ✗✙✥ and The evolutionary t✘✣✓✜✕✪ history ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✢✜✙✓✘✙★✗✧✧✪
continually
✓t✔✘✕
their ✔✤✜✧★✓✘✜✙ evolution ❢✘✕✣✓ first ✣✓✗✕✓
start with✖✘✓t ✓t✔ the ✭★✔✣✓✘✜✙✩
question, ✢t✗✙✚✘✙✚
changing ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t
earth ✘✣ is ✔✣✣✔✙✓✘✗✧
essential ✓✜ to ✫✔
be
✖t✗✓ ✘✣is ✗a ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✇
what landform? ■✙ In ✣✘✦✛✧✔
simple words,✖✜✕✥✣✩ ✣✦✗✧✧small ✓✜ to ★✙✥✔✕✣✓✜✜✥
understood ✘✙ in ✜✕✥✔✕✓✜
order to ★✣✔ use ✘✓ it ✔❢❢✔✢✓✘✤✔✧✪ ✖✘✓t✜★✓
effectively without
✦✔✥✘★✦
medium ✓✕✗✢✓✣ tracts ✜✕ or ✛✗✕✢✔✧✣
parcels ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t✮✣
earth’s ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✥✘✣✓★✕✫✘✙✚
disturbing ✘✓✣ its ✫✗✧✗✙✢✔
balance ✗✙✥ and ✥✘✦✘✙✘✣t✘✙✚
diminishing ✘✓✣ its
✗✕✔ called ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣♦
are ✢✗✧✧✔✥ landforms. ✛✜✓✔✙✓✘✗✧
potential ❢✜✕ for ✓t✔
the ❢★✓★✕✔♦
future. ♣✔✜✦✜✕✛t✜✧✜✚✪
Geomorphology ✥✔✗✧✣ deals
✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦ ✘✣is ✗a ✣✦✗✧✧
■❢Iflandform small ✓✜ to ✦✔✥✘★✦
medium ✣✘✯✔✥ sized ✛✗✕✓
part ✖✘✓t ✓t✔
with the ✕✔✢✜✙✣✓✕★✢✓✘✜✙
reconstruction ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the t✘✣✓✜✕✪
history ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the
✜❢of ✓t✔
the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t✩
earth, what ✖t✗✓ ✘✣is ✗✧✗✙✥✣✢✗✛✔✇
a landscape? ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t
earth ✓t✕✜★✚t
through ✗ a ✣✓★✥✪
study ✜❢ of ✘✓✣
its
❙✔✤✔✕✗✧
Several ✕✔✧✗✓✔✥ related ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣
landforms ✓✜✚✔✓t✔✕ together ✦✗♠✔ make ❢✜✕✦✣✩ ✓t✔ ✦✗✓✔✕✘✗✧✣
forms, the materials of which it is made up ✜❢
✜❢ ✖t✘✢t ✘✓ ✘✣ ✦✗✥✔ ★✛ of
up ✧✗✙✥✣✢✗✛✔✣✩
★✛ landscapes, ✉✧✗✕✚✔ (large ✓✕✗✢✓✣
tracts ✜❢ of ✔✗✕✓t✮✣
earth’s ✣★✕❢✗✢✔✰♦
surface). ✗✙✥
and ✓t✔the ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣
processes ✓t✗✓ that ✣t✗✛✔
shape ✘✓♦ it.
✱✗✢t
Each ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦ landform t✗✣ has ✘✓✣its ✜✖✙
own ✛t✪✣✘✢✗✧
physical ✣t✗✛✔✩shape, ✣✘✯✔✩
size, ❇t✗✙✚✔✣
Changes ✜✙ on ✓t✔the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔the ✔✗✕✓t
earth ✜✖✔ owe
✦✗✓✔✕✘✗✧✣
materials and is a result of the action ✜❢
✗✙✥ ✘✣ ✗ ✕✔✣★✧✓ ✜❢ ✓t✔ ✗✢✓✘✜✙ of ✢✔✕✓✗✘✙
certain ✦✜✣✓✧✪
mostly ✓✜ erosion ✫✪
to ✔✕✜✣✘✜✙ ✤✗✕✘✜★✣ ✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
by various geomorphic
✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
geomorphic ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣ processes ✗✙✥ and ✗✚✔✙✓✉✣✰♦
agent(s). Actions✬✢✓✘✜✙✣ ✗✚✔✙✓✣♦
agents. ❛❢ Of ✢✜★✕✣✔✩
course, ✓t✔ the ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣
process ✜❢ of ✥✔✛✜✣✘✓✘✜✙
deposition ✓✜✜✩ too,
✜❢of ✦✜✣✓most ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
geomorphic ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣ processes ✗✙✥ and ✫✪
by ✢✜✤✔✕✘✙✚
covering ✓t✔ the ✧✗✙✥
land ✣★✕❢✗✢✔✣
surfaces ✗✙✥ and ❢✘✧✧✘✙✚
filling ✓t✔the
✗✚✔✙✓✣
agents ✗✕✔ are ✣✧✜✖✩
slow, ✗✙✥ and t✔✙✢✔
hence ✓t✔ the ✕✔✣★✧✓✣
results ✓✗♠✔take ✗ a ✫✗✣✘✙✣✩ ✤✗✧✧✔✪✣ ✜✕ ✥✔✛✕✔✣✣✘✜✙✣✩
basins, valleys or depressions, brings changes ✫✕✘✙✚✣ ✢t✗✙✚✔✣
✧✜✙✚
long ✓✘✦✔ time ✓✜ to ✓✗♠✔ shape. ✱✤✔✕✪
take ✣t✗✛✔♦ Every ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦
landform t✗✣ has ✗ a ✘✙
in ✓t✔
the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ the ✧✗✙✥♦
of ✓t✔ land. ❝✔✛✜✣✘✓✘✜✙
Deposition ❢✜✧✧✜✖✣ follows
✫✔✚✘✙✙✘✙✚♦
beginning. ❜✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣ Landforms ✜✙✢✔ once ❢✜✕✦✔✥formed ✦✗✪ may ✔✕✜✣✘✜✙
erosion ✗✙✥ and ✓t✔ the ✥✔✛✜✣✘✓✘✜✙✗✧
depositional ✣★✕❢✗✢✔✣ surfaces ✓✜✜ too ✗✕✔are
✢t✗✙✚✔
change ✘✙ in ✓t✔✘✕
their ✣t✗✛✔✩
shape, ✣✘✯✔ size ✗✙✥and ✙✗✓★✕✔
nature ✣✧✜✖✧✪
slowly ★✧✓✘✦✗✓✔✧✪
ultimately ✣★✫❉✔✢✓✔✥
subjected ✓✜✔✕✜✣✘✜✙♦
to erosion. ❋★✙✙✘✙✚ Running water, ✖✗✓✔✕✩
✜✕
or ❢✗✣✓fast ✥★✔ due ✓✜ to ✢✜✙✓✘✙★✔✥
continued ✗✢✓✘✜✙ action ✜❢ of ✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
geomorphic ✚✕✜★✙✥✈✖✗✓✔✕✩
ground-water, ✚✧✗✢✘✔✕✣✩ glaciers, wind ✖✘✙✥ ✗✙✥ ✖✗✤✔✣ ✗✕✔
and waves are
✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣
processes ✗✙✥ and ✗✚✔✙✓✣♦
agents. ✛✜✖✔✕❢★✧
powerful ✔✕✜✣✘✜✙✗✧
erosional ✗✙✥ and ✥✔✛✜✣✘✓✘✜✙✗✧
depositional ✗✚✔✙✓✣ agents
❝★✔
Due ✓✜ to ✢t✗✙✚✔✣
changes ✘✙ in ✢✧✘✦✗✓✘✢
climatic ✢✜✙✥✘✓✘✜✙✣
conditions ✗✙✥ and ✣t✗✛✘✙✚
shaping ✗✙✥ and ✢t✗✙✚✘✙✚
changing ✓t✔ the ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t
earth
✤✔✕✓✘✢✗✧ ✜✕
vertical horizontal ✦✜✤✔✦✔✙✓✣
or t✜✕✘✯✜✙✓✗✧ movements ✜❢ of ✧✗✙✥✈
land- ✗✘✥✔✥ ✫✪ ✖✔✗✓t✔✕✘✙✚
aided by weathering and mass wasting ✗✙✥ ✦✗✣✣ ✖✗✣✓✘✙✚
✦✗✣✣✔✣✩
masses, ✔✘✓t✔✕✓t✔ either the ✘✙✓✔✙✣✘✓✪
intensity ✜❢ of ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣
processes ✜✕ or ✓t✔
the ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣♦
processes. These ✲t✔✣✔ ✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
geomorphic ✗✚✔✙✓✣ agents ✗✢✓✘✙✚acting
✛✕✜✢✔✣✣✔✣
processes ✓t✔✦✣✔✧✤✔✣ themselves ✦✘✚t✓ change ✧✔✗✥✘✙✚
might ✢t✗✙✚✔ leading ✓✜ to over ✧✜✙✚
✜✤✔✕ long ✛✔✕✘✜✥✣
periods ✜❢ of ✓✘✦✔
time ✛✕✜✥★✢✔
produce ✣✪✣✓✔✦✗✓✘✢
systematic
new ✦✜✥✘❢✘✢✗✓✘✜✙✣
✙✔✖ modifications ✘✙ in ✓t✔the ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣♦
landforms. ✱✤✜✧★✓✘✜✙
Evolution changes ✧✔✗✥✘✙✚
✢t✗✙✚✔✣ leading ✓✜ to ✣✔✭★✔✙✓✘✗✧
sequential ✥✔✤✔✧✜✛✦✔✙✓
development ✜❢ of
t✔✕✔
here ✘✦✛✧✘✔✣ implies ✣✓✗✚✔✣ stages ✜❢ of ✓✕✗✙✣❢✜✕✦✗✓✘✜✙
transformation ✜❢ of ✔✘✓t✔✕
either ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣♦
landforms. ✱✗✢t Each ✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
geomorphic ✗✚✔✙✓ agent ✛✕✜✥★✢✔✣
produces
✗a ✛✗✕✓
part ✜❢ of ✓t✔
the ✔✗✕✓t✮✣
earth’s ✣★✕❢✗✢✔
surface ❢✕✜✦ from ✜✙✔ one ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦
landform ✘✓✣
its ✜✖✙
own ✗✣✣✔✦✫✧✗✚✔
assemblage ✜❢ of ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣♦
landforms. ✐✜✓ Not ✜✙✧✪
only ✓t✘✣✩
this,
✘✙✓✜
into ✗✙✜✓t✔✕ another ✜✕ or ✓✕✗✙✣❢✜✕✦✗✓✘✜✙
transformation ✜❢ of ✘✙✥✘✤✘✥★✗✧
individual ✔✗✢t
each ✚✔✜✦✜✕✛t✘✢
geomorphic ✛✕✜✢✔✣✣ process ✗✙✥ agent ✧✔✗✤✔
and ✗✚✔✙✓ leave ✓t✔✘✕
their
✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣
landforms ✗❢✓✔✕ after ✓t✔✪they ✗✕✔ are ✜✙✢✔
once ❢✜✕✦✔✥♦
formed. That ✲t✗✓ ✥✘✣✓✘✙✢✓
distinct ✘✦✛✕✘✙✓✣
imprints ✜✙ on ✓t✔ the ✧✗✙✥❢✜✕✦✣
landforms ✓t✔✪ they
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✺✍
59

♣✎✏✑✒✓✔✕
produce. You ✖✏✒ ♦✗✏✘
know ✙✚✛✙ that ✜✏✢✙
most ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✢✙✎✔✛✜✢
streams ✛✗✑ and ✎✤❧✔✎✢
rivers ✤✗ ❧✛✦✦✔❢✢✕ ❜✏✢✙
in valleys. Most ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the
❣✔✏✜✏✎♣✚✤✓
geomorphic ♣✎✏✓✔✢✢✔✢
processes ✛✎✔ are ✤✜♣✔✎✓✔♣✙✤✥✦✔
imperceptible ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗✛✦
erosional ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢
landforms ✜✛✑✔made by ✥❢ ✎✒✗✗✤✗❣
running water✘✛✙✔✎
✣✒✗✓✙✤✏✗✢
functions ✛✗✑
and ✓✛✗
can ✏✗✦❢ ✥✔ ✢✔✔✗
only be seen ✛✗✑
and ✜✔✛✢✒✎✔✑
measured ✛✎✔
are ✛✢✢✏✓✤✛✙✔✑
associated with ❧✤❣✏✎✏✒✢ ✛✗✑
✘✤✙✚ vigorous ❢✏✒✙✚✣✒✦
and youthful
✙✚✎✏✒❣✚
through ✙✚✔✤✎
their ✎✔✢✒✦✙✢✕ t✚✛✙ ✛✎✔
results. What are ✙✚✔
the ✎✔✢✒✦✙✢✧
results? ✎✤❧✔✎✢
rivers ✣✦✏✘✤✗❣
flowing ✛✦✏✗❣
along ❣✎✛✑✤✔✗✙✢✕
gradients. With t✤✙✚ ✙✤✜✔✩
time,
❚✚✔✢✔ ✎✔✢✒✦✙✢
These results ✛✎✔
are ✗✏✙✚✤✗❣
nothing but✥✒✙ ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢
landforms ✛✗✑and ✢✙✎✔✛✜
stream ✓✚✛✗✗✔✦✢
channels ✏❧✔✎over ✢✙✔✔♣
steep ❣✎✛✑✤✔✗✙✢
gradients ✙✒✎✗ turn
✙✚✔✤✎
their ✓✚✛✎✛✓✙✔✎✤✢✙✤✓✢✕
characteristics. ★✔✗✓✔✩Hence, ✛ a ✢✙✒✑❢
study ✏✣of ❣✔✗✙✦✔✎
gentler ✑✒✔due ✙✏to ✓✏✗✙✤✗✒✔✑
continued ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗✩
erosion, ✛✗✑ and ✛✢ as ✛ a
✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢✩ ✘✤✦✦ ✎✔❧✔✛✦ ✙✏ ✒✢ ✙✚✔ ♣✎✏✓✔✢✢
landforms, will reveal to us the process and ✛✗✑ ✓✏✗✢✔❁✒✔✗✓✔✩
consequence, ✦✏✢✔ lose ✙✚✔✤✎ ❧✔✦✏✓✤✙❢✩ ✣✛✓✤✦✤✙✛✙✤✗❣
their velocity, facilitating
✛❣✔✗✙ ✘✚✤✓✚ ✚✛✢
agent which has ✜✛✑✔
made ✏✎ or ✚✛✢ ✥✔✔✗ ✜✛♦✤✗❣
has been making ✛✓✙✤❧✔
active ✑✔♣✏✢✤✙✤✏✗✕ ❚✚✔✎✔ ✜✛❢
deposition. There may be ✥✔ ✑✔♣✏✢✤✙✤✏✗✛✦
depositional
✙✚✏✢✔
those ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢✕
landforms. ✣✏✎✜✢
forms ✛✢✢✏✓✤✛✙✔✑
associated with ✘✤✙✚ ✢✙✎✔✛✜✢
streams ✣✦✏✘✤✗❣
flowing ✏❧✔✎
over
✢✙✔✔♣
steep ✢✦✏♣✔✢✕
slopes. ●✒✙But ✙✚✔✢✔
these ♣✚✔✗✏✜✔✗✛
phenomena will ✘✤✦✦ be
✥✔ ✏✗
on
▼✪✫✬
Most ✪✭ of ✬✮✯
the ✰✯✪✱✪✲✳✮✴✵
geomorphic ✳✲✪✵✯✫✫✯✫
processes ✶✲✯
are ✛a ✢✜✛✦✦
small ✢✓✛✦✔
scale ✓✏✜♣✛✎✔✑
compared ✙✏ to ✙✚✏✢✔
those ✛✢✢✏✓✤✛✙✔✑
associated
imperceptible. ✹✴✬✯
✴✱✳✯✲✵✯✳✬✴✐✷✯✸ Cite ✶a ✭✯✻
few ✳✲✪✵✯✫✫✯✫ ✻✮✴✵✮
processes which ✘✤✙✚ ✎✤❧✔✎✢
with rivers ✣✦✏✘✤✗❣
flowing ✏❧✔✎
over ✜✔✑✤✒✜
medium ✙✏ to ❣✔✗✙✦✔
gentle
can ✐✯
✵✶❝ be ✫✯✯❝
seen ✶❝✼
and ✶ a ✭✯✻ ✻✮✴✵✮ ✵✶❝✽✬
few which can’t ✐✯
be ✢✦✏♣✔✢✕
slopes. The gentler the river channels ✤✗
❚✚✔ ❣✔✗✙✦✔✎ ✙✚✔ ✎✤❧✔✎ ✓✚✛✗✗✔✦✢ in
✫✯✯❝✸
seen. ❣✎✛✑✤✔✗✙
gradient ✏✎ or ✢✦✏♣✔✩
slope, ✙✚✔
the ❣✎✔✛✙✔✎
greater ✤✢ is ✙✚✔
the ✑✔♣✏✢✤✙✤✏✗✕
deposition.
t✚✔✗ ✙✚✔
When the ✢✙✎✔✛✜ ✥✔✑✢ ✙✒✎✗
stream beds turn ❣✔✗✙✦✔✎
gentler ✑✒✔ due ✙✏ to
❆✢ ✙✚✔
As the ❣✔✏✜✏✎♣✚✤✓
geomorphic ✛❣✔✗✙✢ agents ✛✎✔ are ✓✛♣✛✥✦✔
capable ✏✣ of ✓✏✗✙✤✗✒✔✑
continued ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗✩
erosion, ✑✏✘✗✘✛✎✑
downward ✓✒✙✙✤✗❣ ✥✔✓✏✜✔✢
cutting becomes
✔✎✏✢✤✏✗ ✛✗✑ ✑✔♣✏✢✤✙✤✏✗✩ ✙✘✏
erosion and deposition, two sets — erosional ✢✔✙✢ ❡ ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗✛✦ ✦✔✢✢
less ✑✏✜✤✗✛✗✙
dominant ✛✗✑ and ✦✛✙✔✎✛✦
lateral ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗
erosion ✏✣ ✥✛✗♦✢
of banks
✏✎
or ✑✔✢✙✎✒✓✙✤✏✗✛✦
destructional ✛ ✗✑ ✑✔♣✏✢✤
and depositional ✙✤✏✗✛ ✦ ✏✎ or ✤✗✓✎✔✛✢✔✢
increases ✛✗✑ and ✛✢
as ✛a ✓✏✗✢✔❁✒✔✗✓✔
consequence ✙✚✔ the ✚✤✦✦✢
hills ✛✗✑
and
✓✏✗✢✙✎✒✓✙✤✏✗✛✦
constructional — ❡ ✏✣of ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢
landforms ✛✎✔ are ♣✎✏✑✒✓✔✑
produced ❧✛✦✦✔❢✢ ✛✎✔
valleys are ✎✔✑✒✓✔✑
reduced ✙✏ to ♣✦✛✤✗✢✕
plains.
✥❢ ✙✚✔✜✕
by them. ❜✛✗❢ ❧✛✎✤✔✙✤✔✢ ✏✣
Many varieties of ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢
landforms ✑✔❧✔✦✏♣ develop
✥❢ ✙✚✔
by the ✛✓✙✤✏✗
action ✏✣ of ✔✛✓✚
each ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ❣✔✏✜✏✎♣✚✤✓
geomorphic ✛❣✔✗✙✢ agents ❍✫
Is ✵✪✱✳✷✯✬✯
complete ✲✯✼❏✵✬✴✪❝
reduction ✪✭
of ✲✯✷✴✯✭
relief ✪✭
of ✶
a ✮✴✰✮
high
✑✔♣✔✗✑✤✗❣
depending ✒♣✏✗ upon ✔✢♣✔✓✤✛✦✦❢
especially ✙✚✔ the ✙❢♣✔type ✛✗✑ and ✷✶❝✼
land ✱✶✫✫
mass ✳✪✫✫✴✐✷✯❑
possible?
✢✙✎✒✓✙✒✎✔
structure ✤✕✔✕i.e. ✣✏✦✑✢✩
folds, ✣✛✒✦✙✢✩ s✏✤✗✙✢✩ ✣✎✛✓✙✒✎✔✢✩
faults, joints, fractures,
✚✛✎✑✗✔✢✢
hardness ✛✗✑ and ✢✏✣✙✗✔✢✢✩
softness, ♣✔✎✜✔✛✥✤✦✤✙❢
permeability ✛✗✑ and
❋❧✔✎✦✛✗✑
Overland ✣✦✏✘ flow ✓✛✒✢✔✢
causes ✢✚✔✔✙ sheet ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗✕
erosion.
✤✜♣✔✎✜✔✛✥✤✦✤✙❢✩
impermeability, etc. come under structure ✏✣
✔✙✓✕ ✓✏✜✔ ✒✗✑✔✎ ✢✙✎✒✓✙✒✎✔ of
◆✔♣✔✗✑✤✗❣
Depending ✒♣✏✗ upon ✤✎✎✔❣✒✦✛✎✤✙✤✔✢
irregularities ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✦✛✗✑
land
✎✏✓♦✢✕ ❚✚✔✎✔ ✛✎✔
rocks. There are ✢✏✜✔
some ✏✙✚✔✎ other ✤✗✑✔♣✔✗✑✔✗✙
independent
✢✒✎✣✛✓✔✩
surface, the overland flow may concentrate ✤✗✙✏
✙✚✔ ✏❧✔✎✦✛✗✑ ✣✦✏✘ ✜✛❢ ✓✏✗✓✔✗✙✎✛✙✔ into
✗✛✎✎✏✘
narrow ✙✏ ✘✤✑✔ ♣✛✙✚✢✕
to wide paths. ●✔✓✛✒✢✔
Because ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✢✚✔✔✎
sheer
✓✏✗✙✎✏✦✢ like ✾✤✿
controls ✦✤♦✔ (i) ✢✙✛✥✤✦✤✙❢
stability ✏✣ of ✢✔✛ level; ✾✤✤✿
sea ✦✔❧✔✦❀ (ii) ✙✔✓✙✏✗✤✓
tectonic
✢✙✛✥✤✦✤✙❢
stability ✏✣ landmasses; ✾✤✤✤✿
of ✦✛✗✑✜✛✢✢✔✢❀ (iii) ✓✦✤✜✛✙✔✩
climate, which ✘✚✤✓✚ ✣✎✤✓✙✤✏✗
friction ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✓✏✦✒✜✗
column ✏✣ of ✣✦✏✘✤✗❣ ✘✛✙✔✎✩ ✜✤✗✏✎
flowing water, minor
✤✗✣✦✒✔✗✓✔ ❆✗❢ ✏✎ major ❁✒✛✗✙✤✙✤✔✢
or ✜✛s✏✎ quantities ✏✣ of ✜✛✙✔✎✤✛✦✢
materials ✣✎✏✜ from ✙✚✔ the
influence ✙✚✔ the ✔❧✏✦✒✙✤✏✗
evolution ✏✣ of ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢✕
landforms. Any
✑✤✢✙✒✎✥✛✗✓✔ ✢✒✎✣✛✓✔
surface ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✦✛✗✑
land ✛✎✔
are ✎✔✜✏❧✔✑
removed ✤✗ in ✙✚✔
the ✑✤✎✔✓✙✤✏✗
direction
disturbance ✤✗ in ✛✗❢
any ✏✣ of ✙✚✔✢✔
these ✙✚✎✔✔ three ✓✏✗✙✎✏✦✦✤✗❣
controlling
✣✛✓✙✏✎✢ ✏✣
of ✣✦✏✘
flow ✛✗✑and ❣✎✛✑✒✛✦✦❢
gradually ✢✜✛✦✦ small ✛✗✑ and ✗✛✎✎✏✘
narrow ✎✤✦✦✢ rills
factors ✓✛ can✗ ✒♣✢✔✙upset ✙✚✔ the ✢❢✢✙✔✜✛
systematic ✙✤✓ ✛and ✗✑
✢✔❁✒✔✗✙✤✛✦ ✘✤✦✦ ✣✏✎✜✕
will ❚✚✔✢✔ ✎✤✦✦✢
form. These ✘✤✦✦ ❣✎✛✑✒✛✦✦❢
rills will gradually ✑✔❧✔✦✏♣
develop ✤✗✙✏ into
sequential ✢✙✛❣✔✢stages ✤✗ in ✙✚✔the ✑✔❧✔✦✏♣✜✔✗✙
development ✛✗✑ and
✦✏✗❣
long ✛✗✑ ✘✤✑✔ ❣✒✦✦✤✔✢❀
and wide gullies; ✙✚✔ the ❣✒✦✦✤✔✢
gullies will ✘✤✦✦ ✣✒✎✙✚✔✎
further
✔❧✏✦✒✙✤✏✗
evolution ✏✣ of ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢✕
landforms.
✑✔✔♣✔✗✩
deepen, widen,✘✤✑✔✗✩ ✦✔✗❣✙✚✔✗
lengthen ✛✗✑ and ✒✗✤✙✔
unite ✙✏ to ❣✤❧✔
give ✎✤✢✔
rise
■✗
In ✙✚✔
the ✣✏✦✦✏✘✤✗❣
following ♣✛❣✔✢✩ pages, ✒✗✑✔✎ under ✔✛✓✚ each ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the
✙✏
to ✛ a ✗✔✙✘✏✎♦
network ✏✣ ❧✛✦✦✔❢✢✕ ■✗
of valleys. In ✙✚✔
the ✔✛✎✦❢
early ✢✙✛❣✔✢✩
stages,
❣✔✏✜✏✎♣✚✤✓ ✎✔❣✤✜✔✢
geomorphic regimes i.e. running water;✤✕✔✕ ✎✒✗✗✤✗❣ ✘✛✙✔✎❀
✑✏✘✗❞✓✒✙✙✤✗❣
down-cutting ✑✏✜✤ dominates✗✛ ✙✔ ✢ ✑✒✎✤✗❣
during which ✘✚✤✓✚
❣✎✏✒✗✑✘✛✙✔✎✩
groundwater, ❣✦✛✓✤✔✎✢✩ ✘✛❧✔✢✩ ✛✗✑
glaciers, waves, ✘✤✗✑✢✩ ✣✤✎✢✙
and winds, first
✤✎✎✔❣✒✦✛✎✤✙✤✔✢
irregularities ✢✒✓✚ such ✛✢ ✘✛✙✔✎✣✛✦✦✢ ✛✗✑
as waterfalls and ✓✛✢✓✛✑✔✢
cascades
✛a brief
✥✎✤✔✣ ✑✤✢✓✒✢✢✤✏✗
discussion ✤✢ is ♣✎✔✢✔✗✙✔✑
presented ✛✢ as ✙✏ to ✚✏✘
how
✘✤✦✦ be
will ✥✔ ✎✔✜✏❧✔✑✕
removed. ■✗ In ✙✚✔
the ✜✤✑✑✦✔
middle ✢✙✛❣✔✢✩
stages, ✢✙✎✔✛✜✢
streams
✦✛✗✑✜✛✢✢✔✢
landmasses ✛✎✔ are ✎✔✑✒✓✔✑
reduced ✤✗ in ✙✚✔✤✎
their ✎✔✦✤✔✣
relief ✙✚✎✏✒❣✚
through
✓✒✙
cut ✙✚✔✤✎ ✥✔✑✢ ✢✦✏✘✔✎✩
their beds slower, ✛✗✑ and ✦✛✙✔✎✛✦
lateral ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗
erosion ✏✣ of
✔✎✏✢✤✏✗
erosion ✛✗✑
and ✙✚✔✗✩
then, ✑✔❧✔✦✏♣✜✔✗✙
development ✏✣ of ✢✏✜✔
some ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the
❧✛✦✦✔❢ ✢✤✑✔✢ ✥✔✓✏✜✔✢ ✢✔❧✔✎✔✕
valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the ✈✎✛✑✒✛✦✦❢✩ ✙✚✔
✔✎✏✢✤✏✗✛✦
erosional ✛✗✑and ✑✔♣✏✢✤✙✤✏✗✛✦
depositional ✦✛✗✑✣✏✎✜✢landforms ✤✢ is ✑✔✛✦✙
dealt
❧✛✦✦✔❢ ✢✤✑✔✢
valley sides ✛✎✔ are ✎✔✑✒✓✔✑
reduced ✙✏ to ✦✏✘✔✎
lower ✛✗✑ and ✦✏✘✔✎
lower
✘✤✙✚✕
with.
✢✦✏♣✔✢✕
slopes. The ❚✚✔ ✑✤❧✤✑✔✢ ✥✔✙✘✔✔✗ ✑✎✛✤✗✛❣✔
divides between drainage basins ✥✛✢✤✗✢
✛✎✔
are ✦✤♦✔✘✤✢✔
likewise ✦✏✘✔✎✔✑
lowered ✒✗✙✤✦ until ✙✚✔❢
they ✛✎✔ are ✛✦✜✏✢✙
almost
❘❯❂❂❃❂❄ ❅❇❈❉❊
Runninc WATER
✓✏✜♣✦✔✙✔✦❢
completely ✣✦✛✙✙✔✗✔✑
flattened ✦✔✛❧✤✗❣
leaving ✣✤✗✛✦✦❢✩
finally, ✛ a ✦✏✘✦✛✗✑
lowland
■✗
In ✚✒✜✤✑
humid ✎✔❣✤✏✗✢✩ ✘✚✤✓✚ ✎✔✓✔✤❧✔
regions, which receive ✚✔✛❧❢
heavy ✎✛✤✗✣✛✦✦
rainfall ✏✣
of ✣✛✤✗✙
faint ✎✔✦✤✔✣ ✘✤✙✚ ✢✏✜✔
relief with some ✦✏✘ low ✎✔✢✤✢✙✛✗✙
resistant ✎✔✜✗✛✗✙✢
remnants
✎✒✗✗✤
running✗❣ water
✘✛ ✙✔✎ ✤✢is ✓✏✗✢✤✑✔✎✔✑
considered ✙✚✔ the ✜✏✢✙
most ✓✛✦✦✔✑
called ♠❖P◗❙P❖❱❲❳
monadnocks ✢✙✛✗✑✤✗❣ standing ✏✒✙ out ✚✔✎✔here ✛✗✑ and
✤✜♣✏✎✙✛✗✙
important ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ❣✔✏✜✏✎♣✚✤✓
geomorphic ✛❣✔✗✙✢agents ✤✗ in ✙✚✔✎✔✕ ❚✚✤✢ ✙❢♣✔
there. This type ✏✣ of ♣✦✛✤✗
plain ✣✏✎✜✤✗❣
forming ✛✢ as ✛ a ✎✔✢✒✦✙
result ✏✣ of
✥✎✤✗❣✤✗❣ ✛✥✏✒✙
bringing about ✙✚✔the ✑✔❣✎✛✑✛✙✤✏✗
degradation ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✦✛✗✑
land ✢✙✎✔✛✜
stream ✔✎✏✢✤✏✗
erosion ✤✢ is ✓✛✦✦✔✑
called ✛ ❨❩P❩❨❬◗❭P ✾✛✗
a peneplain (an ✛✦✜✏✢✙
almost
✢✒✎✣✛✓✔✕ ❚✚✔✎✔ ✛✎✔
surface. There are ✙✘✏
two ✓✏✜♣✏✗✔✗✙✢
components ✏✣ of ✎✒✗✗✤✗❣
running ♣✦✛✤✗✿✕
plain). The❚✚✔ ✓✚✛✎✛✓✙✔✎✤✢✙✤✓✢
characteristics ✏✣ of ✔✛✓✚
each ✏✣ of ✙✚✔
the ✢✙✛❣✔✢
stages
✘✛✙✔✎✕ ❋✗✔
water. One ✤✢is ✏❧✔✎✦✛✗✑
overland ✣✦✏✘
flow ✏✗
on ❣✔✗✔✎✛✦
general ✦✛✗✑
land ✏✣
of ✦✛✗✑✢✓✛♣✔✢
landscapes ✑✔❧✔✦✏♣✤✗❣
developing ✤✗ in ✎✒✗✗✤✗❣
running water ✘✛✙✔✎
✢✒✎✣✛✓✔ ❆✗✏✙✚✔✎
surface as a sheet. Another is linear flow ✛✢
✛✢ ✛ ✢✚✔✔✙✕ ✤✢ ✦✤✗✔✛✎ ✣✦✏✘ as ✎✔❣✤✜✔✢
regimes ✜✛❢ may be ✥✔ ✢✒✜✜✛✎✤✢✔✑
summarised ✛✢ as ✣✏✦✦✏✘✢r
follows:
✻✑
60 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❨♦✒✓✔
Youth

❙✕✖✗✘✙✚
Streams ✘✖✗are ✛✗✜
few ✢✣✖✤✥✦
during ✕✧✤✚
this ✚✕✘✦✗ ✜✤✕✧ ★✩✩✖
stage with poor
✤✥✕✗✦✖✘✕✤✩✥
integration ✘✥✢ and ✛✐✩✜
flow ✩✪✗✖
over ✩✖✤✦✤✥✘✐
original ✚✐✩★✗✚
slopes
✚✧✩✜✤✥✦
showing ✚✧✘✐✐✩✜ s✫✚✧✘★✗✢ valleys
shallow V-shaped ✜✤✕✧ ✥✩
✪✘✐✐✗✬✚ with no
✛✐✩✩✢★✐✘✤✥✚
floodplains ✩✖ ✜✤✕✧ very
or with ✪✗✖✬ ✥✘✖✖✩✜
narrow ✛✐✩✩✢★✐✘✤✥✚
floodplains
✘✐✩✥✦
along ✕✖✣✥❛
trunk ✚✕✖✗✘✙✚✭
streams. ❙✕✖✗✘✙✚
Streams ✢✤✪✤✢✗✚
divides ✘✖✗
are ✮✖✩✘✢
broad
✘✥✢ ✛✐✘✕ ✜✤✕✧ ✙✘✖✚✧✗✚✯ ✚✜✘✙★
and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes. ✘✥✢ ✐✘❛✗✚✭
▼✗✘✥✢✗✖✚
Meanders ✤✛ if ★✖✗✚✗✥✕
present ✢✗✪✗✐✩★
develop ✩✪✗✖
over ✕✧✗✚✗
these ✮✖✩✘✢
broad
✣★✐✘✥✢
upland ✚✣✖✛✘✉✗✚✭
surfaces. These✰✧✗✚✗ ✙✗✘✥✢✗✖✚
meanders ✙✘✬ may
✗✪✗✥✕✣✘✐✐✬
eventually ✗✥✕✖✗✥✉✧
entrench ✕✧✗✙✚✗✐✪✗✚
themselves ✤✥✕✩ into ✕✧✗
the
✣★✐✘✥✢✚✭ ✱✘✕✗✖✛✘✐✐✚ ✘✥✢
uplands. Waterfalls and ✖✘★✤✢✚
rapids ✙✘✬
may ✗❢✤✚✕ ✜✧✗✖✗
exist where
local ✧✘✖✢
✐✩✉✘✐ hard ✖✩✉❛ bodies ✘✖✗
rock ✮✩✢✤✗✚ are ✗❢★✩✚✗✢✭
exposed.

✲✳✓✒✴✵
Mature

❉✣✖✤✥✦
During ✕✧✤✚
this ✚✕✘✦✗
stage ✚✕✖✗✘✙✚
streams ✘✖✗are ★✐✗✥✕✬ ✜✤✕✧ ✦✩✩✢
plenty with good
✤✥✕✗✦✖✘✕✤✩✥✭ ✰✧✗ ✪✘✐✐✗✬✚ ✘✖✗ ✚✕✤✐✐
integration. The valleys are still V-shaped ✮✣✕
s✫✚✧✘★✗✢ but
✢✗✗★❞
deep; ✕✖✣✥❛
trunk ✚✕✖✗✘✙✚
streams ✘✖✗ broad ✗✥✩✣✦✧
are ✮✖✩✘✢ enough ✕✩to ✧✘✪✗
have
✜✤✢✗✖ ✛✐✩✩✢★✐✘✤✥✚
wider ✜✤✕✧✤✥ which
floodplains within ✜✧✤✉✧ ✚✕✖✗✘✙✚
streams ✙✘✬
may
✛✐✩✜
flow ✤✥
in ✙✗✘✥✢✗✖✚
meanders ✉✩✥✛✤✥✗✢ ✜✤✕✧✤✥ ✕✧✗
confined within ✪✘✐✐✗✬✭
the valley.
✰✧✗ ✛✐✘✕
The flat ✘✥✢ broad ✤✥✕✗✖
and ✮✖✩✘✢ inter ✚✕✖✗✘✙
stream ✘✖✗✘✚
areas ✘✥✢
and
✚✜✘✙★✚ ✘✥✢ ✙✘✖✚✧✗✚ ✩✛ ✬✩✣✕✧ ✢✤✚✘★★✗✘✖
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and ✘✥✢
✕✧✗
the ✚✕✖✗✘✙
stream ✢✤✪✤✢✗✚
divides ✕✣✖✥
turn ✚✧✘✖★✭ ✱✘✕✗✖✛✘✐✐✚ ✘✥✢
sharp. Waterfalls and
✖✘★✤✢✚
rapids ✢✤✚✘★★✗✘✖✭
disappear.

❖✶✷
Old
❙✙✘✐✐✗✖
Smaller ✕✖✤✮✣✕✘✖✤✗✚
tributaries ✢✣✖✤✥✦
during ✩✐✢
old ✘✦✗
age ✘✖✗
are ✛✗✜ ✜✤✕✧
few with ❜❝❣❤❥❦ ❧♠♥ ♣ qr❦ ✈①②②❦③ ④⑤ ⑥①⑦❦❥❝ ❥❝⑦❦❥ ⑧❦①❥ ⑨④❣❦⑧❦⑩①②❶
✦✗✥✕✐✗
gentle ✦✖✘✢✤✗✥✕✚✭
gradients. ❙✕✖✗✘✙✚
Streams ✙✗✘✥✢✗✖
meander ✛✖✗✗✐✬freely ✩✪✗✖
over ❷r①❥❸①❹❤❥❝ ❺❝❻❼❥❝❽❼❶ q①❸❝②⑧①❺❤ ❝⑧ ❼r❦ ⑤④❥❸ ④⑤ ❣④❥❣❦
✪✘✚✕ ✛✐✩✩✢★✐✘✤✥✚
vast floodplains ✚✧✩✜✤✥✦
showing ✥✘✕✣✖✘✐ levees, ✩❢✮✩✜
natural ✐✗✪✗✗✚✯ oxbow
lakes, ✗✕✉✭
✐✘❛✗✚✯ etc. ❉✤✪✤✢✗✚
Divides ✘✖✗ broad ✘✥✢
are ✮✖✩✘✢ and ✛✐✘✕ ✜✤✕✧ ✐✘❛✗✚✯
flat with lakes,
✚✜✘✙★✚ ✘✥✢ ✙✘✖✚✧✗✚✭ ▼✩✚✕ ✩✛ ✕✧✗
swamps and marshes. Most of the ✐✘✥✢✚✉✘★✗ landscape
✤✚
is ✘✕
at ✩✖
or ✚✐✤✦✧✕✐✬
slightly ✘✮✩✪✗
above ✚✗✘
sea ✐✗✪✗✐✭
level.

❊❘✸✹✺✸✼✽✾
EROSIONAL ✿✽✼❆❀✸❘❁✹
LANDFORMS

❱✳✶✶✵❂❃
Valleys
s✘✐✐✗✬✚ ✚✕✘✖✕
Valleys start ✘✚
as ✚✙✘✐✐
small ✘✥✢
and ✥✘✖✖✩✜
narrow ✖✤✐✐✚❞
rills; ✕✧✗
the ✖✤✐✐✚
rills
✜✤✐✐ ✦✖✘✢✣✘✐✐✬
will gradually ✢✗✪✗✐✩★
develop ✤✥✕✩ long ✘✥✢
into ✐✩✥✦ ✜✤✢✗
and wide
✦✣✐✐✤✗✚❞
gullies; ✕✧✗
the ✦✣✐✐✤✗✚ ✜✤✐✐ ✛✣✖✕✧✗✖
gullies will further ✢✗✗★✗✥✯ ✜✤✢✗✥
deepen, widen aS
ee
Cae’
=
ede ~ Fore —

✘✥✢ lengthen ✕✩
and ✐✗✥✦✕✧✗✥ to ✦✤✪✗
give ✖✤✚✗
rise ✕✩ ✪✘✐✐✗✬✚✭ ❉✗★✗✥✢✤✥✦
to valleys. Depending ❜❝❣❤❥❦❧♠❾
Figure 7.2 ♣❿⑧❦⑧❼❥❦⑧❽r❦❺❸❦①⑧❺❦❥ ②④④❹ ④⑤
: An entrenched meander loop of ❥❝⑦❦❥
river ➀④②④❥①❺④
Colorado
in ➁➂❿
❝⑧ USA ❻r④➃❝⑧❣
showing ❻❼❦❹➄②❝⑩❦
step-like ❻❝❺❦
side ❻②④❹❦❻
slopes ④⑤
of ❝❼❻ ⑦①②②❦③
its valley
✣★✩✥
upon ✢✤✙✗✥✚✤✩✥✚
dimensions ✘✥✢ and ✚✧✘★✗✯
shape, ✙✘✥✬
many ✕✬★✗✚types ✩✛of ❼③❹❝❽①②
typical ④⑤
of ①
a ❽①⑧③④⑧
canyon
✪✘✐✐✗✬✚ ✐✤❛✗ ❄❅❇❈●❍■❏ ❑●▲▲■◆P ◗❚❯◗■P
valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon, ❲●❳◆❚❳✯
✗✕✉✭
etc. ✉✘✥
can ✮✗be ✖✗✉✩✦✥✤✚✗✢✭
recognised. A❡ ✦✩✖✦✗
gorge ✤✚
is ✘
a ✢✗✗★ ✪✘✐✐✗✬
deep valley ✤✚ ✜✤✢✗✖ ✘✕
is wider at ✤✕✚
its ✕✩★
top ✕✧✘✥
than ✘✕at ✤✕✚
its ✮✩✕✕✩✙✭
bottom. t✥In ✛✘✉✕✯
fact, ✘
a
✜✤✕✧ very
with ✪✗✖✬ ✚✕✗✗★
steep ✕✩
to ✚✕✖✘✤✦✧✕
straight ✚✤✢✗✚
sides ✇❩✤✦✣✖✗ 7.1) ✘✥✢
(Figure ❬✭❭❪ and canyon ✤✚
✉✘✥✬✩✥ is ✘ ✪✘✖✤✘✥✕ ✩✛
a variant of ✦✩✖✦✗✭ s✘✐✐✗✬ ✕✬★✗✚
gorge. Valley types ✢✗★✗✥✢
depend
✘a ✉✘✥✬✩✥
canyon ✤✚ is ✉✧✘✖✘✉✕✗✖✤✚✗✢
characterised ✮✬ by ✚✕✗✗★
steep ✚✕✗★✫✐✤❛✗
step-like ✣★✩✥
upon ✕✧✗
the ✕✬★✗
type ✘✥✢
and ✚✕✖✣✉✕✣✖✗
structure ✩✛ of ✖✩✉❛✚
rocks ✤✥ ✜✧✤✉✧
in which
✚✤✢✗
side ✚✐✩★✗✚
slopes ✇❩✤✦✣✖✗ 7.2) ✘✥✢
(Figure ❬✭❫❪ and ✙✘✬ be ✘✚
may ✮✗ as ✢✗✗★
deep ✘✚as ✕✧✗✬
they ✛✩✖✙✭
form. ❩✩✖ For ✗❢✘✙★✐✗✯
example, ✉✘✥✬✩✥✚
canyons ✉✩✙✙✩✥✐✬
commonly
✘a ✦✩✖✦✗✭ ❡ ✦✩✖✦✗ ✤✚ ✘✐✙✩✚✕ ✗❴✣✘✐ ✤✥ ✜✤✢✕✧
gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at its ✘✕ ✤✕✚ ✛✩✖✙
form ✤✥
in ✧✩✖✤❵✩✥✕✘✐ bedded ✚✗✢✤✙✗✥✕✘✖✬
horizontal ✮✗✢✢✗✢ sedimentary ✖✩✉❛✚
rocks
✕✩★
top ✘✚ ✜✗✐✐ ✘✚
as well as ✤✕✚
its ✮✩✕✕✩✙✭
bottom. t✥ contrast, ✘
In ✉✩✥✕✖✘✚✕✯ a ✉✘✥✬✩✥
canyon ✘✥✢ ✦✩✖✦✗✚ ✛✩✖✙ ✤✥ ✧✘✖✢
and gorges form in hard rocks. ✖✩✉❛✚✭
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✻✍
61

P✎✏✑✎✒✓✔
Potholes ✕✖✗
and P✒✘✖✙✓
Plunge P✎✎✒✔
Pools ✇①②✓③ ④✓③③✕⑤✓✔
River Terraces
❖✚✛✜
Over ✢✣✛
the ✜✤✥✦✧ ★✛✩✪ ✤✫
rocky beds of ✣✬✭✭✮✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
hill-streams ✰✤✜✛ more ✤✜or ✭✛✪✪
less ⑥✬✚✛✜
River ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✯✜✛
are ✪❝✜✫✯✥✛✪
surfaces ✰✯✜✦✬✲♦
marking ✤✭✩ ✚✯✭✭✛✧
old valley
✥✬✜✥❝✭✯✜ ✩✛✱✜✛✪✪✬✤✲✪ ✥✯✭✭✛✩
circular depressions called potholes form ♣✳✴✵✳✶✷✸ ✫✤✜✰ ✫✭✤✤✜
floor ✤✜
or ✫✭✤✤✩✱✭✯✬✲
floodplain ✭✛✚✛✭✪✹ ❚✣✛✧ ✰✯✧
levels. They may be★✛ bedrock
★✛✩✜✤✥✦
★✛✥✯❝✪✛ ✤✫
because of ✪✢✜✛✯✰
stream ✛✜✤✪✬✤✲
erosion ✯✬✩✛✩
aided by★✧ ✢✣✛
the ✯★✜✯✪✬✤✲
abrasion ✪❝✜✫✯✥✛✪ ✺✬✢✣✤❝✢ ✯✲✧
surfaces without any ✯✭✭❝✚✬✯✭
alluvial ✥✤✚✛✜
cover ✤✜or ✯✭✭❝✚✬✯✭
alluvial
✤✫
of rock fragments. Once a small and ✪✣✯✭✭✤✺
✜✤✥✦ ✫✜✯♦✰✛✲✢✪✹ ❖✲✥✛ ✯ ✪✰✯✭✭ ✯✲✩ shallow ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✥✤✲✪✬✪✢✬✲♦
consisting ✤✫ of ✪✢✜✛✯✰
stream ✩✛✱✤✪✬✢✪✹
deposits. ⑥✬✚✛✜
River
✩✛✱✜✛✪✪✬✤✲
depression ✫✤✜✰✪❞ forms, ✱✛★★✭✛✪
pebbles ✯✲✩ ★✤❝✭✩✛✜✪ ♦✛✢
and boulders get ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✯✜✛ ★✯✪✬✥✯✭✭✧ ✱✜✤✩❝✥✢✪
are basically products ✤✫ of ✛✜✤✪✬✤✲
erosion ✯✪ as
✥✤✭✭✛✥✢✛✩
collected ✬✲ in ✢✣✤✪✛
those ✩✛✱✜✛✪✪✬✤✲✪
depressions ✯✲✩ and ♦✛✢get ✜✤✢✯✢✛✩
rotated ✢✣✛✧
they ✜✛✪❝✭✢
result ✩❝✛
due ✢✤ ✚✛✜✢✬✥✯✭ ✛✜✤✪✬✤✲
to vertical erosion by★✧ ✢✣✛
the ✪✢✜✛✯✰
stream
★✧ ✫✭✤✺✬✲♦
by flowing water ✺✯✢✛✜ ✯✲✩ and ✥✤✲✪✛✼❝✛✲✢✭✧
consequently ✢✣✛ the ✬✲✢✤
into ✬✢✪
its ✤✺✲
own ✩✛✱✤✪✬✢✬✤✲✯✭
depositional ✫✭✤✤✩✱✭✯✬✲✹ ❚✣✛✜✛ ✥✯✲
floodplain. There can
✩✛✱✜✛✪✪✬✤✲✪
depressions ♦✜✤✺ grow ✬✲in ✩✬✰✛✲✪✬✤✲✪✹
dimensions. A✽ ✪✛✜✬✛✪series ✤✫
of ✪❝✥✣
such ★✛ ✯a ✲❝✰★✛✜
be number ✤✫ of ✪❝✥✣
such ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✯✢ at ✩✬✫✫✛✜✛✲✢
different
✩✛✱✜✛✪✪✬✤✲✪
depressions ✛✚✛✲✢❝✯✭✭✧
eventually join ✾✤✬✲ ✯✲✩and ✢✣✛the ✪✢✜✛✯✰
stream ✣✛✬♦✣✢✪
heights ✬✲✩✬✥✯✢✬✲♦
indicating ✫✤✜✰✛✜
former ✜✬✚✛✜ ★✛✩ ✭✛✚✛✭✪✹
river bed ❚✣✛
levels. The
✚✯✭✭✛✧ ♦✛✢✪
valley gets ✩✛✛✱✛✲✛✩✹
deepened. At ✽✢ ✢✣✛
the ✫✤✤✢
foot ✤✫ ✺✯✢✛✜✫✯✭✭✪
of waterfalls
✜✬✚✛✜
river ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✰✯✧
may ✤✥✥❝✜
occur ✯✢ at ✢✣✛
the ✪✯✰✛
same ✛✭✛✚✯✢✬✤✲
elevation
✯✭✪✤❞
also, ✭✯✜♦✛
large ✱✤✢✣✤✭✛✪❞
potholes, ✼❝✬✢✛quite ✩✛✛✱
deep ✯✲✩ ✺✬✩✛❞ ✫✤✜✰
and wide, form
✤✲
on ✛✬✢✣✛✜
either ✪✬✩✛
side ✤✫
of ✢✣✛
the ✜✬✚✛✜✪
rivers ✬✲ ✺✣✬✥✣ ✥✯✪✛
in which case ✢✣✛✧
they
★✛✥✯❝✪✛ ✤✫
because of ✢✣✛
the ✪✣✛✛✜
sheer ✬✰✱✯✥✢
impact ✤✫ ✺✯✢✛✜ ✯✲✩
of water and ✯✜✛
are ✥✯✭✭✛✩ ♣❘✐◗✷▼ ✴✷◗◗❘❑✷✸
called paired terraces ❙❯✬♦❝✜✛
(Figure ❱✹⑦❨✹
7.3).
✜✤✢✯✢✬✤✲
rotation ✤✫ ★✤❝✭✩✛✜✪✹ r❝✥✣
of boulders. Such ✭✯✜♦✛
large ✯✲✩
and ✩✛✛✱
deep ✣✤✭✛✪
holes
✯✢
at ✢✣✛ ★✯✪✛ ✤✫
the base ✺✯✢✛✜✫✯✭✭✪ ✯✜✛
of waterfalls are ✥✯✭✭✛✩ ♣✶✿❀❁✷ pools.
called plunge ♣✳✳✶✸✹ Paired Terraces
❚✣✛✪✛ ✱✤✤✭✪
These pools ✯✭✪✤also ✣✛✭✱
help ✬✲in ✢✣✛
the ✩✛✛✱✛✲✬✲♦
deepening ✤✫ ✚✯✭✭✛✧✪✹
of valleys.
❲✯✢✛✜✫✯✭✭✪ ✯✜✛
Waterfalls are ✯✭✪✤
also ✢✜✯✲✪✬✢✤✜✧
transitory ✭✬✦✛ like ✯✲✧
any ✤✢✣✛✜
other
✭✯✲✩✫✤✜✰
landform ✯✲✩ ✺✬✭✭ ✜✛✥✛✩✛
and will gradually ✯✲✩
recede ♦✜✯✩❝✯✭✭✧ ★✜✬✲♦
and bring
✢✣✛
the ✫✭✤✤✜
floor ✤✫ of ✢✣✛ ✚✯✭✭✛✧ ✯★✤✚✛
the valley ✺✯✢✛✜✫✯✭✭✪ ✢✤
above waterfalls to ✢✣✛
the
✭✛✚✛✭ ★✛✭✤✺✹
level below.

■◆❂❃❄❅❆
INCISED ❇❈
OR ❉◆❊❈❅◆❂❋❅❆
ENTRENCHED ●❅❍◆❆❅❈❄
MEANDERS

In ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
❏✲ streams ✢✣✯✢ that ✫✭✤✺flow ✜✯✱✬✩✭✧
rapidly ✤✚✛✜ over ✪✢✛✛✱
steep
gradients, ✲✤✜✰✯✭✭✧
♦✜✯✩✬✛✲✢✪❞ normally ✛✜✤✪✬✤✲
erosion ✬✪ is ✥✤✲✥✛✲✢✜✯✢✛✩
concentrated ✤✲ on
✢✣✛ ★✤✢✢✤✰ ✤✫
the bottom of ✢✣✛
the ✪✢✜✛✯✰
stream ✥✣✯✲✲✛✭✹
channel. Also, ✽✭✪✤❞ ✬✲ in ✢✣✛
the ⑧⑨⑩❶❷❸
Figure ❹❺❻
7.3 ❼: ❽❾⑨❷❸❿
Paired ❾➀❿
and ❶➀➁❾⑨❷❸❿
unpaired ❷⑨➂❸❷
river ➃❸❷❷❾➄❸➅
terraces
✥✯✪✛
case ✤✫
of ✪✢✛✛✱ gradient ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪❞
steep ♦✜✯✩✬✛✲✢ streams, ✭✯✢✛✜✯✭lateral ✛✜✤✪✬✤✲
erosion
✤✲
on ✢✣✛
the ✪✬✩✛✪
sides ✤✫ of ✢✣✛ ✚✯✭✭✛✧✪ ✬✪
the valleys is ✲✤✢
not ✰❝✥✣
much when ✺✣✛✲
✥✤✰✱✯✜✛✩
compared ✢✤ to ✢✣✛
the ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
streams ✫✭✤✺✬✲♦
flowing ✤✲ on ✭✤✺
low ✯✲✩and ❲✣✛✲ ✯a ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛
When terrace ✬✪ is ✱✜✛✪✛✲✢
present ✤✲✭✧only ✤✲ on ✤✲✛one ✪✬✩✛
side
gentle ✪✭✤✱✛✪✹
♦✛✲✢✭✛ Because ✤✫
slopes. ❣✛✥✯❝✪✛ of ✯✥✢✬✚✛
active ✭✯✢✛✜✯✭
lateral ✛✜✤✪✬✤✲❞
erosion, ✤✫
of ✢✣✛
the ✪✢✜✛✯✰
stream ✯✲✩ ✺✬✢✣ ✲✤✲✛
and with none ✤✲ on ✢✣✛
the ✤✢✣✛✜
other ✪✬✩✛
side
✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
streams ✫✭✤✺✬✲♦
flowing ✤✚✛✜ gentle ✪✭✤✱✛✪❞
over ♦✛✲✢✭✛ slopes, ✩✛✚✛✭✤✱
develop ✤✜ ✤✲✛ ✯✢ ✼❝✬✢✛ ✯ ✩✬✫✫✛✜✛✲✢ ✛✭✛✚✯✢✬✤✲ ✤✲
or one at quite a different elevation on the other ✢✣✛ ✤✢✣✛✜
✪✬✲❝✤❝✪
sinuous ✤✜ or ✰✛✯✲✩✛✜✬✲♦
meandering ✥✤❝✜✪✛✪✹courses. ❏✢ It ✬✪
is ✥✤✰✰✤✲
common ✪✬✩✛❞
side, ✢✣✛
the ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✯✜✛ are ✥✯✭✭✛✩
called ❀✳❀➆♣❘✐◗✷▼
non-paired
✢✤
to ✫✬✲✩
find ✰✛✯✲✩✛✜✬✲♦
meandering ✥✤❝✜✪✛✪ courses ✤✚✛✜ over ✫✭✤✤✩✱✭✯✬✲✪
floodplains ✴✷◗◗❘❑✷✸✹
terraces. ➇✲✱✯✬✜✛✩
Unpaired ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
terraces ✯✜✛are ✢✧✱✬✥✯✭
typical ✬✲ in ✯✜✛✯✪
areas
✯✲✩
and ✩✛✭✢✯
delta ✱✭✯✬✲✪ ✺✣✛✜✛ ✪✢✜✛✯✰
plains where gradients ✯✜✛
stream ♦✜✯✩✬✛✲✢✪ are ✤✫
of ✪✭✤✺
slow ❝✱✭✬✫✢
uplift ✤✫
of ✭✯✲✩
land ✤✜ ✺✣✛✜✛ ✢✣✛
or where ✺✯✢✛✜ ✥✤✭❝✰✲
the water column
✚✛✜✧ ♦✛✲✢✭✛✹ ❣❝✢ ✚✛✜✧ ✩✛✛✱ ✯✲✩
very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders ✺✬✩✛ ✰✛✯✲✩✛✜✪ ✥✣✯✲♦✛✪
changes ✯✜✛are ✲✤✢
not ❝✲✬✫✤✜✰
uniform ✯✭✤✲♦ ★✤✢✣ ✢✣✛
along both ★✯✲✦✪✹
the banks.
✥✯✲
can ✯✭✪✤
also be ★✛ ✫✤❝✲✩
found ✥❝✢ cut ✬✲ in ✣✯✜✩
hard ✜✤✥✦✪✹rocks. r❝✥✣ Such ❚✣✛ ✢✛✜✜✯✥✛✪
The terraces ✰✯✧
may ✜✛✪❝✭✢
result ✩❝✛due ✢✤ (i) ✜✛✥✛✩✬✲♦
to ❙✬❨ receding water✺✯✢✛✜
✰✛✯✲✩✛✜✪
meanders are called incised or ✷❀✴◗✷❀❑✵✷▼
✯✜✛ ✥✯✭✭✛✩ ✐❀❑✐✸✷▼ ✳◗ entrenched ✯✫✢✛✜
after ✯a ✱✛✯✦
peak ✫✭✤✺➈ (ii) ✥✣✯✲♦✛
flow; ❙✬✬❨ change ✬✲ in ✣✧✩✜✤✭✤♦✬✥✯✭
hydrological
♠✷❘❀▼✷◗✸
meanders ❙❯✬♦❝✜✛
(Figure ❱✹❳❨✹ Meander ✭✤✤✱✪
7.2). ❩✛✯✲✩✛✜ loops ✩✛✚✛✭✤✱
develop ✜✛♦✬✰✛
regime ✩❝✛due ✢✤to ✥✭✬✰✯✢✬✥
climatic ✥✣✯✲♦✛✪➈
changes; ❙✬✬✬❨ (iii) ✢✛✥✢✤✲✬✥
tectonic
✤✚✛✜ ✤✜✬♦✬✲✯✭ gentle surfaces in the ✬✲✬✢✬✯✭
over original ♦✛✲✢✭✛ ✪❝✜✫✯✥✛✪ ✬✲ ✢✣✛ initial ✪✢✯♦✛✪
stages ❝✱✭✬✫✢
uplift of land; (iv) sea level changes ✬✲
✤✫ ✭✯✲✩➈ ❙✬✚❨ ✪✛✯ ✭✛✚✛✭ ✥✣✯✲♦✛✪ in ✥✯✪✛
case ✤✫of
✤✫
of ✩✛✚✛✭✤✱✰✛✲✢
development ✤✫ of ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
streams ✯✲✩ and ✢✣✛ the ✪✯✰✛
same ✭✤✤✱✪loops ✜✬✚✛✜✪
rivers ✥✭✤✪✛✜
closer ✢✤to ✢✣✛
the ✪✛✯✹
sea.
get ✛✲✢✜✛✲✥✣✛✩
♦✛✢ entrenched ✬✲✢✤ into ✢✣✛
the ✜✤✥✦✪
rocks ✲✤✜✰✯✭✭✧
normally ✩❝✛ due ✢✤ to
✛✜✤✪✬✤✲
erosion ✤✜ or ✪✭✤✺❞
slow, ✥✤✲✢✬✲❝✛✩
continued ❝✱✭✬✫✢ uplift ✤✫ of ✢✣✛
the ✭✯✲✩
land ➉❅➊❇❄❃❊❃❇◆❍➋
DEPOSITIONAL ➌❍◆❆➍❇❈➎❄
LANDFORMS
✤✚✛✜ ✺✣✬✥✣ ✢✣✛✧
over which they ✪✢✯✜✢✹ ✺✬✩✛✲ ✯✲✩
❚✣✛✧ widen
start. They and ✩✛✛✱✛✲
deepen
✤✚✛✜
over ✢✬✰✛
time ✯✲✩and ✥✯✲
can be ★✛ ✫✤❝✲✩
found ✯✪ as ✩✛✛✱ gorges ✯✲✩
deep ♦✤✜♦✛✪ and
✥✯✲✧✤✲✪
canyons ✬✲ in ✣✯✜✩
hard ✜✤✥✦rock ✯✜✛✯✪✹
areas. They ❚✣✛✧ ♦✬✚✛give ✯✲ an ➏✒✒✘②①✕✒ ➐✕✖✔
Alluvial Fans
✬✲✩✬✥✯✢✬✤✲
indication ✤✲ on ✢✣✛
the ✪✢✯✢❝✪
status ✤✫ of ✤✜✬♦✬✲✯✭
original ✭✯✲✩ land ✽✭✭❝✚✬✯✭ ✫✯✲✪
Alluvial fans ❙❯✬♦❝✜✛ 7.4) ✯✜✛
(Figure ❱✹➑❨ are ✫✤✜✰✛✩ ✺✣✛✲
formed when
✪❝✜✫✯✥✛✪
surfaces ✤✚✛✜ ✺✣✬✥✣ ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
over which streams ✣✯✚✛ have ✩✛✚✛✭✤✱✛✩✹
developed. ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
streams ✫✭✤✺✬✲♦
flowing ✫✜✤✰
from ✣✬♦✣✛✜
higher ✭✛✚✛✭✪ ★✜✛✯✦ ✬✲✢✤
levels break into
✫✤✤✢
foot ✪✭✤✱✛
slope ✱✭✯✬✲✪
plains ✤✫of ✭✤✺
low ♦✜✯✩✬✛✲✢✹
gradient. ➒✤✜✰✯✭✭✧ ✚✛✜✧
Normally very
❬❭❪❫ ❪❴❵
What are ❫❭❵
the ❛❜❡❡❵❴❵❢❤❵❥ ❦❵❫❧❵❵❢ ❜❢❤❜❥❵❛
differences between incised ✥✤✯✜✪✛
coarse ✭✤✯✩
load ✬✪
is ✥✯✜✜✬✛✩
carried by★✧ ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
streams ✫✭✤✺✬✲♦
flowing ✤✚✛✜
over
♥❵❪❢❛❵❴❥
meanders ❪❢❛
and ♥❵❪❢❛❵❴❥
meanders qs❵❴
over ❡tqq❛
flood ❪❢❛
and ✰✤❝✲✢✯✬✲
mountain ✪✭✤✱✛✪✹ ❚✣✬✪ ✭✤✯✩
slopes. This ★✛✥✤✰✛✪ ✢✤✤
load becomes too ✣✛✯✚✧
heavy
❛❵t❫❪
delta ✉t❪❜❢❥✈
plains? ✫✤✜
for ✢✣✛
the ✪✢✜✛✯✰✪
streams ✢✤ ★✛ ✥✯✜✜✬✛✩
to be carried ✤✚✛✜
over ♦✛✲✢✭✛✜
gentler
✻✑
62 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❣✒✓✔✕✖✗✘✙
gradients ✓✗✔ and ❣✖✘✙
gets ✔✚✛✜✖✔
dumped ✓✗✔ and ✙✜✒✖✓✔
spread ✓✙as ✓ a ✓✙
as ✓ a ✣✢✤ cone. ✭✗✣✕✸✖
low ✦✢✗✖✳ Unlike ✕✗ alluvial ✰✓✗✙✯
in ✓✣✣✚♦✕✓✣ fans, ✘✥✖
the
❜✒✢✓✔
broad ✣✢✤
low ✘✢to ✥✕❣✥
high ✦✢✗✖
cone ✙✥✓✜✖✔
shaped ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘
deposit ✦✓✣✣✖✔
called ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits ✛✓✸✕✗❣
making ✚✜ up ✔✖✣✘✓✙
deltas ✓✒✖ ♦✖✒✮ well
are very ✤✖✣✣ ✙✢✒✘✖✔
sorted
❛✧✧★✩✪❛✧ ✫❛✬✳ ✭✙✚✓✣✣✮✯
alluvial fan. Usually, ✘✥✖the ✙✘✒✖✓✛✙ ✤✥✕✦✥ ✰✣✢✤
streams which flow ✤✕✘✥ ✦✣✖✓✒
with clear ✙✘✒✓✘✕✰✕✦✓✘✕✢✗✳
stratification. The ✇✥✖ ✦✢✓✒✙✖✙✘
coarsest ✛✓✘✖✒✕✓✣✙
materials
over ✰✓✗✙
✢♦✖✒ fans ✓✒✖
are ✗✢✘
not ✦✢✗✰✕✗✖✔
confined ✘✢ to ✘✥✖✕✒
their ✢✒✕❣✕✗✓✣
original ✙✖✘✘✣✖ out ✰✕✒✙✘
settle ✢✚✘ first ✓✗✔ the ✰✕✗✖✒
and ✘✥✖ finer ✰✒✓✦✘✕✢✗✙
fractions ✣✕✸✖
like ✙✕✣✘✙
silts
channels ✰✢✒
✦✥✓✗✗✖✣✙ for ✣✢✗❣
long ✓✗✔
and ✙✥✕✰✘
shift ✘✥✖✕✒
their ✜✢✙✕✘✕✢✗
position ✓✦✒✢✙✙
across ✓✗✔
and ✦✣✓✮✙
clays ✓✒✖
are ✦✓✒✒✕✖✔
carried ✢✚✘
out ✕✗✘✢
into ✘✥✖
the ✙✖✓✳
sea. As✷✙ ✘✥✖
the
✘✥✖ ✰✓✗ ✰✢✒✛✕✗❣ ✛✓✗✮
the fan forming many channels called✦✥✓✗✗✖✣✙ ✦✓✣✣✖✔ ✔✖✣✘✓
delta ❣✒✢✤✙✯
grows, ✘✥✖the ✒✕♦✖✒
river ✔✕✙✘✒✕❜✚✘✓✒✕✖✙
distributaries ✦✢✗✘✕✗✚✖
continue
❞✪✱✲✴✪✵★✲❛✴✪✶✱✳ ✷✣✣✚♦✕✓✣ ✰✓✗✙
distributaries. Alluvial fans ✕✗
in ✥✚✛✕✔
humid ✓✒✖✓✙
areas ✘✢
to ✕✗✦✒✖✓✙✖
increase ✕✗ length t✹✕❣✚✒✖
in ✣✖✗❣✘✥ (Figure ✺✳✼✽
7.5) ✓✗✔
and ✔✖✣✘✓
delta
✙✥✢✤
show ✗✢✒✛✓✣✣✮
normally ✣✢✤ low ✦✢✗✖✙ ✤✕✘✥ ❣✖✗✘✣✖
cones with slope ✰✒✢✛
gentle ✙✣✢✜✖ from ✦✢✗✘✕✗✚✖✙
continues ✘✢ to ❜✚✕✣✔
build ✚✜up ✕✗✘✢
into ✘✥✖
the ✙✖✓✳
sea.

✾✿❀❀❁❂✿❃❄❅❆❇
Floodplains, ❈❃❉❊●❃✿ Natural ❍■❏■■❆
Levees ❃❅❁ and ❑❀❄❅❉
Point ▲❃●❆ Bars
▼✖✜✢✙✕✘✕✢✗
Deposition ✔✖♦✖✣✢✜✙ develops ✓ a ✰✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗
floodplain just ◆✚✙✘ ✓✙ as
✖✒✢✙✕✢✗
erosion ✛✓✸✖✙ ♦✓✣✣✖✮✙✳ ✹✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗
makes valleys. Floodplain ✕✙ is ✓a ✛✓◆✢✒
major
✣✓✗✔✰✢✒✛
landform ✢✰ of ✒✕♦✖✒
river ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✕✢✗✳
deposition. ❧✓✒❣✖ Large ✙✕❖✖✔ sized
✛✓✘✖✒✕✓✣✙
materials ✓✒✖ deposited ✰✕✒✙✘
are ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✖✔ first when✤✥✖✗ ✙✘✒✖✓✛stream
✦✥✓✗✗✖✣
channel ❜✒✖✓✸✙breaks ✕✗✘✢ into ✓ a ❣✖✗✘✣✖
gentle ✙✣✢✜✖✳slope. Thus,✇✥✚✙✯
normally, ✰✕✗✖
✗✢✒✛✓✣✣✮✯ fine ✙✕❖✖✔
sized ✛✓✘✖✒✕✓✣✙
materials ✣✕✸✖ like ✙✓✗✔✯
sand, ✙✕✣✘
silt ✓✗✔
and
✦✣✓✮
clay ✓✒✖
are ✦✓✒✒✕✖✔
carried ❜✮ by ✒✖✣✓✘✕♦✖✣✮
relatively ✙✣✢✤ slow ✛✢♦✕✗❣
moving
✤✓✘✖✒✙ ✕✗
waters in ❣✖✗✘✣✖✒
gentler ✦✥✓✗✗✖✣✙ usually ✰✢✚✗✔
channels ✚✙✚✓✣✣✮ found ✕✗ in ✘✥✖
the
✜✣✓✕✗✙ ✓✗✔ ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✖✔ ✢♦✖✒
plains and deposited over the bed and when ✘✥✖ ❜✖✔ ✓✗✔ ✤✥✖✗
Bess ee eons 84 ✘✥✖ ✤✓✘✖✒✙ ✙✜✕✣✣
the waters spill ✢♦✖✒
over ✘✥✖the ❜✓✗✸✙ during ✰✣✢✢✔✕✗❣
banks ✔✚✒✕✗❣ flooding
❩❬❭❪❫❴
Figure ❵❝❡
7.4 ❢: ❤✐
An ❥❦❦❪♠❬❥❦
alluvial ♥❥✐
fan ♣❴qrs❬✉❴♣
deposited ✈①
by ❥
a ②❬❦❦
hill s✉❫❴❥③
stream ✓❜✢♦✖
above ✘✥✖ the ❜✖✔✳bed. A✷ ✒✕♦✖✒ river ❜✖✔
bed ✛✓✔✖ made ✢✰ of ✒✕♦✖✒
river
r✐
on ✉②❴
the ④❥①
way ✉rto ❤③❥❫✐❥✉②⑤
Amarnath, ⑥❥③③❪
Jammu ❥✐♣
and ⑦❥s②③❬❫
Kashmir ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits ✕✙ is ✘✥✖ active ✰✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗✳
the ✓✦✘✕♦✖ floodplain. The ✇✥✖ ✰✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗
floodplain
✥✖✓✔ ✓❜✢♦✖
above ✘✥✖
the ❜✓✗✸
bank ✕✙ inactive ✰✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗✳
is ✕✗✓✦✘✕♦✖ floodplain. P✗✓✦✘✕♦✖Inactive
head ✘✢
to ✘✢✖
toe ✓✗✔
and ✘✥✖✮
they ✓✜✜✖✓✒
appear ✓✙
as ✥✕❣✥
high ✦✢✗✖✙ ✤✕✘✥
cones with
✰✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗
floodplain ✓❜✢♦✖ above ✘✥✖ the ❜✓✗✸✙
banks ❜✓✙✕✦✓✣✣✮
basically ✦✢✗✘✓✕✗
contain
✙✘✖✖✜ ✙✣✢✜✖ ✕✗ ✓✒✕✔ ✓✗✔ ✙✖✛✕❘✓✒✕✔ ✦✣✕✛✓✘✖✙✳
steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.
✘✤✢ ◗ ✰✣✢✢✔
two ✘✮✜✖✙
types ✢✰ of ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits — flood ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits ✓✗✔ and
⑧■✿❉❃❆ ✦✥✓✗✗✖✣ deposits. P✗
channel ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙✳ In ✜✣✓✕✗✙✯
plains, ✦✥✓✗✗✖✣✙
channels ✙✥✕✰✘ shift
Deltas
✣✓✘✖✒✓✣✣✮
laterally ✓✗✔
and ✦✥✓✗❣✖
change ✘✥✖✕✒their ✦✢✚✒✙✖✙
courses ✢✦✦✓✙✕✢✗✓✣✣✮
occasionally
▼✖✣✘✓✙
Deltas ✓✒✖
are ✣✕✸✖ alluvial ✰✓✗✙
like ✓✣✣✚♦✕✓✣ fans ❜✚✘
but ✔✖♦✖✣✢✜
develop ✓✘ at ✓a leaving cut-off courses which get ✰✕✣✣✖✔
✣✖✓♦✕✗❣ ✦✚✘❘✢✰✰ ✦✢✚✒✙✖✙ ✤✥✕✦✥ ❣✖✘ filled ✚✜ up
✔✕✰✰✖✒✖✗✘
different ✣✢✦✓✘✕✢✗✳ ✇✥✖ ✣✢✓✔
location. The load ✦✓✒✒✕✖✔
carried ❜✮
by ✘✥✖
the ✒✕♦✖✒✙
rivers ❣✒✓✔✚✓✣✣✮✳
gradually. ❙✚✦✥ Such ✓✒✖✓✙
areas ✢♦✖✒ ✰✣✢✢✔
over flood ✜✣✓✕✗✙ plains ❜✚✕✣✘built
✕✙
is ✔✚✛✜✖✔
dumped ✓✗✔ and ✙✜✒✖✓✔
spread ✕✗✘✢into ✘✥✖ sea. P✰
the ✙✖✓✳ If ✘✥✕✙
this ✣✢✓✔
load ✚✜
up ❜✮
by ✓❜✓✗✔✢✗✖✔
abandoned ✢✒ or ✦✚✘❘✢✰✰
cut-off ✦✥✓✗✗✖✣✙
channels ✦✢✗✘✓✕✗contain
✕✙
is ✗✢✘
not ✦✓✒✒✕✖✔
carried ✓✤✓✮ ✰✓✒
away far ✕✗✘✢
into ✘✥✖
the ✙✖✓
sea ✢✒
or ✔✕✙✘✒✕❜✚✘✖✔
distributed ✦✢✓✒✙✖
coarse ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙✳
deposits. The ✇✥✖ ✰✣✢✢✔
flood ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits ✢✰ of ✙✜✕✣✣✖✔
spilled
✓✣✢✗❣
along ✘✥✖
the ✦✢✓✙✘✯
coast, ✕✘it ✙✜✒✖✓✔✙
spreads ✓✗✔and ✓✦✦✚✛✚✣✓✘✖✙
accumulates ✤✓✘✖✒✙ ✦✓✒✒✮
waters relatively ✰✕✗✖✒
carry ✒✖✣✓✘✕♦✖✣✮ finer ✛✓✘✖✒✕✓✣✙
materials ✣✕✸✖ like ✙✕✣✘
silt
✓✗✔
and ✦✣✓✮✳
clay. The✇✥✖ ✰✣✢✢✔
flood ✜✣✓✕✗✙
plains ✕✗ in ✓ a ✔✖✣✘✓
delta ✓✒✖are ✦✓✣✣✖✔
called
❞✶✧✲❛ ❚✧❛✪✬✱✳
delta plains.
Natural ✧✶✩✶✶✱
❯❛✲★✴❛✧ levees ❛✬❞ ❚❱✪✬✲ ✵❛✴✱
and point bars t✹✕❣✚✒✖
(Figure ✺✳❲✽ 7.6)
✓✒✖
are ✙✢✛✖
some ✢✰ of ✘✥✖
the ✕✛✜✢✒✘✓✗✘ landforms ✰✢✚✗✔
important ✣✓✗✔✰✢✒✛✙ found
✓✙✙✢✦✕✓✘✖✔
associated with ✤✕✘✥ ✰✣✢✢✔✜✣✓✕✗✙✳ Natural ✧✶✩✶✶✱
floodplains. ❯❛✲★✴❛✧ levees ✓✒✖ are
✰✢✚✗✔
found ✓✣✢✗❣
along ✘✥✖ the ❜✓✗✸✙
banks ✢✰ of ✣✓✒❣✖
large ✒✕♦✖✒✙✳ ✇✥✖✮ ✓✒✖
rivers. They are
✣✢✤✯
low, ✣✕✗✖✓✒
linear ✓✗✔and ✜✓✒✓✣✣✖✣
parallel ✒✕✔❣✖✙
ridges ✢✰ of ✦✢✓✒✙✖
coarse ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits
✓✣✢✗❣
along ✘✥✖
the ❜✓✗✸✙
banks ✢✰ rivers, ❳✚✕✘✖
of ✒✕♦✖✒✙✯ quite ✢✰✘✖✗often ✦✚✘cut ✕✗✘✢
into
✕✗✔✕♦✕✔✚✓✣ ▼✚✒✕✗❣
individual mounds. During flooding as ✘✥✖
✛✢✚✗✔✙✳ ✰✣✢✢✔✕✗❣ ✓✙ the
water ✙✜✕✣✣✙
✤✓✘✖✒ spills ✢♦✖✒over ✘✥✖
the ❜✓✗✸✯
bank, ✘✥✖ ♦✖✣✢✦✕✘✮ ✢✰
the velocity of ✘✥✖
the
✤✓✘✖✒ ✦✢✛✖✙
water comes ✔✢✤✗ down ✓✗✔ and ✣✓✒❣✖
large ✙✕❖✖✔
sized ✓✗✔ and ✥✕❣✥high
✙✜✖✦✕✰✕✦
specific ❣✒✓♦✕✘✮
gravity ✛✓✘✖✒✕✓✣✙
materials ❣✖✘ get ✔✚✛✜✖✔
dumped ✕✗ in ✘✥✖
the
✕✛✛✖✔✕✓✘✖ ♦✕✦✕✗✕✘✮ ✢✰
immediate vicinity of ✘✥✖
the ❜✓✗✸
bank ✓✙ as ✒✕✔❣✖✙✳
ridges. They✇✥✖✮
✓✒✖
are ✥✕❣✥
high ✗✖✓✒✖✒
nearer ✘✥✖ the ❜✓✗✸✙
banks ✓✗✔ and ✙✣✢✜✖
slope ❣✖✗✘✣✮
gently
away ✰✒✢✛
✓✤✓✮ from ✘✥✖ the ✒✕♦✖✒✳
river. The✇✥✖ ✣✖♦✖✖
levee ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits ✓✒✖ are
✦✢✓✒✙✖✒
coarser ✘✥✓✗ than ✘✥✖ the ✔✖✜✢✙✕✘✙
deposits ✙✜✒✖✓✔ spread ❜✮ by ✰✣✢✢✔
flood
❩❬❭❪❫❴
Figure ❵❝⑨
7.5 ❢: ❤ s❥✉❴❦❦❬✉❴ ♠❬❴④
Asatellite view r♥
of q❥❫✉
part r♥
of ⑦❫❬s②✐❥
Krishna ❫❬♠❴❫
river
✤✓✘✖✒✙ ✓✤✓✮
waters away ✰✒✢✛ from ✘✥✖the ✒✕♦✖✒✳ ❨✥✖✗ ✒✕♦✖✒✙
river. When rivers ✙✥✕✰✘
shift
♣❴❦✉❥⑤
delta, ❤✐♣②❫❥
Andhra ⑩❫❥♣❴s②
Pradesh ✣✓✘✖✒✓✣✣✮✯
laterally, ✓ a ✙✖✒✕✖✙
series ✢✰ of ✗✓✘✚✒✓✣
natural ✣✖♦✖✖✙levees ✦✓✗ can ✰✢✒✛✳
form.
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✻✍
63

Meander ✯✚
⑦✘❛✢✪✘✗ is ✢✛✫
not ❛ a ✙❛✢✪★✛✗✰
landform but ✲✩✫ ✯✚ is ✛✢✙✧
only ❛ a
✫✧✱✘
type ✛★ of ✬✦❛✢✢✘✙
channel ✱❛✫✫✘✗✢✳pattern. This ❚✦✯✚ ✯✚ ✲✘✬❛✩✚✘ ✛★
is because of
❖✯❯
(i) ✱✗✛✱✘✢✚✯✫✧
propensity ✛★ ✣❛✫✘✗ ★✙✛✣✯✢♦
of water flowing ✛✭✘✗ ✭✘✗✧ ♦✘✢✫✙✘
over very gentle
gradients ✫✛
♦✗❛✪✯✘✢✫✚ to ✣✛✗✜
work ✙❛✫✘✗❛✙✙✧
laterally ✛✢ on ✫✦✘ ✲❛✢✜✚⑧
the banks;
(ii) ✩✢✬✛✢✚✛✙✯✪❛✫✘✪
❖✯✯❯ unconsolidated ✢❛✫✩✗✘ nature ✛★ alluvial ✪✘✱✛✚✯✫✚
of ❛✙✙✩✭✯❛✙ deposits
✰❛✜✯✢♦
making ✩✱ up ✫✦✘
the ✲❛✢✜✚
banks ✣✯✫✦ with ✰❛✢✧
many ✯✗✗✘♦✩✙❛✗✯✫✯✘✚
irregularities
which ✬❛✢
✣✦✯✬✦ can ✲✘be ✩✚✘✪
used ✲✧ by ✣❛✫✘✗
water ✘✮✘✗✫✯✢♦
exerting ✱✗✘✚✚✩✗✘
pressure
laterally; (iii) coriolis force acting on ✫✦✘
✙❛✫✘✗❛✙✙✧⑧ ❖✯✯✯❯ ✬✛✗✯✛✙✯✚ ★✛✗✬✘ ❛✬✫✯✢♦ ✛✢ the ★✙✩✯✪
fluid
water ✪✘★✙✘✬✫✯✢♦
✣❛✫✘✗ deflecting ✯✫ like ✯✫
it ✙✯✜✘ it ✪✘★✙✘✬✫✚
deflects ✫✦✘ the ✣✯✢✪✳
wind. ⑨✦✘✢When
✫✦✘
the ♦✗❛✪✯✘✢✫
gradient ✛★ of ✫✦✘
the ✬✦❛✢✢✘✙
channel ✲✘✬✛✰✘✚
becomes ✘✮✫✗✘✰✘✙✧
extremely
✙✛✣t
low, ✣❛✫✘✗ ★✙✛✣✚
water flows ✙✘✯✚✩✗✘✙✧leisurely ❛✢✪ and ✚✫❛✗✫✚
starts ✣✛✗✜✯✢♦
working
❱❲❳❨❩❬
Figure ❭❪❸
7.6 ❫: ❹❜❝❨❩❜❞
Natural ❞❬s❬❬
levee ❜❢❧
and ②❤❲❢❝ ④❜❩❵
point bars
✙❛✫✘✗❛✙✙✧✳ Slight ✯✗✗✘♦✩✙❛✗✯✫✯✘✚
laterally. ⑩✙✯♦✦✫ irregularities ❛✙✛✢♦ along ✫✦✘ the ✲❛✢✜✚
banks
✚✙✛✣✙✧
slowly ♦✘✫get ✫✗❛✢✚★✛✗✰✘✪
transformed ✯✢✫✛ into ❛ small ✬✩✗✭❛✫✩✗✘
a ✚✰❛✙✙ curvature
P✎✏✑✒
Point ✓✔✕✖
bars ❛✗✘
are ❛✙✚✛
also ✜✢✛✣✢
known ❛✚ as ♠✤✔✑✥✤✕
meander ✓✔✕✖✳ bars. ✯✢
in ✫✦✘
the ✲❛✢✜✚⑧
banks; ✫✦✘ the ✬✩✗✭❛✫✩✗✘
curvature ✪✘✘✱✘✢✚ deepens ✪✩✘ due ✫✛ to
❚✦✘✧ ❛✗✘
They are ★✛✩✢✪
found ✛✢ on ✫✦✘
the ✬✛✢✭✘✮
convex ✚✯✪✘side ✛★of ✰✘❛✢✪✘✗✚
meanders ✪✘✱✛✚✯✫✯✛✢
deposition ✛✢ on ✫✦✘the ✯✢✚✯✪✘
inside ✛★ of ✫✦✘
the ✬✩✗✭✘
curve ❛✢✪ and
✛★
of ✙❛✗♦✘
large ✗✯✭✘✗✚
rivers ❛✢✪
and ❛✗✘ sediments ✪✘✱✛✚✯✫✘✪
are ✚✘✪✯✰✘✢✫✚ deposited ✯✢ in
✘✗✛✚✯✛✢ along ✫✦✘
erosion ❛✙✛✢♦ the ✲❛✢✜
bank ✛✢ on ✫✦✘the ✛✩✫✚✯✪✘✳
outside. ✴★ If ✫✦✘✗✘
there
❛ linear ★❛✚✦✯✛✢
a ✙✯✢✘❛✗ fashion by ✲✧ ★✙✛✣✯✢♦ ✣❛✫✘✗✚ ❛✙✛✢♦
flowing waters along ✫✦✘the
✯✚ no ✪✘✱✛✚✯✫✯✛✢
is ✢✛ deposition ❛✢✪ and ✢✛no ✘✗✛✚✯✛✢
erosion ✛✗ or ✩✢✪✘✗✬✩✫✫✯✢♦t
undercutting,
✲❛✢✜✳ They
bank. ❚✦✘✧ ❛✗✘ almost ✩✢✯★✛✗✰
are ❛✙✰✛✚✫ uniform ✯✢ in ✱✗✛★✯✙✘ and ✯✢
profile ❛✢✪ in
width and ✬✛✢✫❛✯✢
✣✯✪✫✦ ❛✢✪ contain ✰✯✮✘✪
mixed ✚✯✇✘✚
sizes ✛★of ✚✘✪✯✰✘✢✫✚✳
sediments. ✴★ If
✫✦✘
the ✫✘✢✪✘✢✬✧
tendency ✫✛ to ✰✘❛✢✪✘✗
meander ✯✚ reduced. ❶✛✗✰❛✙✙✧t
is ✗✘✪✩✬✘✪✳ Normally,
✫✦✘✗✘ ✰✛✗✘ ✫✦❛✢ ✛✢✘ ✗✯✪♦✘t ✢❛✗✗✛✣ ❛✢✪
there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated ✘✙✛✢♦❛✫✘✪ ✯✢ ✰✘❛✢✪✘✗✚
in meanders ✛★ of ✙❛✗♦✘ rivers, there ✯✚
large ✗✯✭✘✗✚t ✫✦✘✗✘ is ❛✬✫✯✭✘
active
✪✘✱✗✘✚✚✯✛✢✚
depressions ❛✗✘ are ★✛✩✢✪
found ✯✢ ✲✘✫✣✘✘✢ ✫✦✘
in between the ✱✛✯✢✫ ✲❛✗✚✳
point bars. ✪✘✱✛✚✯✫✯✛✢
deposition ❛✙✛✢♦ along ✫✦✘ the ✬✛✢✭✘✮
convex ✲❛✢✜ bank ❛✢✪ and
❘✯✭✘✗✚ ✲✩✯✙✪ ❛
Rivers build a ✚✘✗✯✘✚
series ✛★of ✫✦✘✰
them ✪✘✱✘✢✪✯✢♦
depending ✩✱✛✢ upon ✩✢✪✘✗✬✩✫✫✯✢♦
undercutting ❛✙✛✢♦ along ✫✦✘ the ✬✛✢✬❛✭✘
concave ✲❛✢✜✳ bank.
✫✦✘ ✣❛✫✘✗ ★✙✛✣
the water flow ❛✢✪
and ✚✩✱✱✙✧
supply ✛★ of ✚✘✪✯✰✘✢✫✳
sediment. As ✵✚ ✫✦✘
the
✗✯✭✘✗✚ ✲✩✯✙✪ ✫✦✘
rivers build the ✱✛✯✢✫ ✲❛✗✚ ✛✢
point bars on ✫✦✘
the ✬✛✢✭✘✮
convex ✚✯✪✘t
side,
✫✦✘ ✲❛✢✜ ✛✢
the bank on ✫✦✘
the ✬✛✢✬❛✭✘
concave ✚✯✪✘ ✣✯✙✙ ✘✗✛✪✘
side will erode ❛✬✫✯✭✘✙✧✳
actively.
Inflection
■✶ ✷✸✹✺ way
In what ✷✹✼ ✽✾
do ✶✹✺✿❀✹❁
natural ❁❂❃❂❂❄
levees ✽❅❆❆❂❀
differ ❆❀✾❇
from point
♣✾❅✶✺
point ❈✹❀❄❉
bars?

▼❊❋●❍❊❏❑
Meanders
✴✢ large ★✙✛✛✪
In ✙❛✗♦✘ and ✪✘✙✫❛
flood ❛✢✪ delta ✱✙❛✯✢✚t
plains, ✗✯✭✘✗✚ rarely ★✙✛✣
rivers ✗❛✗✘✙✧ flow
✯✢ ✚✫✗❛✯♦✦✫ ✬✛✩✗✚✘✚✳ ✐✛✛✱◆✙✯✜✘ ✬✦❛✢✢✘✙ ✱❛✫✫✘✗✢✚
in straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns
✬❛✙✙✘✪ meanders ✪✘✭✘✙✛✱
called ♠✤✔✑✥✤✕✖ over ★✙✛✛✪
develop ✛✭✘✗ and ✪✘✙✫❛
flood ❛✢✪ delta
✱✙❛✯✢✚
plains ❖◗✯♦✩✗✘
(Figure ❙✳❙❯✳
7.7).
Undercut
bank
(Concave
bank)

Slip-off bank !
RIGHT BANK

LEFT RANK
❱❲❳❨❩❬
Figure ❭❪❭
7.7 ❫: Asatellite
❴ ❵❜❝❬❞❞❲❝❬ ❵❡❬❢❬
scene ❵❣❤❥❲❢❳
showing ❦❬❜❢❧❬❩❲❢❳
meandering
♥❨❩❣❲
Burhi q❜❢❧❜r
Gandak ❩❲s❬❩
river ❢❬❜❩
near ✉❨✈❜①①❜❩②❨❩③
Muzaffarpur, ♥❲❣❜❩③
Bihar, ❵❣❤❥❲❢❳
showing ❱❲❳❨❩❬
Figure ❭❪❷
7.8 ❫: ✉❬❜❢❧❬❩
Meander ❳❩❤❥❝❣
growth ❜❢❧
and ❡❨❝⑥❤①①
cut-off ❞❤❤②❵
loops ❜❢❧
and
❜a ❢❨❦④❬❩
number ❤① of ❤⑤④❤❥
oxbow ❞❜r❬❵
lakes ❜❢❧
and ❡❨❝⑥❤①①❵
cut-offs ❵❞❲②⑥❤①①
slip-off ❜❢❧
and ❨❢❧❬❩❡❨❝
undercut ④❜❢r❵
banks
✻✑
64 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❚✒✓ ✔✕✖✔✗✘✓
The concave ✙✗✖✚
bank ✛✜
is ✚✖✕✢✖
known ✗✜ as ✔✣✤✥✕✦✦
cut-off ✙✗✖✚
bank is ♠✕✧✓
✛✜ more ✛✖in ✤✒✓ ✘✗✩✩✓✲✫ ✔✒✗✖✖✓✩
the valley, channel ✙✗✧✜
bars ✗✖★
and ✛✜✩✗✖★✜
islands
✢✒✛✔✒ ✜✒✕✢✜
which shows ✣✇
up ✗✜
as ✗a ✜✤✓✓✇
steep ✜✔✗✧✇
scarp ✗✖★and ✤✒✓
the ✕✦
of ✜✗✖★✫
sand, ✪✧✗✘✓✩
gravel ✗✖★
and ✇✓✙✙✩✓✜
pebbles ★✓✘✓✩✕✇
develop ✕✖on ✤✒✓
the ✦✩✕✕✧
floor
✔✕✖✘✓❝
convex ✙✗✖✚
bank ✇✧✓✜✓✖✤✜
presents ✗a ✩✕✖✪✫
long, ✪✓✖✤✩✓
gentle ✇✧✕✦✛✩✓
profile ✗✖★
and ✕✦
of ✤✒✓
the ✔✒✗✖✖✓✩
channel ✗✖★and ✤✒✓ ✢✗✤✓✧ ✦✩✕✢
the water flow ✛✜
is ★✛✘✛★✓★
divided
✛✜
is ✚✖✕✢✖
known ✗✜ as ✜✩✛✇✥✕✦✦
slip-off ✙✗✖✚
bank ✐✬✛✪✣✧✓
(Figure ✭✮✯✰✮ ✱✜
7.8). As into ♠✣✩✤✛✇✩✓
✛✖✤✕ multiple ✤✒✧✓✗★✜✮ ❚✒✓✜✓ ✤✒✧✓✗★✥✩✛✚✓
threads. These thread-like ✜✤✧✓✗♠✜
streams
♠✓✗✖★✓✧✜
meanders ✪✧✕✢grow ✛✖✤✕
into ★✓✓✇
deep ✩✕✕✇✜✫
loops, ✤✒✓ same ♠✗✲
the ✜✗♠✓ may ✕✦ ✢✗✤✓✧ ✧✓❈✕✛✖
of water rejoin ✗✖★
and ✜✣✙★✛✘✛★✓
subdivide ✧✓✇✓✗✤✓★✩✲
repeatedly ✤✕to ✪✛✘✓
give
✪✓✤
get ✔✣✤✥✕✦✦
cut-off ★✣✓
due ✤✕
to ✓✧✕✜✛✕✖
erosion ✗✤
at ✤✒✓
the ✛✖✦✩✓✔✤✛✕✖
inflection ✇✕✛✖✤✜
points ✗a ✤✲✇✛✔✗✩
typical ✙✧✗✛★✓★
braided ✇✗✤✤✓✧✖
pattern ✐✬✛✪✣✧✓
(Figure ✭✮❛✰✮
7.9).
✗✖★ ✗✧✓ ✩✓✦✤ ✗✜ ♦✳✴✵♦✶ ✷✸✹✺✼✮
and are left as ox-bow lakes.

❇✽✾✿❀❁❀
Braided ❂❃✾❄❄❁❅❆
Channels

❲✒✓✖ ✧✛✘✓✧✜
When rivers ✔✗✧✧✲ coarse ♠✗✤✓✧✛✗✩✫
carry ✔✕✗✧✜✓ material, ✤✒✓✧✓
there ✔✗✖
can ✙✓be
✜✓✩✓✔✤✛✘✓
selective ★✓✇✕✜✛✤✛✕✖
deposition ✕✦ of ✔✕✗✧✜✓✧ ♠✗✤✓✧✛✗✩✜
coarser materials ✔✗✣✜✛✖✪
causing
✦✕✧♠✗✤✛✕✖
formation ✕✦ of ✗
a ✔✓✖✤✧✗✩
central ✙✗✧ ✢✒✛✔✒ ★✛✘✓✧✤✜
bar which diverts ✤✒✓
the ✦✩✕✢
flow
✤✕✢✗✧★✜
towards ✤✒✓ the ✙✗✖✚✜t
banks; ✗✖★ and ✤✒✛✜
this ✦✩✕✢
flow ✛✖✔✧✓✗✜✓✜
increases
✩✗✤✓✧✗✩
lateral ✓✧✕✜✛✕✖
erosion ✕✖ on ✤✒✓
the ✙✗✖✚✜✮
banks. As ✱✜ ✤✒✓ ✘✗✩✩✓✲
the valley
✢✛★✓✖✜✫ ✤✒✓
widens, ✢✗✤✓✧ ✔✕✩✣♠✖
the water column ✛✜ is ✧✓★✣✔✓★
reduced ✗✖★ and ♠✕✧✓
more
and ♠✕✧✓
✗✖★ more ♠✗✤✓✧✛✗✩✜
materials ✪✓✤ get ★✓✇✕✜✛✤✓★
deposited ✗✜ as ✛✜✩✗✖★✜
islands
✗✖★
and ✩✗✤✓✧✗✩
lateral ✙✗✧✜
bars ★✓✘✓✩✕✇✛✖✪
developing ✗ a ✖✣♠✙✓✧
number ✕✦ of
✜✓✇✗✧✗✤✓ ✔✒✗✖✖✓✩✜ ✕✦ ✢✗✤✓✧ ✦✩✕✢✮
separate channels of water flow. Deposition s✓✇✕✜✛✤✛✕✖
✗✖★
and ✩✗✤✓✧✗✩
lateral ✓✧✕✜✛✕✖
erosion ✕✦ of ✙✗✖✚✜
banks ✗✧✓are ✓✜✜✓✖✤✛✗✩
essential ✦✕✧ for ❉❊●❍■❏
Figure ❑▲▼
7.9 ◆: ❖P◗❏❘❘❊◗❏
Satellite ❙❯❏❱❏❙
scenes ❙❳❨❩❊❱● ❬■P❊❭❏❭ ❯❳P❱❱❏❘
showing braided channel
✤✒✓
the ✦✕✧ ♠✗✤✛✕✖ ✕✦
formation of ✙✧✗✛★✓★
braided ✇✗✤✤✓✧pattern.✖✮ ♥✧✫ Or, ❙❏●❪❏❱◗❙
segments ❨❫ of ❴P❱❭P❵
Gandak ❜❘❏❫◗❞
(left) P❱❭
and ❖❨❱
Son ❜■❊●❳◗❞
(right) ■❊❡❏■❙
rivers
✗✩✤✓✧✖✗✤✛✘✓✩✲✫
alternatively, when✢✒✓✖ ★✛✜✔✒✗✧✪✓
discharge ✛✜ is ✩✓✜✜
less ✗✖★
and ✩✕✗★
load ❢■■❨❩❙ ❙❳❨❩
Arrows show ◗❳❏
the ❭❊■❏❯◗❊❨❱
direction ❨❫
of ❫❘❨❩
flow

Swallow hole Cave in Section

in section Stalactite

Sink hole

ae
in section

Stalagmite Cave mouth

Section of Valley sinks/Uvalas

Collapse sink Sink holes

❉❊●❍■❏
Figure ❑▲❣❤
7.10 ◆: Various
❥P■❊❨❍❙ ❵P■❙◗
karst ❫❏P◗❍■❏❙
features
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✻✍
65

●❘✎✏✑✒❲✓❚✔❘
GROUNDWATER ✦✛
as ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
solution ✩✜✖✫✛
forms ✩✙✖✛✗ first ✦✚✤
and ✙✩if ✗✘✕
the ✭✜✗✗✜✫
bottom ✜✩ of ✦a
✛✙✚✪✘✜❣✕
sinkhole ✩✜✖✫✛
forms ✗✘✕ the ✖✜✜✩roof ✜✩of ✦ ❡✜✙✤ ✜✖
a void or r✦❡✕
cave
❍✕✖✕
Here ✗✘✕
the ✙✚✗✕✖✕✛✗
interest ✙✛ is ✚✜✗
not ✜✚on ✢✖✜✣✚✤✥✦✗✕✖
groundwater ✦✛ as ✦ a ✣✚✤✕✖✢✖✜✣✚✤✮
underground, ✙✗ it ✫✙✢✘✗ collapse ❣✕✦❡✙✚✢
might r✜❣❣✦♣✛✕ leaving ✦ a ❣✦✖✢✕
large
✖✕✛✜✣✖r✕✧
resource. ★✣✖ Our ✩✜r✣✛focus ✙✛ is ✜✚ on ✗✘✕ the work ✥✜✖✪ ✜✩ of ✘✜❣✕
hole ✜♣✕✚✙✚✢
opening ✙✚✗✜ into ✦ a r✦❡✕
cave ✜✖ or ✦ ❡✜✙✤ ✭✕❣✜✥
a void below
✢✖✜✣✚✤✥✦✗✕✖
groundwater ✙✚ in ✗✘✕
the ✕✖✜✛✙✜✚
erosion ✜✩ of ❣✦✚✤✫✦✛✛✕✛
landmasses ✦✚✤ and ❜r✜❣❣✦♣✛✕
(collapse ✛✙✚✪✛❤✧
sinks). ✐✣✙✗✕Quite ✜✩✗✕✚✮
often, ✛✙✚✪✘✜❣✕✛
sinkholes ✦✖✕ are
✕❡✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
evolution ✜✩ of ❣✦✚✤✩✜✖✫✛✧
landforms. The ✬✘✕ ✛✣✖✩✦r✕
surface water ✥✦✗✕✖ r✜❡✕✖✕✤
covered ✣♣ ✥✙✗✘ ✛✜✙❣
up with soil ✫✦✚✗❣✕
mantle ✦✚✤ and ✦♣♣✕✦✖
appear ✦✛ as
♣✕✖r✜❣✦✗✕✛
percolates well✥✕❣❣ when
✥✘✕✚ ✗✘✕ the ✖✜r✪✛
rocks ✦✖✕ are ♣✕✖✫✕✦✭❣✕✮
permeable, ✛✘✦❣❣✜✥ ✥✦✗✕✖ ♣✜✜❣✛✧
shallow water ❆✚t✭✜✤t ✛✗✕♣♣✙✚✢
pools. Anybody stepping ✜❡✕✖ over
✗✘✙✚❣t
thinly ✭✕✤✤✕✤
bedded ✦✚✤ and ✘✙✢✘❣t ✯✜✙✚✗✕✤ ✦✚✤
highly jointed and r✖✦r✪✕✤✧
cracked. ✛✣r✘
such ♣✜✜❣✛ ✥✜✣❣✤ ✢✜
pools would down ❣✙✪✕
go ✤✜✥✚ like ✙✗
it ✘✦♣♣✕✚✛
happens ✙✚ in
❆✩✗✕✖ vertically
After ❡✕✖✗✙r✦❣❣t ✢✜✙✚✢
going ✤✜✥✚down ✗✜ to ✛✜✫✕
some ✤✕♣✗✘✮depth, ✗✘✕ the ❢✣✙r✪✛✦✚✤✛
quicksands ✙✚ in ✤✕✛✕✖✗✛✧
deserts. The ✬✘✕ ✗✕✖✫
term ❥✷❬❴❵❭
doline ✙✛ is
✥✦✗✕✖ ✣✚✤✕✖
water under ✗✘✕ the ✢✖✜✣✚✤
ground ✩❣✜✥✛ flows ✘✜✖✙✇✜✚✗✦❣❣t
horizontally ✛✜✫✕✗✙✫✕✛
sometimes ✣✛✕✤ used ✗✜ to ✖✕✩✕✖
refer ✗✘✕
the r✜❣❣✦♣✛✕
collapse ✛✙✚✪✛✧sinks.
✗✘✖✜✣✢✘
through ✗✘✕ the ✭✕✤✤✙✚✢
bedding ♣❣✦✚✕✛✮planes, joints✯✜✙✚✗✛ ✜✖ or ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘
through ❨✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
Solution ✛✙✚✪✛
sinks ✦✖✕are ✫✜✖✕
more r✜✫✫✜✚
common ✗✘✦✚ than r✜❣❣✦♣✛✕
collapse
the ✫✦✗✕✖✙✦❣✛
✗✘✕ themselves. ✰✗
materials ✗✘✕✫✛✕❣❡✕✛✧ It ✙✛
is ✗✘✙✛
this ✤✜✥✚✥✦✖✤
downward ✛✙✚✪✛✧
sinks. ✐✣✙✗✕
Quite ✜✩✗✕✚
often ✗✘✕ the ✛✣✖✩✦r✕
surface ✖✣✚❩✜✩✩
run-off ✛✙✫♣❣t
simply
✦✚✤ horizontal ✫✜❡✕✫✕✚✗
and ✘✜✖✙✇✜✚✗✦❣ movement ✜✩ ✥✦✗✕✖ which
of water ✥✘✙r✘ ✢✜✕✛
goes ✤✜✥✚
down ✛✥✦❣❣✜✥
swallow ✦✚✤ and ✛✙✚✪
sink ✘✜❣✕✛
holes ✦✚✤and ✩❣✜✥
flow ✦✛as
r✦✣✛✕✛
causes ✗✘✕ the ✖✜r✪✛
rocks ✗✜ to ✕✖✜✤✕✧
erode. ❝✘t✛✙r✦❣ Physical ✜✖ or ✣✚✤✕✖✢✖✜✣✚✤
underground ✛✗✖✕✦✫✛ streams ✦✚✤ and ✖✕❩✕✫✕✖✢✕
re-emerge ✦✗ at ✦ a
✫✕r✘✦✚✙r✦❣
mechanical ✖✕✫✜❡✦❣removal ✜✩ of ✫✦✗✕✖✙✦❣✛
materials ✭t by ✫✜❡✙✚✢
moving ✤✙✛✗✦✚r✕
distance ✤✜✥✚✛✗✖✕✦✫
downstream ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘ through ✦ a r✦❡✕
cave ✜♣✕✚✙✚✢✧
opening.
✢✖✜✣✚✤✥✦✗✕✖
groundwater ✙✛ is ✙✚✛✙✢✚✙✩✙r✦✚✗
insignificant ✙✚ in ✤✕❡✕❣✜♣✙✚✢
developing ❦✘✕✚
When ✛✙✚✪
sink ✘✜❣✕✛
holes ✦✚✤ and ✤✜❣✙✚✕✛
dolines join✯✜✙✚ ✗✜✢✕✗✘✕✖
together
❣✦✚✤✩✜✖✫✛✧
landforms. That ✬✘✦✗ ✙✛ ✥✘t✮ ✗✘✕
is why, the ✖✕✛✣❣✗✛
results ✜✩ of ✗✘✕ ✥✜✖✪
the work ✭✕r✦✣✛✕
because ✜✩ of ✛❣✣✫♣✙✚✢
slumping ✜✩ of ✫✦✗✕✖✙✦❣✛
materials ✦❣✜✚✢along ✗✘✕✙✖
their
✜✩
of ✢✖✜✣✚✤✥✦✗✕✖
groundwater r✦✚✚✜✗ cannot ✭✕ be ✛✕✕✚
seen ✙✚ in ✦❣❣
all ✗t♣✕✛
types ✜✩ of ✫✦✖✢✙✚✛
margins ✜✖ or ✤✣✕
due ✗✜ to ✖✜✜✩
roof r✜❣❣✦♣✛✕
collapse ✜✩ caves, ❣✜✚✢✮
of r✦❡✕✛✮ long,
✖✜r✪✛✧
rocks. ✱✣✗
But ✙✚ rocks ❣✙✪✕
in ✖✜r✪✛ like ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕✛
limestones ✜✖ or ✤✜❣✜✫✙✗✕✛
dolomites ✚✦✖✖✜✥
narrow ✗✜ ✥✙✤✕ ✗✖✕✚r✘✕✛
to wide trenches r✦❣❣✕✤called ✈✳❬❬❭✼
valley ✵❴❵❛✵
sinks ✜✖or
✖✙r✘
rich ✙✚
in r✦❣r✙✣✫
calcium r✦✖✭✜✚✦✗✕✮
carbonate, ✗✘✕ the ✛✣✖✩✦r✕
surface water✥✦✗✕✖ ❧✈✳❬✳✵ form. ♠✖✦✤✣✦❣❣t✮
Uvalas ✩✜✖✫✧ Gradually, ✫✜✛✗ most ✜✩of ✗✘✕
the ✛✣✖✩✦r✕
surface ✜✩ of
✦✛ ✥✕❣❣ ✦✛
as well as ✢✖✜✣✚✤✥✦✗✕✖
groundwater ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘ through ✗✘✕ the r✘✕✫✙r✦❣
chemical the ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
✗✘✕ limestone ✙✛ is ✕✦✗✕✚
eaten ✦✥✦taway ✭t by ✗✘✕✛✕
these ♣✙✗✛pits ✦✚✤
and
♣✖✜r✕✛✛
process ✜✩ of ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
solution ✦✚✤ and ♣ ✖✕r✙♣✙✗✦✗✙✜✚
precipitation trenches, ❣✕✦❡✙✚✢
✗✖✕✚r✘✕✛✮ leaving ✙✗ it ✕✲✗✖✕✫✕❣t
extremely ✙✖✖✕✢✣❣✦✖
irregular with ✥✙✗✘ ✦ a
✤✕♣✜✛✙✗✙✜✚
deposition ✤✕❡✕❣✜♣ ❡✦✖✙✕✗✙✕✛ ✜✩
develop varieties of ❣✦✚✤✩✜✖✫✛✧
landforms. These ✬✘✕✛✕ ✫✦✇✕
maze ✜✩of ♣✜✙✚✗✛✮
points, ✢✖✜✜❡✕✛
grooves ✦✚✤ and ✴❴❥✹❭✵
ridges ✜✖ or ❬✳✸❴❭✵✧
lapies.
✗✥✜
two ♣✖✜r✕✛✛✕✛
processes ✜✩ of ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
solution ✦✚✤ and ♣✖✕r✙♣✙✗✦✗✙✜✚
precipitation ✦✖✕ are ♥✛♣✕r✙✦❣❣t✮
Especially, ✗✘✕✛✕
these ✖✙✤✢✕✛
ridges ✜✖ or ❣✦♣✙✕✛
lapies ✩✜✖✫
form ✤✣✕ due ✗✜ to
✦r✗✙❡✕
active ✙✚in ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕✛
limestones ✜✖ or ✤✜❣✜✫✙✗✕✛
dolomites ✜rr✣✖✖✙✚✢ occurring ✤✙✩✩✕✖✕✚✗✙✦❣
differential ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
solution ✦r✗✙❡✙✗tactivity ✦❣✜✚✢
along ♣✦✖✦❣❣✕❣
parallel ✗✜ to
✕✙✗✘✕✖
either ✕✲r❣✣✛✙❡✕❣t
exclusively ✜✖ or ✙✚✗✕✖✭✕✤✤✕✤
interbedded with ✥✙✗✘ ✜✗✘✕✖
other ✛✣✭❩♣✦✖✦❣❣✕❣
sub-parallel joints. ✯✜✙✚✗✛✧ The ✬✘✕ ❣✦♣✙✕ field ✫✦t
lapie ✩✙✕❣✤ may
✖✜r✪✛✧
rocks. Any❆✚t ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
limestone ✜✖ or ✤✜❣✜✫✙✗✙r
dolomitic ✖✕✢✙✜✚ region ✕❡✕✚✗✣✦❣❣t
eventually ✗✣✖✚ turn ✙✚✗✜ into ✛✜✫✕✥✘✦✗
somewhat ✛✫✜✜✗✘ smooth
✛✘✜✥✙✚✢ typical ❣✦✚✤✩✜✖✫✛
showing ✗t♣✙r✦❣ landforms ♣✖✜✤✣r✕✤ produced ✭t by ✗✘✕
the ❬❴♦❭✵✶✷❵❭
limestone ✸✳✈❭♦❭❵✶✵✧
pavements.
✦r✗✙✜✚
action ✜✩of ✢✖✜✣✚✤✥✦✗✕✖
groundwater ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘ through ✗✘✕ the ♣✖✜r✕✛✛✕✛
processes
✜✩
of ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
solution ✦✚✤ and ✤✕♣✜✛✙✗✙✜✚
deposition ✙✛ is r✦❣❣✕✤
called ❑✳✴✵✶Karst q❖❳▼❅
Caves
✶✷✸✷✹✴✳✸✺✼
topography ✦✩✗✕✖ after ✗✘✕ the ✗t♣✙r✦❣
typical ✗✜♣✜✢✖✦♣✘t
topography
✤✕❡✕❣✜♣✕✤
developed ✙✚ in ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
limestone ✖✜r✪✛ rocks ✜✩ of ❞✦✖✛✗
Karst ✖✕✢✙✜✚
region
✰✚
In ✦✖✕✦✛ ✥✘✕✖✕ ✗✘✕✖✕
areas where there ✦✖✕
are ✦❣✗✕✖✚✦✗✙✚✢
alternating ✭✕✤✛beds ✜✩of
✙✚ rocks ❜✛✘✦❣✕✛✮
✖✜r✪✛ sandstones, ❢✣✦✖✗✇✙✗✕✛❤
(shales, ✛✦✚✤✛✗✜✚✕✛✮ ✥✙✗✘
quartzites) with
in ✗✘✕
the ✱✦❣✪✦✚✛
Balkans ✦✤✯✦r✕✚✗
adjacent ✗✜ ❆✤✖✙✦✗✙r ✛✕✦✧
to Adriatic sea.
✬✘✕ ✪✦✖✛✗ ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕✛
limestones ✜✖ or ✤✜❣✜✫✙✗✕✛
dolomites ✙✚ in ✭✕✗✥✕✕✚
between ✜✖ or ✙✚
in ✦✖✕✦✛
areas
The karst ✗✜♣✜✢✖✦♣✘t
topography ✙✛ is ✦❣✛✜
also r✘✦✖✦r✗✕✖✙✛✕✤
characterised
✭t
by ✕✖✜✛✙✜✚✦❣
erosional ✦✚✤ depositional ❣✦✚✤✩✜✖✫✛✧
and ✤✕♣✜✛✙✗✙✜✚✦❣ landforms.
✥✘✕✖✕ ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕✛
where limestones ✦✖✕ dense, ✫✦✛✛✙❡✕
are ✤✕✚✛✕✮ massive ✦✚✤ and
✜rr✣✖✖✙✚✢
occurring ✦✛ as ✗✘✙r✪
thick ✭✕✤✛✮
beds, r✦❡✕
cave ✩✜✖✫✦✗✙✜✚
formation ✙✛ is
❊❘✎✽✾✎✑✓✿ prominent. ❦✦✗✕✖
♣✖✜✫✙✚✕✚✗✧ Water ♣✕✖r✜❣✦✗✕✛
percolates ✤✜✥✚ down ✕✙✗✘✕✖
either
EROSIONAL ❀✓✑✒❁✎❘❂✽
LANDFORMS
✗✘✖✜✣✢✘
through ✗✘✕ the ✫✦✗✕✖✙✦❣✛
materials ✜✖ or ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘
through r✖✦r✪✛
cracks ✦✚✤and
✯✜✙✚✗✛ ✦✚✤
joints and ✫✜❡✕✛moves ✘✜✖✙✇✜✚✗✦❣❣t
horizontally ✦❣✜✚✢
along ✭✕✤✤✙✚✢
bedding
P❃❃❄❅❇
Pools, ❈❉❋■❏❃❄▼❅❇
Sinkholes, ◆❖◗❉▼❅
Lapies ❖❋❙
and planes. ✰✗
♣❣✦✚✕✛✧ It ✙✛
is ✦❣✜✚✢
along ✗✘✕✛✕
these ✭✕✤✤✙✚✢
bedding ♣❣✦✚✕✛
planes ✗✘✦✗that
◆❉❯▼❅❱❃❋▼
Limestone P❖❳▼❯▼❋❱❅
Pavements the ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
✗✘✕ limestone ✤✙✛✛✜❣❡✕✛
dissolves ✦✚✤ and ❣✜✚✢
long ✦✚✤
and ✚✦✖✖✜✥
narrow
✗✜ ✥✙✤✕ ✢✦♣✛
to wide called ✉✳✈❭✵
gaps r✦❣❣✕✤ caves ✖✕✛✣❣✗✧ ✬✘✕✖✕ r✦✚
result. There can ✭✕
be
❨✫✦❣❣
Small ✗✜to ✫✕✤✙✣✫
medium ✛✙✇✕✤sized ✖✜✣✚✤
round ✗✜to ✛✣✭❩✖✜✣✚✤✕✤
sub-rounded
✛✘✦❣❣✜✥ a ✫✦✇✕
✦ maze ✜✩ of r✦❡✕✛
caves ✦✗ at ✤✙✩✩✕✖✕✚✗
different ✕❣✕❡✦✗✙✜✚✛
elevations
shallow depressions called swallow ✺✷❬❭✵
✤✕♣✖✕✛✛✙✜✚✛ r✦❣❣✕✤ ✵s✳❬❬✷s holes ✩✜✖✫
form
✜✚ ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕✛ ✤✕♣✕✚✤✙✚✢
depending ✣♣✜✚ upon ✗✘✕ the ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
limestone ✭✕✤✛ beds ✦✚✤and
on the surface of limestones through ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚✧
✗✘✕ ✛✣✖✩✦r✕ ✜✩ ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘ solution.
✙✚✗✕✖❡✕✚✙✚✢
intervening ✖✜r✪✛✧ rocks. ①✦❡✕✛
Caves ✚✜✖✫✦❣❣t
normally ✘✦❡✕have ✦✚ an
❨✙✚✪✘✜❣✕✛
Sinkholes ✦✖✕ ❡✕✖t r✜✫✫✜✚
are very common ✙✚ in ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕❪✪✦✖✛✗
limestone/karst
✜♣✕✚✙✚✢
opening ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘
through which ✥✘✙r✘ r✦❡✕ cave ✛✗✖✕✦✫✛
streams ✦✖✕ are
areas. A sinichole is an opening ✫✜✖✕
✦✖✕✦✛✧ ❫ ✵❴❵❛✺✷❬❭ ✙✛ ✦✚ ✜♣✕✚✙✚✢ more ✜✖ or ❣✕✛✛
less
discharged. ①✦❡✕✛
✤✙✛r✘✦✖✢✕✤✧ Caves ✘✦❡✙✚✢
having ✜♣✕✚✙✚✢✛
openings ✦✗ at ✭✜✗✘
both ✗✘✕
the
r✙✖r✣❣✦✖
circular ✦✗
at ✗✘✕
the ✗✜♣
top ✦✚✤
and ✩✣✚✚✕❣❩✛✘✦♣♣✕✤
funnel-shapped ✗✜✥✦✖✤✛towards
✕✚✤✛
ends ✦✖✕
are r✦❣❣✕✤
called ✗✣✚✚✕❣✛✧
tunnels.
✗✘✕
the ✭✜✗✗✜✫ ✥✙✗✘ ✛✙✇✕✛
bottom with ❡✦✖t✙✚✢ ✙✚
sizes varying in ✦✖✕✦
area ✩✖✜✫
from ✦ a
✩✕✥ sq. ✫
few ✛❢✧ m ✗✜
to ✦
a ✘✕r✗✦✖✕
hectare ✦✚✤ ✥✙✗✘ ✤✕♣✗✘
and with depth ✩✖✜✫
from ✦ a
Depositional ◆❖❋❙③❃④❯❅
②▼◗❃❅❉❱❉❃❋❖❄ Landforms
❣✕✛✛
less ✗✘✦✚ half a✦ ✫✕✗✖✕
than ✘✦❣✩ metre ✗✜ thirty ✫✕✗✖✕✛
to ✗✘✙✖✗t metres ✜✖or ✫✜✖✕✧
more.
❨✜✫✕
Some ✜✩ of ✗✘✕✛✕
these ✩✜✖✫
form ✛✜❣✕❣t
solely ✗✘✖✜✣✢✘
through ✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
solution ⑤✦✚t
Many ✤✕♣✜✛✙✗✙✜✚✦❣
depositional ✩✜✖✫✛
forms ✤✕❡✕❣✜♣ ✥✙✗✘✙✚ ✗✘✕
develop within the
action ❜✛✜❣✣✗✙✜✚
✦r✗✙✜✚ (solution ✛✙✚✪✛❤
sinks) ✦✚✤ others ✫✙✢✘✗
and ✜✗✘✕✖✛ might ✛✗✦✖✗
start ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
limestone r✦❡✕✛✧ ✬✘✕ r✘✙✕✩
caves. The chief r✘✕✫✙r✦❣ in ❣✙✫✕✛✗✜✚✕
chemical ✙✚ limestone
✻✻
66 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✐✑
is ✒✓✔✒✐✕✖
calcium ✒✓✗✘✙✚✓✛✜ ✢✣✐✒✣ ✐✑
carbonate which is ✜✓✑✐✔✤
easily ✑✙✔✕✘✔✜
soluble ✐✚
in ●▲❈❉❊❍■❏
GLACIERS
✒✓✗✘✙✚✓✛✜❝ ✢✓✛✜✗ ✥✒✓✗✘✙✚
carbonated water dioxide ✓✘✑✙✗✘✜❝
(carbon ❝✐✙✦✐❝✜ absorbed
✗✓✐✚✢✓✛✜✗r✧ ★✣✐✑ ✒✓✔✒✐✕✖
rainwater). This calcium ✒✓✗✘✙✚✓✛✜
carbonate ✐✑ is ❝✜✩✙✑✐✛✜❝
deposited Masses ✙✪
▼✓✑✑✜✑ of ✐✒✜
ice ✖✙❡✐✚✇
moving ✓✑ as ✑✣✜✜✛✑
sheets ✙❡✜✗
over ✛✣✜
the ✔✓✚❝
land
✢✣✜✚ ✛✣✜
when ✢✓✛✜✗ ✒✓✗✗✤✐✚✇
the water carrying ✐✛ it ✐✚
in ✑✙✔✕✛✐✙✚
solution (continental ✇✔✓✒✐✜✗
✥✒✙✚✛✐✚✜✚✛✓✔ glacier ✙✗ pidmont ✇✔✓✒✐✜✗
or ✩✐❝✖✙✚✛ glacier ✐✪
ifa✓ vast
❡✓✑✛
✜❡✓✩✙✗✓✛✜✑
evaporates ✙✗or ✔✙✑✜✑
loses ✐✛✑
its ✒✓✗✘✙✚ dioxide ✓✑
carbon ❝✐✙✦✐❝✜ as ✐✛
it ✑✣✜✜✛
sheet ✙✪of ✐✒✜
ice ✐✑
is ✑✩✗✜✓❝
spread ✙❡✜✗
over ✛✣✜ plains ✓✛
the ✩✔✓✐✚✑ at ✛✣✜
the ✪✙✙✛
foot
✛✗✐✒t✔✜✑
trickles ✙❡✜✗
over ✗✙✕✇✣
rough ✗✙✒t
rock ✑✕✗✪✓✒✜✑✧
surfaces. ✙✪
of ✖✙✕✚✛✓✐✚✑r
mountains) ✙✗ or ✓✑
as ✔✐✚✜✓✗
linear ✪✔✙✢✑ down ✛✣✜
flows ❝✙✢✚ the
✑✔✙✩✜✑
slopes ✙✪ of ✖✙✕✚✛✓✐✚✑
mountains ✐✚ in ✘✗✙✓❝
broad ✛✗✙✕✇✣s✔✐t✜
trough-like
❙✫✬✭✬✮✫✯✫✰✱✲
Stalactites, ❙✫✬✭✬✳✴✯✫✰✱
Stalagmites ✬✵✶ and ✷✯✭✭✬✸✱
Pillars ❡✓✔✔✜✤✑ ✥✖✙✕✚✛✓✐✚
valleys (mountain ✓✚❝ ❡✓✔✔✜✤ ✇✔✓✒✐✜✗✑r
and valley glaciers) ✓✗✜
are ✒✓✔✔✜❝
called
❂✽✼✾✿❀❣❁
glaciers (Figure 7.12). The movement of ✇✔✓✒✐✜✗✑
✥❅✐✇✕✗✜ ❆✧❇❑r✧ ★✣✜ ✖✙❡✜✖✜✚✛ ✙✪ glaciers
Stalactites ✣✓✚✇
✹✺✼✽✼✾✺✿✺❀❁ hang ✓✑ as ✐✒✐✒✔✜✑
icicles ✙✪ of ❝✐✪✪✜✗✜✚✛
different
diameters. Normally they are broad ✓✛
❝✐✓✖✜✛✜✗✑✧ ❞✙✗✖✓✔✔✤ ✛✣✜✤ ✓✗✜ ✘✗✙✓❝ at ✛✣✜✐✗
their
✘✓✑✜✑
bases ✓✚❝
and ✛✓✩✜✗
taper ✛✙✢✓✗❝✑
towards ✛✣✜ free ✜✚❝✑
the ✪✗✜✜ ends ✑✣✙✢✐✚✇
showing
✕✩
up ✐✚
in ✓ ❡✓✗✐✜✛✤ ✙✪
a variety of ✪✙✗✖✑✧ Stalagmites ✗✐✑✜
forms. ✹✺✼✽✼❂❃✿✺❀❁ rise ✕✩
up
from ✛✣✜
✪✗✙✖ floor ✙✪
the ✪✔✙✙✗ of ✛✣✜
the ✒✓❡✜✑✧
caves. ❢✚ fact, ✑✛✓✔✓✇✖✐✛✜✑
In ✪✓✒✛❄ stalagmites
✪✙✗✖ due ✛✙
form ❝✕✜ to ❝✗✐✩✩✐✚✇ ✢✓✛✜✗ ✪✗✙✖
dripping water from ✛✣✜the ✑✕✗✪✓✒✜
surface ✙✗ or
✛✣✗✙✕✇✣
through ✛✣✜ the ✛✣✐✚ pipe, ✙✪
thin ✩✐✩✜❄ of ✛✣✜
the ✑✛✓✔✓✒✛✐✛✜❄
stalactite,
✐✖✖✜❝✐✓✛✜✔✤
immediately ✘✜✔✙✢below ✐✛ (Figure ❆✧❇❇r✧
it ✥❅✐✇✕✗✜ 7.11).

◆❖P◗❘❚
Figure ❯❱❲❳
7.12 ❨: A❩ P❬❭❪❖❚❘
glacier ❖❫
in ❖❴❵ ❛❭❬❬❚❜
its valley

✐✑
is ✑✔✙✢
slow ✕✚✔✐t✜ ✢✓✛✜✗ ✪✔✙✢✧
unlike water ★✣✜ ✖✙❡✜✖✜✚✛
flow. The movement ✒✙✕✔❝
could
✘✜
be ✓ few ✒✜✚✛✐✖✜✛✗✜✑
a ✪✜✢ centimetres ✛✙ to ✓ few ✖✜✛✗✜✑
a ✪✜✢ metres ✓ day ✙✗
a ❝✓✤ or
✜❡✜✚
even ✔✜✑✑
less ✙✗or ✖✙✗✜✧ Glaciers ✖✙❡✜
more. ❤✔✓✒✐✜✗✑ move ✘✓✑✐✒✓✔✔✤
basically
✘✜✒✓✕✑✜
because ✙✪ of ✛✣✜ force ✙✪
the ✪✙✗✒✜ of ✇✗✓❡✐✛✤✧
gravity.

❥❦ ❧♠♥❦
We have ♦♠♣q
many ✉✈♠①②❦③④
glaciers ②♣
in ⑤⑥③
our ①⑤⑥♣⑦③q
country
moving ⑧⑤⑨♣
♦⑤♥②♣✉ down ⑦❧❦
the ④✈⑤⑩❦④
slopes ♠♣⑧ ♥♠✈✈❦q④ ②♣
and valleys in
❶②♦♠✈♠q♠④❷
Himalayas. ❶②✉❧❦③
Higher ③❦♠①❧❦④
reaches ⑤❸of ❹⑦⑦♠③♠♣①❧♠✈❺
Uttaranchal,
❶②♦♠①❧♠✈
Himachal ❻③♠⑧❦④❧
Pradesh ♠♣⑧ ❼♠♦♦⑥ ♠♣⑧
and Jammu and
❽♠④❧♦②③❺ ⑩✈♠①❦④
Kashmir, are places to see some ⑤❸
♠③❦ ⑦⑤ ④❦❦ ④⑤♦❦ of ⑦❧❦♦❷
them.
❾⑤ q⑤⑥ ❿♣⑤⑨
Do you ⑨❧❦③❦ ⑤♣❦
know where one ①♠♣can ④❦❦
see ③②♥❦③
river
➀❧♠✉②③♠⑦❧② ②④ ➁♠④②①♠✈✈q ❸❦⑧ ➁q ♦❦✈⑦⑨♠⑦❦③④
Bhagirathi is basically fed by meltwaters
❸③⑤♦
from ⑥♣⑧❦③
under ⑦❧❦ snout ➂➃♠⑥♦⑥❿❧➄
the ④♣⑤⑥⑦ (Gaumukh) ⑤❸ of ⑦❧❦
the
➃♠♣✉⑤⑦③② glacier. ➅♣
Gangotri ✉✈♠①②❦③❷ In ❸♠①⑦❺ ➆✈❿♠⑩⑥③② ✉✈♠①②❦③
fact, Alkapuri glacier
❸❦❦⑧④ ⑨♠⑦❦③④ ⑦⑤
feeds waters ➆✈♠❿♠♣♠♣⑧♠ ③②♥❦③❷
to Alakananda river. ➇②♥❦③④
Rivers
➆✈❿♠♣♠♣⑧♠ ♠♣⑧
Alkananda and ➀❧♠✉②③♠⑦❧② ➈⑤②♣ ⑦⑤
Bhagirathi join to ♦♠❿❦
make
river ➃♠♣✉♠
③②♥❦③ Ganga ♣❦♠③near ❾❦⑤⑩③♠q♠✉❷
Deoprayag.

Erosion ✘✤
➉✗✙✑✐✙✚ by ✇✔✓✒✐✜✗✑
glaciers ✐✑
is ✛✗✜✖✜✚❝✙✕✑
tremendous ✘✜✒✓✕✑✜
because
✙✪ friction ✒✓✕✑✜❝
of ✪✗✐✒✛✐✙✚ caused ✘✤ by ✑✣✜✜✗
sheer ✢✜✐✇✣✛
weight ✙✪ of ✛✣✜
the ✐✒✜✧
ice.
◆❖P◗❘❚
Figure ❯❱❲❲❨➋❴❭❬❭❪❴❖❴❚❵
7.11 : Stalactites ❭❫➌❵❴❭❬❭P➍❖❴❚❵
and stalagmites ❖❫❭❬❖➍❚❵❴➎❫❚❪❭❛❚
in a limestone cave ★✣✜ ✖✓✛✜✗✐✓✔
The material ✩✔✕✒t✜❝ from ✛✣✜
plucked ✪✗✙✖ the ✔✓✚❝
land ✘✤
by ✇✔✓✒✐✜✗✑
glaciers
(usually ✔✓✗✇✜s✑✐➊✜❝
✥✕✑✕✓✔✔✤ large-sized ✓✚✇✕✔✓✗
angular ✘✔✙✒t✑
blocks ✓✚❝ and
Stalagmites ✖✓✤
➏✛✓✔✓✇✖✐✛✜✑ may ✛✓t✜
take ✛✣✜the ✑✣✓✩✜
shape ✙✪of ✓ a fragments) ✇✜✛
✪✗✓✇✖✜✚✛✑r dragged ✓✔✙✚✇
get ❝✗✓✇✇✜❝ along ✛✣✜ floors ✙✗
the ✪✔✙✙✗✑ or ✑✐❝✜✑
sides
✒✙✔✕✖✚❄
column, ✓ a ❝✐✑✒❄ ✢✐✛✣ ✜✐✛✣✜✗
disc, with either ✓a ✑✖✙✙✛✣❄
smooth, ✗✙✕✚❝✜❝
rounded ✙✪
of ✛✣✜ ❡✓✔✔✜✤✑ ✓✚❝
the valleys and ✒✓✕✑✜
cause ✇✗✜✓✛ damage ✛✣✗✙✕✇✣
great ❝✓✖✓✇✜ through
✘✕✔✇✐✚✇
bulging ✜✚❝ end ✙✗ or ✓ a ✖✐✚✐✓✛✕✗✜
miniature ✒✗✓✛✜✗
crater ✔✐t✜
like ✓✘✗✓✑✐✙✚
abrasion ✓✚❝ and ✩✔✕✒t✐✚✇✧ Glaciers ✒✓✚
plucking. ❤✔✓✒✐✜✗✑ can ✒✓✕✑✜
cause
❝✜✩✗✜✑✑✐✙✚✧
depression. The ★✣✜ ✑✛✓✔✓✇✖✐✛✜
stalagmite ✓✚❝ and ✑✛✓✔✓✒✛✐✛✜✑
stalactites ✑✐✇✚✐✪✐✒✓✚✛ damage ✛✙
significant ❝✓✖✓✇✜ to ✜❡✜✚
even ✕✚s✢✜✓✛✣✜✗✜❝
un-weathered ✗✙✒t✑ rocks
✜❡✜✚✛✕✓✔✔✤
eventually ✪✕✑✜fuse ✛✙to ✇✐❡✜
give ✗✐✑✜
rise ✛✙
to ✾➐✽➑❃➒❁
columns ✼➒➓
and ✓✚❝
and ✒✓✚
can ✗✜❝✕✒✜
reduce ✣✐✇✣
high ✖✙✕✚✛✓✐✚✑
mountains ✐✚✛✙ into ✔✙✢
low ✣✐✔✔✑
hills
➔✿✽✽✼❣❁ ✙✪
pillars of ❝✐✪✪✜✗✜✚✛
different ❝✐✓✖✜✛✜✗✑✧
diameters. ✓✚❝
and ✩✔✓✐✚✑✧
plains.
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✻✍
67

❆✎ ✏✑✒✓✔✕✖✎
As glaciers ✓✗✘✙✔✘✚✕
continue ✙✗to ✛✗✜✕✢
move, ✣✕✤✖✔✎
debris ✏✕✙✎
gets ✙t✕
the ✏✑✒✓✔✕✖ disappears. ❀✚✓t
glacier ✣✔✎✒✦✦✕✒✖✎★ Such ✑✒✇✕✎
lakes ✒✖✕
are ✓✒✑✑✕✣
called
✖✕✛✗✜✕✣✢
removed, ✣✔✜✔✣✕✎
divides ✏✕✙
get ✑✗r✕✖✕✣
lowered ✒✘✣and ✕✜✕✘✙✚✒✑✑✥
eventually ❝❁❂q❃❄
cirque ❅❂
or ❇❉❂♥
tarn ❋❉●❄❍★ ❣t✕✖✕ ✓✒✘
lakes. There can ✤✕
be ✙r✗
two ✗✖
or ✛✗✖✕
more
✙t✕
the ✎✑✗✦✕
slope ✔✎is ✖✕✣✚✓✕✣
reduced ✙✗ to ✎✚✓t
such ✒✘ an ✕✧✙✕✘✙
extent ✙t✒✙
that ✓✔✖✿✚✕✎
cirques ✗✘✕
one ✑✕✒✣✔✘✏
leading ✔✘✙✗
into ✒✘✗✙t✕✖
another ✣✗r✘
down ✤✕✑✗r
below
✏✑✒✓✔✕✖✎ r✔✑✑ ✎✙✗✦
glaciers will stop ✛✗✜✔✘✏
moving ✑✕✒✜✔✘✏
leaving ✗✘✑✥
only ✒ a ✛✒✎✎
mass ✔✘
in ✒
a ✎✙✕✦✦✕✣
stepped ✎✕✿✚✕✘✓✕★
sequence.
✗♦ low t✔✑✑✎
of ✑✗r hills ✒✘✣ outwash ✦✑✒✔✘✎
✜✒✎✙ ✗✚✙r✒✎t
and vast plains ✒✑✗✘✏ r✔✙t
along with
✗✙t✕✖
other ✣✕✦✗✎✔✙✔✗✘✒✑ features. ✩✔✏✚✖✕✎
depositional ♦✕✒✙✚✖✕✎★ Figures ✪★✫✬7.13 ✒✘✣
and ■❏✸❑▼
Horns ◆❑❖
and P✽✸✸◆◗✽❖
Serrated ❙✷❖❚✽▼
Ridges
✪★✫✼
7.14 ✎t✗r ✜✒✖✔✗✚✎ ✏✑✒✓✔✒✑
show various glacial ✕✖✗✎✔✗✘✒✑
erosional ✒✘✣ and ❯✗✖✘✎
Horns ♦✗✖✛ through t✕✒✣
form ✙t✖✗✚✏t r✒✖✣ ✕✖✗✎✔✗✘
head ward erosion ✗♦ of ✙t✕
the
✣✕✦✗✎✔✙✔✗✘✒✑
depositional ♦✗✖✛✎
forms ✣✕✎✓✖✔✤✕✣
described ✔✘in ✙t✕
the ✙✕✧✙★
text. ✓✔✖✿✚✕ r✒✑✑✎★ ❱♦
cirque walls. If ✙t✖✕✕
three ✗✖
or ✛✗✖✕
more ✖✒✣✔✒✙✔✘✏
radiating ✏✑✒✓✔✕✖✎
glaciers
cut t✕✒✣r✒✖✣
✓✚✙ headward ✚✘✙✔✑until ✙t✕✔✖
their ✓✔✖✿✚✕✎ meet, t✔✏t✢
cirques ✛✕✕✙✢ high,
❊❘✭✮✯✭✰✱✲
EROSIONAL ✳✱✰✴✵✭❘✶✮
LANDFORMS ✎t✒✖✦ ✦✗✔✘✙✕✣ ✒✘✣ ✎✙✕✕✦ ✎✔✣✕✣
sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called✦✕✒✇✎ ✓✒✑✑✕✣
❤❅❂♥❍
horns ♦✗✖✛★ ❣t✕ ✣✔✜✔✣✕✎
form. The divides ✤✕✙r✕✕✘
between ✓✔✖✿✚✕
cirque ✎✔✣✕side
❈✷✸✹✺✽
Cirque r✒✑✑✎ ✗✖
walls or t✕✒✣ r✒✑✑✎ ✏✕✙
head walls get ✘✒✖✖✗r
narrow ✤✕✓✒✚✎✕
because ✗♦ of
✾✔✖✿✚✕✎
Cirques ✒✖✕ are ✙t✕
the ✛✗✎✙
most ✓✗✛✛✗✘
common ✗♦ of ✑✒✘✣♦✗✖✛✎
landforms ✔✘ in ✦✖✗✏✖✕✎✎✔✜✕
progressive ✕✖✗✎✔✗✘
erosion ✒✘✣
and ✙✚✖✘
turn ✔✘✙✗
into ✎✕✖✖✒✙✕✣
serrated ✗✖ or
✏✑✒✓✔✒✙✕✣ ✛✗✚✘✙✒✔✘✎★ ❣t✕ ✓✔✖✿✚✕✎
glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often ✿✚✔✙✕ ✗♦✙✕✘ ✎✒rs✙✗✗✙t✕✣
saw-toothed ✖✔✣✏✕✎
ridges ✎✗✛✕✙✔✛✕✎
sometimes ✖✕♦✕✖✖✕✣
referred ✙✗ to ✒✎
as
✒✖✕
are ♦✗✚✘✣
found ✒✙ the t✕✒✣✎
at ✙t✕ heads ✗♦ of ✏✑✒✓✔✒✑ ✜✒✑✑✕✥✎★ The
glacial valleys. ❣t✕ ❉❂❛❇❄❍ r✔✙t very
arétes with ✜✕✖✥ ✎t✒✖✦
sharp ✓✖✕✎✙
crest ✒✘✣
and ✒ a ❲✔✏s❲✒✏
zig-zag
✒✓✓✚✛✚✑✒✙✕✣
accumulated ✔✓✕ ice ✓✚✙✎
cuts ✙t✕✎✕
these ✓✔✖✿✚✕✎ rt✔✑✕
cirques while ✗✚✙✑✔✘✕★
outline.
✛✗✜✔✘✏
moving ✣✗r✘ down ✙t✕ the ✛✗✚✘✙✒✔✘
mountain ✙✗✦✎★ ❣t✕✥ ✒✖✕
tops. They are
✣✕✕✦✢
deep, ✑✗✘✏
long ✒✘✣ r✔✣✕ ✙✖✗✚✏t✎
and wide troughs ✗✖ or ✤✒✎✔✘✎ r✔✙t
basins with ❳❨❩ ❨❬❭❨❩❪❫
The highest ❴❩❵❜
peak ❬❞in ❫❨❩ ❡❢❴❪✐ ❥❵❫❫❩❦❨❧❦❞
the Alps, Matterhorn
❵❞♠
and ❫❨❩
the ❨❬❭❨❩❪❫
highest ❴❩❵❜
peak ❬❞ in ❫❨❩
the ♣❬✉❵❢❵✈❵❪✐
Himalayas,
✜✕✖✥ ✎✙✕✕✦
very steep ✓✗✘✓✒✜✕
concave ✙✗ dropping t✔✏t
✜✕✖✙✔✓✒✑✑✥ ✣✖✗✦✦✔✘✏
to vertically high
①②❩❦❩❪❫
Everest ❵❦❩ in ③❵④❫
are ❬❞ horns ③❧❦✉❩♠
fact ❨❧❦❞❪ formed ❫❨❦❧⑤❭❨
through
r✒✑✑✎ ✒✙
walls its t✕✒✣
at ✔✙✎ head ✒✎ r✕✑✑ ✒✎
as well as ✎✔✣✕✎★
sides. A❆ ✑✒✇✕
lake ✗♦ r✒✙✕✖
of water ❨❩❵♠⑥❵❦♠
headward ❩❦❧❪❬❧❞
erosion ❧③ radiating ④❬❦⑦⑤❩❪⑧
of ❦❵♠❬❵❫❬❞❭ cirques.
✓✒✘
can ✤✕ seen ✿✚✔✙✕
be ✎✕✕✘ quite ✗♦✙✕✘ r✔✙t✔✘ ✙t✕
often within the ✓✔✖✿✚✕✎
cirques ✒♦✙✕✖
after

Terminal i ae b

⑨⑩❶❷❸❹
Figure ❺❻❼❽
7.13 ❾: ❿➀➁❹
Some ❶➂➃➄⑩➃➂
glacial ❹❸➀➅⑩➀➆➃➂
erosional ➃➆➇
and ➇❹➈➀➅⑩➉⑩➀➆➃➂
depositional ➊➀❸➁➅
forms ➋➃➇➃➈➉❹➇
(adapted ➃➆➇
and ➁➀➇⑩➊⑩❹➇
modified ➊❸➀➁
from ❿➈❹➆➄❹❸➌
Spencer, ❼➍➎➏➐
1962)
✻✑
68 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

●✒✓✔✕✓✒ ✖✓✒✒❛✗✘✙✚r♦✛✜✢✘
Glacial Valleys/Troughs ♥✯❀✩
Some ✥❀✯✰✵★
amount ✯✿ of ✮✯✦✴
rock ✪✩✾✮✧✭
debris ✭❀✥✤✤
small ✩✵✯✰✱✲
enough ★✯ to
be ✦✥✮✮✧✩✪
✾✩ carried ✾✬ by ✭✰✦✲ melt-water ✭★✮✩✥❀✭
such ❀✩✤★✳✇✥★✩✮ streams ✧✭ is
✣✤✥✦✧✥★✩✪ ✫✥✤✤✩✬✭ ✥✮✩
Glaciated valleys are ★✮✯✰✱✲✳✤✧✴✩
trough-like ✥✵✪ and ❯✶✷✸✹✺✼✽
U-shaped
✇✥✭✲✩✪ ✪✯✇✵
washed down ✥✵✪ and ✪✩s✯✭✧★✩✪❂
deposited. ♥✰✦✲
Such ✱✤✥✦✧✯✳
glacio-
✇✧★✲ ✾✮✯✥✪
with floors and relatively ✭❀✯✯★✲❁
broad ✿✤✯✯✮✭ ✥✵✪ ✮✩✤✥★✧✫✩✤✬ smooth, ✥✵✪ and
fluvial ✪✩s✯✭✧★✭
✿✤✰✫✧✥✤ deposits ✥✮✩ are ✦✥✤✤✩✪ outwash ✽✼✺❄✷❆❦✷❂
called ❄♣❦q✹✷✸ deposits.
✭★✩✩s
steep ✭✧✪✩✭❂
sides. The❃✲✩ valleys
✫✥✤✤✩✬✭ ❀✥✬ may ✦✯✵★✥✧✵
contain ✤✧★★✩✮✩✪
littered
t✵✤✧✴✩
Unlike ★✧✤✤
till ✪✩s✯✭✧★✭❁
deposits, ★✲✩the ✯✰★✇✥✭✲
outwash ✪✩s✯✭✧★✭
deposits ✥✮✩are
✪✩✾✮✧✭
debris ✯✮ or ✪✩✾✮✧✭
debris ✭✲✥s✩✪
shaped ✥✭ as ♠❄❅✹❆❇✼✷
moraines with ✇✧★✲ ✮✯✰✱✲✤✬ ✭★✮✥★✧✿✧✩✪ ✥✵✪ ✥✭✭✯✮★✩✪❂ ❃✲✩ ✮✯✦✴
roughly stratified and assorted. The rock
✭✇✥❀s✬
swampy ✥ss✩✥✮✥✵✦✩❂
appearance. There ❃✲✩✮✩ ❀✥✬ may ✾✩ be ✤✥✴✩✭
lakes
fragments ✧✵
✿✮✥✱❀✩✵★✭ in ✯✰★✇✥✭✲
outwash ✪✩s✯✭✧★✭
deposits ✥✮✩
are ✭✯❀✩✇✲✥★
somewhat
✱✯✰✱✩✪
gouged ✯✰★ out ✯✿of ✮✯✦✴✬ floor ✯✮
rocky ✿✤✯✯✮ or ✿✯✮❀✩✪
formed ✾✬ by ✪✩✾✮✧✭
debris
✮✯✰✵✪✩✪
rounded ✥★ at ★✲✩✧✮
their ✩✪✱✩✭❂
edges. ✉✧✱✰✮✩ 7.14 ✭✲✯✇✭
Figure ①❂②③ shows ✥ a
✇✧★✲✧✵ ★✲✩
within ✫✥✤✤✩✬✭❂ There
the valleys. ❃✲✩✮✩ ✦✥✵ can ✾✩be ✲✥✵✱✧✵✱ ✫✥✤✤✩✬✭
hanging valleys
few ✪✩s✯✭✧★✧✯✵✥✤
✿✩✇ depositional ✤✥✵✪✿✯✮❀✭
landforms ✦✯❀❀✯✵✤✬
commonly ✿✯✰✵✪
found
✥★
at ✥✵
an ✩✤✩✫✥★✧✯✵
elevation ✯✵ on ✯✵✩
one ✯✮ both ✭✧✪✩✭
or ✾✯★✲ sides ✯✿of ★✲✩
the ❀✥✧✵
main
✧✵
in ✱✤✥✦✧✥★✩✪
glaciated ✥✮✩✥✭❂
areas.
✱✤✥✦✧✥✤ ✫✥✤✤✩✬❂ The
glacial valley. ❃✲✩ ✿✥✦✩✭
faces ✯✿ of ✪✧✫✧✪✩✭
divides ✯✮ or ✭s✰✮✭
spurs ✯✿ of
✭✰✦✲
such ✲✥✵✱✧✵✱ ✫✥✤✤✩✬✭ ✯s✩✵✧✵✱
hanging valleys opening ✧✵★✯ main ✱✤✥✦✧✥✤
into ❀✥✧✵ glacial ④♦r✓✕❵❛✘
Moraines
✫✥✤✤✩✬✭ ✥✮✩
valleys are ✈✰✧★✩
quite ✯✿★✩✵
often ★✮✰✵✦✥★✩✪
truncated ★✯ to ✱✧✫✩
give ★✲✩❀
them
✥✵
an ✥ss✩✥✮✥✵✦✩
appearance ✤✧✴✩ like ★✮✧✥✵✱✰✤✥✮
triangular ✿✥✦✩★✭❂ ❱✩✮✬ ✪✩✩s
facets. Very deep ❃✲✩✬ ✥✮✩
They are ✤✯✵✱
long ✮✧✪✱✩✭
ridges ✯✿
of ✪✩s✯✭✧★✭
deposits ✯✿
of ✱✤✥✦✧✥✤
glacial ★✧✤✤❂
till.
✱✤✥✦✧✥✤
glacial ★✮✯✰✱✲✭
troughs ✿✧✤✤✩✪ ✇✧★✲ ✭✩✥
filled with ✇✥★✩✮ ✥✵✪
sea water and ❃✩✮❀✧✵✥✤ ❀✯✮✥✧✵✩✭ ✥✮✩ ✤✯✵✱ ✮✧✪✱✩✭ ✯✿
Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris✪✩✾✮✧✭
making ✰s
❀✥✴✧✵✱ up ✭✲✯✮✩✤✧✵✩✭
shorelines ❈✧✵ (in ✲✧✱✲
high ✤✥★✧★✰✪✩✭❉
latitudes) ✥✮✩ are ✪✩s✯✭✧★✩✪
deposited ✥★ at ★✲✩
the ✩✵✪ (toe) ✯✿
end ❈★✯✩❉ of ★✲✩
the ✱✤✥✦✧✩✮✭❂
glaciers. ⑤✹❦✼❅✹✐
Lateral
✦✥✤✤✩✪ ❢❊❄❅✽✷❍❢❆❄❅✽✷❂
called fjords/ fiords. ♠❄❅✹❆❇✼✷
moraines ✿✯✮❀ form ✥✤✯✵✱
along ★✲✩
the ✭✧✪✩✭
sides s✥✮✥✤✤✩✤
parallel ★✯ to ★✲✩
the
✱✤✥✦✧✥✤ ✫✥✤✤✩✬✭❂ The
glacial valleys. ❃✲✩ ✤✥★✩✮✥✤
lateral ❀✯✮✥✧✵✩✭
moraines ❀✥✬ ⑥✯✧✵ ✥a
may join
❲■❏❑ ❏▲▼
What are ❑■▼
the ◆❏❖P◗
basic ❘P❙❙▼▲▼❚◗▼❖
differences ◆▼❑❳▼▼❚
between ★✩✮❀✧✵✥✤
terminal ❀✯✮✥✧✵✩ forming ✥
moraine ✿✯✮❀✧✵✱ a ✲✯✮✭✩✳✭✲✯✩
horse-shoe ✭✲✥s✩✪ shaped
❣❨❏◗P❏❨ ❩❏❨❨▼❬❖ ❏❚❘
glacial valleys and ▲P❩▼▲ ❩❏❨❨▼❬❖❭
river valleys? ✮✧✪✱✩❂ ❃✲✩✮✩ ✦✥✵
ridge. There can ✾✩ many ✤✥★✩✮✥✤
be ❀✥✵✬ moraines ✯✵
lateral ❀✯✮✥✧✵✩✭ on
✩✧★✲✩✮ ✭✧✪✩ ✧✵ ✥ ✱✤✥✦✧✥✤ ✫✥✤✤✩✬❂ ❃✲✩✭✩
either side in a glacial valley. These moraines ❀✯✮✥✧✵✩✭
s✥✮★✤✬
partly ✯✮ fully ✯✇✩
or ✿✰✤✤✬ owe ★✲✩✧✮
their ✯✮✧✱✧✵
origin ★✯ to ✱✤✥✦✧✯✳✿✤✰✫✧✥✤
glacio-fluvial
❪❛❫♦✘✕❴✕♦❵✓✒
Depositional ❜✓❵❝❞♦r❡✘
Landforms
waters s✰✭✲✧✵✱
✇✥★✩✮✭ pushing ✰s materials ★✯
up ❀✥★✩✮✧✥✤✭ to ★✲✩
the ✭✧✪✩✭
sides ✯✿of
❃✲✩ ✰✵✥✭✭✯✮★✩✪
The unassorted ✦✯✥✮✭✩
coarse ✥✵✪ fine ✪✩✾✮✧✭
and ✿✧✵✩ debris ✪✮✯ss✩✪
dropped ✱✤✥✦✧✩✮✭❂
glaciers. ❧✥✵✬
Many ✫✥✤✤✩✬
valley ✱✤✥✦✧✩✮✭
glaciers ✮✩★✮✩✥★✧✵✱
retreating ✮✥s✧✪✤✬
rapidly
by ★✲✩
✾✬ melting ✱✤✥✦✧✩✮✭
the ❀✩✤★✧✵✱ glaciers ✧✭
is ✦✥✤✤✩✪ ❤✐✹❥❆✹✐ ❦❆✐✐❂
called glacial till ❧✯✭★
Most ✤✩✥✫✩
leave ✥✵ an ✧✮✮✩✱✰✤✥✮
irregular ✭✲✩✩★sheet ✯✿of ★✧✤✤
till ✯✫✩✮
over ★✲✩✧✮ ✫✥✤✤✩✬
their valley
✯✿
of ★✲✩
the ✮✯✦✴ fragments ✧✵
rock ✿✮✥✱❀✩✵★✭ in ★✧✤✤
till ✥✮✩
are ✥✵✱✰✤✥✮
angular ★✯ to ✭✰✾✳
sub- floors. ♥✰✦✲
✿✤✯✯✮✭❂ Such ✪✩s✯✭✧★✭
deposits ✫✥✮✬✧✵✱
varying ✱✮✩✥★✤✬
greatly ✧✵ in ★✲✧✦✴✵✩✭✭
thickness
✥✵✱✰✤✥✮
angular in form. Streams form by melting ✧✦✩
✧✵ ✿✯✮❀❂ ♥★✮✩✥❀✭ ✿✯✮❀ ✾✬ ❀✩✤★✧✵✱ ice ✥✵✪
and ✧✵ in ✭✰✮✿✥✦✩
surface ★✯s✯✱✮✥s✲✬
topography ✥✮✩ are ✦✥✤✤✩✪ ❤❅❄♣❇✽
called ground
✥★
at ★✲✩ bottom, ✭✧✪✩✭
the ✾✯★★✯❀❁ sides ✯✮
or ✤✯✇✩✮
lower ✩✵✪✭ends ✯✿of ✱✤✥✦✧✩✮✭❂
glaciers. moraines. The moraine in the centre ✯✿
♠❄❅✹❆❇✼✷❂ ❃✲✩ ❀✯✮✥✧✵✩ ✧✵ ★✲✩ ✦✩✵★✮✩ of ★✲✩
the

Sa
Esker

Z
Ta oe
Outwash
plain

Terminal
Moraine

Drumlins

"iy G tin
“1> ON pes “

⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❷
Figure ❸❹❺❻
7.14: ❼ A❽ ❾❿➀➁❶❿➂⑧➃
panoramic ➄⑧❿⑨❶❿➂
diagram ➁➅
of ⑨➆❿➃⑧❿➆
glacial ➆❿➀➄➇➃❿❾❷
landscape ➈⑧➉➊
with ➋❿❶⑧➁⑩➇
various ➄❷❾➁➇⑧➉⑧➁➀❿➆
depositional ➆❿➀➄➅➁❶➂➇
landforms
➌❿➄❿❾➉❷➄
(adapted ❿➀➄
and ➂➁➄⑧➅⑧❷➄ from ➍❾❷➀➃❷❶➎
modified ➅❶➁➂ Spencer, ❺➏➐➑➒
1962)
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✻✍
69

❣✎✏✑✒✏✎ ✓✏✎✎✔✕ ✖✎✏✗✘✔✙

glacial valley ✚✕ ✎✏✛✔✜✏✎
flanked by lateral ✢✣✜✏✒✗✔✤
moraines ✒✤is
❵❍P❇ ❅❆
What the ❚❅❜❜❏▼❏❈❯❏
is ❇❍❏ ■❏❇❑❏❏❈ ❇❅◗◗
difference between till P❈❚
and
✑✏✎✎✔✙
called ♠✥✦✧★✩
medial ♠✪✫★✧✬✥✳ ✭✮✔✕ ✏✜✔
moraine. They are ✒✢✯✔✜✖✔✑✛✎✕
imperfectly P◗◗●◆❅●❝❞
alluvium?
✖✣✜✢✔✙
formed ✏✤ as ✑✣✢✯✏✜✔✙
compared ✛✣ to ✎✏✛✔✜✏✎
lateral ✢✣✜✏✒✗✔✤✳
moraines.
❙✣✢✔✛✒✢✔✤
Sometimes ✢✔✙✒✏✎✢✣✜✏✒✗✔✤
medial moraines ✏✜✔
are ✒✗✙✒✤✛✒✗❣♥✒✤✮✏✚✎✔
indistinguishable
✖✜✣✢
from ❣✜✣♥✗✙
ground ✢✣✜✏✒✗✔✤✳
moraines. ❤✐❥❦♦ AND
Waves ✐♣q rt✉✉❦♣✈♦
CURRENTS

❊✰✱✲✴✰
Eskers ✇✣✏✤✛✏✎
Coastal ✯✜✣✑✔✤✤✔✤
processes ✏✜✔ are ✛✮✔
the ✢✣✤✛
most ✙✕✗✏✢✒✑
dynamic ✏✗✙ and
✮✔✗✑✔
hence ✢✣✤✛
most ✙✔✤✛✜♥✑✛✒✓✔✳
destructive. ❙✣✵So, ✙✣✗①✛ ✕✣♥ ✛✮✒✗✘
don’t you think ✒✛ it
❲✮✔✗ ❣✎✏✑✒✔✜✤
When glaciers ✢✔✎✛
melt ✒✗
in ✤♥✢✢✔✜✵
summer, ✛✮✔ ✶✏✛✔✜ ✖✎✣✶✤
the water flows ✒✤
is ✒✢✯✣✜✛✏✗✛
important ✛✣ to ✘✗✣✶
know ✏✚✣♥✛about ✛✮✔the ✑✣✏✤✛✏✎
coastal
✣✗
on ✛✮✔
the ✤♥✜✖✏✑✔
surface ✣✖of ✛✮✔
the ✒✑✔
ice ✣✜
or ✤✔✔✯✤
seeps ✙✣✶✗
down ✏✎✣✗❣
along ✯✜✣✑✔✤✤✔✤
processes ✏✗✙and ✖✣✜✢✤②
forms?
✛✮✔
the ✢✏✜❣✒✗✤
margins ✣✜ or ✔✓✔✗
even ✢✣✓✔✤
moves ✛✮✜✣♥❣✮
through ✮✣✎✔✤
holes ✒✗ in ❙✣✢✔
Some of the ✑✮✏✗❣✔✤
✣✖ ✛✮✔ changes ✏✎✣✗❣
along ✛✮✔
the ✑✣✏✤✛✤
coasts ✛✏✘✔
take
✛✮✔
the ✒✑✔✳
ice. These ✶✏✛✔✜✤ ✏✑✑♥✢♥✎✏✛✔
✭✮✔✤✔ waters ✚✔✗✔✏✛✮ ✛✮✔
accumulate beneath the ✯✎✏✑✔ ✓✔✜✕ ✖✏✤✛✳
place very ③✛ ✣✗✔
fast. At one ✯✎✏✑✔✵
place, ✛✮✔✜✔
there ✑✏✗ can be✚✔
❣✎✏✑✒✔✜
glacier ✏✗✙and ✖✎✣✶
flow ✎✒✘✔
like ✤✛✜✔✏✢✤
streams ✒✗ in ✏
a ✑✮✏✗✗✔✎
channel ✔✜✣✤✒✣✗
erosion ✒✗ in ✣✗✔one ✤✔✏✤✣✗
season ✏✗✙ and ✙✔✯✣✤✒✛✒✣✗
deposition ✒✗ in
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over ✛✮✔
✚✔✗✔✏✛✮ ✛✮✔ ✒✑✔✳ ❙♥✑✮ ✤✛✜✔✏✢✤ ✖✎✣✶ ✣✓✔✜ the another. ④✣✤✛
✏✗✣✛✮✔✜✳ Most ✣✖ of ✛✮✔
the ✑✮✏✗❣✔✤
changes ✏✎✣✗❣
along ✛✮✔
the ✑✣✏✤✛✤
coasts
ground ✷✗✣✛
❣✜✣♥✗✙ (not ✒✗in ✏ ✓✏✎✎✔✕ ✑♥✛
a valley cut ✒✗
in ✛✮✔
the ❣✜✣♥✗✙✸ ✶✒✛✮
ground) with ✏✜✔
are ✏✑✑✣✢✯✎✒✤✮✔✙
accomplished by ✶✏✓✔✤✳ When
✚✕ waves. ❲✮✔✗ waves
✶✏✓✔✤ break,
✚✜✔✏✘✵
✒✑✔
ice ✖✣✜✢✒✗❣
forming ✒✛✤ ✚✏✗✘✤✳ Very
its banks. ✹✔✜✕ ✑✣✏✜✤✔
coarse ✢✏✛✔✜✒✏✎✤
materials ✎✒✘✔
like ✛✮✔ ✶✏✛✔✜ ✒✤
the water is ✛✮✜✣✶✗
thrown with✶✒✛✮ ❣✜✔✏✛
great ✖✣✜✑✔
force ✣✗✛✣
onto ✛✮✔
the
✚✣♥✎✙✔✜✤ ✏✗✙
boulders ✚✎✣✑✘✤ ✏✎✣✗❣
and blocks ✶✒✛✮ ✤✣✢✔
along with some ✢✒✗✣✜
minor ✤✮✣✜✔✵
shore, ✏✗✙
and ✤✒✢♥✎✛✏✗✔✣♥✤✎✕✵
simultaneously, ✛✮✔✜✔ there ✒✤is ✏ a ❣✜✔✏✛
great
✖✜✏✑✛✒✣✗✤
fractions ✣✖of ✜✣✑✘
rock ✙✔✚✜✒✤
debris ✑✏✜✜✒✔✙
carried ✒✗✛✣
into ✛✮✒✤
this ✤✛✜✔✏✢
stream ✑✮♥✜✗✒✗❣
churning ✣✖ of ✤✔✙✒✢✔✗✛✤
sediments ✣✗ on ✛✮✔
the ✤✔✏ ✚✣✛✛✣✢✳
sea bottom.
✤✔✛✛✎✔
settle in the valley of ice beneath the ❣✎✏✑✒✔✜
✒✗ ✛✮✔ ✓✏✎✎✔✕ ✣✖ ✒✑✔ ✚✔✗✔✏✛✮ ✛✮✔ glacier ✇✣✗✤✛✏✗✛ ✒✢✯✏✑✛ ✣✖ ✚✜✔✏✘✒✗❣ ✶✏✓✔✤
Constant impact of breaking waves drastically ✙✜✏✤✛✒✑✏✎✎✕
✏✗✙
and ✏✖✛✔✜
after ✛✮✔
the ✒✑✔ice ✢✔✎✛✤
melts ✑✏✗can be✚✔ ✖✣♥✗✙
found ✏✤ as ✏a ✏✖✖✔✑✛✤
affects ✛✮✔
the ✑✣✏✤✛✤✳
coasts. ❙✛✣✜✢ ✶✏✓✔✤ ✏✗✙
Storm waves and ✛✤♥✗✏✢✒
tsunami
✤✒✗♥✣♥✤
sinuous ✜✒✙❣✔
ridge ✑✏✎✎✔✙
called ✥❡✺✥✫✳
esker. ✶✏✓✔✤ ✑✏✗
waves can ✑✏♥✤✔
cause ✖✏✜❛✜✔✏✑✮✒✗❣
far-reaching ✑✮✏✗❣✔✤
changes ✒✗ in ✏ a
✤✮✣✜✛
short ✯✔✜✒✣✙
period ✣✖ of ✛✒✢✔
time ✛✮✏✗
than ✗✣✜✢✏✎ ✚✜✔✏✘✒✗❣
normal breaking
❖✼✽✾✿✰❀
Outwash ❁❂✿❃❄✰
Plains ✶✏✓✔✤✳ As
waves. ✶✏✓✔ ✔✗✓✒✜✣✗✢✔✗✛
③✤ wave environment ✑✮✏✗❣✔✤✵
changes, ✛✮✔ the
✒✗✛✔✗✤✒✛✕
intensity ✣✖
of ✛✮✔
the ✖✣✜✑✔
force ✣✖ ✶✏✓✔✤ ✑✮✏✗❣✔✤✳
✚✜✔✏✘✒✗❣ waves
of breaking changes.
✭✮✔ ✯✎✏✒✗✤
The plains ✏✛
at ✛✮✔
the ✖✣✣✛
foot ✣✖
of ✛✮✔
the ❣✎✏✑✒✏✎
glacial ✢✣♥✗✛✏✒✗✤
mountains
✣✜ ✚✔✕✣✗✙ ✛✮✔
or beyond the ✎✒✢✒✛✤
limits ✣✖of ✑✣✗✛✒✗✔✗✛✏✎
continental ✒✑✔ ice ✤✮✔✔✛✤
sheets ❉❱ ⑤❱● ⑥❈❱❑
Do you know P■❱●❇
about ❇❍❏
the ❋❏❈❏▼P❇❅❈❋
generating ❜❱▼❯❏❆
forces
✏✜✔
are ✑✣✓✔✜✔✙ ✶✒✛✮ ❣✎✏✑✒✣❛✖✎♥✓✒✏✎
covered with glacio-fluvial ✙✔✯✣✤✒✛✤
deposits ✒✗ in ✛✮✔
the ❯●▼▼❏❈❇❆❞ ⑦❜
behind waves and currents? If not, ▼❏❜❏▼
■❏❍❅❈❚ ❑P◆❏❆ P❈❚ ❈❱❇⑧ refer
✖✣✜✢
form ✣✖ ✚✜✣✏✙ ✖✎✏✛
of broad flat ✏✎✎♥✓✒✏✎
alluvial ✖✏✗✤ ✶✮✒✑✮ ✢✏✕
fans which ❢✣✒✗
may join ❇❱ the ❯❍P❘❇❏▼
to ❇❍❏ chapter ❱❈
on ❝❱◆❏❝❏❈❇❆
movements ❅❈ in ❱❯❏P❈
ocean
✛✣
to ✖✣✜✢
form ✣♥✛✶✏✤✮
outwash ✯✎✏✒✗✤
plains ✣✖of ❣✜✏✓✔✎✵
gravel, ✤✒✎✛✵
silt, ✤✏✗✙
sand ✏✗✙
and ❑P❇❏▼❆❳
waters.
✑✎✏✕✳
clay.
❫✛✮✔✜
Other ✛✮✏✗
than ✛✮✔ the ✏✑✛✒✣✗
action ✣✖ ✶✏✓✔✤✵ ✛✮✔
of waves, the ✑✣✏✤✛✏✎
coastal
❉❅❆❇❅❈❋●❅❆❍ ■❏❇❑❏❏❈ ▼❅◆❏▼
Distinguish between river P◗◗●◆❅P◗
alluvial ❘◗P❅❈❆
plains ✎✏✗✙✖✣✜✢✤
landforms ✙✔✯✔✗✙depend ♥✯✣✗ upon ✷✒✸ (i) ✛✮✔
the ✑✣✗✖✒❣♥✜✏✛✒✣✗
configuration
P❈❚ glacial ❱●❇❑P❆❍
and ❋◗P❯❅P◗ outwash ❘◗P❅❈❆❳
plains. ✣✖
of ✎✏✗✙
land ✏✗✙
and ✤✔✏ floor; ✷✒✒✸
sea ✖✎✣✣✜⑨ ✶✮✔✛✮✔✜ ✛✮✔
(ii) whether the ✑✣✏✤✛
coast ✒✤
is
advancing ✷✔✢✔✜❣✒✗❣✸
✏✙✓✏✗✑✒✗❣ (emerging) ✤✔✏✶✏✜✙seaward ✣✜ or ✜✔✛✜✔✏✛✒✗❣
retreating
✷✤♥✚✢✔✜❣✒✗❣✸
(submerging) ✎✏✗✙✶✏✜✙✳ ③✤✤♥✢✒✗❣ ✤✔✏
landward. Assuming sea ✎✔✓✔✎
level ✛✣
to
❨✴✼❩❂❃❄✰
Drumlins ✚✔ ✑✣✗✤✛✏✗✛✵
be constant, ✛✶✣ two ✛✕✯✔✤
types ✣✖of ✑✣✏✤✛✤
coasts ✏✜✔are ✑✣✗✤✒✙✔✜✔✙
considered
❬✜♥✢✎✒✗✤
Drumlins ✏✜✔ are ✤✢✣✣✛✮
smooth ✣✓✏✎ oval ✤✮✏✯✔✙
shaped ✜✒✙❣✔❛✎✒✘✔
ridge-like ✛✣
to ✔s✯✎✏✒✗
explain ✛✮✔ the ✑✣✗✑✔✯✛
concept ✣✖ of ✔✓✣✎♥✛✒✣✗
evolution ✣✖ of ✑✣✏✤✛✏✎
coastal
✖✔✏✛♥✜✔✤
features ✑✣✢✯✣✤✔✙
composed ✢✏✒✗✎✕mainly ✣✖ of ❣✎✏✑✒✏✎
glacial ✛✒✎✎ ✶✒✛✮
till with ✎✏✗✙✖✣✜✢✤⑩ ✷✒✸
landforms: (i) ✮✒❣✮✵ high, ✜✣✑✘✕
rocky ✑✣✏✤✛✤ ✷✤♥✚✢✔✜❣✔✙
coasts (submerged
✤✣✢✔ ✢✏✤✤✔✤ ✣✖ ❣✜✏✓✔✎ ✏✗✙ ✤✏✗✙✳
some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes ✭✮✔ ✎✣✗❣ ✏s✔✤ coasts); ✷✒✒✸
✑✣✏✤✛✤✸⑨ (ii) ✎✣✶✵
low, ✤✢✣✣✛✮
smooth ✏✗✙ and ❣✔✗✛✎✕
gently ✤✎✣✯✒✗❣
sloping
✣✖
of ✙✜♥✢✎✒✗✤
drumlins ✏✜✔ are ✯✏✜✏✎✎✔✎
parallel ✛✣ to ✛✮✔
the ✙✒✜✔✑✛✒✣✗
direction ✣✖ of ✒✑✔
ice ✤✔✙✒✢✔✗✛✏✜✕
sedimentary ✑✣✏✤✛✤ coasts ✷✔✢✔✜❣✔✙
(emerged ✑✣✏✤✛✤✸✳
coasts).
✢✣✓✔✢✔✗✛✳
movement. They ✭✮✔✕ ✢✏✕may ✢✔✏✤♥✜✔
measure ♥✯ up ✛✣to ❭1 ✘✢km ✒✗in
✎✔✗❣✛✮
length ✏✗✙and ❧❪ 30 ✢ m ✣✜or ✤✣
so ✒✗ height. ❫✗✔
in ✮✔✒❣✮✛✳ One ✔✗✙ end ✣✖ of ❶❷❸❹
Hicu ❺❻❼❽❾
Rocky r❻✐♦✈♦
Coasts
✛✮✔
the ✙✜♥✢✎✒✗✤
drumlins ✖✏✑✒✗❣
facing ✛✮✔the ❣✎✏✑✒✔✜
glacier ✑✏✎✎✔✙
called ✛✮✔the ❡❴✪❡❡
stoss ③✎✣✗❣ ✛✮✔
Along the ✮✒❣✮
high ✜✣✑✘✕
rocky ✑✣✏✤✛✤✵
coasts, ✛✮✔
the ✜✒✓✔✜✤
rivers ✏✯✯✔✏✜
appear
✔✗✙
end ✒✤ ✚✎♥✗✛✔✜ ✏✗✙
is blunter and ✤✛✔✔✯✔✜
steeper ✛✮✏✗
than ✛✮✔
the ✣✛✮✔✜
other ✔✗✙ end ✛✣
to ✮✏✓✔ ✚✔✔✗ ✙✜✣✶✗✔✙
have been drowned with✶✒✛✮ ✮✒❣✮✎✕
highly ✒✜✜✔❣♥✎✏✜
irregular
✑✏✎✎✔✙
called ❴★✧✩✳ ✭✮✔ ✙✜♥✢✎✒✗✤
tail. The drumlins ✖✣✜✢ form ✙♥✔due ✛✣to ✙♥✢✯✒✗❣
dumping ✑✣✏✤✛✎✒✗✔✳
coastline. The ✭✮✔ ✑✣✏✤✛✎✒✗✔
coastline ✏✯✯✔✏✜✤
appears ✮✒❣✮✎✕highly
✣✖
of ✜✣✑✘
rock ✙✔✚✜✒✤ ✚✔✗✔✏✛✮ ✮✔✏✓✒✎✕
debris beneath heavily ✎✣✏✙✔✙
loaded ✒✑✔ ice ✒✗✙✔✗✛✔✙ ✶✒✛✮ ✔s✛✔✗✤✒✣✗
indented with extension ✣✖ ✶✏✛✔✜ ✒✗✛✣
of water into ✛✮✔
the ✎✏✗✙
land
✛✮✜✣♥❣✮
through ✖✒✤✤♥✜✔✤
fissures ✒✗ in ✛✮✔
the ❣✎✏✑✒✔✜✳
glacier. The✭✮✔ ✤✛✣✤✤
stoss ✔✗✙ end ✶✮✔✜✔ ❣✎✏✑✒✏✎
where ✓✏✎✎✔✕✤ ❿➀➁✪✫✦❡➂
glacial valleys (fjords) ✏✜✔
are ✯✜✔✤✔✗✛✳
present. The✭✮✔
❣✔✛✤ ✚✎♥✗✛✔✙ ✙♥✔
gets blunted due ✛✣ to ✯♥✤✮✒✗❣
pushing by ✚✕ ✢✣✓✒✗❣
moving ✒✑✔✳ ice. ✮✒✎✎
hill ✤✒✙✔✤
sides ✙✜✣✯
drop ✣✖✖
off ✤✮✏✜✯✎✕
sharply ✒✗✛✣
into ✛✮✔ ✶✏✛✔✜✳ ❙✮✣✜✔✤
the water. Shores
❬✜♥✢✎✒✗✤
Drumlins give an indication of direction ✣✖
❣✒✓✔ ✏✗ ✒✗✙✒✑✏✛✒✣✗ ✣✖ ✙✒✜✔✑✛✒✣✗ of ✙✣
do ✗✣✛
not ✤✮✣✶
show ✏✗✕any ✙✔✯✣✤✒✛✒✣✗✏✎
depositional ✎✏✗✙✖✣✜✢✤
landforms
❣✎✏✑✒✔✜
glacier ✢✣✓✔✢✔✗✛✳
movement. ✒✗✒✛✒✏✎✎✕✳ ➃✜✣✤✒✣✗
initially. Erosion ✖✔✏✛♥✜✔✤
features ✙✣✢✒✗✏✛✔✳
dominate.
✼✑
70 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❆✒✓✔✕ ✖✗✕✖
Along high ✘✓✙✚✛
rocky ✙✓✜✢✣✢✤
coasts, waves ✥✜✦✧✢ break★✘✧✜✚ with
✥✗✣✖ ❙✣✓✘✸
Storm ✜✔✩and ✣✢✬✔✜✸✗ ✥✜✦✧✢ ✙✜✬✢✧
tsunami waves cause ✩✘✜✢✣✗✙
drastic
✕✘✧✜✣
great ❣✓✘✙✧
force ✜✕✜✗✔✢✣
against ✣✖✧ the ✒✜✔✩
land ✢✖✜✪✗✔✕
shaping ✣✖✧ the ✖✗✒✒
hill ✙✖✜✔✕✧✢
changes ✗✘✘✧✢✪✧✙✣✗✦✧
irrespective ✓❣
of ✢✬✪✪✒✛
supply ✓❣ of ✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✢s
sediments.
✢✗✩✧✢
sides ✗✔✣✓
into ✙✒✗❣❣✢s ✫✗✣✖ ✙✓✔✢✣✜✔✣
cliffs. With constant ✪✓✬✔✩✗✔✕
pounding by ★✛ ◗✜✘✕✧
Large ✘✗✦✧✘✢ ✥✖✗✙✖ bring
rivers which ★✘✗✔✕ ✒✓✣✢
lots ✓❣
of ✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✢ ★✬✗✒✩
sediments build
✥✜✦✧✢✤ ✣✖✧
waves, the ✙✒✗❣❣✢
cliffs ✘✧✙✧✩✧
recede ✒✧✜✦✗✔✕
leaving ✜ a ✇✭✮✯✰✱✲✳
wave-cut ✩✧✒✣✜✢
deltas ✜✒✓✔✕
along ✒✓✥
low ✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✜✘✛
sedimentary ✙✓✜✢✣✢s
coasts.
♣✴✭✳✵✶✷♠ ✗✔
platform in ❣✘✓✔✣
front ✓❣ of ✣✖✧the ✢✧✜ sea ✙✒✗❣❣s
cliff. Waves✫✜✦✧✢
gradually ✸✗✔✗✸✗✢✧
✕✘✜✩✬✜✒✒✛ minimise ✣✖✧ the ✗✘✘✧✕✬✒✜✘✗✣✗✧✢
irregularities ✜✒✓✔✕ along ✣✖✧the ❯❱❲ west
The ❳❲❨❩ ❬❭❪❨❩
coast ❭❫of ❭❴❵
our ❬❭❴❝❩❵❞
country ❡❨is ❪a ❱❡❢❱
high
✢✖✓✘✧s
shore. ❵❭❬r❞
rocky ❵❲❩❵❲❪❩❡❝❢ coast. ❥❵❭❨❡❭❝❪❦
retreating ❬❭❪❨❩❤ Erosional ❫❭❵♦❨
forms
❚✖✧ ✸✜✣✧✘✗✜✒✢
The materials which ✥✖✗✙✖ ❣✜✒✒ fall ✓❣❣✤
off, ✜✔✩
and ✘✧✸✓✦✧✩
removed q❭♦❡❝❪❩❲
dominate ❡❝ in ❩❱❲ ❳❲❨❩ ❬❭❪❨❩❤
the west coast. ❯❱❲ ❲❪❨❩
The east
❣✘✓✸
from ✣✖✧
the ✢✧✜
sea ✙✒✗❣❣✢✤
cliffs, ✕✘✜✩✬✜✒✒✛
gradually break ★✘✧✜✚ ✗✔✣✓into ✢✸✜✒✒✧✘
smaller ❬❭❪❨❩
coast ❭❫
of ✉❝q❡❪
India ❡❨ a ❦❭❳
is ❪ low ❨❲q❡♦❲❝❩❪❵❞
sedimentary ❬❭❪❨❩❤
coast.
❣✘✜✕✸✧✔✣✢
fragments and roll to roundness, will ✕✧✣
✜✔✩ ✘✓✒✒ ✣✓ ✘✓✬✔✩✔✧✢✢✤ ✥✗✒✒ get ✈❲①❭❨❡❩❡❭❝❪❦ forms q❭♦❡❝❪❩❲
Depositional ❫❭❵♦❨ dominate ❡❝ in ❩❱❲
the ❲❪❨❩
east
✩✧✪✓✢✗✣✧✩
deposited ✗✔ in ✣✖✧
the ✓❣❣✢✖✓✘✧s
offshore. After ❆❣✣✧✘ ✜a ✙✓✔✢✗✩✧✘✜★✒✧
considerable ❬❭❪❨❩❤
coast.
✪✧✘✗✓✩
period ✓❣ of ✙✒✗❣❣
cliff ✩✧✦✧✒✓✪✸✧✔✣
development ✜✔✩ and ✘✧✣✘✧✜✣
retreat when ✥✖✧✔
✙✓✜✢✣✒✗✔✧
coastline ✣✬✘✔✢turns ✢✓✸✧✥✖✜✣
somewhat ✢✸✓✓✣✖✤ smooth, with ✥✗✣✖ ✣✖✧
the
✜✩✩✗✣✗✓✔
addition ✓❣ some ✸✓✘✧
of ✢✓✸✧ more ✸✜✣✧✘✗✜✒
material ✣✓ to ✣✖✗✢
this ✩✧✪✓✢✗✣
deposit ②❱❪❩ ❪❵❲
What are ❩❱❲ ③❪❵❡❭❴❨ q❡❫❫❲❵❲❝❬❲❨
the various ④❲❩❳❲❲❝
differences between
✗✔
in ✣✖✧
the ✓❣❣✢✖✓✘✧✤
offshore, ✜ ✥✜✦✧✐★✬✗✒✣ ✣✧✘✘✜✙✧
a wave-built terrace would ✥✓✬✒✩ ❪a ❱❡❢❱
high ❵❭❬r❞
rocky ❬❭❪❨❩
coast ❪❝q
and ❪a ❦❭❳
low ❨❲q❡♦❲❝❩❪❵❞
sedimentary
✩✧✦✧✒✓✪
develop ✗✔ in ❣✘✓✔✣
front ✓❣ ✥✜✦✧✐✙✬✣ ✣✧✘✘✜✙✧s
of wave-cut terrace. As ❆✢ ✣✖✧
the ❬❭❪❨❩
coast ❡❝
in ❩❲❵♦❨
terms of ①❵❭❬❲❨❨❲❨
❭❫ processes ❪❝q
and
✧✘✓✢✗✓✔
erosion ✜✒✓✔✕
along ✣✖✧ the ✙✓✜✢✣
coast ✣✜✚✧✢takes ✪✒✜✙✧
place ✜ a ✕✓✓✩
good ❦❪❝q❫❭❵♦❨⑤
landforms?
supply ✸✜✣✧✘✗✜✒
✢✬✪✪✒✛ ★✧✙✓✸✧✢ ✜✦✜✗✒✜★✒✧
material becomes available ✣✓ to ✒✓✔✕✢✖✓✘✧
longshore
✙✬✘✘✧✔✣✢
currents ✜✔✩ ✥✜✦✧✢ ✣✓
and waves to ✩✧✪✓✢✗✣
deposit ✣✖✧✸ them ✜✢ ★✧✜✙✖✧✢
as beaches ⑥❉❖■❃❖❅❈⑦
EROSIONAL ▲❈❅❂⑧❖❉❄■
LANDFORMS
✜✒✓✔✕
along the shore and as bars (long ridges ✓❣
✣✖✧ ✢✖✓✘✧ ✜✔✩ ✜✢ ★✜✘✢ ❛✒✓✔✕ ✘✗✩✕✧✢ of ✢✜✔✩
sand
✜✔✩✹✓✘
and/or ✢✖✗✔✕✒✧
shingle ✪✜✘✜✒✒✧✒
parallel ✣✓ to ✣✖✧
the ✙✓✜✢✣✺
coast) ✗✔ in ✣✖✧
the ⑨⑩❶❷❷❸❹
Cliffs, ❺❻❼❼❽❾❻❸❹
Terraces, ⑨❽❿❻❸ Caves ❽➀➁ and ➂➃❽❾➄❸
Stacks
✔✧✜✘✢✖✓✘✧
nearshore zone. ♥✓✔✧s ✻✜✘✢Bars ✜✘✧are ✢✬★✸✧✘✕✧✩
submerged ❣✧✜✣✬✘✧✢ features
✜✔✩ ✥✖✧✔ bars
and when ★✜✘✢ ✢✖✓✥show ✬✪ up ✜★✓✦✧
above water,✥✜✣✧✘✤ ✣✖✧✛ they ✜✘✧
are
✫✜✦✧✐✙✬✣
Wave-cut ✙✒✗❣❣✢ cliffs ✜✔✩
and ✣✧✘✘✜✙✧✢
terraces ✜✘✧ are ✣✥✓ two ❣✓✘✸✢
forms
✙✜✒✒✧✩
called ❜✭✷✷✽✯✷
barrier ❜✭✷✾s
bars. ✻✜✘✘✗✧✘
Barrier bar ★✜✘ which
✥✖✗✙✖ ✕✧✣ get ✚✧✛✧✩
keyed
✬✢✬✜✒✒✛
usually ❣✓✬✔✩
found where✥✖✧✘✧ ✧✘✓✢✗✓✔
erosion ✗✢ is ✣✖✧
the ✩✓✸✗✔✜✔✣
dominant
✬✪
up ✣✓to ✣✖✧
the ✖✧✜✩✒✜✔✩
headland ✓❣ of ✜ ★✜✛ ✗✢
a bay is ✙✜✒✒✧✩
called ✜ a ✾♣✽✳s
spit.
✢✖✓✘✧
shore ✪✘✓✙✧✢✢s
process. Almost❆✒✸✓✢✣ ✜✒✒ all ✢✧✜
sea ✙✒✗❣❣✢
cliffs ✜✘✧are ✢✣✧✧✪
steep
✫✖✧✔ barrier
When ★✜✘✘✗✧✘ bars★✜✘✢ ✜✔✩and ✢✪✗✣✢
spits ❣✓✘✸
form ✜✣ the ✸✓✬✣✖
at ✣✖✧ mouth
✜✔✩ ✸✜✛
and may range from a few m to 30 m or ✧✦✧✔
✘✜✔✕✧ ❣✘✓✸ ✜ ❣✧✥ ✸ ✣✓ ➅➆ ✸ ✓✘ even
✓❣
of ✜ ★✜✛ ✜✔✩
a bay and block★✒✓✙✚ ✗✣✤ it, ✜a ✴✭❧✶✶✿
lagoon ❣✓✘✸✢sforms. The ❚✖✧ ✸✓✘✧s
more. At❆✣ ✣✖✧the ❣✓✓✣
foot ✓❣
of ✢✬✙✖
such ✙✒✗❣❣✢ there ✸✜✛
cliffs ✣✖✧✘✧ may be ★✧ ✜a
✒✜✕✓✓✔✢
lagoons would ✥✓✬✒✩ ✕✘✜✩✬✜✒✒✛
gradually ✕✧✣ filled ✬✪
get ❣✗✒✒✧✩ up by ★✛ ❣✒✜✣
flat ✓✘
or ✕✧✔✣✒✛
gently ✢✒✓✪✗✔✕
sloping ✪✒✜✣❣✓✘✸
platform ✙✓✦✧✘✧✩covered by ★✛ ✘✓✙✚
rock
✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✢
sediments ❣✘✓✸ from ✣✖✧the ✒✜✔✩
land ✕✗✦✗✔✕
giving ✘✗✢✧rise ✣✓to ✜ a ✙✓✜✢✣✜✒
coastal
✩✧★✘✗✢
debris ✩✧✘✗✦✧✩
derived ❣✘✓✸ from ✣✖✧the ✢✧✜sea ✙✒✗❣❣ ★✧✖✗✔✩s ❙✬✙✖
cliff behind. Such
✪✒✜✗✔s
plain.
✪✒✜✣❣✓✘✸✢
platforms ✓✙✙✬✘✘✗✔✕
occurring ✜✣ at ✧✒✧✦✜✣✗✓✔✢
elevations ✜★✓✦✧ above ✣✖✧ the
✜✦✧✘✜✕✧ ✖✧✗✕✖✣ ✓❣ ✥✜✦✧✢ ✗✢
average height of waves is called a wave-cut✙✜✒✒✧✩ ✜ ✇✭✮✯✰✱✲✳
▲❖❀
Low ❁❊❂❃❄❊❅❇❈❉●
SEDIMENTARY ❍❖❈■❇■
Coasts ✳✯✷✷✭✱✯s
terrace. The❚✖✧ ✒✜✢✖✗✔✕
lashing ✓❣ ✥✜✦✧✢ ✜✕✜✗✔✢✣
of waves against ✣✖✧ the ★✜✢✧
base
✓❣
of ✣✖✧
the ✙✒✗❣❣
cliff ✜✔✩
and ✣✖✧ the ✘✓✙✚
rock ✩✧★✘✗✢debris ✣✖✜✣ that ✕✧✣✢gets
❆✒✓✔✕ ✒✓✥
Along low ✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✜✘✛
sedimentary ✙✓✜✢✣✢coasts ✣✖✧
the ✘✗✦✧✘✢
rivers ✜✪✪✧✜✘
appear ✢✸✜✢✖✧✩
smashed ✜✕✜✗✔✢✣against ✣✖✧ the ✙✒✗❣❣
cliff ✜✒✓✔✕
along with ✥✗✣✖ ✒✜✢✖✗✔✕
lashing
✣✓
to ✧t✣✧✔✩
extend ✣✖✧✗✘
their ✒✧✔✕✣✖
length by ★✛ building
★✬✗✒✩✗✔✕ ✙✓✜✢✣✜✒
coastal ✥✜✦✧✢ ✙✘✧✜✣✧
waves create ✖✓✒✒✓✥✢
hollows ✜✔✩ and ✣✖✧✢✧
these ✖✓✒✒✓✥✢
hollows ✕✧✣ get
✪✒✜✗✔✢
plains ✜✔✩and ✩✧✒✣✜✢s
deltas. The❚✖✧ ✙✓✜✢✣✒✗✔✧
coastline ✜✪✪✧✜✘✢
appears ✥✗✩✧✔✧✩ ✜✔✩ ✩✧✧✪✧✔✧✩ ✣✓ ❣✓✘✸
widened and deepened to form sea caves. The ✾✯✭ ✱✭✮✯✾s ❚✖✧
✢✸✓✓✣✖ ✥✗✣✖ ✓✙✙✜✢✗✓✔✜✒ ✗✔✙✬✘✢✗✓✔✢
smooth with occasional incursions of water ✓❣ ✥✜✣✧✘ ✗✔ in ✘✓✓❣✢
roofs ✓❣
of ✙✜✦✧✢
caves ✙✓✒✒✜✪✢✧
collapse ✜✔✩ and ✣✖✧ the ✢✧✜
sea ✙✒✗❣❣✢
cliffs ✘✧✙✧✩✧
recede
✣✖✧
the ❣✓✘✸
form ✓❣of ✴✭❧✶✶✿✾
lagoons ✭✿❏
and ✳✽❏✭✴
tidal ✱✷✯✯❑✾s ❚✖✧ ✒✜✔✩
creeks. The land ❣✬✘✣✖✧✘ inland. ➇✧✣✘✧✜✣
further ✗✔✒✜✔✩s Retreat ✓❣ of ✣✖✧ cliff ✸✜✛
the ✙✒✗❣❣ may ✒✧✜✦✧leave
✢✒✓✪✧✢
slopes ✕✧✔✣✒✛
gently ✗✔✣✓into ✣✖✧ ✥✜✣✧✘s ▼✜✘✢✖✧✢
the water. Marshes ✜✔✩ and ✢✓✸✧
some ✘✧✸✔✜✔✣✢
remnants ✓❣ of ✘✓✙✚
rock ✢✣✜✔✩✗✔✕
standing ✗✢✓✒✜✣✧✩isolated ✜✢ as
swamps ✸✜✛
✢✥✜✸✪✢ may ✜★✓✬✔✩
abound ✜✒✓✔✕ along ✣✖✧the ✙✓✜✢✣✢s
coasts. ✢✸✜✒✒
small ✗✢✒✜✔✩✢
islands just ➈✬✢✣ ✓❣❣
off ✣✖✧
the ✢✖✓✘✧s
shore. ❙✬✙✖Such ✘✧✢✗✢✣✜✔✣
resistant
◆✧✪✓✢✗✣✗✓✔✜✒
Depositional ❣✧✜✣✬✘✧✢
features ✩✓✸✗✔✜✣✧s
dominate. ✸✜✢✢✧✢
masses ✓❣ of ✘✓✙✚✤
rock, ✓✘✗✕✗✔✜✒✒✛
originally ✪✜✘✣✢ parts ✓❣ ofa✜ ✙✒✗❣❣
cliff ✓✘
or ✖✗✒✒
hill
✫✖✧✔
When waves break ✓✦✧✘
✥✜✦✧✢ ★✘✧✜✚ over ✜a ✕✧✔✣✒✛
gently ✢✒✓✪✗✔✕
sloping ✜✘✧
are ✙✜✒✒✧✩
called ✾✯✭ stacks. ◗✗✚✧
sea ✾✳✭✱❑✾s Like ✜✒✒all ✓✣✖✧✘
other ❣✧✜✣✬✘✧✢✤
features,
✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✜✘✛
sedimentary ✙✓✜✢✣✤coast, ✣✖✧ ★✓✣✣✓✸ ✢✧✩✗✸✧✔✣✢
the bottom sediments ✕✧✣ get ✢✧✜
sea ✢✣✜✙✚✢
stacks ✜✘✧ are ✜✒✢✓
also ✣✧✸✪✓✘✜✘✛
temporary ✜✔✩ and ✧✦✧✔✣✬✜✒✒✛
eventually
✙✖✬✘✔✧✩
churned ✜✔✩ and ✸✓✦✧
move ✘✧✜✩✗✒✛ ★✬✗✒✩✗✔✕ ❜✭✷✾P
readily building bars, ✙✓✜✢✣✜✒
coastal ✖✗✒✒✢
hills ✜✔✩
and ✙✒✗❣❣✢ ✥✗✒✒ ✩✗✢✜✪✪✧✜✘
cliffs will disappear ★✧✙✜✬✢✧ because
❜✭✷✷✽✯✷
barrier ❜✭✷✾P
bars, ✾♣✽✳✾
spits ✭✿❏ lagoons. ◗✜✕✓✓✔✢
and ✴✭❧✶✶✿✾s Lagoons ✓❣ ✥✜✦✧ ✧✘✓✢✗✓✔
of wave erosion ✕✗✦✗✔✕
giving ✘✗✢✧rise ✣✓ to ✔✜✘✘✓✥
narrow ✙✓✜✢✣✜✒coastal
✥✓✬✒✩ ✧✦✧✔✣✬✜✒✒✛
would eventually ✣✬✘✔ turn ✗✔✣✓
into ✜a ✢✥✜✸✪
swamp which ✥✖✗✙✖ ✪✒✜✗✔✢✤
plains, and with onrush of deposits from ✓✦✧✘
✜✔✩ ✥✗✣✖ ✓✔✘✬✢✖ ✓❣ ✩✧✪✓✢✗✣✢ ❣✘✓✸ over
would subsequently turn into a coastal ✪✒✜✗✔s
✥✓✬✒✩ ✢✬★✢✧❘✬✧✔✣✒✛ ✣✬✘✔ ✗✔✣✓ ✜ ✙✓✜✢✣✜✒ plain. ✣✖✧
the ✒✜✔✩ behind ✸✜✛
land ★✧✖✗✔✩ may ✕✧✣ covered ✬✪
get ✙✓✦✧✘✧✩ up ★✛ by
❚✖✧ ✸✜✗✔✣✧✔✜✔✙✧
The maintenance ✓❣ of ✣✖✧✢✧
these ✩✧✪✓✢✗✣✗✓✔✜✒
depositional ❣✧✜✣✬✘✧✢
features ✜✒✒✬✦✗✬✸
alluvium ✓✘ or ✸✜✛
may ✕✧✣ covered ✬✪
get ✙✓✦✧✘✧✩ up ★✛ by ✢✖✗✔✕✒✧
shingle ✓✘ or
depends ✬✪✓✔
✩✧✪✧✔✩✢ upon ✣✖✧the ✢✣✧✜✩✛
steady ✢✬✪✪✒✛
supply ✓❣of ✸✜✣✧✘✗✜✒✢s
materials. ✢✜✔✩
sand ✣✓to ❣✓✘✸
form ✜ ✥✗✩✧ ★✧✜✙✖s
a wide beach.
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✼✍
71

❉❊✎✏✑✒✓✒✏✔✕✖
DEPOSITIONAL ✥✕✔❆✗✏✘✙✑
LANDFORMS ❞✪✽✪✴✲✹
develop ✫✰✰✫✬✭✪❞
attached ✰✲ to ✭✪✫❞✴✫✵❞✮❨✭✱✴✴✮✾
headlands/hills. The ❀✭✪
✷✫✯✯✱✪✯✮✺ bars
barriers, ✷✫✯✮ ✫✵❞
and ✮✹✱✰✮
spits ✫✰at ✰✭✪
the ✶✲✻✰✭
mouth ✲✳of ✰✭✪
the
❇✚✛✜✢✚✣
Beaches ✛✤✦
and ✧★✤✚✣
Dunes ✷✫✸ ♣✯✫❞✻✫✴✴✸
bay gradually ✪❝✰✪✵❞
extend ✴✪✫✽✱✵♣
leaving ✲✵✴✸
only ✫a ✮✶✫✴✴
small
✲✹✪✵✱✵♣
opening ✲✳ of ✰✭✪ ✷✫✸ ✱✵✰✲
the bay into ✰✭✪
the ✮✪✫
sea ✫✵❞
and ✰✭✪ ✷✫✸
the bay
✩✪✫✬✭✪✮
Beaches ✫✯✪
are ✬✭✫✯✫✬✰✪✯✱✮✰✱✬
characteristic ✲✳ of ✮✭✲✯✪✴✱✵✪✮
shorelines ✰✭✫✰that ✫✯✪
are
❢✱✴✴ ✪✽✪✵✰✻✫✴✴✸
will eventually ❞✪✽✪✴✲✹
develop ✱✵✰✲
into ✫ a ✴✫♣✲✲✵✾ ❀✭✪
lagoon. The
❞✲✶✱✵✫✰✪❞
dominated by ✷✸ ❞✪✹✲✮✱✰✱✲✵✺
deposition, but ✷✻✰ ✶✫✸may ✲✬✬✻✯
occur ✫✮ as
lagoons ♣✪✰
✴✫♣✲✲✵✮ get ✳✱✴✴✪❞ up ♣✯✫❞✻✫✴✴✸
filled ✻✹ gradually by ✷✸ ✮✪❞✱✶✪✵✰
sediment
✹✫✰✬✭✪✮
patches ✫✴✲✵♣
along ✪✽✪✵
even ✰✭✪
the ✯✻♣♣✪❞ shores. ✿✲✮✰
rugged ✮✭✲✯✪✮✾ Most ✲✳ of
✬✲✶✱✵♣
coming from the land or from the beach ✱✰✮✪✴✳
✳✯✲✶ ✰✭✪ ✴✫✵❞ ✲✯ ✳✯✲✶ ✰✭✪ ✷✪✫✬✭ itself
✰✭✪
the ✮✪❞✱✶✪✵✰
sediment ✶✫t✱✵♣
making ✻✹ up ✰✭✪ ✷✪✫✬✭✪✮ ✬✲✶✪✮
the beaches comes ❍✫✱❞✪❞ ❢✱✵❞■ ✫✵❞ ❢✱❞✪ ✬✲✫✮✰✫✴
✷✸ wind)
(aided by and ✫ ✷✯✲✫❞ ✫✵❞
a broad and wide coastal
✳✯✲✶
from ✴✫✵❞
land ✬✫✯✯✱✪❞
carried by✷✸ ✰✭✪
the ✮✰✯✪✫✶✮
streams ✫✵❞ and ✯✱✽✪✯✮
rivers ✲✯
or ✹✴✫✱✵
plain ✶✫✸
may ❞✪✽✪✴✲✹
develop ✯✪✹✴✫✬✱✵♣
replacing ✫ a ✴✫♣✲✲✵✾
lagoon.
✳✯✲✶ ❢✫✽✪ ✪✯✲✮✱✲✵✾
from wave erosion. ✩✪✫✬✭✪✮
Beaches ✫✯✪ are ✰✪✶✹✲✯✫✯✸
temporary
✳✪✫✰✻✯✪✮✾ ❀✭✪ ✮✫✵❞✸
features. The sandy beach ❢✭✱✬✭ ✫✹✹✪✫✯✮
✷✪✫✬✭ which appears ✮✲ so ❩❬ ❭❬❪ ❫❴❬❵❛
Do you know, ❣❤❥ the ❦❬❧♠❣❧♥
coastal ❬qqr♠❤❬✉❥
off-shore ✈❧✉♠
bars
✹✪✯✶✫✵✪✵✰
permanent ✶✫✸ may be✷✪ ✯✪❞✻✬✪❞
reduced ✰✲ to ✫ ✽✪✯✸ ✵✫✯✯✲❢
a very narrow ❬qq❥✉
offer ❣❤❥
the q✇✉♠❣
first ✈❪qq❥✉
buffer ❬✉ or ①❥q❥❴❦❥
defence ❧②❧✇❴♠❣
against
✮✰✯✱✹
strip ✲✳
of ✬✲✫✯✮✪
coarse ✹✪✷✷✴✪✮
pebbles ✱✵ in ✮✲✶✪
some ✲✰✭✪✯
other ✮✪✫✮✲✵✾
season. ♠❣❬✉③
storm ❬✉ or ❣♠❪❴❧③✇
tsunami ✈❭ absorbing ③❬♠❣
by ❧✈♠❬✉✈✇❴② most ❬qof
✿✲✮✰
Most of the beaches are made up of sand ✮✱▼✪❞
✲✳ ✰✭✪ ✷✪✫✬✭✪✮ ✫✯✪ ✶✫❞✪ ✻✹ ✲✳ ✮✫✵❞ sized their ①❥♠❣✉❪❦❣✇④❥
❣❤❥✇✉ destructive q❬✉❦❥⑤force. ⑥❤❥❴ ❦❬③❥
Then come ❣❤❥the
✶✫✰✪✯✱✫✴✮✾
materials. ✩✪✫✬✭✪✮
Beaches ✬✫✴✴✪❞
called ✮✭✱✵♣✴✪ ✷✪✫✬✭✪✮
shingle beaches ✈❧✉✉✇❥✉♠❛
barriers, ✈❥❧❦❤❥♠❛
beaches, ✈❥❧❦❤ beach ①❪❴❥♠dunes ❧❴①and
✬✲✵✰✫✱✵
contain ✪❝✬✪✮✮✱✽✪✴✸
excessively ✮✶✫✴✴
small ✹✪✷✷✴✪✮
pebbles ✫✵❞ and ✪✽✪✵
even ③❧❴② ✉❬④❥♠❛
mangroves, ✇q ❧❴❭❛
if any, ❣❬ ❧✈♠❬✉✈
to absorb ❣❤❥
the
✬✲✷✷✴✪✮✾
cobbles. ①❥♠❣✉❪❦❣✇④❥
destructive q❬✉❦❥force ❬qof ♠❣❬✉③
storm ❧❴① and ❣♠❪❴❧③✇
tsunami
❏✻✮✰ behind
Just ✷✪✭✱✵❞ ✰✭✪ ✷✪✫✬✭✺ ✰✭✪
the beach, the ✮✫✵❞✮
sands ✴✱✳✰✪❞
lifted ✫✵❞
and ❵❧④❥♠⑤ ⑦❬❛
waves. So, ✇q ❵❥ ①❬
if we do ❧❴❭❣❤✇❴②
anything which❵❤✇❦❤
❢✱✵✵✲❢✪❞ ✳✯✲✶ ✲✽✪✯ ✰✭✪ ✷✪✫✬✭ ✮✻✯✳✫✬✪✮
winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be ❢✱✴✴ ✷✪ ①✇♠❣❪✉✈♠
disturbs ❣❤❥ the ⑧♠❥①✇③❥❴❣
‘sediment ✈❪①②❥❣⑨
budget’ ❧❴①and ❣❤❥
the
❞✪✹✲✮✱✰✪❞
deposited ✫✮as ✮✫✵❞
sand ❞✻✵✪✮✾
dunes. ❁✫✵❞
Sand ❞✻✵✪✮
dunes ✳✲✯✶✱✵♣
forming ③❧❴②✉❬④❥♠
mangroves ❧♥❬❴② along ❣❤❥
the ❦❬❧♠❣❛
coast, ❣❤❥♠❥
these ❦❬❧♠❣❧♥
coastal
✴✲✵♣
long ✯✱❞♣✪✮
ridges ✹✫✯✫✴✴✪✴
parallel ✰✲to ✰✭✪
the ✬✲✫✮✰✴✱✵✪
coastline ✫✯✪ ✽✪✯✸
are very q❬✉③♠ will ②❥❣
forms ❵✇♥♥ get ❥✉❬①❥①
eroded ❧❵❧❭
away ♥❥❧④✇❴②
leaving ❤❪③❧❴
human
✬✲✶✶✲✵
common ✫✴✲✵♣
along ✴✲❢
low ✮✪❞✱✶✪✵✰✫✯✸
sedimentary ✬✲✫✮✰✮✾coasts. ❤❧✈✇❣❧❣✇❬❴♠
habitations ❣❬ to ✈❥❧✉
bear q✇✉♠❣
first ♠❣✉✇❫❥
strike ❬q
of ♠❣❬✉③
storm
❧❴①
and ❣♠❪❴❧③✇
tsunami ❵❧④❥♠⑤
waves.
❇✛❂✣❃
Bars, ❇✛❂❂❄✚❂✣
Barriers ✛✤✦
and ❅❈❄❋✣
Spits
A● ✯✱❞♣✪
ridge ✲✳
of ✮✫✵❞
sand ✫✵❞
and ✮✭✱✵♣✴✪
shingle ✳✲✯✶✪❞
formed ✱✵
in ✰✭✪
the ✮✪✫
sea ⑩✒✔❆✑
WINpDs
✱✵
in ✰✭✪
the ✲✳✳✐✮✭✲✯✪
off-shore ▼✲✵✪zone ❍✳✯✲✶
(from ✰✭✪
the ✹✲✮✱✰✱✲✵
position ✲✳of ✴✲❢
low
❶✱✵❞
Wind ✱✮ is ✲✵✪
one ✲✳of ✰✭✪
the ✰❢✲
two ❞✲✶✱✵✫✵✰
dominant ✫♣✪✵✰✮ agents ✱✵ in ✭✲✰
hot
✰✱❞✪ ❢✫✰✪✯✴✱✵✪ ✰✲
tide waterline to ✮✪✫❢✫✯❞■
seaward) ✴✸✱✵♣
lying ✫✹✹✯✲❝✱✶✫✰✪✴✸
approximately
❞✪✮✪✯✰✮✾
deserts. The ❀✭✪ ❞✪✮✪✯✰ floors ♣✪✰
desert ✳✴✲✲✯✮ get ✭✪✫✰✪❞
heated ✻✹ up ✰✲✲too
✹✫✯✫✴✴✪✴
parallel ✰✲
to ✰✭✪
the ✬✲✫✮✰
coast ✱✮
is ✬✫✴✴✪❞
called ✫✵ an ♦❑❑◆❖P♦◗❡
off-shore ❘❙◗✾
bar.
✶✻✬✭
much ✫✵❞ and ✰✲✲too ❷✻✱✬t✴✸
quickly ✷✪✬✫✻✮✪
because ✲✳ of ✷✪✱✵♣
being ❞✯✸ dry
●✵ ✲✳✳✐✮✭✲✯✪
An off-shore bar ❢✭✱✬✭ ✱✮
✷✫✯ which is ✪❝✹✲✮✪❞
exposed ❞✻✪due ✰✲ to ✫✵❞
and ✷✫✯✯✪✵✾
barren. The ❀✭✪ ✭✪✫✰✪❞
heated ✳✴✲✲✯✮
floors ✭✪✫✰ heat ✻✹ up ✰✭✪ the ✫✱✯
air
✳✻✯✰✭✪✯
further ✫❞❞✱✰✱✲✵
addition ✲✳ of ✮✫✵❞
sand ✱✮ is ✰✪✯✶✪❞
termed ✫ a ❘❙◗◗❜❡◗
barrier
❞✱✯✪✬✰✴✸
directly ✫✷✲✽✪
above ✰✭✪✶ them ✫✵❞ and ✯✪✮✻✴✰
result ✱✵ in ✻✹❢✫✯❞
upward
❘❙◗✾ ❀✭✪ ✲✳✳✐✮✭✲✯✪
bar. The ✷✫✯✮ ✫✵❞
off-shore bars ✷✫✯✯✱✪✯✮ ✬✲✶✶✲✵✴✸
and barriers commonly
✶✲✽✪✶✪✵✰✮
movements ✱✵ in ✰✭✪
the ✭✲✰ hot ✴✱♣✭✰✪✯
lighter ✫✱✯ air with ❢✱✰✭
✳✲✯✶
form ✫✬✯✲✮✮
across ✰✭✪ the ✶✲✻✰✭
mouth ✲✳ of ✫ a ✯✱✽✪✯
river ✲✯
or ✫✰
at ✰✭✪
the
✰✻✯✷✻✴✪✵✬✪✺
turbulence, ✫✵❞ and ✫✵✸any ✲✷✮✰✯✻✬✰✱✲✵✮
obstructions ✱✵ in ✱✰✮
its ✹✫✰✭
path
✪✵✰✯✫✵✬✪
entrance ✲✳ ofa✫ bay.
✷✫✸✾ ❁✲✶✪✰✱✶✪✮
Sometimes ✮✻✬✭ ✷✫✯✯✱✪✯ bars
such barrier ✷✫✯✮
✮✪✰✮
sets ✻✹up ✪❞❞✱✪✮✺ ❢✭✱✯✴❢✱✵❞✮✺ ✻✹❞✯✫✳✰✮
eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts ✫✵❞ and
♣✪✰
get t✪✸✪❞
keyed ✻✹up ✰✲to ✲✵✪
one ✪✵❞
end ✲✳of ✰✭✪ ❢✭✪✵ ✰✭✪✸
✷✫✸ when
the bay they
❞✲❢✵❞✯✫✳✰✮✾
downdrafts. ❶✱✵❞✮ Winds ✫✴✮✲ also ✶✲✽✪
move ✫✴✲✵♣ along ✰✭✪the ❞✪✮✪✯✰
desert
✫✯✪ ❖s❜❚❖ ❍❯✱♣✻✯✪
are called spits (Figure 7.15). Spits ✶✫✸
✬✫✴✴✪❞ ❱✾❲❳■✾ ❁✹✱✰✮ may ✫✴✮✲
also
✳✴✲✲✯✮ ❢✱✰✭ ♣✯✪✫✰
floors with great ✮✹✪✪❞
speed ✫✵❞ and ✰✭✪ the ✲✷✮✰✯✻✬✰✱✲✵✮
obstructions
✱✵
in their path create turbulence. Of ✬✲✻✯✮✪✺
✰✭✪✱✯ ✹✫✰✭ ✬✯✪✫✰✪ ✰✻✯✷✻✴✪✵✬✪✾ ❸✳ course, ✰✭✪✯✪there
✫✯✪
are ✮✰✲✯✶ ❢✱✵❞✮
storm winds which ✫✯✪❢✭✱✬✭ ✽✪✯✸
are very ❞✪✮✰✯✻✬✰✱✽✪✾
destructive.
❶✱✵❞✮
Winds ✬✫✻✮✪
cause ❞✪✳✴✫✰✱✲✵✺
deflation, ✫✷✯✫✮✱✲✵
abrasion ✫✵❞ and ✱✶✹✫✬✰✾
impact.
❹✪✳✴✫✰✱✲✵
Deflation ✱✵✬✴✻❞✪✮
includes ✴✱✳✰✱✵♣
lifting ✫✵❞and ✯✪✶✲✽✫✴
removal ✲✳ of ❞✻✮✰
dust
✫✵❞
and ✮✶✫✴✴✪✯
smaller ✹✫✯✰✱✬✴✪✮
particles ✳✯✲✶from ✰✭✪the ✮✻✯✳✫✬✪
surface ✲✳ of ✯✲✬t✮✾
rocks.
❺✵
In ✰✭✪
the ✰✯✫✵✮✹✲✯✰✫✰✱✲✵
transportation ✹✯✲✬✪✮✮ process ✮✫✵❞ sand ✫✵❞and ✮✱✴✰ silt ✫✬✰
act
✫✮ ✪✳✳✪✬✰✱✽✪ ✰✲✲✴✮ ✰✲ ✫✷✯✫❞✪ ✰✭✪
as effective tools to abrade the land surface. ✴✫✵❞ ✮✻✯✳✫✬✪✾
❀✭✪ ✱✶✹✫✬✰
The impact ✱✮ is ✮✱✶✹✴✸
simply ✮✭✪✪✯
sheer ✳✲✯✬✪
force ✲✳ of ✶✲✶✪✵✰✻✶
momentum
❢✭✱✬✭ ✲✬✬✻✯✮
which occurs when ❢✭✪✵ ✮✫✵❞ sand ✱✮ is ✷✴✲❢✵
blown ✱✵✰✲ into ✲✯ or
✫♣✫✱✵✮✰
against ✫ a ✯✲✬t
rock ✮✻✯✳✫✬✪✾
surface. ❺✰ It ✱✮
is ✮✱✶✱✴✫✯
similar ✰✲ to ✮✫✵❞✐
sand-
✷✴✫✮✰✱✵♣
blasting ✲✹✪✯✫✰✱✲✵✾
operation. The ❢✱✵❞ ✫✬✰✱✲✵
❀✭✪ wind action ✬✯✪✫✰✪✮
creates ✫ a
✵✻✶✷✪
number ✯ ✲✳ of ✱✵✰✪✯✪✮✰✱
interesting ✵♣ ✪✯✲✮✱✲✵✫✴
erosional ✫✵❞ and
❻❼❽❾❿➀
Figure ➁➂➃➄
7.15 ➅: ➆ ➇➈➉➀➊➊❼➉➀ ➋❼➌➉❾❿➀
Asatellite picture ➍➎
of ➈a ➋➈❿➉
part ➍➎
of ➏➍➐➈➑➈❿❼
Godavari ❞✪✹✲✮✱✰✱✲✵✫✴
depositional ✳✪✫✰✻✯✪✮
features ✱✵ in ✰✭✪
the ❞✪✮✪✯✰✮✾
deserts.
❿❼➑➀❿
river ➐➀➊➉➈
delta ➇➒➍➓❼➔❽
showing ➈ a ➇➋❼➉
spit ❺✵
In ✳✫✬✰✺
fact, ✶✫✵✸
many ✳✪✫✰✻✯✪✮
features ✲✳ of ❞✪✮✪✯✰✮
deserts ✲❢✪ owe ✰✭✪✱✯their
✼✑
72 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❢✒✓✔✕✖✗✒♥
formation ✖✒ to ✔✕✘✘ ✙✕✘✖✗♥✚ ✕♥✛
mass wasting and ✓✜♥♥✗♥✚ ✙✕✖✢✓
running water ✛✢★✒✘✗✖✗✒♥
deposition ✒❢ of ✘✢✛✗✔✢♥✖
sediment ❢✓✒✔ ❞✕✘✗♥ ✔✕✓✚✗♥✘✧
from basin margins, ✕ a
✕✘
as ✘❛✢✢✖
sheet ❢✣✒✒✛✘✤ ✥❛✒✜✚❛ ✓✕✗♥
floods. Though rain ✗✘
is ✘✦✕✓✦✢
scarce ✗♥in ✛✢✘✢✓✖✘✧
deserts, ♥✢✕✓✣✐ level ★✣✕✗♥
nearly ✣✢✩✢✣ plain ❢✒✓✔✘
forms ✕✖ at ✖❛✢
the ✦✢♥✖✓✢
centre ✒❢ of ✖❛✢
the
✗✖
it ✦✒✔✢✘
comes ✛✒✙♥down ✖✒✓✓✢♥✖✗✕✣✣✐
torrentially ✗♥ in ✕ short ★✢✓✗✒✛
a ✘❛✒✓✖ period ✒❢of ❞✕✘✗♥✤ ▼♥
basin. In ✖✗✔✢✘
times ✒❢of ✘✜❢❢✗✦✗✢♥✖ this ★✣✕✗♥
✙✕✖✢✓✧ ✖❛✗✘
sufficient water, plain ✗✘
is
✖✗✔✢✤
time. The✥❛✢ ✛✢✘✢✓✖
desert ✓✒✦t✘
rocks ✛✢✩✒✗✛
devoid ✒❢ ✩✢✚✢✖✕✖✗✒♥✧
of vegetation, ✦✒✩✢✓✢✛
covered ✜★ up by❞✐ ✕a ✘❛✕✣✣✒✙
shallow water✙✕✖✢✓ body.
❞✒✛✐✤ s✜✦❛Such
✢❡★✒✘✢✛
exposed ✖✒ to ✔✢✦❛✕♥✗✦✕✣
mechanical ✕♥✛ and ✦❛✢✔✗✦✕✣
chemical ✖✐★✢✘
types ✒❢of ✘❛✕✣✣✒✙
shallow ✣✕t✢✘
lakes ✕✓✢are ✦✕✣✣✢✛
called ✕✘ ✾❈■◆■❅
as playas
✙✢✕✖❛✢✓✗♥✚ ★✓✒✦✢✘✘✢✘
weathering processes due to drastic ✛✗✜✓♥✕✣
✛✜✢ ✖✒ ✛✓✕✘✖✗✦ diurnal ✙❛✢✓✢ ✙✕✖✢✓ ✗✘ ✓✢✖✕✗♥✢✛ ✒♥✣✐ ❢✒✓ ✘❛✒✓✖
where water is retained only for short duration ✛✜✓✕✖✗✒♥
✖✢✔★✢✓✕✖✜✓✢
temperature ✦❛✕♥✚✢✘✧ changes, ✛✢✦✕✐
decay ❢✕✘✖✢✓
faster ✕♥✛and ✖❛✢
the ✛✜✢
due ✖✒
to ✢✩✕★✒✓✕✖✗✒♥
evaporation ✕♥✛ and ❖✜✗✖✢
quite ✒❢✖✢♥ the ★✣✕✐✕✘
often ✖❛✢ playas
✖✒✓✓✢♥✖✗✕✣
torrential ✓✕✗♥✘
rains ❛✢✣★
help ✗♥in ✓✢✔✒✩✗♥✚
removing ✖❛✢ ✙✢✕✖❛✢✓✢✛
the weathered ✦✒♥✖✕✗♥
contain ✚✒✒✛
good ✛✢★✒✘✗✖✗✒♥
deposition ✒❢ of ✘✕✣✖✘✤ ✥❛✢ ★✣✕✐✕
salts. The playa
✔✕✖✢✓✗✕✣✘
materials ✢✕✘✗✣✐✤ ✥❛✕✖ ✔✢✕♥✘✧
easily. That means, ✖❛✢ ✙✢✕✖❛✢✓✢✛
the weathered ★✣✕✗♥
plain ✦✒✩✢✓✢✛
covered ✜★ up by❞✐ ✘✕✣✖✘
salts ✗✘ called ■❈◗■❈❁
is ✦✕✣✣✢✛ ❙❈■❄❅✤
alkali flats.
✛✢❞✓✗✘
debris ✗♥ in ✛✢✘✢✓✖✘
deserts ✗✘ is ✔✒✩✢✛
moved by ❞✐ ♥✒✖
not ✒♥✣✐ ✙✗♥✛
only wind
❞✜✖ ✕✣✘✒
but also by❞✐ ✓✕✗♥❜✘❛✢✢✖ ✙✕✘❛✤ The
rain/sheet wash. ✥❛✢ wind
✙✗♥✛ ✔✒✩✢✘
moves ❚✳❯✽✺✸✵❱✷
Deflation ❲❱✽✽❱❳✹
Hollows ✺✷✴ and ❨✺❩✳✹
Caves
❢✗♥✢
fine ✔✕✖✢✓✗✕✣✘
materials ✕♥✛ and ✚✢♥✢✓✕✣
general ✔✕✘✘mass ✢✓✒✘✗✒♥
erosion ✗✘ is ❬✢✕✖❛✢✓✢✛ ✔✕♥✖✣✢
Weathered mantle ❢✓✒✔
from ✒✩✢✓
over ✖❛✢
the ✓✒✦t✘
rocks ✒✓ ❞✕✓✢
or bare
✕✦✦✒✔★✣✗✘❛✢✛ ✔✕✗♥✣✐ ✖❛✓✒✜✚❛
accomplished mainly through sheet floods or✘❛✢✢✖ ❢✣✒✒✛✘ ✒✓ ✘✒✗✣✧
soil, ✚✢✖✘ ❞✣✒✙♥ ✒✜✖
gets blown out by❞✐ ★✢✓✘✗✘✖✢♥✖
persistent ✔✒✩✢✔✢♥✖
movement
✘❛✢✢✖ ✙✕✘❛✤ s✖✓✢✕✔
sheet wash. Stream ✦❛✕♥♥✢✣✘
channels ✗♥ in ✛✢✘✢✓✖
desert ✕✓✢✕✘
areas ✒❢ ✙✗♥✛ ✦✜✓✓✢♥✖✘
of wind currents ✗♥ in ✒♥✢
one ✛✗✓✢✦✖✗✒♥✤ ✥❛✗✘ ★✓✒✦✢✘✘
direction. This process
✕✓✢ ❞✓✒✕✛✧ ✘✔✒✒✖❛
are broad, smooth ✕♥✛ and ✗♥✛✢❢✗♥✗✖✢
indefinite ✕♥✛ and ❢✣✒✙
flow ❢✒✓
for ✔✕✐
may ✦✓✢✕✖✢
create ✘❛✕✣✣✒✙
shallow ✛✢★✓✢✘✘✗✒♥✘
depressions ✦✕✣✣✢✛ called
✕a brief
❞✓✗✢❢ ✖✗✔✢
time ✕❢✖✢✓
after ✓✕✗♥✘✤
rains. ❀✿❙❈■❄❁❭❃
deflation ❪❭❈❈❭❫❅✤
hollows. ❴✢❢✣✕✖✗✒♥
Deflation ✕✣✘✒ also ✦✓✢✕✖✢✘
creates
♥✜✔✢✓✒✜✘
numerous ✘✔✕✣✣ small ★✗✖✘
pits ✒✓ or ✦✕✩✗✖✗✢✘
cavities ✒✩✢✓
over ✓✒✦t
rock
❊❘✪✫✬✪✭✮✯
EROSIONAL ✰✮✭❆✱✪❘✲✫
LANDFORMS
✘✜✓❢✕✦✢✘✤
surfaces. The ✥❛✢ ✓✒✦t
rock ❢✕✦✢✘
faces ✘✜❢❢✢✓
suffer ✗✔★✕✦✖
impact ✕♥✛and
✕❞✓✕✘✗✒♥
abrasion ✒❢ ✙✗♥✛❵❞✒✓♥✢ ✘✕♥✛
of wind-borne sand ✕♥✛
and ❢✗✓✘✖
first ✘❛✕✣✣✒✙
shallow
P✳✴✵✶✳✷✸✹
Pediments ✺✷✴ and P✳✴✵✻✽✺✵✷✹
Pediplains ✛✢★✓✢✘✘✗✒♥✘
depressions ✦✕✣✣✢✛ ❞✣✒✙ ✒✜✖✘
called blow outs ✕✓✢
are ✦✓✢✕✖✢✛✧
created, ✕♥✛
and
▲✕♥✛✘✦✕★✢
Landscape ✢✩✒✣✜✖✗✒♥ evolution ✗♥ in ✛✢✘✢✓✖✘
deserts ✗✘ is ★✓✗✔✕✓✗✣✐
primarily ✘✒✔✢
some ✒❢ of ✖❛✢ blow ❭❝❄❅
the ❉❈❭❫ ❞✢✦✒✔✢ ✛✢✢★✢✓
outs become deeper ✕♥✛and
✦✒♥✦✢✓♥✢✛
concerned with ✙✗✖❛ ✖❛✢the ❢✒✓✔✕✖✗✒♥
formation ✕♥✛ and ✢❡✖✢♥✘✗✒♥
extension ✒❢ of ✙✗✛✢✓ ❢✗✖
wider fit ✖✒
to be called ❣■❤✿❅✤
❞✢ ✦✕✣✣✢✛ caves.
★✢✛✗✔✢♥✖✘✤ ♣✢♥✖✣✐ ✗♥✦✣✗♥✢✛
pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close✓✒✦t✐ ❢✣✒✒✓✘ ✦✣✒✘✢
✖✒
to ✖❛✢
the ✔✒✜♥✖✕✗♥✘
mountains ✕✖ at ✖❛✢✗✓
their ❢✒✒✖ ✙✗✖❛ ✒✓
foot with ✙✗✖❛✒✜✖
or without ❥❦✹❧♠❱❱✶q
Mushroom, Table r✺✉✽✳ ✺✷✴
and P✳✴✳✹✸✺✽
Pedestal ✈❱①②✹
Rocks
✕a ✖❛✗♥
thin ✦✒✩✢✓
cover ✒❢ of ✛✢❞✓✗✘✧
debris, ✕✓✢ are ✦✕✣✣✢✛ ✾✿❀❁❂✿❃❄❅✤
called pediments. ③✕♥✐
Many ✓✒✦t❵✒✜✖✦✓✒★✘
rock-outcrops ✗♥ in ✖❛✢
the ✛✢✘✢✓✖✘
deserts ✢✕✘✗✣✐
easily
s✜✦❛
Such ✓✒✦t✐
rocky ❢✣✒✒✓✘
floors ❢✒✓✔
form ✖❛✓✒✜✚❛
through ✖❛✢ the ✢✓✒✘✗✒♥
erosion ✒❢ of ✘✜✘✦✢★✖✗❞✣✢
susceptible ✖✒ ✙✗♥✛ ✛✢❢✣✕✖✗✒♥
to wind deflation ✕♥✛and ✕❞✓✕✘✗✒♥
abrasion ✕✓✢ are
✔✒✜♥✖✕✗♥
mountain ❢✓✒♥✖ front ✖❛✓✒✜✚❛
through ✕ a ✦✒✔❞✗♥✕✖✗✒♥
combination ✒❢ of worn out ❖✜✗✦t✣✐
✙✒✓♥ ✒✜✖ quickly ✣✢✕✩✗♥✚
leaving ✘✒✔✢
some ✓✢✔♥✕♥✖✘
remnants ✒❢ of
✣✕✖✢✓✕✣
lateral ✢✓✒✘✗✒♥
erosion by ❞✐ ✘✖✓✢✕✔✘
streams ✕♥✛ and ✘❛✢✢✖
sheet ❢✣✒✒✛✗♥✚✤
flooding. ✓✢✘✗✘✖✕♥✖ ✓✒✦t✘ ★✒✣✗✘❛✢✛ ❞✢✕✜✖✗❢✜✣✣✐
resistant rocks polished beautifully in the ✗♥ ✖❛✢
❇✓✒✘✗✒♥
Erosion starts along the steep margins ✒❢
✘✖✕✓✖✘ ✕✣✒♥✚ ✖❛✢ ✘✖✢✢★ ✔✕✓✚✗♥✘ of ✘❛✕★✢
shape ✒❢of ✔✜✘❛✓✒✒✔
mushroom with ✙✗✖❛ ✕a ✘✣✢♥✛✢✓
slender ✘✖✕✣t
stalk ✕♥✛
and ✕ a
✖❛✢
the ✣✕♥✛✔✕✘✘
landmass ✒✓ or ✖❛✢ the ✘✖✢✢★
steep ✘✗✛✢✘
sides ✒❢ of ✖❛✢the ❞✓✒✕✛ ✕♥✛
broad rounded ★✢✕✓
and ✓✒✜♥✛✢✛ pear ✘❛✕★✢✛
shaped ✦✕★cap ✕❞✒✩✢✤
above.
✖✢✦✖✒♥✗✦✕✣✣✐
tectonically ✦✒♥✖✓✒✣✣✢✛
controlled ✘✖✢✢★ steep ✗♥✦✗✘✗✒♥
incision ❢✢✕✖✜✓✢✘
features s✒✔✢✖✗✔✢✘✧
Sometimes, ✖❛✢ the ✖✒★
top ✘✜✓❢✕✦✢
surface ✗✘ ❞✓✒✕✛ ✣✗t✢
is broad like ✕
a ✖✕❞✣✢
table
✒✩✢✓
over ✖❛✢
the ✣✕♥✛✔✕✘✘✤
landmass. ♦♥✦✢✧ Once, ★✢✛✗✔✢♥✖✘
pediments ✕✓✢ are ❢✒✓✔✢✛
formed ✖✒★ and ❖✜✗✖✢
top ✕♥✛ quite ✒❢✖✢♥✧
often, ✖❛✢
the ✓✢✔♥✕♥✖✘
remnants ✘✖✕♥✛ stand ✒✜✖out
✙✗✖❛ ✕a ✘✖✢✢★
with ✙✕✘❛ ✘✣✒★✢
steep wash slope ❢✒✣✣✒✙✢✛
followed by ❞✐ ✦✣✗❢❢
cliff ✒✓
or ❢✓✢✢
free like ★✢✛✢✘✖✕✣✘✤
✣✗t✢ pedestals.
❢✕✦✢
face ✕❞✒✩✢
above ✗✖✧ it, ✖❛✢
the ✘✖✢✢★ ✙✕✘❛ ✘✣✒★✢
steep wash slope ✕♥✛
and ❢✓✢✢free ❢✕✦✢
face
✓✢✖✓✢✕✖ ❞✕✦t✙✕✓✛✘✤ This
retreat backwards. ✥❛✗✘ ✔✢✖❛✒✛
method ✒❢ of ✢✓✒✘✗✒♥
erosion ✗✘ is ④⑤⑥⑦
List ⑦⑧⑨
the ⑨⑩❶⑥⑤❶❷❸❹
erosional ❺⑨❸⑦❻⑩⑨⑥
features ❼❸⑩❽⑨❾
carved ❶❻⑦
out by❿➀
✖✢✓✔✢✛ ✕✘ ★✕✓✕✣✣✢✣ ✓✢✖✓✢✕✖
termed as parallel retreat of slopes through✒❢ ✘✣✒★✢✘ ✖❛✓✒✜✚❛ ➁⑤❷❾ ❸❼⑦⑤❶❷
wind action ❸❷❾
and ❸❼⑦⑤❶❷
action ❶❺
of ⑥⑧⑨⑨⑦
sheet ❺❹❶❶❾⑥➂
floods.
❞✕✦t✙✕✘✖✗♥✚✤ s✒✧
backwasting. through ★✕✓✕✣✣✢✣
So, ✖❛✓✒✜✚❛ parallel ✓✢✖✓✢✕✖
retreat ✒❢ of
✘✣✒★✢✘✧
slopes, ✖❛✢the ★✢✛✗✔✢♥✖✘
pediments ✢❡✖✢♥✛ ❞✕✦t✙✕✓✛✘ ✕✖
extend backwards at ✖❛✢
the
✢❡★✢♥✘✢
expense ✒❢ of ✔✒✜♥✖✕✗♥
mountain ❢✓✒♥✖✧ front, ✕♥✛
and ✚✓✕✛✜✕✣✣✐✧
gradually, ✖❛✢ the
❚✳✻❱✹✵✸✵❱✷✺✽
Depositional ➃✺✷✴❯❱♠✶✹
Landforms
✔✒✜♥✖✕✗♥
mountain ✚✢✖✘ gets ✓✢✛✜✦✢✛
reduced ✣✢✕✩✗♥✚leaving ✕♥ an ❁❃❅✿❈❉✿●❍
inselberg ❬✗♥✛ ✗✘
Wind is ✕a ✚✒✒✛
good ✘✒✓✖✗♥✚ agent. ❴✢★✢♥✛✗♥✚
sorting ✕✚✢♥✖✤ Depending ✜★✒♥ upon
✙❛✗✦❛ ✗✘
which is ✕ ✓✢✔♥✕♥✖ ✒❢
aremnant of ✖❛✢
the ✔✒✜♥✖✕✗♥✤
mountain. That’s✥❛✕✖✇✘ ❛✒✙ how ✖❛✢ ✩✢✣✒✦✗✖✐ ✒❢
the velocity ✙✗♥✛✧ ✛✗❢❢✢✓✢♥✖
of wind, different ✘✗➄✢✘
sizes ✒❢
of ✚✓✕✗♥✘
grains ✕✓✢
are
✖❛✢
the ❛✗✚❛
high ✓✢✣✗✢❢
relief ✗♥in ✛✢✘✢✓✖
desert ✕✓✢✕✘
areas ✗✘ is ✓✢✛✜✦✢✛
reduced ✖✒ to ✣✒✙
low ✔✒✩✢✛ ✕✣✒♥✚ ✖❛✢ ❢✣✒✒✓✘ ❞✐ ✓✒✣✣✗♥✚
moved along the floors by rolling or saltation ✒✓ ✘✕✣✖✕✖✗✒♥
❢✢✕✖✜✓✢✣✢✘✘ ★✣✕✗♥✘ ✦✕✣✣✢✛
featureless plains called pediplains. ✾✿❀❁✾❈■❁❃❅✤ ✕♥✛
and ✦✕✓✓✗✢✛
carried ✗♥ in ✘✜✘★✢♥✘✗✒♥
suspension ✕♥✛ and ✗♥ this ★✓✒✦✢✘✘
in ✖❛✗✘ process
✒❢
of ✖✓✕♥✘★✒✓✖✕✖✗✒♥
transportation ✗✖✘✢✣❢✧
itself, ✖❛✢
the ✔✕✖✢✓✗✕✣✘
materials ✚✢✖get ✘✒✓✖✢✛✤
sorted.
P✽✺❏✺✹
Playas ❬❛✢♥ ✖❛✢
When ✙✗♥✛ ✘✣✒✙✘
the wind slows ✒✓ ❞✢✚✗♥✘ ✖✒
or begins to ✛✗✢
die ✛✒✙♥✧
down,
❑✣✕✗♥✘
Plains ✕✓✢ ❞✐ ❢✕✓
are by far ✖❛✢ most ★✓✒✔✗♥✢♥✖
the ✔✒✘✖ prominent ✣✕♥✛❢✒✓✔✘
landforms ✛✢★✢♥✛✗♥✚
depending ✜★✒♥ upon ✘✗➄✢✘
sizes ✒❢ of ✚✓✕✗♥✘
grains ✕♥✛ and ✖❛✢✗✓
their
✗♥
in the deserts. In basins with mountains ✕♥✛
✖❛✢ ✛✢✘✢✓✖✘✤ ▼♥ ❞✕✘✗♥✘ ✙✗✖❛ ✔✒✜♥✖✕✗♥✘ and ✦✓✗✖✗✦✕✣ ✩✢✣✒✦✗✖✗✢✘✧ ✖❛✢
critical velocities, the ✚✓✕✗♥✘ ✙✗✣✣ begin
grains will ❞✢✚✗♥ ✖✒to ✘✢✖✖✣✢✤
settle.
❛✗✣✣✘
hills ✕✓✒✜♥✛
around ✕♥✛and ✕✣✒♥✚✧
along, ✖❛✢
the ✛✓✕✗♥✕✚✢
drainage ✗✘
is ✖✒✙✕✓✛✘
towards s✒✧
So, ✗♥
in ✛✢★✒✘✗✖✗✒♥✕✣
depositional ✣✕♥✛❢✒✓✔✘
landforms ✔✕✛✢ made by ❞✐ wind,
✙✗♥✛✧
✖❛✢
the ✦✢♥✖✓✢
centre ✒❢of ✖❛✢ ❞✕✘✗♥ ✕♥✛
the basin and ✛✜✢
due ✖✒
to ✚✓✕✛✜✕✣
gradual ✚✒✒✛
good sorting of grains can be found. s✗♥✦✢
✘✒✓✖✗♥✚ ✒❢ ✚✓✕✗♥✘ ✦✕♥ ❞✢ ❢✒✜♥✛✤ Since
▲LANDFORMS
✁✂✄☎✆✝✞ AND
✁✂ THEIR
✟✠✡☛✆ ✡☞☎▲✌✟☛☎✁
EVOLUTION ✼✍
73

✇✎✏✑ ✎✒
wind is ✓✔✕✖✕
there ✕✗✕✖✘✇✔✕✖✕
everywhere ✙✏✑ ✇✔✕✖✕✗✕✖ ✓✔✕✖✕
and wherever there ✙✖✕
are ✕❛✛✙✤✤✘
equally ✎❢✣✚✖✓✙✏✓❝ ✮✔✕✖✕ ✜✙✏
important. There ✭✕ ✙a ✐✖✕✙✓
can be great
✎✒
is ✐✚✚✑
good ✒✚✛✖✜✕
source ✚✢of ✒✙✏✑
sand ✙✏✑ ✇✎✓✔ ✜✚✏✒✓✙✏✓
and with ✇✎✏✑
constant wind ✗✙✖✎✕✓✘ ✚✢
variety of ✑✛✏✕
dune ✢✚✖❢✒
forms ✈✯✎✐✛✖✕
(Figure ✰❝✱✲✳❝
7.16).
✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏✒❞
directions, ✑✕✣✚✒✎✓✎✚✏✙✤
depositional ✢✕✙✓✛✖✕✒
features ✎✏
in ✙✖✎✑
arid ✖✕✐✎✚✏✒
regions
✜✙✏
can ✑✕✗✕✤✚✣
develop ✙✏✘✇✔✕✖✕❝
anywhere. ❇✥✴✵✶✥✦✫
Barchans
❈✖✕✒✜✕✏✓
Crescent ✒✔✙✣✕✑
shaped ✑✛✏✕✒ dunes ✜✙✤✤✕✑
called ❜✷✸✹✺✷✻✽
barchans with ✇✎✓✔
❙✥✦✧
Sand ★✩✦✪✫
Dunes
the ✣✚✎✏✓✒
✓✔✕ points ✚✖ ✇✎✏✐✒ ✑✎✖✕✜✓✕✑
or wings directed ✙✇✙✘ away ✢✖✚❢from wind✇✎✏✑
❉✖✘
Dry ✔✚✓
hot ✑✕✒✕✖✓✒
deserts ✙✖✕ good ✣✤✙✜✕✒
are ✐✚✚✑ places ✢✚✖
for ✒✙✏✑
sand ✑✛✏✕
dune ✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏
direction ✎❝✕❝❞
i.e., ✑✚✇✏✇✎✏✑❞
downwind, ✢✚✖❢ ✇✔✕✖✕ ✓✔✕
form where ✇✎✏✑
the wind
formation. ✬✭✒✓✙✜✤✕✒
✢✚✖❢✙✓✎✚✏❝ Obstacles ✓✚
to ✎✏✎✓✎✙✓✕
initiate ✑✛✏✕
dune ✢✚✖❢✙✓✎✚✏
formation ✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏
direction ✎✒ is ✜✚✏✒✓✙✏✓
constant ✙✏✑ and ❢✚✑✕✖✙✓✕
moderate ✙✏✑ ✇✔✕✖✕
and where
✓✔✕
the ✚✖✎✐✎✏✙✤
original ✒✛✖✢✙✜✕
surface ✚✗✕✖ ✇✔✎✜✔ ✒✙✏✑
over which sand ✎✒ is ❢✚✗✎✏✐
moving

2 >
✎✒ ✙✤❢✚✒✓ ✛✏✎✢✚✖❢❝ P✷✸✷❜✾✿❀✹
is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes form when❁❂✻❃✽ ✢✚✖❢ ✇✔✕✏
Barchan ✒✙✏✑✘ ✒✛✖✢✙✜✕✒ ✙✖✕ ✣✙✖✓✎✙✤✤✘
sandy surfaces are partially covered with ✜✚✗✕✖✕✑ ✇✎✓✔
✗✕✐✕✓✙✓✎✚✏❝ That
vegetation. ✮✔✙✓ ❢✕✙✏✒
means ✣✙✖✙✭✚✤✎✜
parabolic ✑✛✏✕✒ dunes ✙✖✕ are
✖✕✗✕✖✒✕✑ ✭✙✖✜✔✙✏✒ with
reversed barchans ✇✎✓✔ wind✇✎✏✑ ✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏
direction being ✭✕✎✏✐
✓✔✕ same. ❄❃❀❅
the ✒✙❢✕❝ Seifis✎✒ ✒✎❢✎✤✙✖
similar ✓✚ ✭✙✖✜✔✙✏ with
to barchan ✇✎✓✔ ✙a ✒❢✙✤✤
small
✑✎✢✢✕✖✕✏✜✕❝
difference. ❆✕✎✢ ✔✙✒ ✚✏✤✘
Seifhas only ✚✏✕ ✇✎✏✐ ✚✖
one wing or ✣✚✎✏✓❝
point. This✮✔✎✒
Transverse

2) ✔✙✣✣✕✏✒
happens when✇✔✕✏ ✓✔✕✖✕
there ✎✒ is ✒✔✎✢✓
shift ✎✏ ✇✎✏✑ ✜✚✏✑✎✓✎✚✏✒❝
in wind conditions.
—_

✮✔✕ ✤✚✏✕
The ✇✎✏✐✒ ✚✢
lone wings of ✒✕✎✢✒
seifs ✜✙✏can ✐✖✚✇ ✗✕✖✘ ✤✚✏✐
grow very long ✙✏✑and
ce
Parabolic ✔✎✐✔❝ ❤✚✏✐✎✓✛✑✎✏✙✤
high. Longitudinal ✑✛✏✕✒ dunes ✢✚✖❢ form when✇✔✕✏ ✒✛✣✣✤✘
supply

<= ✚✢
of ✒✙✏✑
sand ✎✒
They
✤✕✏✐✓✔
is ✣✚✚✖
✮✔✕✘ ✙✣✣✕✙✖
poor ✙✏✑
appear ✙✒
length but✭✛✓ ✤✚✇low ✎✏
✇✎✏✑ ✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏
and wind
as ✤✚✏✐
long ✖✎✑✐✕✒
in ✔✕✎✐✔✓❝
direction ✎✒
ridges ✚✢
is ✜✚✏✒✓✙✏✓❝
constant.
of ✜✚✏✒✎✑✕✖✙✭✤✕
considerable
Transverse ❁❂✻❃✽
height. ❚✸✷✻✽r❃✸✽❃ dunes
✙✖✕ aligned ✣✕✖✣✕✏✑✎✜✛✤✙✖
are ✙✤✎✐✏✕✑ perpendicular ✓✚ ✇✎✏✑ ✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏❝
to wind direction.
✮✔✕✒✕ ✑✛✏✕✒
These dunes ✢✚✖❢form when✇✔✕✏ ✓✔✕ ✇✎✏✑ ✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏
the wind direction ✎✒ is
✜✚✏✒✓✙✏✓
constant and ✙✏✑ ✓✔✕ ✒✚✛✖✜✕ ✚✢
the source of sand is an ✒✙✏✑ ✎✒ ✙✏
✕✤✚✏✐✙✓✕✑
elongated ✢✕✙✓✛✖✕
feature ✙✓ at ✖✎✐✔✓
right ✙✏✐✤✕✒
angles ✓✚ to ✓✔✕ ✇✎✏✑
the wind
✑✎✖✕✜✓✎✚✏❝
direction. They✮✔✕✘ ❢✙✘ may be ✭✕ very
✗✕✖✘ ✤✚✏✐
long ✙✏✑and ✤✚✇ low ✎✏ in
✔✕✎✐✔✓❝ ❊✔✕✏ ✒✙✏✑
height. When sand ✎✒ is ✣✤✕✏✓✘❞
plenty, ❛✛✎✓✕
quite ✚✢✓✕✏❞
often, ✓✔✕the
✖✕✐✛✤✙✖
regular ✒✔✙✣✕✑
shaped ✑✛✏✕✒ dunes ✜✚✙✤✕✒✜✕
coalesce ✙✏✑ and ✤✚✒✕
lose ✓✔✕✎✖
their
Longitudinal ✎✏✑✎✗✎✑✛✙✤
individual ✜✔✙✖✙✜✓✕✖✎✒✓✎✜✒❝
characteristics. ❋✚✒✓ Most ✚✢ of ✓✔✕
the ✑✛✏✕✒
dunes
●❍■❏❑❡
Figure ▼◆❖◗
7.16 ❘: ❯❱❑❍❲❏❳
Various ❨❩❬❡❳
types ❲❭
of ❳❱❪❫
sand ❫❏❪❡❳
dunes ✎✏
in ✓✔✕
the ✑✕✒✕✖✓✒
deserts ✒✔✎✢✓
shift ✙✏✑and ✙ a ✢✕✇
few ✚✢of ✓✔✕❢
them will ✇✎✤✤ ✐✕✓
get
❴❑❑❲❵❳ ❍❪❫❍❣❱❨❡
Arrows wind ❫❍❑❡❣❨❍❲❪
indicate ❵❍❪❫ direction ✒✓✙✭✎✤✎✒✕✑ ✕✒✣✕✜✎✙✤✤✘ ✏✕✙✖ ✔✛❢✙✏
stabilised especially near human habitations. ✔✙✭✎✓✙✓✎✚✏✒❝

—___ ❥❦❥❧♠♥♦❥♦
EXERCISES —____

♣q
1. st✉①②③✉④
Multiple ⑤⑥⑦②⑤④
choice ⑧t④⑨①②⑦⑩⑨q
questions.
❶②❷
(i) ❸⑩ ❹⑥②⑤⑥ ⑦❺
In which of ①⑥④
the ❺⑦✉✉⑦❹②⑩❻
following ⑨①❼❻④⑨
stages ⑦❺
of ✉❼⑩❽❺⑦❾❿
landform ❽④➀④✉⑦③❿④⑩①➁
development, ❽⑦❹⑩❹❼❾❽
downward ⑤t①①②⑩❻
cutting
②⑨
is ❽⑦❿②⑩❼①④❽➂
dominated?

❶❼❷ ➃⑦t①⑥ ⑨①❼❻④

(a) Youth stage ❶⑤❷
(c) ➄❼❾✉➅
Early ❿❼①t❾④
mature ⑨①❼❻④
stage

(b) ➇❼①④
❶➆❷ Late ❿❼①t❾④
mature ⑨①❼❻④
stage (d) ➈✉❽
❶❽❷ Old ⑨①❼❻④
stage

(ii) A➉ ❽④④③
❶②②❷ deep valley characterised ➆➅
➀❼✉✉④➅ ⑤⑥❼❾❼⑤①④❾②⑨④❽ by ⑨①④④③
steep ⑨①④③➊✉②➋④
step-like ⑨②❽④
side ⑨✉⑦③④⑨ is ➋⑩⑦❹⑩
slopes ②⑨ known ❼⑨
as
❶❼❷
(a) ➌➊⑨⑥❼③④❽ ➀❼✉✉④➅
U-shaped valley ❶⑤❷
(c) ➍✉②⑩❽ ➀❼✉✉④➅
Blind valley

(b) ➎⑦❾❻④
❶➆❷ Gorge (d) ➏❼⑩➅⑦⑩
❶❽❷ Canyon

❶②②②❷
(iii) ❸⑩ ❹⑥②⑤⑥ ⑦⑩④
In which one ⑦❺
of ①⑥④
the ❺⑦✉✉⑦❹②⑩❻
following ❾④❻②⑦⑩⑨
regions ①⑥④
the ⑤⑥④❿②⑤❼✉ ❹④❼①⑥④❾②⑩❻ ③❾⑦⑤④⑨⑨
chemical weathering process ②⑨
is
❿⑦❾④
more ❽⑦❿②⑩❼⑩①
dominant ①⑥❼⑩
than ①⑥④
the ❿④⑤⑥❼⑩②⑤❼✉
mechanical ③❾⑦⑤④⑨⑨➂
process?
(a) ➐t❿②❽
❶❼❷ Humid ❾④❻②⑦⑩
region ❶⑤❷ ➉❾②❽ ❾④❻②⑦⑩
c) Arid region
❶➆❷ ➇②❿④⑨①⑦⑩④
(b) Limestone ❾④❻②⑦⑩
region ❶❽❷ ➎✉❼⑤②④❾
d) Glacier ❾④❻②⑦⑩
region
✼✑
74 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✭✐✈✮
(iv) ❲✒✐✓✒ ✔✕✖
Which one ✔✗ of ✘✒✖
the ✗✔✙✙✔✚✐✕✛
following ✜✖✕✘✖✕✓✖✜
sentences ✢✖✜✘ best ✣✖✗✐✕✖✜
defines ✘✒✖the ✘✖✤✥
term ✦✧★✩✐✖✜✪
‘Lapies’?❄

✭★✮
(a) A❆ ✜✥★✙✙
small ✘✔ to ✥✖✣✐✫✥
medium ✜✐✬✖✣ sized ✜✒★✙✙✔✚
shallow ✣✖✩✤✖✜✜✐✔✕
depression

✭✢✮
(b) A❆ ✙★✕✣✗✔✤✥
landform whose ✚✒✔✜✖ ✔✩✖✕✐✕✛
opening ✐✜ is ✥✔✤✖
more ✔✤ or ✙✖✜✜
less ✓✐✤✓✫✙★✤
circular ★✘ at ✘✒✖
the ✘✔✩
top ★✕✣
and
✗✫✕✕✖✙
funnel ✜✒★✩✖✣
shaped ✘✔✚★✤✣✜towards ✢✔✘✘✔✥ bottom
✭✓✮
(c) A❆ ✙★✕✣✗✔✤✥
landform ✗✔✤✥✜ forms ✣✫✖ due ✘✔ to ✣✤✐✩✩✐✕✛
dripping water ✚★✘✖✤ ✗✤✔✥
from ✜✫✤✗★✓✖
surface
✭✣✮
(d) ❆✕ ✐✤✤✖✛✫✙★✤
An irregular ✜✫✤✗★✓✖
surface with ✚✐✘✒ ✜✒★✤✩ sharp ✩✐✕✕★✓✙✖✜✯
pinnacles, ✛✤✔✔✈✖✜
grooves ★✕✣ and ✤✐✣✛✖✜
ridges
✭✈✮
(v) A❆ ✣✖✖✩✯
deep, ✙✔✕✛ long ★✕✣and wide✚✐✣✖ ✘✤✔✫✛✒
trough ✔✤ or ✢★✜✐✕ ✚✐✘✒ very
basin with ✈✖✤✰ ✜✘✖✖✩
steep ✓✔✕✓★✈✖
concave ✒✐✛✒ ✚★✙✙✜
high walls
★✘
at ✐✘✜
its ✒✖★✣
head ★✜ ✚✖✙✙ ★✜
as well as ✐✕ in ✜✐✣✖✜
sides ✐✜ is ❛✕✔✚✕
known ★✜✱ as:
(a) ❈✐✤q✫✖
✭★✮ Cirque ✭✓✮ Lateral ✲✔✤★✐✕✖
(c) ✧★✘✖✤★✙ Moraine

✭✢✮
(b) ✳✙★✓✐★✙ ✈★✙✙✖✰
Glacial valley ✭✣✮
(d) ❊✜❛✖✤
Esker

✷✴
2. ❆✕✜✚✖✤ ✘✒✖
Answer following q✫✖✜✘✐✔✕✜
the ✗✔✙✙✔✚✐✕✛ questions ✐✕ about ✵✶
in ★✢✔✫✘ ✚✔✤✣✜✴
30 words.
✭✐✮
(i) ❲✒★✘ ✣✔
What do ✐✕✓✐✜✖✣
incised ✥✖★✕✣✖✤✜
meanders ✐✕ in ✤✔✓❛✜
rocks ★✕✣ and ✥✖★✕✣✖✤✜
meanders ✐✕ in ✩✙★✐✕✜
plains ✔✗ of ★✙✙✫✈✐✫✥
alluvium
✐✕✣✐✓★✘✖❄
indicate?

✭✐✐✮
(ii) ❊①✩✙★✐✕
Explain ✘✒✖ the ✖✈✔✙✫✘✐✔✕
evolution ✔✗ ✈★✙✙✖✰ ✜✐✕❛✜
of valley sinks ✔✤ or ✫✈★✙★✜✴
uvalas.
✭✐✐✐✮
(iii) ❯✕✣✖✤✛✤✔✫✕✣
Underground ✗✙✔✚ flow ✔✗ ✚★✘✖✤ ✐✜
of water is ✥✔✤✖
more ✓✔✥✥✔✕
common ✘✒★✕ than ✜✫✤✗★✓✖
surface ✤✫✕❡✔✗✗
run-off ✐✕ in
✙✐✥✖✜✘✔✕✖
limestone ★✤✖★✜✴ areas. Why? ❲✒✰❄
✭✐✈✮
(iv) ✳✙★✓✐★✙
Glacial valleys✈★✙✙✖✰✜ ✜✒✔✚ show ✫✩ up ✥★✕✰
many ✙✐✕✖★✤ linear ✣✖✩✔✜✐✘✐✔✕★✙
depositional ✗✔✤✥✜✴ forms. ✳✐✈✖
Give ✘✒✖✐✤
their
✙✔✓★✘✐✔✕✜
locations ★✕✣ and ✕★✥✖✜✴
names.
✭✈✮
(v) ❍✔✚
How ✣✔✖✜ does wind✚✐✕✣ ✩✖✤✗✔✤✥
perform ✐✘✜ its ✘★✜❛
task ✐✕ in ✣✖✜✖✤✘
desert ★✤✖★✜❄
areas? ✸✜
Is ✐✘it ✘✒✖
the ✔✕✙✰
only ★✛✖✕✘
agent
✤✖✜✩✔✕✜✐✢✙✖
responsible ✗✔✤ for ✘✒✖
the ✖✤✔✜✐✔✕★✙
erosional ✗✖★✘✫✤✖✜ features ✐✕ in ✘✒✖
the ✣✖✜✖✤✘✜❄
deserts?
✵✴
3. ❆✕✜✚✖✤ ✘✒✖
Answer following q✫✖✜✘✐✔✕✜
the ✗✔✙✙✔✚✐✕✛ questions ✐✕ in ★✢✔✫✘
about ✹✺✶ ✚✔✤✣✜✴
150 words.
✭✐✮
(i) ❘✫✕✕✐✕✛
Running water ✚★✘✖✤ ✐✜ is ✢✰
by ✗★✤
far ✘✒✖
the ✥✔✜✘
most ✣✔✥✐✕★✘✐✕✛
dominating ✛✖✔✥✔✤✩✒✐✓
geomorphic ★✛✖✕✘ agent ✐✕ in ✜✒★✩✐✕✛
shaping
✘✒✖
the ✖★✤✘✒✪✜
earth’s ✜✫✤✗★✓✖
surface ✐✕ in ✒✫✥✐✣
humid ★✜ ✚✖✙✙ ★✜
as well as ✐✕in ★✤✐✣
arid ✓✙✐✥★✘✖✜✴
climates. ❊①✩✙★✐✕✴
Explain.
✭✐✐✮
(ii) ✧✐✥✖✜✘✔✕✖✜
Limestones ✢✖✒★✈✖ behave ✣✐✗✗✖✤✖✕✘✙✰
differently ✐✕ in ✒✫✥✐✣
humid ★✕✣ and ★✤✐✣
arid ✓✙✐✥★✘✖✜✴
climates. Why? ❲✒✰❄ What ❲✒★✘ ✐✜ is
✘✒✖
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone ★✤✖★✜
✣✔✥✐✕★✕✘ ★✕✣ ★✙✥✔✜✘ ✖①✓✙✫✜✐✈✖ ✛✖✔✥✔✤✩✒✐✓ ✩✤✔✓✖✜✜ ✐✕ ✙✐✥✖✜✘✔✕✖ areas
★✕✣
and what ✚✒★✘ ★✤✖ are ✐✘✜its ✤✖✜✫✙✘✜❄
results?
✭✐✐✐✮
(iii) ❍✔✚
How ✣✔ do ✛✙★✓✐✖✤✜
glaciers ★✓✓✔✥✩✙✐✜✒
accomplish ✘✒✖ the work✚✔✤❛ ✔✗ of ✤✖✣✫✓✐✕✛
reducing ✒✐✛✒ high ✥✔✫✕✘★✐✕✜
mountains ✐✕✘✔ into ✙✔✚
low
✒✐✙✙✜
hills ★✕✣ and ✩✙★✐✕✜❄
plains?

P✻♦✽✾✿❀ ❁♦✻r
Project Work
✸✣✖✕✘✐✗✰
Identify ✘✒✖
the ✙★✕✣✗✔✤✥✜✯
landforms, ✥★✘✖✤✐★✙✜
materials ★✕✣
and ✩✤✔✓✖✜✜✖✜
processes ★✤✔✫✕✣ ✰✔✫✤ ★✤✖★✴
around your area.
 ❯◆✥✦

✧★

CLIMATE
❈▲ ✁✂✄☎

❚✆✝✞
This ✟✠✝✡
unit ☛☞✌✍✞
deals ✎✝✡✆
with
➄ Atmosphere
❆✡✏✑✞✒✆☞✓☞ ✔— ✕✑✏✒✑✞✝✡✝✑✠✞
compositions ✌✠☛
and ✞✡✓✟✕✡✟✓☞✖
structure; ☞✍☞✏☞✠✡✞
elements ✑✗
of ✎☞✌✡✆☞✓
weather
✌✠☛
and ✕✍✝✏✌✡☞
climate
➄ ■✠✞✑✍✌✡✝✑✠
Insolation ✔ — ✌✠✘✍☞
angle ✑✗of ✝✠✕✝☛☞✠✕☞
incidence ✌✠☛and ☛✝✞✡✓✝✙✟✡✝✑✠✖
distribution; ✆☞✌✡
heat ✙✟☛✘☞✡
budget
✑✗ ✡✆☞ ☞✌✓✡✆ ✔ ✆☞✌✡✝✠✘ ✌✠☛ ✕✑✑✍✝✠✘ ✑✗ ✌✡✏✑✞✒✆☞✓☞
of the earth — heating and cooling of atmosphere (conduction,♦✕✑✠☛✟✕✡✝✑✠✚
✕✑✠❝☞✕✡✝✑✠✚
convection, ✡☞✓✓☞✞✡✓✝✌✍
terrestrial ✓✌☛✝✌✡✝✑✠✚
radiation, ✌☛❝☞✕✡✝✑✠✛✖
advection); ✡☞✏✒☞✓✌✡✟✓☞
temperature ✔ ✗✌✕✡✑✓✞
— factors
✕✑✠✡✓✑✍✍✝✠✘
controlling ✡☞✏✒☞✓✌✡✟✓☞✖
temperature; ☛✝✞✡✓✝✙✟✡✝✑✠
distribution ✑✗
of ✡☞✏✒☞✓✌✡✟✓☞
temperature ✔ — ✆✑✓✝✜✑✠✡✌✍
horizontal
✌✠☛
and ❝☞✓✡✝✕✌✍✖
vertical; ✝✠❝☞✓✞✝✑✠
inversion ✑✗of ✡☞✏✒☞✓✌✡✟✓☞
temperature
➄ P✓☞✞✞✟✓☞
Pressure ✔ ✒✓☞✞✞✟✓☞ ✙☞✍✡✞✖
— pressure belts; ✎✝✠☛✞✢✒✍✌✠☞✡✌✓✣
winds-planetary ✞☞✌✞✑✠✌✍
seasonal ✌✠☛
and ✍✑✕✌✍✚
local,
✌✝✓
air ✏✌✞✞☞✞
masses ✌✠☛ ✗✓✑✠✡✞✖ ✡✓✑✒✝✕✌✍
and fronts; tropical ✌✠☛
and ☞❛✡✓✌
extra ✡✓✑✒✝✕✌✍
tropical ✕✣✕✍✑✠☞✞
cyclones
➄ P✓☞✕✝✒✝✡✌✡✝✑✠
Precipitation ✔ — ☞❝✌✒✑✓✌✡✝✑✠✖
evaporation; ✕✑✠☛☞✠✞✌✡✝✑✠
condensation ✔
— ☛☞✎✚ ✗✓✑✞✡✚ fog,
dew, frost, ✗✑✘✚
✏✝✞✡
mist ✌✠☛
and ✕✍✑✟☛✖
cloud; ✓✌✝✠✗✌✍✍
rainfall ✔
— ✡✣✒☞✞
types ✌✠☛
and ✎✑✓✍☛
world ☛✝✞✡✓✝✙✟✡✑✠
distributon
➄ ❲✑✓✍☛
World ✕✍✝✏✌✡☞✞
climates ✔
— ✕✍✌✞✞✝✗✝✕✌✡✝✑✠
classification ♦✤✑☞✒✒☞✠✛✚ greenhouse ☞✗✗☞✕✡✚
(Koeppen), ✘✓☞☞✠✆✑✟✞☞ effect,
global ✎✌✓✏✝✠✘
✘✍✑✙✌✍ warming ✌✠☛
and ✕✍✝✏✌✡✝✕
climatic ✕✆✌✠✘☞✞
changes
 ➮➱✃❐❒❮❰
CHAPTER

❈❖ ✁❖✂✄☎✄❖✆ AND
COMPOSITION ❆✆✝ ✥☎❚✞✟☎✞❚✠
STRUCTURE
❖✡ ☛☎ ❖✂✁☞✠❚✠
oF ATMOSPHERE

❛✍
an ❛ a ✎✏r✑✒✍
person ✓✔✈✏ ✕✔✖✗✒✘✖ ❛✔r✙ ✚✏ ✏❛✖ ❙❯❱❲❳❨❩❬❭❪❳❫❴❯❵❳❵❜❝❯❞❳❞❣✐❜❥❳❦❜❴❣❞❧❥❳❫❳
❢✒✒✛✖✕✒✜✖✗r✏✏✖✔✢✏✑❛✛❛✣❛✍✛✛r✔✍✤
live without air? We eat Table 8.1 : Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere

✌ water ✕❛✖✏r ✢✒r✏more ❢r✏✇✘✏✍✖✓✣ ✦✘✖ breathe

food two - three times a day and drink
✦r✏❛✖✗✏ ♥♦♣q✉①✉②③♣✉ ④♦⑤⑥②⑦⑧ ⑨③⑤⑩③♣✉⑧❶③❷❸❹♦⑦②⑥③
Constituent Formula | Percentage by Volume

✏✈✏r✣ ❢✏✕ ✑✏❡✒✍✛✑✧ ★✔r

every few seconds. Air is essential ✖✒
✔✑ ✏✑✑✏✍✖✔❛✓
frequently but
to ✖✗✏ ❺❻❼❽❾❿➀➁
➇➈➉❿➀➁ ❺➂
➇ ➃➄➅➆➄
➊➆➅➋➌
✑✘r✈✔✈❛✓✒❢❛✓✓ organisms. ✩✒✢✏✒rs❛✍✔✑✢✑✓✔✤✏
survival of all ✒rs❛✍✔✑✢✑✧ ➂
the Nitrogen N, 78.08

humans ✢❛✣
✗✘✢❛✍✑ survive ❢✒r
may ✑✘r✈✔✈✏ for ✑✒✢✏
some ✖✔✢✏
Some organisms like
✕✔✖✗✒✘✖ ➍❽❿❾➁
Oxygen

➏➐❽➑❾➁➒❻❾➈❻➒➀ ➏➇➍❽ O,
➆➅➋➎
20.95

➆➅➆➎➓
➂
Argon Ar 0.93 | Mitek
❢✒✒✛
food ❛✍✛ ✕❛✖✏r but ✦✘✖ ❡❛✍✪
can’t✖ ✑✘r✈✔✈✏
survive ✏✈✏✍even ❛ a ❢✏✕
time without

✢✔✍✘✖✏✑✕✔✖✗✒✘✖
and water
✦r✏❛✖✗✔✍s❛✔r✧ ✳✗❛✖✑✗✒✕✑
shows ✖✗✏
few ❺➀❾➁
Carbon dioxide

➔➀→
Neon
❻ ➣↔ ❺➀
➔➀
co,
Ne ➆➅➆➆➊
0.036

➆➅➆➆➆➌
0.002
M,

r✏❛✑✒✍ ✕✗✣ we✕✏ ✑✗✒✘✓✛

should ✘✍✛✏r✑✖❛✍✛
understand ✖✗✏
minutes without breathing air. That the

❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏
atmosphere ✔✍
reason why
in sr✏❛✖✏r
greater ✛✏✖❛✔✓✧ ★✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏ ✔✑is ❛a
the ↕❽➉➙❼❾
Helium

➜➀➁❾➁
Krypto
➜➀↕❽
He
Kr ➆➅➆➆➛
0.0005

➆➅➆➆➆➆➋
0.001

✢✔♠✖✘r✏✒❢
mixture of ✛✔❢❢✏r✏✍✖
different s❛✑✏✑
gases ❛✍✛
and ✔✖ it ✏✍✈✏✓✒✎✏✑
envelopes ✖✗✏
detail. Atmosphere
➔➉➒❽❾❿➀➁ ➔➂ ➆➅➆➆➆➆➌
Xenon xe 0.00009

✏❛r✖✗❛✓✓r✒✘✍✛✧✫✖❡✒✍✖❛✔✍✑✓✔❢✏✜s✔✈✔✍ss❛✑✏✑✓✔✤✏
the Hydrogen H, 0.00005

oxygen ❢✒r
✒♠✣s✏✍ for ✗✘✢❛✍✑
humans ❛✍✛ and ❛✍✔✢❛✓✑
animals ❛✍✛ and ❡❛r✦✒✍ ➝➞➟➠➟
earth all round. It contains life-giving gases like

✛✔✒♠✔✛✏❢✒r✎✓❛✍✖✑✧✳✗✏❛✔r
dioxide for plants. The air ✔✑❛✍ is an ✔✍✖✏sr❛✓✎❛r✖✒❢
carbon Gases
Carbon ✛✔✒♠✔✛✏
➡❛r✦✒✍ dioxide ✔✑ is ✢✏✖✏✒r✒✓✒s✔❡❛✓✓✣
meteorologically ❛ ✈✏r✣
✖✗✏ earth’s✑ ✢❛✑✑
the ✏❛r✖✗✪ mass ❛✍✛and tt per ❡✏✍✖
99 ✎✏r cent ✒❢ of ✖✗✏
the ✖✒✖❛✓
integral part of
✔✢✎✒r✖❛✍✖ s❛✑ ❛✑ ✔✖ ✔✑ ✖r❛✍✑✎❛r✏✍✖ ✖✒ ✖✗✏
a very
✢❛✑✑
mass ✒❢ of ✖✗✏
the ❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏
atmosphere ✔✑ is ❡✒✍❢✔✍✏✛
confined ✖✒ to ✖✗✏
total
✔✍❡✒✢✔✍s
incoming ✑✒✓❛r radiation ✦✘✖
solar r❛✛✔❛✖✔✒✍ but ✒✎❛✇✘✏
opaque ✖✒ to ✖✗✏
important gas as it is transparent to the

✗✏✔s✗✖
height ✒❢ of ❤✬
32 ✤✢
km ❢r✒✢
from ✖✗✏
the ✏❛r✖✗✪
earth’s✑ ✑✘r❢❛❡✏✧ ✳✗✏
the
✒✘✖s✒✔✍s✖✏rr✏✑✖r✔❛✓
outgoing terrestrial r❛✛✔❛✖✔✒✍✧✫✖❛✦✑✒r✦✑❛✎❛r✖
the
❛✔r is ❡✒✓✒✘r✓✏✑✑
air ✔✑ colourless ❛✍✛ and ✒✛✒✘r✓✏✑✑
odourless ❛✍✛ and ❡❛✍ ✦✏❢✏✓✖
surface. The
✒❢of ✖✏rr✏✑✖r✔❛✓
terrestrial r❛✛✔❛✖✔✒✍
radiation ❛✍✛ reflects ✦❛❡✤
and r✏❢✓✏❡✖✑ back ✑✒✢✏
radiation. It absorbs a part
✒✍✓✣ ✦✓✒✕✑ ❛✑as wind.
✕✗✏✍ ✔✖it blows ✕✔✍✛✧
can be felt
✎❛r✖
part ✒❢ of ✔✖
it ✖✒✕❛r✛✑
towards ✖✗✏ the ✏❛r✖✗✪ surface. ✫✖
earth’s✑ ✑✘r❢❛❡✏✧ It ✔✑
some
only when

✭✮✯ ✰✱✲ ✴✵✮✶✴✯✷ ✸✹✮✺ ✸✴✻✻ ✹✮✼✼✷✯ ✓❛rs✏✓✣ r✏✑✎✒✍✑✔✦✓✏ ❢✒r ✖✗✏ ➢➤➥➥➦ ➧➨➩➫➥ ➥➭➭➥➯➲✧
is

✺✱ ✲✽ ✴✯ ✺✹✷ ✮✾✽✷✯✿✷ ✱❀ ✱❁✱✯✷ ✴✯ ✺✹✷

Can you imagine what will happen ✳✗✏ other s❛✑✏✑
✈✒✓✘✢✏ ✒❢of ✒✖✗✏r gases ✔✑ is ❡✒✍✑✖❛✍✖
constant ✦✘✖
largely responsible for the green house effect.
but ✖✗✏
✈✒✓✘✢✏ ✒❢of ❡❛r✦✒✍
carbon ✛✔✒♠✔✛✏
dioxide ✗❛✑ has ✦✏✏✍
been r✔✑✔✍s
rising ✔✍
The volume the
✮✺✵✱✽✼✹✷❂✷❃
to us in the absence of ozone in the
✖✗✏ past ❢✏✕
the ✎❛✑✖ few ✛✏❡❛✛✏✑
decades ✢❛✔✍✓✣mainly ✦✏❡❛✘✑✏
because ✒❢ of ✖✗✏
volume in
atmosphere?
✦✘r✍✔✍s✒❢❢✒✑✑✔✓
burning of fossil ❢✘✏✓✑✧✳✗✔✑
fuels. This ✗❛✑ has ❛✓✑✒
also ✔✍❡r✏❛✑✏✛
the

✖✗✏
the ✖✏✢✎✏r❛✖✘r✏
temperature ✒❢ of ✖✗✏
the ❛✔r✧
air. ➳➵✒✍✏
Ozone ✔✑ is ❛✍✒✖✗✏r
increased
❄❅❇❉❅❊❋●❋❅❍ ❅■ ●❏❑ ▲●❇❅❊❉❏❑▼❑
CoMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
✔✢✎✒r✖❛✍✖❡✒✢✎✒✍✏✍✖✒❢✖✗✏❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏❢✒✘✍✛
another

✳✗✏ ❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏
atmosphere ✔✑ is ❡✒✢✎✒✑✏✛
composed ✒❢ of s❛✑✏✑◆ ✕❛✖✏r ✦✏✖✕✏✏✍
between ◗❘ 10 ❛✍✛
and ➸❘ 50 ✤✢ km ❛✦✒✈✏
above ✖✗✏
important component of the atmosphere found
the ✏❛r✖✗✪✑
✈❛✎✒✘r ❛✍✛
The
and ✛✘✑✖
dust ✎❛r✖✔❡✓✏✑✧ ✳❛✦✓✏ P✧◗ 8.1 ✑✗✒✕✑
gases, water
✑✘r❢❛❡✏ ❛❡✖✑ ❛✑ ❛ ❢✔✓✖✏r
surface and acts as a filter and absorbs ✖✗✏
❛✍✛ ❛✍✛ ❛✦✑✒r✦✑
earth’s

➩➺➲➤➻➼➽➾➨➺➥➲
ultra-violet ➤➻➚➫ radiating ❢r✒✢
rays r❛✛✔❛✖✔✍s from ✖✗✏the ✑✘✍sun ❛✍✛
the
✛✏✖❛✔✓✑
details ✒❢ ✈❛r✔✒✘✑ s❛✑✏✑
gases ✔✍
in ✖✗✏❛✔r◆
the air, ✎❛r✖✔❡✘✓❛r✓✣
vapour particles. Table shows

✎r✏✈✏✍✖✑✖✗✏✢❢r✒✢r✏❛❡✗✔✍s✖✗✏✑✘r❢❛❡✏✒❢✖✗✏
and
✔✍in ✖✗✏
the ✓✒✕✏r
lower ❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏✧ ✳✗✏ ✎r✒✎✒r✖✔✒✍
proportion ✒❢
of various particularly

✏❛r✖✗✧
prevents them from reaching the surface of the
s❛✑✏✑
gases ❡✗❛✍s✏✑
changes ✔✍ in ✖✗✏
the ✗✔s✗✏r
higher ✓❛✣✏r✑
layers ✒❢ of ✖✗✏
atmosphere. The of
earth.
❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏
atmosphere ✔✍ in ✑✘❡✗
such ❛ ✕❛✣ ✖✗❛✖
that ✒♠✣s✏✍ ✕✔✓✓ be✦✏
the

❛✓✢✒✑✖
almost ✔✍ in ✍✏s✓✔s✔✦✓✏ ✇✘❛✍✖✔✖✣
negligible quantity ❛✖
a way
at ✖✗✏
the ✗✏✔s✗✖
height ✒❢
oxygen will
➪➞➶➠➹ ➘➞➴➷➬➹
Water Vapour
◗✬❘
120 ✤✢✧
km. ✩✔✢✔✓❛r✓✣◆
Similarly, ❡❛r✦✒✍
carbon ✛✔✒♠✔✛✏
dioxide ❛✍✛ ✕❛✖✏r
of

✈❛✎✒✘r ❛r✏ are ❢✒✘✍✛

found ✒✍✓✣
only ✘✎ to t❘
up ✖✒ 90 ✤✢ km ❢r✒✢
from ✖✗✏
and water ✚❛✖✏r vapour
✈❛✎✒✘r ✔✑is ❛✓✑✒
also ❛ ✈❛r✔❛✦✓✏ s❛✑ gas ✔✍ in ✖✗✏
❛✖✢✒✑✎✗✏r✏◆✕✗✔❡✗✛✏❡r✏❛✑✏✑✕✔✖✗❛✓✖✔✖✘✛✏✧✫✍
Water a variable the

✑✘r❢❛❡✏✒❢✖✗✏
surface of the ✏❛r✖✗✧
vapour the
✖✗✏
the ✕❛r✢
warm ❛✍✛and ✕✏✖
wet ✖r✒✎✔❡✑◆
tropics, ✔✖ it ✢❛✣ account ❢✒r
may ❛❡❡✒✘✍✖
atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In
earth. for

YW dur bo Aft
alg Hse open
 ❈COMPOSITION
✁✂ ✄☎✆☎ ✝ AND
✞✝✟ ✄✆✠✡❈✆✡✠☛
STRUCTURE OF☞ ATMOSPHERE
✞✆✁ ✄✂✌☛✠☛ ✼✼
77

❢✍✎✏
four ✑✒✏per ✓✒✔✕
cent ✍❢ of ✕✖✒
the ✗✘✏
air r✙ ✚✍✛✎✜✒✢ while
by volume, ✣✖✘✛✒ ✘✔ in ✕✖✒
the ♠✖✒ ❑✍✔✒
The zone ✤✒✑✗✏✗✕✘✔✥
separating ✕✖✒ the ✕✏✍✑✤✍✑✖✒✏✒
tropsophere ❢✏✍✜ from
❞✏✙
dry ✗✔❞and ✓✍✛❞
cold ✗✏✒✗✤
areas ✍❢of ❞✒✤✒✏✕
desert ✗✔❞and ✑✍✛✗✏
polar ✏✒✥✘✍✔✤✢
regions, ✤✕✏✗✕✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
stratosphere ✘✤ is ✧✔✍✣✔
known ✗✤ as ✕✖✒the ❃❄❅❇❅❇▲▼❊❂✳
tropopause. The ♠✖✒
✘✕it ✜✗✙
may r✒
be ✛✒✤✤
less ✕✖✗✔
than ✍✔✒
one ✑✒✏per ✓✒✔✕
cent ✍❢
of ✕✖✒
the ✗✘✏✳ ✦✗✕✒✏
air. Water ✗✘✏
air ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒
temperature ✗✕ at ✕✖✒the ✕✏✍✑✍✑✗✎✤✒
tropopause ✘✤ is ✗r✍✎✕
about
✚✗✑✍✎✏ ✗✛✤✍
vapour also ❞✒✓✏✒✗✤✒✤
decreases ❢✏✍✜ from ✕✖✒ the ✒✈✎✗✕✍✏
equator ✜✘✔✎✤
minus ❛◆ 80°CP❍ ✍✚✒✏
over ✕✖✒
the ✒✈✎✗✕✍✏
equator ✗✔❞ and ✗r✍✎✕
about ✜✘✔✎✤
minus
✕✍✣✗✏❞✤
towards ✕✖✒ the ✑✍✛✒✤✳
poles. t✕ It ✗✛✤✍
also ✗r✤✍✏r✤
absorbs ✑✗✏✕✤parts ✍❢ of ✕✖✒
the ◗❏ ♦
45°C❍ ✍✚✒✏
over ✕✖✒
the ✑✍✛✒✤✳
poles. The ♠✖✒ ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒
temperature ✖✒✏✒ here ✘✤is
✘✔✤✍✛✗✕✘✍✔ ❢✏✍✜ ✕✖✒
insolation from the sun and ✤✎✔ ✗✔❞ ✑✏✒✤✒✏✚✒✤
preserves the ✕✖✒ ✔✒✗✏✛✙
nearly ✓✍✔✤✕✗✔✕✢
constant, ✗✔❞ and ✖✒✔✓✒✢hence, ✘✕ it ✘✤is ✓✗✛✛✒❞
called ✕✖✒ the
✒✗✏✕✖❡✤radiated
earth’s ✏✗❞✘✗✕✒❞heat.✖✒✗✕✳ t✕It ✕✖✎✤✢
thus, ✗✓✕✤
acts ✛✘✧✒
like ✗ a r✛✗✔✧✒✕
blanket ✕✏✍✑✍✑✗✎✤✒✳
tropopause. ❀❁❂ The ❊❃❄▲❃❅❊❇❁❂❄❂
stratosphere ✘✤ is ❢✍✎✔❞
found ✗r✍✚✒
above
✗✛✛✍✣✘✔✥
allowing ✕✖✒ the ✒✗✏✕✖
earth ✔✒✘✕✖✒✏
neither ✕✍ to r✒✓✍✜✒
become ✕✍✍ too ✓✍✛❞
cold ✕✖✒
the tropopause and extends up to a height ✍❢
✕✏✍✑✍✑✗✎✤✒ ✗✔❞ ✒✿✕✒✔❞✤ ✎✑ ✕✍ ✗ ✖✒✘✥✖✕ of
✔✍✏
nor ✕✍✍too ✖✍✕✳ ✦✗✕✒✏ vapour
hot. Water ✚✗✑✍✎✏ ✗✛✤✍ also ✓✍✔✕✏✘r✎✕✒✤
contributes ✕✍ to ❏◆
50 ✧✜✳ km. ❘✔✒ One ✘✜✑✍✏✕✗✔✕
important ❢✒✗✕✎✏✒ feature ✍❢ of ✕✖✒
the
the ✤✕✗r✘✛✘✕✙
✕✖✒ stability ✗✔❞and ✘✔✤✕✗r✘✛✘✕✙
instability ✘✔ in ✕✖✒
the ✗✘✏✳
air. ✤✕✏✗✕✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
stratosphere ✘✤ is ✕✖✗✕
that ✘✕ it ✓✍✔✕✗✘✔✤
contains ✕✖✒ the ❅❯❅❱❂
ozone ❲▲❳❂❄✳
layer.
♠✖✘✤ ✛✗✙✒✏
This layer ✗r✤✍✏r✤
absorbs ✎✛✕✏✗s✚✘✍✛✒✕
ultra-violet ✏✗❞✘✗✕✘✍✔ radiation ✗✔❞ and
❉★✩✪
Dust ✫✬✭✪✮✯✰✱✩
Particles ✤✖✘✒✛❞✤
shields ✛✘❢✒
life ✍✔
on ✕✖✒
the ✒✗✏✕✖
earth ❢✏✍✜ from ✘✔✕✒✔✤✒✢
intense, ✖✗✏✜❢✎✛harmful
❢✍✏✜
form ✍❢ of ✒✔✒✏✥✙✳
energy.
❆✕✜✍✤✑✖✒✏✒ ✖✗✤
Atmosphere has ✗ a ✤✎❢❢✘✓✘✒✔✕
sufficient ✓✗✑✗✓✘✕✙
capacity ✕✍ to ✧✒✒✑
keep ❀❁❂
The ❨❂❊❅❊❇❁❂❄❂
mesospherelics ✛✘✒✤ ✗r✍✚✒
above ✕✖✒ the ✤✕✏✗✕✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✢
stratosphere,
✤✜✗✛✛
small ✤✍✛✘❞
solid ✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤✢ ✣✖✘✓✖ ✜✗✙
particles, which may ✍✏✘✥✘✔✗✕✒
originate ❢✏✍✜
from ✣✖✘✓✖
which ✒✿✕✒✔❞✤
extends ✎✑ up ✕✍ to ✗ a ✖✒✘✥✖✕
height ✍❢ of ❛◆80 ✧✜✳
km. t✔ In ✕✖✘✤
this
❞✘❢❢✒✏✒✔✕
different ✤✍✎✏✓✒✤
sources ✗✔❞ include ✤✒✗
and ✘✔✓✛✎❞✒ sea ✤✗✛✕✤✢ fine ✤✍✘✛✢
salts, ❢✘✔✒ soil, ✛✗✙✒✏✢
layer, ✍✔✓✒ once ✗✥✗✘✔✢ temperature ✤✕✗✏✕✤
again, ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒ starts
✤✜✍✧✒s✤✍✍✕✢
smoke-soot, ✗✤✖✢ pollen, ❞✎✤✕
ash, ✑✍✛✛✒✔✢ and ❞✘✤✘✔✕✒✥✏✗✕✒❞
dust ✗✔❞ disintegrated ❞✒✓✏✒✗✤✘✔✥
decreasing ✣✘✕✖ with ✕✖✒ the ✘✔✓✏✒✗✤✒
increase ✘✔ in ✗✛✕✘✕✎❞✒
altitude ✗✔❞ and
✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤
particles ✍❢ meteors. ♣✎✤✕
of ✜✒✕✒✍✏✤✳ Dust ✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤
particles ✗✏✒ are ✏✒✗✓✖✒✤ ✎✑ ✕✍ ✜✘✔✎✤ ❋◆◆ ➦
reaches up to minus 100°C at the height of ❛◆
❍ ✗✕ ✕✖✒ ✖✒✘✥✖✕ ✍❢ 80
✥✒✔✒✏✗✛✛✙
generally ✓✍✔✓✒✔✕✏✗✕✒❞
concentrated ✘✔ in ✕✖✒
the ✛✍✣✒✏
lower ✛✗✙✒✏✤
layers ✍❢ of ✧✜✳
km. The♠✖✒ ✎✑✑✒✏
upper ✛✘✜✘✕limit ✍❢ of ✜✒✤✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
mesosphere ✘✤ is ✧✔✍✣✔
known
✕✖✒
the ✗✕✜✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✲
atmosphere; yet, ✙✒✕✢ ✓✍✔✚✒✓✕✘✍✔✗✛
convectional ✗✘✏ air ✓✎✏✏✒✔✕✤
currents ✗✤
as ✕✖✒
the ❨❂❊❅❇▲▼❊❂✳
mesopause. ❀❁❂ The ❩❅❱❅❊❇❁❂❄❂
ionosphere ✘✤ is ✛✍✓✗✕✒❞
located
✜✗✙
may ✕✏✗✔✤✑✍✏✕
transport ✕✖✒✜ them ✕✍ to ✥✏✒✗✕
great ✖✒✘✥✖✕✤✳
heights. The ♠✖✒ r✒✕✣✒✒✔
between ❛◆ 80 ✗✔❞
and ◗◆◆400 ✧✜ km ✗r✍✚✒above ✕✖✒ the ✜✒✤✍✑✗✎✤✒✳
mesopause.
✖✘✥✖✒✏
higher ✓✍✔✓✒✔✕✏✗✕✘✍✔
concentration ✍❢ of ❞✎✤✕
dust ✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤
particles ✘✤ is ❢✍✎✔❞
found t✕
It ✓✍✔✕✗✘✔✤
contains ✒✛✒✓✕✏✘✓✗✛✛✙
electrically ✓✖✗✏✥✒❞charged ✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤
particles ✧✔✍✣✔ known
in ✤✎r✕✏✍✑✘✓✗✛
✘✔ subtropical ✗✔❞ and ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✒ regions ❞✎✒
temperate ✏✒✥✘✍✔✤ due ✕✍to ✗✤
as ✘✍✔✤✢
ions, ✗✔❞
and ✖✒✔✓✒✢
hence, ✘✕ it ✘✤
is ✧✔✍✣✔
known ✗✤ as ✘✍✔✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✳
ionosphere.
❞✏✙ ✣✘✔❞✤ ✘✔ ✓✍✜✑✗✏✘✤✍✔ ✕✍
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and✒✈✎✗✕✍✏✘✗✛ ✗✔❞ ❬✗❞✘✍
Radio ✣✗✚✒✤
waves ✕✏✗✔✤✜✘✕✕✒❞
transmitted ❢✏✍✜ from ✕✖✒ the ✒✗✏✕✖
earth ✗✏✒are
✑✍✛✗✏ regions. ♣✎✤✕
polar ✏✒✥✘✍✔✤✳ Dust ✗✔❞and ✤✗✛✕
salt ✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤
particles ✗✓✕ act ✗✤as ✏✒❢✛✒✓✕✒❞
reflected r✗✓✧ back ✕✍ to ✕✖✒ the ✒✗✏✕✖earth r✙ by ✕✖✘✤
this ✛✗✙✒✏✳
layer.
✖✙✥✏✍✤✓✍✑✘✓
hygroscopic ✔✎✓✛✒✘
nuclei ✗✏✍✎✔❞ ✣✖✘✓✖ water
around which ✣✗✕✒✏ vapour
✚✗✑✍✎✏ ♠✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒ ✖✒✏✒
Temperature here ✤✕✗✏✕✤
starts ✘✔✓✏✒✗✤✘✔✥
increasing ✣✘✕✖ with ✖✒✘✥✖✕✳
height.
✓✍✔❞✒✔✤✒✤
condenses ✕✍ to ✑✏✍❞✎✓✒
produce ✓✛✍✎❞✤✳
clouds. ♠✖✒
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere ✗r✍✚✒
✎✑✑✒✏✜✍✤✕ ✛✗✙✒✏ ✍❢ ✕✖✒ ✗✕✜✍✤✑✖✒✏✒ above

❙❚✴✵✶❚✵✴✷
STRUCTURE ❖✸ OF ❚✹✷ ✺❚✻❖✽✾✹✷✴✷
THE ATMOSPHERE
Temperature (°F)
-148 -112 -76 -40 -4 32 68
♠✖✒ ✗✕✜✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
The atmosphere ✓✍✔✤✘✤✕✤
consists ✍❢ of ❞✘❢❢✒✏✒✔✕
different ✛✗✙✒✏✤ ✣✘✕✖
layers with 100 ; 144 144 1 1 14 1 1 1 1 62

✚✗✏✙✘✔✥ ❞✒✔✤✘✕✙
varying density ✗✔❞ temperature. ♣✒✔✤✘✕✙
and ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒✳ Density ✘✤ is 1 _—|
90- Thermosphere —- 56
✖✘✥✖✒✤✕
highest ✔✒✗✏
near ✕✖✒ the ✤✎✏❢✗✓✒
surface ✍❢ of ✕✖✒
the ✒✗✏✕✖
earth ✗✔❞ and
❞✒✓✏✒✗✤✒✤ ✣✘✕✖ ✘✔✓✏✒✗✤✘✔✥
decreases with increasing ✗✛✕✘✕✎❞✒✳
altitude. The ♠✖✒ ✓✍✛✎✜✔
column 80- Mesopause 50
✍❢
of ✗✕✜✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
atmosphere ✘✤ is ❞✘✚✘❞✒❞
divided ✘✔✕✍ five ❞✘❢❢✒✏✒✔✕
into ❢✘✚✒ different
layers ❞✒✑✒✔❞✘✔✥
✛✗✙✒✏✤ depending ✎✑✍✔ upon ✕✖✒ the ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒
temperature 70- ~ 44
1 lb _Mesosphere
condition. They are: troposphere, ✤✕✏✗✕✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✢
✓✍✔❞✘✕✘✍✔✳ ♠✖✒✙ ✗✏✒❝ ✕✏✍✑✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✢ stratosphere,
✜✒✤✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✢ = 60- 37 E
mesosphere, ✘✍✔✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
ionosphere ✗✔❞ and ✒✿✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✳
exosphere.
❀❁❂
The ❃❄❅❇❅❊❇❁❂❄❂
troposphere ✘✤ is ✕✖✒
the ✛✍✣✒✏✜✍✤✕
lowermost ✛✗✙✒✏ layer ✍❢ of
2 | 4 2
Y 504 Stratopause 31%
✕✖✒
the ✗✕✜✍✤✑✖✒✏✒✳
atmosphere. t✕✤ Its ✗✚✒✏✗✥✒
average ✖✒✘✥✖✕
height ✘✤ is ❋●
13 ✧✜km BY a
✗✔❞
and ✒✿✕✒✔❞✤
extends ✏✍✎✥✖✛✙
roughly ✕✍ to ✗a ✖✒✘✥✖✕
height ✍❢ of ❛
8 ✧✜
km ✔✒✗✏
near £404
3 40- 25 5=
✕✖✒
the ✑✍✛✒✤
poles ✗✔❞
and ✗r✍✎✕
about ❋❛ 18 ✧✜km ✗✕ at ✕✖✒
the ✒✈✎✗✕✍✏✳
equator.
30+ Stratosphere 19
♠✖✘✓✧✔✒✤✤ ✍❢
Thickness of ✕✖✒
the ✕✏✍✑✍✤✑✖✒✏✒
troposphere ✘✤ is ✥✏✒✗✕✒✤✕
greatest ✗✕ at ✕✖✒
the
equator because heat is transported to ✥✏✒✗✕
✒✈✎✗✕✍✏ r✒✓✗✎✤✒ ✖✒✗✕ ✘✤ ✕✏✗✔✤✑✍✏✕✒❞ ✕✍ great 20-4 LZ 12
✖✒✘✥✖✕✤
heights r✙by ✤✕✏✍✔✥
strong ✓✍✔✚✒✓✕✘✍✔✗✛
convectional ✓✎✏✏✒✔✕✤✳currents. This♠✖✘✤
10 {tthe Ln opause --
✛✗✙✒✏ contains ❞✎✤✕
layer ✓✍✔✕✗✘✔✤ dust ✑✗✏✕✘✓✛✒✤
particles ✗✔❞ and ✣✗✕✒✏
water ✚✗✑✍✎✏✳
vapour. 7 T T
❆✛✛ ✓✖✗✔✥✒✤
All changes ✘✔ in ✓✛✘✜✗✕✒
climate ✗✔❞ and ✣✒✗✕✖✒✏
weather ✕✗✧✒ take ✑✛✗✓✒
place Troposphere,———_
✘✔
in ✕✖✘✤
this ✛✗✙✒✏✳
layer. The♠✖✒ ✕✒✜✑✒✏✗✕✎✏✒
temperature ✘✔ in ✕✖✘✤
this ✛✗✙✒✏
layer 0 Ee Lo
❞✒✓✏✒✗✤✒✤
decreases ✗✕ at ✕✖✒
the ✏✗✕✒
rate ✍❢ ➦❍ ❢✍✏
of ❋1°C for ✒✚✒✏✙
every ❋■❏✜
165m ✍❢ of
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20
Temperature (°C)
✖✒✘✥✖✕✳ ♠✖✘✤ ✘✤ ✕✖✒ ✜✍✤✕ ✘✜✑✍✏✕✗✔✕
height. This is the most important layer for all ✛✗✙✒✏ ❢✍✏ ✗✛✛
r✘✍✛✍✥✘✓✗✛
biological ✗✓✕✘✚✘✕✙✳
activity. ❭❪❫❴❵❜ ❣❤✐ ❥ ❦❧❵❴♥❧❴❵❜ q✉f ✇❧①q②③④❜❵❜
Sanne atmosphere
✼✑
78 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

t✒✓
the ✔✕✖✕✗✘✒✓✙✓
ionosphere ✔✗ is ✚✖✕✛✖
known ✜✗ as t✒✓
the ❡✢✣✤✥✦❡✧❡✳ ★✒✔✗
exosphere. This ❊✶✷✸✷✹✺✻
Elements ✽✾ ✿✷❀✺❁✷❂ ❀✹❃
of Weather and ❄✶❅✸❀✺✷
Climate
✔✗
is t✒✓ highest ✩✜✪✓✙
the ✒✔✐✒✓✗t ✫✬t very
layer but ✭✓✙✪ ✩✔tt✩✓
little ✔✗
is ✚✖✕✛✖
known ✜✫✕✬t
about
✔t✳ ✮✒✜t✓✭✓✙ ✯✕✖t✓✖t✗
it. Whatever contents ✜✙✓ are t✒✓✙✓✰
there, t✒✓✗✓
these ✜✙✓
are ★✒✓ ✲✜✔✖
The main ✓✩✓✲✓✖t✗
elements ✕✴of ✜t✲✕✗✘✒✓✙✓ ✛✒✔✯✒ ✜✙✓
atmosphere which are
✓✱t✙✓✲✓✩✪
extremely ✙✜✙✓✴✔✓✵
rarefied ✔✖ this ✩✜✪✓✙✰
in t✒✔✗ layer, ✜✖✵and ✔tit ✐✙✜✵✬✜✩✩✪
gradually ✗✬✫s✓✯t t✕ ✯✒✜✖✐✓ ✜✖✵ ✛✒✔✯✒ ✔✖✴✩✬✓✖✯✓
subject to change and which influence human ✒✬✲✜✖
✲✓✙✐✓✗
merges with✛✔t✒ t✒✓the ✕✬t✓✙
outer ✗✘✜✯✓✳ ♠✩t✒✕✬✐✒ ✜✩✩
space. Although all ✩✔✴✓
life ✕✖
on ✓✜✙t✒
earth ✜✙✓
are t✓✲✘✓✙✜t✬✙✓✰
temperature, ✘✙✓✗✗✬✙✓✰ ✛✔✖✵✗✰
pressure, winds,
✩✜✪✓✙✗ ✕✴ t✒✓ ✜t✲✕✗✘✒✓✙✓ ✲✬✗t
layers of the atmosphere must be exercising ✫✓ ✓✱✓✙✯✔✗✔✖✐ ✒✬✲✔✵✔t✪✰ ✯✩✕✬✵✗ ✜✖✵ ✘✙✓✯✔✘✔t✜t✔✕✖✳
humidity, clouds and precipitation. These ★✒✓✗✓
✔✖✴✩✬✓✖✯✓
influence ✕✖ on ✬✗✰
us, ✐✓✕✐✙✜✘✒✓✙✗
geographers ✜✙✓ are ✯✕✖✯✓✙✖✓✵
concerned ✓✩✓✲✓✖t✗
elements ✒✜✭✓ ✫✓✓✖ ✵✓✜✩t
have been in ✵✓t✜✔✩
dealt ✔✖ detail ✔✖
in ❆✒✜✘t✓✙✗
Chapters
with the ✴✔✙✗t
✛✔t✒ t✒✓ two ✩✜✪✓✙✗
first t✛✕ layers ✕✴of t✒✓
the ✜t✲✕✗✘✒✓✙✓✳
atmosphere. ❇✰
9, ❈❉10 ✜✖✵
and ❈❈✳
11.

●❍●■❏❑▲●▲
EXERCISES

▼◆
1. ❖P◗❘❙❚◗❯
Multiple ❱❲❳❙❱❯
choice ❨P❯❩❘❙❳❬❩◆
questions.
❭❙❪ ❫❲❙❱❲ ❳❬❯
(i) Which one ❳❴ of ❘❲❯
the ❴❳◗◗❳❵❙❬❛
following ❛❜❩❯❩
gases ❱❳❬❩❘❙❘P❘❯❩
constitutes ❘❲❯ the ❝❜❞❳❢
major ❚❳❢❘❙❳❬
portion ❳❴of ❘❲❯
the
❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯❣
atmosphere?
❭❜❪
(a) ❤❥❦❛❯❬
Oxygen ❭❱❪ ❧❢❛❳❬
(c) Argon

❭♥❪
(b) ♦❙❘❢❳❛❯❬
Nitrogen ❭♣❪
(d) q❜❢♥❳❬
Carbon ♣❙❳❥❙♣❯
dioxide

❭❙❙❪ ❧❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❙❱ ◗❜❦❯❢

(ii) Atmospheric layer ❙❝❚❳❢❘❜❬❘
important ❴❳❢ for ❲P❝❜❬
human ♥❯❙❬❛❩
beings ❙❩r is:
❭❜❪
(a) ✉❘❢❜❘❳❩❚❲❯❢❯
Stratosphere ❭❱❪ ✈❢❳❚❳❩❚❲❯❢❯
(c) Troposphere
❭♥❪
(b) ❖❯❩❳❩❚❲❯❢❯
Mesosphere ❭♣❪
(d) ✇❳❬❳❩❚❲❯❢❯
Ionosphere

❭❙❙❙❪
(iii) ✉❯❜
Sea ❩❜◗❘①
salt, ❚❳◗◗❯❬①
pollen, ❜❩❲①ash, ❩❝❳②❯
smoke ❩❳❳❘①soot, ❴❙❬❯
fine ❩❳❙◗
soil ③ — ❘❲❯❩❯
these ❜❢❯ are ❜❩❩❳❱❙❜❘❯♣ ❵❙❘❲r
associated with:

❭❜❪
(a) ④❜❩❯❩
Gases ❭❱❪ ❫❜❘❯❢ vapour
(c) Water ⑤❜❚❳P❢
❭♥❪
(b) ⑥P❩❘
Dust ❚❜❢❘❙❱◗❯❩
particles ❭♣❪
(d) ❖❯❘❯❳❢❩
Meteors

❭❙⑤❪ Oxygen ❛❜❩

(iv) ❤❥❦❛❯❬ gas ❙❩is ❙❬in ❬❯❛◗❙❛❙♥◗❯
negligible ❨P❜❬❘❙❘❦
quantity ❜❘ at ❘❲❯
the ❲❯❙❛❲❘
height ❳❴ of ❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯r
atmosphere:
❭❜❪
(a) ⑦⑧
90 ②❝ km ❭❱❪
(c) ▼⑧⑧
100 ②❝km
❭♥❪
(b) ▼⑨⑧
120 ②❝ km ❭♣❪
(d) ▼⑩⑧
150 ②❝ km
❭⑤❪
(v) ❫❲❙❱❲ ❳❬❯
Which one ❳❴of ❘❲❯
the ❴❳◗◗❳❵❙❬❛
following ❛❜❩❯❩
gases ❙❩ is ❘❢❜❬❩❚❜❢❯❬❘
transparent ❘❳ to ❙❬❱❳❝❙❬❛
incoming ❩❳◗❜❢
solar ❢❜♣❙❜❘❙❳❬
radiation
❜❬♣
and ❳❚❜❨P❯
opaque ❘❳ to ❳P❘❛❳❙❬❛
outgoing ❘❯❢❢❯❩❘❢❙❜◗
terrestrial ❢❜♣❙❜❘❙❳❬❣
radiation?
❭❜❪
(a) ❤❥❦❛❯❬
Oxygen ❭❱❪
(c) ❶❯◗❙P❝
Helium

❭♥❪
(b) ♦❙❘❢❳❛❯❬
Nitrogen ❭♣❪
(d) q❜❢♥❳❬
Carbon ♣❙❳❥❙♣❯
dioxide

⑨◆
2. ❧❬❩❵❯❢ ❘❲❯
Answer the ❴❳◗◗❳❵❙❬❛
following ❨P❯❩❘❙❳❬❩
questions ❙❬ in ❜♥❳P❘
about ❷⑧ ❵❳❢♣❩◆
30 words.
❭❙❪ ❫❲❜❘ ♣❳
(i) What ❦❳P P❬♣❯❢❩❘❜❬♣
do you understand ♥❦ by ❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯❣
atmosphere?
❭❙❙❪ ❫❲❜❘ ❜❢❯
(ii) What are ❘❲❯the ❯◗❯❝❯❬❘❩
elements ❳❴ ❵❯❜❘❲❯❢ ❜❬♣
of weather and ❱◗❙❝❜❘❯❣
climate?
❭❙❙❙❪
(iii) ⑥❯❩❱❢❙♥❯
Describe ❘❲❯ the ❱❳❝❚❳❩❙❘❙❳❬
composition ❳❴ of ❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯◆
atmosphere.
❭❙⑤❪
(iv ) ❫❲❦ ❙❩
Why is ❘❢❳❚❳❩❚❲❯❢❯
troposphere ❘❲❯ the ❝❳❩❘
most ❙❝❚❳❢❘❜❬❘
important ❳❴ of ❜◗◗
all ❘❲❯
the ◗❜❦❯❢❩
layers ❳❴ of ❘❲❯
the ❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯❣
atmosphere?
❷◆
3. ❧❬❩❵❯❢ ❘❲❯
Answer the ❴❳◗◗❳❵❙❬❛
following ❨P❯❩❘❙❳❬❩
questions ❙❬ in ❜♥❳P❘
about ▼⑩⑧ ❵❳❢♣❩◆
150 words.
❭❙❪
(i) ⑥❯❩❱❢❙♥❯
Describe ❘❲❯ the ❱❳❝❚❳❩❙❘❙❳❬
composition ❳❴ of ❘❲❯
the ❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯◆
atmosphere.
❭❙❙❪
(ii) ⑥❢❜❵
Draw ❜ a ❩P❙❘❜♥◗❯
suitable ♣❙❜❛❢❜❝
diagram ❴❳❢ for ❘❲❯
the ❩❘❢P❱❘P❢❯
structure ❳❴ of ❘❲❯
the ❜❘❝❳❩❚❲❯❢❯
atmosphere ❜❬♣ and ◗❜♥❯◗
label ❙❘
it
❜❬♣
and ♣❯❩❱❢❙♥❯
describe ❙❘◆ it.
 ❥CHAPTER
❧♠♥qr✉

)
❙❖ ✁✂ ✥✁❆✄✁❚✄❖☎✱
SoLAR RapDIATION, ✆❊✁❚
HEAT ✝✁ ✁☎✞❊
BALANCE
✁☎❆ ✟❊✠✡❊✂✁❚☛✂❊
AND TEMPERATURE

♦o you
☞♦✌ ✍✎✎✏
feel ✑✒✓air ✑✓♦✌✔✕
around you? ☞♦✌✖ ✗♦ Do you☞♦✌ ✩✚✎ ❜♦✏✑✓ ♦✌✙✣✌✙ ✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕ ✑✙ ✙✚✎ ✙♦✣ ♦✍ ✙✚✎
The solar output received at the top of the
❦✔♦✘
know that we live at the bottom ofa✑
✙✚✑✙ ✘✎ ✏✒✛✎ ✑✙ ✙✚✎ ✜♦✙✙♦✢ ♦✍ ✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎ ✛✑✓✒✎❜ ❜✏✒❤✚✙✏☞ ✒✔ ✑ ☞✎✑✓ ✕✌✎ ✙♦ ✙✚✎
atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
❉ ✚✌❤✎ huge ✣✒✏✎pile ♦✍of ✑✒✓✖
air? We ✤✎ ✒✔✚✑✏✎
inhale ✑✔✕ and ✎❡✚✑✏✎
exhale ✛✑✓✒✑✙✒♦✔❜✒✔ ✙✚✎ ✕✒❜✙✑✔★✎✜✎✙✘✎✎✔ ✙✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚ ✑✔✕
variations in the distance between the earth and
✜✌✙
but we ✘✎ ✍✎✎✏
feel ✙✚✎
the ✑✒✓ ✘✚✎✔ ✒✙✒❜
air when itis ✒✔ in ✢♦✙✒♦✔✦
motion. ✧✙ It ✢✎✑✔❜
means ✙✚✎ ❜✌✔✦ ✗✌✓✒✔❤ ✒✙❜ ✓✎✛♦✏✌✙✒♦✔ ✑✓♦✌✔✕ ✙✚✎ ❜✌✔✪
the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
✑✒✓
air ✒✔ in ✢♦✙✒♦✔
motion ✒❜ ✘✒✔✕✦ You
is wind. ❛♦✌ ✚✑✛✎have ✑✏✓✎✑✕☞
already ✏✎✑✓✔✙
learnt ✙✚✎
the ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ✒❜ is ✍✑✓✙✚✎❜✙
farthest ✍✓♦✢from ✙✚✎ the ❜✌✔ sun ❀✽❁❂ (152 ✢✒✏✏✒♦✔
million
✑✜♦✌✙
about ✙✚✎ the ✍✑★✙
fact ✙✚✑✙
that ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ✒❜ is ❜✌✓✓♦✌✔✕✎✕
surrounded ✜☞ by ✑✒✓
air ❦✢
km ♦✔ on ✿✙✚ ❃✌✏☞❄✦ This
4th July). ✩✚✒❜ ✣♦❜✒✙✒♦✔
position ♦✍ of ✙✚✎
the ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ✒❜ is
✑✏✏
all ✑✓♦✌✔✕✦
around. This ✩✚✒❜ ✎✔✛✎✏♦✣
envelop ♦✍ of ✑✒✓
air ✒❜is ✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎
atmosphere ★✑✏✏✎✕
called ✺❅❇❈✹✐✸✶✦
aphelion. s✔ On ❋✓✕ ❃✑✔✌✑✓☞✪ ✙✚✎
3rd January, the ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ✒❜ is
✘✚✒★✚ ✒❜
which is ★♦✢✣♦❜✎✕
composed ♦✍ ✔✌✢✎✓♦✌❜ ❤✑❜✎❜✦
ofnumerous ✩✚✎❜✎
gases. These ✙✚✎ ✔✎✑✓✎❜✙ ✙♦ ✙✚✎ ❜✌✔ ❀✽✿●
the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This ✢✒✏✏✒♦✔ ❦✢❄✦ ✩✚✒❜
❤✑❜✎❜
gases ❜✌✣✣♦✓✙support ✏✒✍✎ life ♦✛✎✓
over ✙✚✎ the ✎✑✓✙✚❣❜
earth’s ❜✌✓✍✑★✎✦
surface. ✣♦❜✒✙✒♦✔
position ✒❜ is ★✑✏✏✎✕ ❅❈♣✐❇❈✹✐✸✶✦ Therefore,
called perihelion. ✩✚✎✓✎✍♦✓✎✪ ✙✚✎ the
✩✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚
The earth ✓✎★✎✒✛✎❜
receives ✑✏✢♦❜✙almost ✑✏✏ all ♦✍of ✒✙❜
its ✎✔✎✓❤☞
energy ✑✔✔✌✑✏
annual ✒✔❜♦✏✑✙✒♦✔
insolation ✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕
received ✜☞ by ✙✚✎ the ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ♦✔ on ❋✓✕3rd
✍✓♦✢
from ✙✚✎ the ❜✌✔✦
sun. The✩✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ✒✔ in ✙✌✓✔
turn ✓✑✕✒✑✙✎❜
radiates ✜✑★❦ back ❃✑✔✌✑✓☞ ✒❜
January is ❜✏✒❤✚✙✏☞
slightly ✢♦✓✎ more ✙✚✑✔ than ✙✚✎ the ✑✢♦✌✔✙
amount
✙♦
to ❜✣✑★✎
space ✙✚✎ the ✎✔✎✓❤☞
energy ✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕
received ✍✓♦✢ from ✙✚✎ the ❜✌✔✦
sun. As t❜ ✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕
received ♦✔ on ✿✙✚ ❃✌✏☞✦ ❍♦✘✎✛✎✓✪
4th July. However, ✙✚✎ the ✎✍✍✎★✙
effect ♦✍ of ✙✚✒❜
this
✑aresult,
✓✎❜✌✏✙✪ ✙✚✎ the ✎✑✓✙✚
earth ✔✎✒✙✚✎✓
neither warms ✘✑✓✢❜ ✌✣ up ✔♦✓
nor ✕♦✎❜does ✛✑✓✒✑✙✒♦✔ ✒✔
variation in ✙✚✎
the ❜♦✏✑✓
solar ♦✌✙✣✌✙
output ✒❜ is ✢✑❜❦✎✕
masked ✜☞ by
✒✙it ❤✎✙
get ★♦♦✏✎✕
cooled ♦✛✎✓ over ✑ a ✣✎✓✒♦✕
period ♦✍ of ✙✒✢✎✦ ✩✚✌❜✪ ✙✚✎
time. Thus, the ♦✙✚✎✓
other ✍✑★✙♦✓❜
factors ✏✒❦✎ like ✙✚✎
the ✕✒❜✙✓✒✜✌✙✒♦✔
distribution ♦✍ of ✏✑✔✕
land ✑✔✕and
✑✢♦✌✔✙
amount ♦✍ of ✚✎✑✙
heat ✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕
received ✜☞ by ✕✒✍✍✎✓✎✔✙
different ✣✑✓✙❜ parts ♦✍ of ❜✎✑
sea ✑✔✕
and ✙✚✎ the ✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✒★
atmospheric ★✒✓★✌✏✑✙✒♦✔✦❍✎✔★✎✪
circulation. Hence, ✙✚✒❜ this
✙✚✎
the ✎✑✓✙✚earth ✒❜ is ✔♦✙
not ✙✚✎
the ❜✑✢✎✦
same. This ✩✚✒❜ variation
✛✑✓✒✑✙✒♦✔ ★✑✌❜✎❜causes ✛✑✓✒✑✙✒♦✔ ✒✔
variation in ✙✚✎
the ❜♦✏✑✓
solar ♦✌✙✣✌✙
output ✕♦✎❜ does ✔♦✙ not ✚✑✛✎
have
✣✓✎❜❜✌✓✎
pressure ✕✒✍✍✎✓✎✔★✎❜
differences ✒✔ in ✙✚✎
the ✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎✦
atmosphere. This ✩✚✒❜ ❤✓✎✑✙
great ✎✍✍✎★✙
effect ♦✔ on ✕✑✒✏☞ ✘✎✑✙✚✎✓ ★✚✑✔❤✎❜
daily weather changes ♦✔ on ✙✚✎the
✏✎✑✕❜
leads ✙♦ to ✙✓✑✔❜✍✎✓
transfer ♦✍ of ✚✎✑✙
heat ✍✓♦✢from ♦✔✎ one ✓✎❤✒♦✔
region ✙♦ to ✙✚✎
the ❜✌✓✍✑★✎
surface ♦✍ of ✙✚✎
the ✎✑✓✙✚✦
earth.
♦✙✚✎✓
other ✜☞ ✘✒✔✕❜✦ This
by winds. ✩✚✒❜ ★✚✑✣✙✎✓
chapter ✎❡✣✏✑✒✔❜explains ✙✚✎ the
✣✓♦★✎❜❜
process ♦✍ of ✚✎✑✙✒✔❤
heating ✑✔✕ and ★♦♦✏✒✔❤
cooling ♦✍ of ✙✚✎
the
❱■❏❑■▲❑▼❑◆P ◗❘
Variability of ❯❲❳◗▼■◆❑◗❲
Insolation ■◆ at
✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎ ✑✔✕ ✙✚✎
atmosphere and the resultant temperature✓✎❜✌✏✙✑✔✙ ✙✎✢✣✎✓✑✙✌✓✎ ◆❨❩
the ❬❭❏❘■❪❩
Surface ◗❘ of ◆❨❩
the ❫■❏◆❨
Earth
✕✒❜✙✓✒✜✌✙✒♦✔
distribution ♦✛✎✓ over ✙✚✎the ✎✑✓✙✚❣❜
earth’s ❜✌✓✍✑★✎✦
surface. ✩✚✎ ✑✢♦✌✔✙
The amount ✑✔✕ and ✙✚✎the ✒✔✙✎✔❜✒✙☞
intensity ♦✍ of ✒✔❜♦✏✑✙✒♦✔
insolation vary ✛✑✓☞
✕✌✓✒✔❤✑✕✑☞✪✒✔✑❜✎✑❜♦✔✑✔✕✒✔✑☞✎✑✓✦
during a day, inaseason and in a year. The ✩✚✎✍✑★✙♦✓❜
factors
✫✬✭✮✯
SovtarR ✰✮✲✳✮✴✳✬✵
RapIATION ✙✚✑✙
that ★✑✌❜✎
cause ✙✚✎❜✎ ✛✑✓✒✑✙✒♦✔❜ ✒✔
these variations in ✒✔❜♦✏✑✙✒♦✔
insolation ✑✓✎ are : ❴(i)
❀✒❄
✙✚✎ ✓♦✙✑✙✒♦✔ ♦✍ ✎✑✓✙✚ ♦✔ ✒✙❜ ✑❡✒❜❵
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of ❀✒✒❄ ✙✚✎ ✑✔❤✏✎ ♦✍
✩✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚❣❜ ❜✌✓✍✑★✎ ✓✎★✎✒✛✎❜ ✢♦❜✙ ♦✍ ✒✙❜ ✎✔✎✓❤☞
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy ✒✔★✏✒✔✑✙✒♦✔
inclination ♦✍ of ✙✚✎
the ❜✌✔❣❜✓✑☞❜❵
sun’s rays; ❀✒✒✒❄(iii) ✙✚✎✏✎✔❤✙✚♦✍
the length of ✙✚✎ the
✒✔ ❜✚♦✓✙ ✘✑✛✎✏✎✔❤✙✚❜✦ ✩✚✎ ✎✔✎✓❤☞ ✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕ ✜☞
in short wavelengths. The energy received by ✕✑☞❵
day; ❀✒✛❄
(iv) ✙✚✎
the ✙✓✑✔❜✣✑✓✎✔★☞
transparency ♦✍ of ✙✚✎
the ✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎❵
atmosphere; ❀✛❄ (v)
✙✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚ ✒❜ ❦✔♦✘✔ ✑❜ ✒✔★♦✢✒✔❤ ❜♦✏✑✓ ✓✑✕✒✑✙✒♦✔
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation ✙✚✎ ★♦✔✍✒❤✌✓✑✙✒♦✔ ♦✍ ✏✑✔✕ ✒✔ ✙✎✓✢❜
the configuration of land in terms of its aspect. ♦✍ ✒✙❜ ✑❜✣✎★✙✦
✘✚✒★✚ ✒✔ ❜✚♦✓✙ ✒❜ ✙✎✓✢✎✕ ✑❜ ✐✶✷✸✹✺✻✐✸✶✦
which in short is termed as insolation. ✩✚✎ ✏✑❜✙
The last ✙✘♦
two ✚♦✘✎✛✎✓✪
however, ✚✑✛✎✏✎❜❜
have less ✒✔✍✏✌✎✔★✎✦
influence.
t❜ ✙✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚ ✒❜ ✑ ❤✎♦✒✕ ✓✎❜✎✢✜✏✒✔❤ ✑ ❜✣✚✎✓✎✪
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, ✩✚✎ ✍✑★✙
The fact ✙✚✑✙
that ✙✚✎the ✎✑✓✙✚❣❜
earth’s ✑❡✒❜✢✑❦✎❜
axis makes ✑✔ an ✑✔❤✏✎
angle
✙✚✎ ❜✌✔❣❜ ✓✑☞❜ ✍✑✏✏ ♦✜✏✒✼✌✎✏☞ ✑✙ ✙✚✎ ✙♦✣ ♦✍ ✙✚✎
the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the ♦✍
of 66% with the plane ofits orbit round the ❜✌✔
❝❝❞ ✘✒✙✚ ✙✚✎ ✣✏✑✔✎ ♦✍ ✒✙❜ ♦✓✜✒✙ ✓♦✌✔✕ ✙✚✎ sun
✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎ ✑✔✕ ✙✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚ ✒✔✙✎✓★✎✣✙❜ ✑ ✛✎✓☞
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very ✚✑❜
has ✑ a ❤✓✎✑✙✎✓
greater ✒✔✍✏✌✎✔★✎
influence ♦✔ on ✙✚✎ the ✑✢♦✌✔✙
amount ♦✍ of
❜✢✑✏✏ ✣♦✓✙✒♦✔ ♦✍ ✙✚✎ ❜✌✔❣❜ ✎✔✎✓❤☞✦ s✔ ✑✔
small portion of the sun’s energy. On an ✒✔❜♦✏✑✙✒♦✔✓✎★✎✒✛✎✕
insolation received ✑✙ at ✕✒✍✍✎✓✎✔✙✏✑✙✒✙✌✕✎❜✦
different latitudes. ❢♦✙✎ Note ✙✚✎the
✑✛✎✓✑❤✎ ✙✚✎ ✎✑✓✙✚ ✓✎★✎✒✛✎❜ ✽✦✾✿ ★✑✏♦✓✒✎❜ ✣✎✓ ❜✼✦
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. ✛✑✓✒✑✙✒♦✔❜ ✒✔
variations in ✙✚✎
the ✕✌✓✑✙✒♦✔
duration ♦✍ of ✙✚✎
the ✕✑☞day ✑✙ at ✕✒✍✍✎✓✎✔✙
different
★✢ ✣✎✓ ✢✒✔✌✙✎ ✑✙ ✙✚✎ ✙♦✣ ♦✍ ✒✙❜ ✑✙✢♦❜✣✚✎✓✎✦
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. ✏✑✙✒✙✌✕✎❜
latitudes ♦✔ on ❜♦✏❜✙✒★✎❜
solstices ❤✒✛✎✔
given ✒✔ ✩✑✜✏✎ ✾✦✽✦
in Table 9.1.
✽✑
80 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❚✒✓ ✔✓✕✖✗✘
The second ✙✚✕✛✖✜
factor ✛✒✚✛
that ✘✓✛✓✜✢✣✗✓✔
determines ✛✒✓ the ✕✖✤✖❛✜
colour ✖✙
of ✛✒✓
the ✔❧✐
sky ✚✜✓
are ✛✒✓
the ✜✓✔❛✤✛
result ✖✙
of ✔✕✚✛✛✓✜✣✗✦
scattering ✖✙
of
✚✢✖❛✗✛
amount ✖✙ of ✣✗✔✖✤✚✛✣✖✗
insolation ✜✓✕✓✣✥✓✘
received ✣✔is ✛✒✓
the ✚✗✦✤✓
angle ✖✙
of ✤✣✦✒✛ ✩✣✛✒✣✗ ✛✒✓
light within the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓✧
atmosphere.
Table ✲✳✴
❯❱❲✸✱ 9.1 ✵: ❳✱❨✮✺❩
Length ♦❬
of ✺❩✱ Day ✭❨
the ❭❱❪ in ❫♦✯✰✹
Hours ❱❨❴ Minutes ♦❨
and ❵✭❨✯✺✱✹ and ✶✯✷✷✱✰
❜✭❨✺✱✰ ❱❨❴
on Winter Summer ✶♦✸✹✺✭✻✱✹
Solstices ✭❨
in ✺❩✱
the ❞♦✰✺❩✱✰❨
Northern ❫✱✷✭✹❢❩✱✰✱
Hemisphere

▲✼✾✿✾❀❁❂
Latitude ❃➦
0° ❄❃➦
20° ❅❃➦
40° ❆❃➦
60° ❇❃➦
90°
❉❂❈❂❊●❂❍
December ❄❄
22 ■❄❏
12h ❃❃❊
00m ■❃❏
10h ❅❑❊
48m ❇❏
9h ❑❊
8m ▼❏
5h ◆◆❊
33m ❃0
❖❀P❂ ❄■
June 21 ■❄
12h❏ ■◆❏
13h ■❄❊
12m ■❅❏
14h ▼❄❊
52m ■❑❏
18h ❄◗❊
27m ❆6 ❊❘P✾❏❙
months

✣✗✕✤✣✗✚✛✣✖✗
inclination ✖✙ of ✛✒✓
the ✜✚✐✔✧ ❚✒✣✔ ✘✓★✓✗✘✔
rays. This depends ✖✗ on ✛✒✓
the t⑧♠③②♠✉ Distribution qr
Spatial ❹②♥③✈②❺⑤③②q④ of ❻④♥q✉♠③②q④
Insolation
✤✚✛✣✛❛✘✓
latitude ✖✙ a ★✤✚✕✓✧
of ✚ ❚✒✓ ✒✣✦✒✓✜
place. The higher ✛✒✓ the ✤✚✛✣✛❛✘✓
latitude ✛✒✓
the ♠③
at ③❤❥ Earth’s t⑤✈r♠❾❥
the ❼♠✈③❤❽♥ Surface
✤✓✔✔
less ✣✔
is ✛✒✓
the ✚✗✦✤✓
angle ✛✒✓✐
they ✢✚❧✓
make with✩✣✛✒ ✛✒✓
the ✔❛✜✙✚✕✓
surface ✖✙of
✛✒✓
the ✓✚✜✛✒
earth ✜✓✔❛✤✛✣✗✦
resulting ✣✗ in ✔✤✚✗✛
slant ✔❛✗sun ✜✚✐✔✧ ❚✒✓ ✚✜✓✚
rays. The area
❚✒✓ ✣✗✔✖✤✚✛✣✖✗
The insolation ✜✓✕✓✣✥✓✘
received ✚✛ at ✛✒✓
the ✔❛✜✙✚✕✓ ✥✚✜✣✓✔
surface varies
covered ❝✐
✕✖✥✓✜✓✘ ✥✓✜✛✣✕✚✤ ✜✚✐✔
by vertical rays ✣✔ always ✤✓✔✔
is ✚✤✩✚✐✔ less ✛✒✚✗
than ✛✒✓
the
✙✜✖✢
from ✚❝✖❛✛
about ❿➀➁ ⑩✚✛✛➂✢➃ ✣✗
320 Watt/m? in ✛✒✓
the ✛✜✖★✣✕✔
tropics ✛✖
to ✚❝✖❛✛
about
➄➁ ⑩✚✛✛➂✢ ➃ ✣✗ ✛✒✓ ★✖✤✓✔✧ ❡✚➅✣✢❛✢
70 Watt/m? in the poles. Maximum insolation ✣✗✔✖✤✚✛✣✖✗
✔✤✚✗✛ rays. s✙
slant ✜✚✐✔✧ If ✢✖✜✓
more ✚✜✓✚
area ✣✔ is ✕✖✥✓✜✓✘✪
covered, ✛✒✓the ✓✗✓✜✦✐
energy
✦✓✛✔
gets ✘✣✔✛✜✣❝❛✛✓✘
distributed ✚✗✘ and ✛✒✓
the ✗✓✛net ✓✗✓✜✦✐
energy ✜✓✕✓✣✥✓✘
received ✣✔
is ✜✓✕✓✣✥✓✘
received ✖✥✓✜
over ✛✒✓
the ✔❛❝✛✜✖★✣✕✚✤
subtropical ✘✓✔✓✜✛✔✪ ✩✒✓✜✓
deserts, where
★✓✜
per ❛✗✣✛
unit ✚✜✓✚ decreases. ❡✖✜✓✖✥✓✜✪
area ✘✓✕✜✓✚✔✓✔✧ Moreover, ✛✒✓ the ✔✤✚✗✛
slant ✜✚✐✔
rays ✛✒✓
the ✕✤✖❛✘✣✗✓✔✔
cloudiness ✣✔ the ✤✓✚✔✛✧
is ✛✒✓ least. ➆✫❛✚✛✖✜
Equator ✜✓✕✓✣✥✓✔
receives
✚✜✓
are ✜✓✫❛✣✜✓✘
required ✛✖ to ★✚✔✔ through ✦✜✓✚✛✓✜
pass ✛✒✜✖❛✦✒ greater ✘✓★✛✒
depth ✖✙of comparatively ✤✓✔✔
✕✖✢★✚✜✚✛✣✥✓✤✐ less ✣✗✔✖✤✚✛✣✖✗
insolation ✛✒✚✗
than ✛✒✓
the ✛✜✖★✣✕✔✧
tropics.
✛✒✓
the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓
atmosphere ✜✓✔❛✤✛✣✗✦
✔✕✚✛✛✓✜✣✗✦
resulting ✣✗ in ✢✖✜✓
more ✚❝✔✖✜★✛✣✖✗✪
absorption, ➇✓✗✓✜✚✤✤✐✪
✣✔
is ✢✖✜✓
more ✖✥✓✜
✚✛
over ✛✒✓
✛✒✓ ✔✚✢✓
the ✕✖✗✛✣✗✓✗✛
✤✚✛✣✛❛✘✓
continent ✛✒✚✗
than ✖✥✓✜
✛✒✓
Generally, at the same latitude the insolation✣✗✔✖✤✚✛✣✖✗
over ✛✒✓
the ✖✕✓✚✗✔✧
2
scattering ✚✗✘ and ✘✣✙✙❛✔✣✖✗✧
diffusion. oceans.
s✗ ✩✣✗✛✓✜✪ ✛✒✓
In winter, the ✢✣✘✘✤✓
middle ✚✗✘ higher ✤✚✛✣✛❛✘✓✔
and ✒✣✦✒✓✜ “antudes(\ hi
receive ✤✓✔✔
✜✓✕✓✣✥✓ less ✜✚✘✣✚✛✣✖✗
radiation ✛✒✚✗
than ✣✗
in ✔❛✢✢✓✜✧
summer.

➈➉➊➋➌➍➎ ➊➍➏ ➐➑➑➒➌➍➎

HEATING AND COOLING ➑➓ ➔➋→➑➣↔↕➉➙➉
OF ATMOSPHERE

❚✒✓✜✓ ✚✜✓
There are ✘✣✙✙✓✜✓✗✛
different ways ✩✚✐✔ ✖✙ of ✒✓✚✛✣✗✦
heating ✚✗✘ and ✕✖✖✤✣✗✦
cooling
✖✙
of ✛✒✓
the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓✧
atmosphere.
❚✒✓ ✓✚✜✛✒
The earth ✚✙✛✓✜after ❝✓✣✗✦ heated ❝✐
being ✒✓✚✛✓✘ by ✣✗✔✖✤✚✛✣✖✗
insolation
✛✜✚✗✔✢✣✛✔✛✒✓
transmits the ✒✓✚✛ heat ✛✖ to ✛✒✓ atmospheric ✤✚✐✓✜✔
the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✣✕ layers ✗✓✚✜
near
✛✖ ✛✒✓ ✓✚✜✛✒ ✣✗ ✤✖✗✦ ✩✚✥✓ ✙✖✜✢✧ ❚✒✓
to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact ✚✣✜ ✣✗ ✕✖✗✛✚✕✛
✩✣✛✒ ✛✒✓
with the ✤✚✗✘
land ✦✓✛✔gets ✒✓✚✛✓✘
heated ✔✤✖✩✤✐
slowly ✚✗✘and ✛✒✓the ❛★★✓✜
upper
✤✚✐✓✜✔
layers ✣✗in ✕✖✗✛✚✕✛
contact with ✩✣✛✒ ✛✒✓the ✤✖✩✓✜
lower ✤✚✐✓✜✔ also ✦✓✛
layers ✚✤✔✖ get
✒✓✚✛✓✘✧
heated. This ❚✒✣✔ ★✜✖✕✓✔✔
process ✣✔ is ✕✚✤✤✓✘
called’ ❾q④①⑤❾③②q④✧
conduction.
➛✖✗✘❛✕✛✣✖✗
Conduction ✛✚❧✓✔ takes ★✤✚✕✓place when✩✒✓✗ ✛✩✖ two ❝✖✘✣✓✔
bodies ✖✙ of
❛✗✓✫❛✚✤
unequal ✛✓✢★✓✜✚✛❛✜✓
temperature ✚✜✓ are ✣✗in ✕✖✗✛✚✕✛
contact with✩✣✛✒ ✖✗✓one
✬✭✮✯✰✱
Figure ✲✳✴
9.1 ✵✶✯✷✷✱✰✶♦✸✹✺✭✻✱
: Summer Solstice
✚✗✖✛✒✓✜✪
another, ✛✒✓✜✓
there ✣✔ is ✚
a ✙✤✖✩
flow ✖✙of ✓✗✓✜✦✐
energy ✙✜✖✢from ✛✒✓ ✩✚✜✢✓✜
the warmer
❣❤❥
The ❦♠♥♥♠♣❥
Passage qr of tq✉♠✈
Solar ✇♠①②♠③②q④
Radiation ✛✖
to ✕✖✖✤✓✜❝✖✘✐✧❚✒✓✛✜✚✗✔✙✓✜✖✙
cooler body. The transfer of ✒✓✚✛ continues ❛✗✛✣✤
heat ✕✖✗✛✣✗❛✓✔ until
③❤✈q⑤♣❤
through ③❤❥ ⑥③⑦q♥⑧❤❥✈❥
the Atmosphere ❝✖✛✒ ✛✒✓ ❝✖✘✣✓✔
both the bodies attain the same temperature ✖✜
✚✛✛✚✣✗ ✛✒✓ ✔✚✢✓ ✛✓✢★✓✜✚✛❛✜✓ or
✛✒✓
the ✕✖✗✛✚✕✛
contact ✣✔ is ❝✜✖❧✓✗✧
broken. ➛✖✗✘❛✕✛✣✖✗
Conduction ✣✔ is ✣✢★✖✜✛✚✗✛
important
❚✒✓ ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓
The atmosphere ✣✔ is ✤✚✜✦✓✤✐
largely ✛✜✚✗✔★✚✜✓✗✛
transparent ✛✖ to ✔✒✖✜✛
short ✣✗
in ✒✓✚✛✣✗✦
heating ✛✒✓ the ✤✖✩✓✜
lower ✤✚✐✓✜✔
layers ✖✙ of ✛✒✓
the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓✧
atmosphere.
✩✚✥✓ ✔✖✤✚✜
wave solar ✜✚✘✣✚✛✣✖✗✧
radiation. The ❚✒✓ ✣✗✕✖✢✣✗✦
incoming ✔✖✤✚✜solar
✩✣✛✒ ✛✒✓
❚✒✓ ✚✣✜
The air ✣✗in ✕✖✗✛✚✕✛
contact with the ✓✚✜✛✒
earth ✜✣✔✓✔
rises
radiation ★✚✔✔✓✔
✜✚✘✣✚✛✣✖✗ passes ✛✒✜✖❛✦✒
through ✛✒✓ the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓
atmosphere
❝✓✙✖✜✓
before ✔✛✜✣❧✣✗✦
striking ✛✒✓
the ✓✚✜✛✒⑨✔
earth’s ✔❛✜✙✚✕✓✧ ⑩✣✛✒✣✗ ✛✒✓
surface. Within the
✥✓✜✛✣✕✚✤✤✐ ✖✗ ✒✓✚✛✣✗✦ ✣✗ ✛✒✓
vertically on heating in the form of currents ✙✖✜✢ ✖✙ ✕❛✜✜✓✗✛✔
✛✜✖★✖✔★✒✓✜✓
troposphere water ✩✚✛✓✜ vapour,
✥✚★✖❛✜✪ ✖❶✖✗✓ozone ✚✗✘
and ✖✛✒✓✜
other ✚✗✘
and ✙❛✜✛✒✓✜
further ✛✜✚✗✔✢✣✛✔transmits ✛✒✓ the ✒✓✚✛
heat ✖✙ of ✛✒✓
the
✦✚✔✓✔
gases ✚❝✔✖✜❝
absorb ✢❛✕✒ much ✖✙ of ✛✒✓
the ✗✓✚✜
near ✣✗✙✜✚✜✓✘
infrared ✚✛✢✔★✒✓✜✓✧
atmsphere. This ❚✒✣✔ ★✜✖✕✓✔✔
process ✖✙ of ✥✓✜✛✣✕✚✤
vertical ✒✓✚✛✣✗✦
heating ✖✙ of
✜✚✘✣✚✛✣✖✗✧
radiation. ✛✒✓
the ✚✛✢✖✔★✒✓✜✓
atmosphere ✣✔ is ❧✗✖✩✗
known ✚✔ ❾q④➜❥❾③②q④✧ The
as)cdénvection) ❚✒✓
Very small-suspended ★✚✜✛✣✕✤✓✔
❷✓✜✐ ✔✢✚✤✤❸✔❛✔★✓✗✘✓✘ particles ✣✗ in ✛✒✓
the ✕✖✗✥✓✕✛✣✥✓
convective ✛✜✚✗✔✙✓✜
transfer ✖✙ of ✓✗✓✜✦✐
energy ✣✔ is ✕✖✗✙✣✗✓✘
confined ✖✗✤✐ only
✛✜✖★✖✔★✒✓✜✓
troposphere ✔✕✚✛✛✓✜ ✥✣✔✣❝✤✓ ✔★✓✕✛✜❛✢
scatter visible spectrum ❝✖✛✒
both ✛✖ to ✛✖
to ✛✒✓
the ✛✜✖★✖✔★✒✓✜✓✧
troposphere.
✛✒✓
the ✔★✚✕✓
space ✚✗✘and ✛✖✩✚✜✘✔
towards ✛✒✓ the ✓✚✜✛✒
earth ✔❛✜✙✚✕✓✧ ❚✒✣✔
surface. This ❚✒✓ ✛✜✚✗✔✙✓✜
The transfer ✖✙ of ✒✓✚✛
heat ✛✒✜✖❛✦✒
through ✒✖✜✣❶✖✗✛✚✤
horizontal
★✜✖✕✓✔✔
process ✚✘✘✔
adds ✕✖✤✖❛✜
colour ✛✖ to ✛✒✓
the ✔❧✐✧ ❚✒✓ ✜✓✘
sky. The red ✕✖✤✖❛✜
colour ✢✖✥✓✢✓✗✛
movement ✖✙ of ✚✣✜
air ✣✔
is ✕✚✤✤✓✘ ♠①➜❥❾③②q④✧ ➝✖✜✣❶✖✗✛✚✤
called)advection, Horizontal
✖✙
of the rising and the setting sun and ✛✒✓
✛✒✓ ✜✣✔✣✗✦ ✚✗✘ ✛✒✓ ✔✓✛✛✣✗✦ ✔❛✗ ✚✗✘ the ❝✤❛✓
blue ✢✖✥✓✢✓✗✛
movement ✖✙ of ✛✒✓
the ✚✣✜
air ✣✔
is ✜✓✤✚✛✣✥✓✤✐
relatively ✢✖✜✓ more ✣✢★✖✜✛✚✗✛
important
❙SOLAR
✁✂✄ ✄✂☎✆✂✝✆
RADIATION,✞✟ ✠✡✂✝
HEAT ☛✂✁✂✞☞✡ ✂✞☎ TEMPERATURE
BALANCE AND ✝✡✌✍✡✄✂✝✎✄✡ ✽✏
81

✕✚❛✣
than ✕✚✖ ✧✖✘✕✢✑❛✔ ✓✗✧✖✓✖✣✕✛
the vertical movement. ✜✣ In ✓✢★★✔✖
middle ✔❛✕✢✕✒★✖✙♦
latitudes, ❛✑✑✒✓✒✔❛✕✖
accumulate ✗✘ or ✔✗✗✙✖
loose ✚✖❛✕✛heat. ✜✕ It ✓❛✢✣✕❛✢✣✙
maintains ✢✕✙ its
✓✗✙✕
most ✗✦ of ★✢✘✒✣❛✔
dirunal ❂★❛✥
(day ❛✣★
and ✣✢✪✚✕✉ ✧❛✘✢❛✕✢✗✣ ✢✣
night) variation in ✕✖✓t✖✘❛✕✒✘✖✛
temperature. This ✤✚✢✙ ✑❛✣ can ✚❛tt✖✣
happen ✗✣✔✥ only ✢✦ if ✕✚✖
the
★❛✢✔✥ ✴✖❛✕✚✖✘ ❛✘✖ ✑❛✒✙✖★ ✩✥ ❛★✧✖✑✕✢✗✣
daily weather are caused by advection alone. ❛✔✗✣✖✛ ❛✓✗✒✣✕
amount ✗✦ of ✚✖❛✕
heat ✘✖✑✖✢✧✖★
received ✢✣ in ✕✚✖
the ✦✗✘✓
form ✗✦of ✢✣✙✗✔❛✕✢✗✣
insolation
✜✣
In ✕✘✗t✢✑❛✔
tropical ✘✖✪✢✗✣✙
regions t❛✘✕✢✑✒✔❛✘✔✥
particularly ✢✣in ✣✗✘✕✚✖✘✣
northern ✖❡✒❛✔✙
equals the amount lost by the earth ✕✚✘✗✒✪✚
✕✚✖ ❛✓✗✒✣✕ ✔✗✙✕ ✩✥ ✕✚✖ ✖❛✘✕✚ through
✜✣★✢❛
India ★✒✘✢✣✪
during ✙✒✓✓✖✘
summer ✙✖❛✙✗✣
season ✔✗✑❛✔ ✴✢✣★✙ ✑❛✔✔✖★
local winds called ✕✖✘✘✖✙✕✘✢❛✔
terrestrial ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✗✣✛
radiation.
➅✔✗✗✱
‘loo’ ✢✙
is ✕✚✖
the ✗✒✕✑✗✓✖
outcome ✗✦ of ❛★✧✖✑✕✢✗✣
advection t✘✗✑✖✙✙✛
process. ❈✗✣✙✢★✖✘
Consider ✕✚❛✕ that ✕✚✖
the ✢✣✙✗✔❛✕✢✗✣
insolation ✘✖✑✖✢✧✖★
received ❛✕ at ✕✚✖
the
✕✗t ✗✦ ✕✚✖ ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖ ✢✙ ✫✬✬
top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While t✖✘ ✑✖✣✕✛ ✭✚✢✔✖
❆❇❉❉❇❊❋❉●❍■ ❏❍❑●❍❋●▲▼
Terrestrial Radiation t❛✙✙✢✣✪
passing ✕✚✘✗✒✪✚
through ✕✚✖ the ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖
atmosphere ✙✗✓✖ some ❛✓✗✒✣✕
amount
✤✚✖ ✢✣✙✗✔❛✕✢✗✣
The insolation ✘✖✑✖✢✧✖★
received by✩✥ ✕✚✖
the ✖❛✘✕✚
earth ✢✙
is ✢✣
in ✙✚✗✘✕
short ✗✦
of ✖✣✖✘✪✥
energy ✢✙ is ✘✖✦✔✖✑✕✖★♦
reflected, ✙✑❛✕✕✖✘✖★
scattered ❛✣★ and ❛✩✙✗✘✩✖★✛
absorbed.
✴❛✧✖✙ ✦✗✘✓✙
waves forms ❛✣★and ✚✖❛✕✙
heats ✒tup ✢✕✙
its ✙✒✘✦❛✑✖✛ ✤✚✖ ✖❛✘✕✚
surface. The earth ❖✣✔✥
Only ✕✚✖the ✘✖✓❛✢✣✢✣✪
remaining t❛✘✕ part ✘✖❛✑✚✖✙
reaches ✕✚✖ the ✖❛✘✕✚
earth
❛✦✕✖✘ ✩✖✢✣✪ ✚✖❛✕✖★
after being heated ✢✕✙✖✔✦ ✩✖✑✗✓✖✙ ❛a ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✣✪
itself becomes radiating ✙✒✘✦❛✑✖✛
surface. s✗✒✪✚✔✥
Roughly ✮✯ 35 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ❛✘✖ are ✘✖✦✔✖✑✕✖★
reflected back✩❛✑✰
✩✗★✥ ❛✣★
body and ✢✕it ✘❛★✢❛✕✖✙
radiates ✖✣✖✘✪✥
energy ✕✗ to ✕✚✖
the ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖
atmosphere ✕✗
to ✙t❛✑✖
space ✖✧✖✣ ✩✖✦✗✘✖ ✘✖❛✑✚✢✣✪
even before reaching ✕✚✖ the ✖❛✘✕✚✱✙
earth’s
✢✣
in long wave form. This energy heats ✒t
✔✗✣✪ ✴❛✧✖ ✦✗✘✓✛ ✤✚✢✙ ✖✣✖✘✪✥ ✚✖❛✕✙ up ✕✚✖
the ✙✒✘✦❛✑✖✛
surface. ❖✦ Of ✕✚✖✙✖♦
these, ✲✳ 27 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ❛✘✖ are ✘✖✦✔✖✑✕✖★
reflected back✩❛✑✰
❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖
atmosphere ✦✘✗✓ ✩✖✔✗✴✛ This
from below. ✤✚✢✙ t✘✗✑✖✙✙
process ✢✙is ✰✣✗✴✣
known ✦✘✗✓
from ✕✚✖
the ✕✗t
top ✗✦of ✕✚✖
the ✑✔✗✒★✙
clouds ❛✣★ and ✲ 2 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ✦✘✗✓
from ✕✚✖the
❛✙
as ✕✖✘✘✖✙✕✘✢❛✔
terrestrial ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✗✣✛
radiation. ✙✣✗✴
snow ❛✣★and ✢✑✖✵✑✗✧✖✘✖★
ice-covered ❛✘✖❛✙ areas ✗✦ of ✕✚✖
the ✖❛✘✕✚✛
earth. The✤✚✖
The long wave ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✗✣
✤✚✖ ✔✗✣✪ ✴❛✧✖ radiation ✢✙ is ❛✩✙✗✘✩✖★
absorbed by ✩✥ ✕✚✖
the ✘✖✦✔✖✑✕✖★
reflected ❛✓✗✒✣✕
amount ✗✦ of ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✗✣
radiation ✢✙ is ✑❛✔✔✖★
called ✕✚✖ the
❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✢✑
atmospheric ✪❛✙✖✙ gases t❛✘✕✢✑✒✔❛✘✔✥
particularly by ✩✥ ✑❛✘✩✗✣
carbon ✶✷✸✹✺✻
albedo ✻✼ of ✾✿✹
the ✹✶❀✾✿✛
earth.
★✢✗❞✢★✖
dioxide ❛✣★
and ✕✚✖
the ✗✕✚✖✘
other ✪✘✖✖✣
green ✚✗✒✙✖
house ✪❛✙✖✙✛ ✤✚✒✙♦
gases. Thus, ✤✚✖ ✘✖✓❛✢✣✢✣✪
The remaining ❚✯ 65 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ❛✘✖ are ❛✩✙✗✘✩✖★♦
absorbed, ✫❁ 14
✕✚✖
the atmosphere is indirectly heated by ✕✚✖
❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖ ✢✙ ✢✣★✢✘✖✑✕✔✥ ✚✖❛✕✖★ ✩✥ the ✒✣✢✕✙ ✴✢✕✚✢✣ ✕✚✖ ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖
units within the atmosphere and 51 units by ❛✣★ ✯✫ ✒✣✢✕✙ ✩✥
✖❛✘✕✚✱✙
earth’s ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✗✣✛
radiation. ✕✚✖
the ✖❛✘✕✚✱✙
earth’s ✙✒✘✦❛✑✖✛
surface. The ✤✚✖ ✖❛✘✕✚
earth ✘❛★✢❛✕✖✙
radiates back✩❛✑✰
◆P◗ ❘❯❱❲❳❨P◗❩◗
The atmosphere ❬❭ in ❯❪❩❭
turn ❩❘❫❬❘❯◗❳
radiates ❘❭❫
and ✯✫
51 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ✢✣ in ✕✚✖
the ✦✗✘✓
form ✗✦ of ✕✖✘✘✖✙✕✘✢❛✔
terrestrial ✘❛★✢❛✕✢✗✣✛
radiation.
❯❩❘❭❳❱❬❯❳
transmits P◗❘❯
heat ❯❲
to ❯P◗
the ❳❨❘❴◗❵
space. ❜❬❭❘❝❝❢
Finally ❯P◗
the ❘❱❲❪❭❯
amount ❖✦
Of ✕✚✖✙✖♦
these, ✫✳ 17 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ❛✘✖ are ✘❛★✢❛✕✖★
radiated ✕✗ to ✙t❛✑✖
space
❲❣
of P◗❘❯
heat ❩◗❴◗❬❤◗❫
received ❣❩❲❱
from ❯P◗
the ❳❪❭
sun ❬❳is ❩◗❯❪❩❭◗❫
returned ❯❲
to ★✢✘✖✑✕✔✥
directly ❛✣★ and ✕✚✖ the ✘✖✓❛✢✣✢✣✪
remaining ✮❁ 34 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ❛✘✖ are
❳❨❘❴◗✐
space, ❯P◗❩◗❥❢
thereby ❱❘❬❭❯❘❬❭❬❭♥
maintaining ❴❲❭❳❯❘❭❯
constant ❯◗❱❨◗❩❘❯❪❩◗
temperature ❛✩✙✗✘✩✖★
absorbed by ✩✥ ✕the ✚✖ ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖
atmosphere ❂❚ (6 ✒✣✢✕✙
units
❘❯
at ❯P◗
the ◗❘❩❯P❦❳
earth’s ❳❪❩❣❘❴◗
surface ❘❭❫
and ❬❭
in ❯P◗
the ❘❯❱❲❳❨P◗❩◗❵
atmosphere. ❛✩✙✗✘✩✖★
absorbed ★✢✘✖✑✕✔✥
directly by ✩✥ ✕✚✖
the ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖♦
atmosphere, ❃ 9 ✒✣✢✕✙
units
✕✚✘✗✒✪✚
through ✑✗✣✧✖✑✕✢✗✣
convection ❛✣★ and ✕✒✘✩✒✔✖✣✑✖
turbulence ❛✣★ and ✫❃ 19
❧❇❍❋
Heat ♠♣❑q❇❋
Budget ▲rof ❋✈❇
the ✇■❍▼❇❋
Planet ①❍❉❋✈
Earth ✒✣✢✕✙
units ✕✚✘✗✒✪✚
through ✔❛✕✖✣✕ latent ✚✖❛✕heat ✗✦ of ✑✗✣★✖✣✙❛✕✢✗✣✉✛
condensation).
Figure ❃✛✲
②✢✪✒✘✖ 9.2 ★✖t✢✑✕✙
depicts ✕✚✖
the ✚✖❛✕ ✩✒★✪✖✕ ✗✦
heat budget of ✕✚✖
the t✔❛✣✖✕
planet ❁❄
48 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ❛✩✙✗✘✩✖★
absorbed by ✩✥ ✕✚✖the ❛✕✓✗✙t✚✖✘✖
atmosphere
✖❛✘✕✚✛ ✤✚✖ ✖❛✘✕✚
earth. The earth ❛✙as ❛ ✴✚✗✔✖ ★✗✖✙
a whole does ✣✗✕
not ❂✫❁
(14 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ✦✘✗✓ from ✢✣✙✗✔❛✕✢✗✣
insolation ❅✮❁ +34 ✒✣✢✕✙
units ✦✘✗✓ from

SHORT WAVE SOLAR LONG WAVE EARTH

RADIATION RADIATION

TOTAL SOLAR RADIATION

Radiated to space Radiated to space
Scattered to 100 % Reflected by space
space — 27 by clouds
from earth by atmosphere
-6 v 44-2 by earth -17 -48
4 4

§
8
py
5
=|
7 +19
3© £
HH
+6 +9
so
© Gon
o +)
2 a +14 Turbulance
aK Al Absorbed by Radiation from and Condensation
1y atmosphere
a convection
+17 +34 |
Absorbed by Absorbed by
the earth the earth -23 -9 -19
③④⑤⑥⑦⑧
Figure ⑨⑩❶
9.2 ❷: ❸⑧❹❺ ❻⑥❼⑤⑧❺ ❽❾
Heat budget of ❺❿⑧
the ⑧❹⑦❺❿
earth
✽✑
82 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

t✒✓✓✒✔t✓✕✖✗
terrestrial ✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚✛
radiation) ✖✓✒ are ✖✗✔✙
also ✓✖✘✕✖t✒✘ ✜✖✢✣
radiated back ✦✒✖t ✵✦✕✢✦ ✕✔
heat which is ✪✒✖✔✧✓✒✘
measured ✕✚ in t✒✓✪✔
terms ✙✩ of
✕✚t✙ ✔✐✖✢✒ ✤ ✥✦✧✔★ t ✦✒
into space. Thus, the total radiation t✙t✖✗ ✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚ t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒✤
temperature. While❞✦✕✗✒ ✦✒✖t
heat ✓✒✐✓✒✔✒✚t✔
represents t✦✒ the
✓✒t✧✓✚✕✚r
returning ✩✓✙✪
from t✦✒the ✒✖✓t✦
earth ✖✚✘
and t✦✒
the ✖t✪✙✔✐✦✒✓✒
atmosphere ✪✙✗✒✢✧✗✖✓
molecular ✪✙✫✒✪✒✚t
movement ✙✩ of ✐✖✓t✕✢✗✒✔
particles ✢✙✪✐✓✕✔✕✚r
comprising ✖ a
✓✒✔✐✒✢t✕✫✒✗✬
respectively ✕✔ is ✭✮✯✰✱✲✳✴
17+48=65 ✧✚✕t✔ ✵✦✕✢✦
units which ✔✧✜✔t✖✚✢✒★
substance, t✦✒
the t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature ✕✔ is t✦✒
the ✪✒✖✔✧✓✒✪✒✚t
measurement
balance the total of 65 units received ✩✓✙✪
✜✖✗✖✚✢✒ t✦✒ t✙t✖✗ ✙✩ ✳✴ ✧✚✕t✔ ✓✒✢✒✕✫✒✘ from ✕✚
in ✘✒r✓✒✒✔
degrees ✙✩
of ✦✙✵
how ✦✙t
hot ❡✙✓
(or ✢✙✗✘✛
cold) ✖a t✦✕✚r
thing ❡✙✓
(or ✖a
t✦✒
the ✔✧✚✤ ✥✦✕✔ ✕✔
sun. This is t✒✓✪✒✘
termed t✦✒ the ✦✒✖t ✜✧✘r✒t ✙✓
heat budget or ✐✗✖✢✒✛
place) ✕✔✤
is.
✦✒✖t ✜✖✗✖✚✢✒ ✙✩
heat balance of t✦✒
the ✒✖✓t✦✤
earth.
✥✦✕✔ ✒❚✐✗✖✕✚✔★
This explains, why ✵✦✬ t✦✒
the ✒✖✓t✦
earth ✚✒✕t✦✒✓ ✵✖✓✪✔
neither warms ❢❛❈✸✹✶❅
Factors ❣✹✺✸✶✹❤❤✷✺❃
Controlling ❥✼❦♠✼✶❛✸❁✶✼
Temperature ♥✷❅✸✶✷♦❁✸✷✹✺
Distribution
✧✐
up nor cools down despite the huge transfer ✙✩
✚✙✓ ✢✙✙✗✔ ✘✙✵✚ ✘✒✔✐✕t✒ t✦✒ ✦✧r✒ t✓✖✚✔✩✒✓ of ✥✦✒ t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
The temperature ✙✩
of ✖✕✓
air ✖t
at ✖✚✬
any ✐✗✖✢✒
place ✕✔
is ✕✚✩✗✧✒✚✢✒✘
influenced
✦✒✖t
heat t✦✖t
that t✖✣✒✔
takes ✐✗✖✢✒✤
place. ✜✬ ❡✕✛
by (i) t✦✒
the ✗✖t✕t✧✘✒
latitude ✙✩ of t✦✒
the ✐✗✖✢✒♣
place; ❡✕✕✛
(ii) t✦✒
the ✖✗t✕t✧✘✒
altitude
✙✩
of t✦✒
the ✐✗✖✢✒♣
place; ❡✕✕✕✛
(iii) ✘✕✔t✖✚✢✒
distance ✩✓✙✪ from t✦✒
the ✔✒✖★
sea, t✦✒
the ✖✕✓q
air-
❱❛✶✷❛✸✷✹✺
Variation ✷✺
in ✸✻✼
the ✾✼✸
Net ✿✼❛✸
Heat ❀❁❂❃✼✸
Budget ❛✸
at ✸✻✼
the ✪✖✔✔
mass ✢✕✓✢✧✗✖t✕✙✚♣
circulation; ❡✕✫✛
(iv) t✦✒
the ✐✓✒✔✒✚✢✒
presence ✙✩ ✵✖✓✪ ✖✚✘
of warm and
❊❛✶✸✻❄❅ ❆❁✶❇❛❈✼
Earth’s Surface ✢✙✗✘
cold ✙✢✒✖✚
ocean ✢✧✓✓✒✚t✔♣
currents; ❡✫✛ (v) ✗✙✢✖✗
local ✖✔✐✒✢t✔✤
aspects.
❉✔ ✒❚✐✗✖✕✚✒✘
As explained ✒✖✓✗✕✒✓★
earlier, t✦✒✓✒
there ✖✓✒ ✫✖✓✕✖t✕✙✚✔ ✕✚
are variations in t✦✒
the
✖✪✙✧✚t ✙✩ ✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚ ✓✒✢✒✕✫✒✘
amount of radiation received at the earth’s ✖t t✦✒ ✒✖✓t✦●✔ ❥✻✼
The ❤❛✸✷✸❁❂✼
latitude ✉: The
✥✦✒ t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature ✙✩ of ✖a ✐✗✖✢✒
place
✔✧✓✩✖✢✒✤
surface. s✙✪✒Some ✐✖✓t part ✙✩
of t✦✒
the ✒✖✓t✦
earth ✦✖✔
has ✔✧✓✐✗✧✔
surplus ✘✒✐✒✚✘✔
depends ✙✚
on t✦✒
the ✕✚✔✙✗✖t✕✙✚
insolation ✓✒✢✒✕✫✒✘✤
received. ✈t
It ✦✖✔ ✜✒✒✚
has been
✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚ ✜✖✗✖✚✢✒ while
radiation balance ✵✦✕✗✒ t✦✒the ✙t✦✒✓
other ✐✖✓t
part ✦✖✔has ✒❚✐✗✖✕✚✒✘ ✒✖✓✗✕✒✓ t✦✖t t✦✒ ✕✚✔✙✗✖t✕✙✚
explained earlier that the insolation varies ✫✖✓✕✒✔
✘✒✩✕✢✕t✤
deficit. ✖✢✢✙✓✘✕✚r
according t✙ to t✦✒
the ✗✖t✕t✧✘✒
latitude ✦✒✚✢✒
hence t✦✒ the
❍✕r✧✓✒
Figure ■✤❏ 9.3 ✘✒✐✕✢t✔
depicts t✦✒the ✗✖t✕t✧✘✕✚✖✗ ✫✖✓✕✖t✕✙✚
latitudinal variation t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature ✖✗✔✙ ✫✖✓✕✒✔ ✖✢✢✙✓✘✕✚r✗✬✤
also varies accordingly.
✕✚
in t✦✒
the ✚✒t
net ✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚ ✜✖✗✖✚✢✒ ✙✩
radiation balance of t✦✒
the ✒✖✓t✦
earth — ❑ t✦✒
the ❥✻✼
The ❛❤✸✷✸❁❂✼
altitude ✉: The
✥✦✒ ✖t✪✙✔✐✦✒✓✒
atmosphere ✕✔ is ✕✚✘✕✓✒✢t✗✬
indirectly
✖t✪✙✔✐✦✒✓✒ ✔✬✔t✒✪✤ ✥✦✒ ✩✕r✧✓✒
atmosphere system. The figure shows that ✔✦✙✵✔ t✦✖t ✦✒✖t✒✘
heated by ✜✬ t✒✓✓✒✔t✓✕✖✗
terrestrial ✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚
radiation ✩✓✙✪ ✜✒✗✙✵✤
from below.
t✦✒✓✒
there ✕✔ is ✖a ✔✧✓✐✗✧✔
surplus ✙✩ of ✚✒t
net ✓✖✘✕✖t✕✙✚ ✜✖✗✖✚✢✒
radiation balance ✥✦✒✓✒✩✙✓✒★ t✦✒
Therefore, the ✐✗✖✢✒✔
places ✚✒✖✓
near t✦✒
the ✔✒✖q✗✒✫✒✗
sea-level ✓✒✢✙✓✘
record
✜✒t✵✒✒✚ ✰❜
between 40 ✘✒r✓✒✒✔
degrees ✚✙✓t✦
north ✖✚✘
and ✔✙✧t✦
south ✖✚✘and t✦✒the ✦✕r✦✒✓
higher t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature t✦✖✚ than t✦✒the ✐✗✖✢✒✔
places ✔✕t✧✖t✒✘
situated
✓✒r✕✙✚✔
regions ✚✒✖✓ near t✦✒ the ✐✙✗✒✔
poles ✦✖✫✒
have ✖ a ✘✒✩✕✢✕t✤ ✥✦✒
deficit. The ✖t
at ✦✕r✦✒✓
higher ✒✗✒✫✖t✕✙✚✔✤
elevations. ✈✚ In ✙t✦✒✓ ✵✙✓✘✔★ t✦✒
other words, the
✔✧✓✐✗✧✔
surplus ✦✒✖t heat ✒✚✒✓r✬
energy ✩✓✙✪ from t✦✒the t✓✙✐✕✢✔
tropics ✕✔ is t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature r✒✚✒✓✖✗✗✬
generally ✘✒✢✓✒✖✔✒✔
decreases with ✵✕t ✦
✓✒✘✕✔t✓✕✜✧t✒✘
redistributed ✐✙✗✒ ✵✖✓✘✔ ✖✚✘
pole wards and ✖✔ as ✖a ✓✒✔✧✗t
result t✦✒the ✕✚✢✓✒✖✔✕✚r
increasing ✦✒✕r✦t✤ ✥✦✒ ✓✖t✒
height. The rate ✙✩ of ✘✒✢✓✒✖✔✒
decrease ✙✩ of
t✓✙✐✕✢✔
tropics ✘✙ do ✚✙t
not r✒t
get ✐✓✙r✓✒✔✔✕✫✒✗✬
progressively ✦✒✖t✒✘
heated ✧✐ up ✘✧✒
due t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒ ✵✕t✦ ✦✒✕r✦t ✕✔
temperature with height is termed as thet✒✓✪✒✘ ✖✔ t✦✒
t✙ t✦✒ ✖✢✢✧✪✧✗✖t✕✙✚ ✙✩ ✒❚✢✒✔✔ ✦✒✖t
to the accumulation of excess heat or the high ✙✓ t✦✒ ✦✕r✦ ✚✙✓✪✖✗
normal ✗✖✐✔✒
lapse ✓✖t✒✤
rate. ✈t
It ✕✔
is ✳✤✴✇①
6.5°C ✐✒✓per ✭★❜❜❜
1,000 ✪✤
m.
✗✖t✕t✧✘✒✔
latitudes r✒t get ✐✒✓✪✖✚✒✚t✗✬
permanently ✩✓✙❧✒✚ frozen ✘✧✒
due t✙to ✒❚✢✒✔✔
excess
✘✒✩✕✢✕t✤
deficit. ♥✷❅✸❛✺❈✼
Distance from❇✶✹❦ ✸✻✼
the ❅✼❛
sea ②: Another
❉✚✙t✦✒✓ ✩✖✢t✙✓
factor t✦✖t
that
✕✚✩✗✧✒✚✢✒✔
influences the temperature is the location ✙✩
t✦✒ t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒ ✕✔ t✦✒ ✗✙✢✖t✕✙✚ of ✖
a
350 ✐✗✖✢✒ ✵✕t✦ ✓✒✔✐✒✢t
place with respect t✙
to t✦✒
the ✔✒✖✤
sea. ①✙✪✐✖✓✒✘
Compared t✙ to ✗✖✚✘★
land,
'g 3007 t✦✒
the ✔✒✖
sea r✒t✔
gets ✦✒✖t✒✘
heated ✔✗✙✵✗✬
slowly ✖✚✘ and ✗✙✔✒✔
loses ✦✒✖t
heat
8 250- ✔✗✙✵✗✬✤
slowly. ③✖✚✘
Land ✦✒✖t✔
heats ✧✐up ✖✚✘
and ✢✙✙✗✔
cools ✘✙✵✚
down ④✧✕✢✣✗✬✤
quickly.
✥✦✒✓✒✩✙✓✒★ t✦✒
Therefore, ✫✖✓✕✖t✕✙✚ ✕✚
the variation in t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature ✙✫✒✓ over t✦✒
the
✔✒✖
sea ✕✔is ✗✒✔✔
less ✢✙✪✐✖✓✒✘
compared t✙ to ✗✖✚✘✤
land. The✥✦✒ ✐✗✖✢✒✔
places
— Solar Radiation
--- Terrestrial Radiation
✔✕t✧✖t✒✘
situated ✚✒✖✓ near t✦✒
the ✔✒✖ sea ✢✙✪✒
come ✧✚✘✒✓under t✦✒ the
5074 ✪✙✘✒✓✖t✕✚r ✕✚✩✗✧✒✚✢✒ ✙✩ t✦✒
moderating influence of the sea and land ✔✒✖ ✖✚✘ ✗✖✚✘
North +}{~———.+—1—1-1_ 17 South ✜✓✒✒❧✒✔ which
breezes ✵✦✕✢✦ ✪✙✘✒✓✖t✒
moderate t✦✒ the t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒✤
temperature.
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Latitude ⑤✷✶⑥❦❛❅❅ ❛✺❂

Air-mass and ⑦❈✼❛✺
Ocean ❈❁✶✶✼✺✸❅
currents ②: ③✕✣✒
Like t✦✒
the ✗✖✚✘
land
▲▼◆❖P◗
Figure ❘❙❯
9.3 ❲: ❳❨❩▼❩❖❬▼❭❨❪ ❫❨P▼❨❩▼❴❭ ▼❭
Latitudinal variation in ❭◗❩
net ✖✚✘
and sea breezes, the passage of air masses ✖✗✔✙
✔✒✖ ✜✓✒✒❧✒✔★ t✦✒ ✐✖✔✔✖r✒ ✙✩ ✖✕✓ ✪✖✔✔✒✔ also
P❨❬▼❨❩▼❴❭ ❵❨❪❨❭❝◗
radiation balance ✖✩✩✒✢t✔
affects t✦✒
the t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒✤
temperature. The ✥✦✒ ✐✗✖✢✒✔★ ✵✦✕✢✦
places, which
✢✙✪✒
come ✧✚✘✒✓
under t✦✒
the ✕✚✩✗✧✒✚✢✒
influence ✙✩ ✵✖✓✪ ✖✕✓q✪✖✔✔✒✔
of warm air-masses
⑧⑨⑩❶⑨❷❸❹❺❷⑨
Temperature
✒❚✐✒✓✕✒✚✢✒
experience ✦✕r✦✒✓
higher t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒
temperature ✖✚✘ and t✦✒
the ✐✗✖✢✒✔
places
✥✦✒ ✕✚t✒✓✖✢t✕✙✚
The interaction ✙✩
of ✕✚✔✙✗✖t✕✙✚ ✵✕t✦ t✦✒
insolation with the t✦✖t
that come under the influence of cold ✖✕✓q
✢✙✪✒ ✧✚✘✒✓ t✦✒ ✕✚✩✗✧✒✚✢✒ ✙✩ ✢✙✗✘ air-
✖t✪✙✔✐✦✒✓✒
atmosphere ✖✚✘
and t✦✒
the ✒✖✓t✦●✔
earth’s ✔✧✓✩✖✢✒
surface ✢✓✒✖t✒✔
creates ✪✖✔✔✒✔
masses ✒❚✐✒✓✕✒✚✢✒
experience ✗✙✵low t✒✪✐✒✓✖t✧✓✒✤
temperature. s✕✪✕✗✖✓✗✬★
Similarly,
❙SOLAR
✁✂✄ ✄✂☎✆✂✝✆
RADIATION,✞✟ ✠✡✂✝
HEAT ☛✂✁✂✞☞✡ ✂✞☎ TEMPERATURE
BALANCE AND ✝✡✌✍✡✄✂✝✎✄✡ ✽✏
83

t✑✒
the ✓✔✕✖✒✗
places ✔✘✖✕t✒✙
located ✘✚on t✑✒
the ✖✘✕✗t ✛✑✒✜✒ t✑✒
coast where ✛✕✜✢
the warm ✚✘✜t✑✒✜✚
northern ✑✒✢✤✗✓✑✒✜✒
hemisphere t✑✒ the ✔✕✚✙
land ✗♦✜✣✕✖✒
surface ✕✜✒✕ area ✤✗is
✘✖✒✕✚ currents ✣✔✘✛
ocean ✖♦✜✜✒✚t✗ flow ✜✒✖✘✜✙
record ✑✤✥✑✒✜
higher t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒
temperature ✢♦✖✑
much ✔✕✜✥✒✜ than ✤✚
larger t✑✕✚ in t✑✒
the ✗✘♦t✑✒✜✚
southern ✑✒✢✤✗✓✑✒✜✒❝
hemisphere.
t✑✕✚
than t✑✒
the ✓✔✕✖✒✗
places ✔✘✖✕t✒✙
located ✘✚
on t✑✒
the ✖✘✕✗t ✛✑✒✜✒ t✑✒
coast where the ❍✒✚✖✒✿
Hence, t✑✒ the ✒✣✣✒✖t✗
effects ✘✣ of ✔✕✚✙
land ✢✕✗✗
mass ✕✚✙ and t✑✒
the ✘✖✒✕✚
ocean
✖✘✔✙ currents ✣✔✘✛❝
cold ✖♦✜✜✒✚t✗ flow. ✖♦✜✜✒✚t✗
currents are well pronounced. In January t✑✒
✕✜✒ ✛✒✔✔ ✓✜✘✚✘♦✚✖✒✙❝ ✾✚ ❞✕✚♦✕✜❜ the
✤✗✘t✑✒✜✢✗
isotherms ✙✒✶✤✕t✒deviate t✘ to t✑✒
the ✚✘✜t✑
north ✘✶✒✜over t✑✒
the ✘✖✒✕✚
ocean
❉✦✧★✩✦✪✫★✦✬✭
Distribution ✬✮
of ✯✰✱✲✰✩✳★✫✩✰
Temperature ✕✚✙
and t✘to t✑✒
the ✗✘♦t✑
south ✘✶✒✜over t✑✒the ✖✘✚t✤✚✒✚t❝
continent. This ❚✑✤✗ ✖✕✚can
✴✒ ✗✒✒✚
be seen ✘✚ the ❀✘✜t✑
on t✑✒ ❁t✔✕✚t✤✖ ❂✖✒✕✚❝
North Atlantic Ocean. The ❚✑✒
❚✑✒ ✥✔✘✴✕✔
The global ✙✤✗t✜✤✴♦t✤✘✚
distribution ✘✣of t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒
temperature ✖✕✚ ✛✒✔✔
can well ✓✜✒✗✒✚✖✒
presence ✘✣ ✛✕✜✢ ✘✖✒✕✚
of warm currents, ♣♦✔✣
ocean ✖♦✜✜✒✚t✗✿ Gulf ❃t✜✒✕✢
Stream
✴✒ ♦✚✙✒✜✗t✘✘✙ ✴❜ ✗t♦✙❜✤✚✥ t✑✒ t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒
be understood by studying the temperature and ❀✘✜t✑
✕✚✙ ❁t✔✕✚t✤✖ ✙✜✤✣t✿
North Atlantic drift, ✢✕❛✒
make t✑✒ the ❀✘✜t✑✒✜✚
Northern
distribution ✤✚
✙✤✗t✜✤✴♦t✤✘✚ ❞✕✚♦✕✜❜ ✕✚✙
in January ❞♦✔❜❝ The
and July. ❚✑✒ ❁t✔✕✚t✤✖ ❂✖✒✕✚
Atlantic ✛✕✜✢✒✜ ✕✚✙
Ocean warmer the ✤✗✘t✑✒✜✢✗
and t✑✒ isotherms bend ✴✒✚✙
t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒ distribution ✤✗
temperature ✙✤✗t✜✤✴♦t✤✘✚ is ✥✒✚✒✜✕✔✔❜
generally ✗✑✘✛✚
shown t✘✛✕✜✙✗
towards tthe north. ❂✶✒✜
✑✒ ✚✘✜t✑❝ Over t✑✒ the ✔✕✚✙land t✑✒ the
✘✚
on t✑✒
the ✢✕✓ ✛✤t✑ t✑✒
map with the ✑✒✔✓
help ✘✣ of ✤✗✘t✑✒✜✢✗❝ ❚✑✒
isotherms. The t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒
temperature decreases sharply and t✑✒
✙✒✖✜✒✕✗✒✗ ✗✑✕✜✓✔❜ ✕✚✙ the
■✧✬★✵✰✩✱✧
Isotherms ✕✜✒
are ✔✤✚✒✗ ❡✘✤✚✤✚✥
lines joining ✓✔✕✖✒✗
places ✑✕✶✤✚✥
having ✒✷♦✕✔
equal ✤✗✘t✑✒✜✢✗
isotherms bend ✴✒✚✙ t✘✛✕✜✙✗
towards ✗✘♦t✑ south ✤✚ in ✐♦✜✘✓✒❝
Europe.
temperature. ✸✤✥♦✜✒
t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒❝ Figure ✹❝✺9.4 ✻✕✼ and ✻✴✼
(a) ✕✚✙ (b) ✗✑✘✛
show t✑✒
the ✾t
It ✤✗is ✢♦✖✑ pronounced ✤✚
much ✓✜✘✚✘♦✚✖✒✙ in t✑✒the ❃✤✴✒✜✤✕✚
Siberian
✙✤✗t✜✤✴♦t✤✘✚
distribution ✘✣ of ✗♦✜✣✕✖✒
surface ✕✤✜ temperature ✤✚
air t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒ in t✑✒
the ✓✔✕✤✚❝
plain. The❚✑✒ ✢✒✕✚
mean ❞✕✚♦✕✜❜
January t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒
temperature ✕✔✘✚✥ along
✢✘✚t✑ ✘✣ ❞✕✚♦✕✜❜ ✕✚✙
month of January and July. ❞♦✔❜❝ ❄❅❆
60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° ❀
✐ ✔✘✚✥✤t♦✙✒ ✤✗ ✢✤✚♦✗ ❇❅❆ ❈ ✴✘t✑ ✕t ❊❅❆ N
✾✚
In ✥✒✚✒✜✕✔
general t✑✒ the ✒✣✣✒✖t
effect ✘✣of t✑✒
the ✔✕t✤t♦✙✒
latitude ✘✚on and ❋❅❆
✕✚✙ 50° ❀ N ✔✕t✤t♦✙✒✗❝
latitudes. The ❚✑✒ ✢✒✕✚
mean ✢✘✚t✑✔❜monthly
temperature ✤✗
t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒ ✛✒✔✔ ✓✜✘✚✘♦✚✖✒✙
is well pronounced ✘✚ on t✑✒
the ✢✕✓✿
map, temperature ✣✘✜
t✒✢✓✒✜✕t♦✜✒ for ❞✕✚♦✕✜❜
January ✤✗ over ❇●❆
is ✘✶✒✜ 27° ❈✿ C, ✤✚
in
✕✗ the ✤✗✘t✑✒✜✢✗
as t✑✒ isotherms ✕✜✒ are ✥✒✚✒✜✕✔✔❜
generally ✓✕✜✕✔✔✒✔
parallel t✘
to t✑✒
the ✒✷♦✕t✘✜✤✕✔
equatorial ✘✖✒✕✚✗ oceans ✘✶✒✜ over ❇✺❆24° ❈ C ✤✚in t✑✒
the t✜✘✓✤✖✗
tropics
✔✕t✤t♦✙✒❝ ❚✑✒ ✙✒✶✤✕t✤✘✚
latitude. The deviation ✣✜✘✢ this ✥✒✚✒✜✕✔
from t✑✤✗ general t✜✒✚✙
trend and ❇❆
✕✚✙ 2° ❈ C ❏- ❅❆0° ❈ C ✤✚ in t✑✒
the ✢✤✙✙✔✒
middle ✔✕t✤t♦✙✒✗
latitudes
✤✗
is ✢✘✜✒ pronounced ✤✚
more ✓✜✘✚✘♦✚✖✒✙ ❞✕✚♦✕✜❜ t✑✕✚
in January than ✤✚ ❞♦✔❜✿
in July, and ➊❑❊❆
✕✚✙ -18° ❈ C t✘to ➊✺❊❆
-48° ❈ C ✤✚ the ✐♦✜✕✗✤✕✚
in t✑✒ Eurasian
especially ✤✚
✒✗✓✒✖✤✕✔✔❜ in t✑✒
the ✚✘✜t✑✒✜✚ hemisphere. ✾✚
northern ✑✒✢✤✗✓✑✒✜✒❝ In t✑✒
the continental ✤✚t✒✜✤✘✜❝
✖✘✚t✤✚✒✚t✕✔ interior.

J 1

▲▼◆❖P◗
Figure ❘❯❱
9.4 ❲❳❨
(a) ❩: ❬❭◗
The ❪▼❫❴P▼❵❖❴▼❢❣
distribution ❢❤
of ❫❖P❤❳❥◗
surface ❳▼P
air ❴◗❦❧◗P❳❴❖P◗
temperature ▼❣
in ❴❭◗
the ❦❢❣❴❭
month ❢❤
of ♠❳❣❖❳P♥
January
✽✑
84 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

-
The arama
a Sa ne \ ae ie"
SPs eee
Equsicr © q -sentences ee
" ail s teeetPissineee Ex a.
aes Tuga soa
keeps none ae
_h =
Lo.

✒✓✔✕✖✗ ✘✙✰ ✱✪✲ ✛ ✜✢✗ ✮✓✳✧✖✓✪✕✧✓✥✤ ✥✦ ✳✕✖✦✣✴✗ ✣✓✖ ✧✗★✩✗✖✣✧✕✖✗ ✓✤ ✧✢✗ ★✥✤✧✢ ✥✦ ✬✕✯✭

✒✓✔✕✖✗
Figure ✘✙✚
9.5 ✛: ✜✢✗
The ✖✣✤✔✗
range ✥✦
of ✧✗★✩✗✖✣✧✕✖✗ ✪✗✧✫✗✗✤ ✬✣✤✕✣✖✭
temperature between January ✣✤✮
and ✬✕✯✭
July
❙SOLAR
✁✂✄ ✄✂☎✆✂✝✆
RADIATION,✞✟ ✠✡✂✝
HEAT ☛✂✁✂✞☞✡ ✂✞☎ TEMPERATURE
BALANCE AND ✝✡✌✍✡✄✂✝✎✄✡ ✽✏
85

❈❉❋ ❋●●❋❏❑
The effect ▲● of ❑❉❋
the ▲❏❋❖♥
ocean P◗ ❘❋❯❯ ❱❲▲♥▲❳♥❏❋❨
is well pronounced ❑❉❋
the ◗❳❧❑❲▲❱P❏❖❯
subtropical ❏▲♥❑P♥❋♥❑❖❯
continental ❲❋♠P▲♥ region ▲● q◗P❖❵
of Asia,
P♥
in ❑❉❋
the ◗▲❳❑❉❋❲♥ hemisphere. ❭❋❲❋
southern ❉❋❩P◗❱❉❋❲❋❬ Here ❑❉❋
the P◗▲❑❉❋❲❩◗
isotherms ❖❯▲♥♠ the ❜❪❫
along ❑❉❋ 30° sN ❯❖❑P❑❳❨❋❬ q❯▲♥♠ ❑❉❋
latitude. Along the ❡❪❫
40° s N ❲❳♥◗
runs
❖❲❋ ❩▲❲❋
are more or less parallel to the latitudes ❖♥❨
▲❲ ❯❋◗◗ ❱❖❲❖❯❯❋❯ ❑▲ ❑❉❋ ❯❖❑P❑❳❨❋◗ and ❑❉❋ ❛❪❫ ❴
the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S ❑❉❋
P◗▲❑❉❋❲❩ ▲● ❖♥❨ ❖❯▲♥♠ ❑❉❋ ❡❪❫ ❞ the
❑❉❋ t❖❲P❖❑P▲♥ P♥
the variation in ❑❋❩❱❋❲❖❑❳❲❋
temperature P◗ is ❩▲❲❋
more ♠❲❖❨❳❖❯
gradual ❑❋❩❱❋❲❖❑❳❲❋
temperature P◗ is ❛❪❫
10° ❴❬C.
❑❉❖♥
than P♥in ❑❉❋
the ♥▲❲❑❉❋❲♥
northern ❉❋❩P◗❱❉❋❲❋❬
hemisphere. The❈❉❋ P◗▲❑❉❋❲❩
isotherm ✉P♠ ❳❲❋ ✈❬❝
Figure 9.5 ◗❉▲❘◗
shows ❑❉❋
the ❲❖ ♥♠❋ ▲●
range of
of ♦❪❫
▲● 20° ❴❵C, ❛❪❫
10° ❴❵ and ❪❫
C, ❖♥❨ 0° ❴
C ❲❳♥◗
runs ❱❖❲❖❯❯❋❯
parallel ❑▲ to ❜❝❫
35° ❞❵
S, ❑❋❩❱❋❲❖❑❳❲❋ ❧❋❑❘❋❋♥ ❥❖♥❳❖❲❣
temperature between January and July. The ❖♥❨ ❥❳❯❣❬ ❈❉❋
❡❝❫
45° ❞ and ❢❪❫
S ❖♥❨ 60° ❞ S ❯❖❑P❑❳❨❋◗
latitudes ❲❋◗❱❋❏❑Pt❋❯❣❬
respectively. ❉P♠❉❋◗❑
highest ❲❖♥♠❋
range ▲●of ❑❋❩❱❋❲❖❑❳❲❋
temperature P◗ is ❩▲❲❋ than ❢❪❫
more ❑❉❖♥ 60°
❤♥ ❥❳❯❣ ❑❉❋
In July isotherms ♠❋♥❋❲❖❯❯❣
the P◗▲❑❉❋❲❩◗ generally ❲❳♥ run ❴
C ▲t❋❲
over ❑❉❋
the ♥▲❲❑❉✇❋❖◗❑❋❲♥
north-eastern ❱❖❲❑ part ▲● of ①❳❲❖◗P❖♥
Eurasian
❱❖❲❖❯❯❋❯
parallel ❑▲ to ❑❉❋
the ❯❖❑P❑❳❨❋❬ ❈❉❋ ❋♣❳❖❑▲❲P❖❯
latitude. The equatorial ▲❏❋❖♥◗
oceans ❏▲♥❑P♥❋♥❑❬ ❈❉P◗ P◗
continent. This is ❨❳❋
due ❑▲ to ❏▲♥❑P♥❋♥❑❖❯P❑❣❬
continentality. The ❈❉❋
❲❋❏▲❲❨
record warmer temperature, ❩▲❲❋
❘❖❲❩❋❲ ❑❋❩❱❋❲❖❑❳❲❋❵ more ❑❉❖♥than ♦r❫❴❬
27°C. ❯❋❖◗❑
least ❲❖♥♠❋
range ▲● temperature, ❜❫❴❵
of ❑❋❩❱❋❲❖❑❳❲❋❵ 3°C, P◗is ●▲❳♥❨
found
❦t❋❲
Over ❑❉❋ land ❩▲❲❋
the ❯❖♥❨ than ❜❪❫❴
more ❑❉❖♥ 30°C P◗ is ♥▲❑P❏❋❨
noticed P♥in ❧❋❑❘❋❋♥
between ♦❪❫20° ❞ and ❛❝❫
S ❖♥❨ 15° s❬N.

—____. ❊✑❊✒✓✔✕❊✕
EXERCISES __

✶✳
1. ▼✖✗✘✙✚✗✛
Multiple ✜✢✣✙✜✛choice ✤✖✛✥✘✙✣✦✥✳
questions.
✭✙✧ ❚✢✛ ✥✖✦
(i) The sun ✙✥is ★✙✩✛✜✘✗✪
directly ✣✫✛✩✢✛✬★
overhead ✬✘ at ✦✣✣✦
noon ✣✦ on ✮✶✥✘ ✯✖✦✛ ✬✘✰
21st June at:

✭✬✧
(a) The❚✢✛ ✛✤✖✬✘✣✩
equator ✭✜✧
(c) ✮✷✳✱✲
23.5° ◆ N
✭✴✧
(b) ✮✷✳✱✲
23.5° ✵ S ✭★✧
(d) ✸✸✳✱✲
66.5° ◆ N
✭✙✙✧
(ii) ■✦ ✹✢✙✜✢ ✣✦✛
In which one ✣✺of ✘✢✛
the ✺✣✗✗✣✹✙✦✻
following ✜✙✘✙✛✥✼
cities, ✬✩✛ are ✘✢✛
the ★✬✪✥
days ✘✢✛
the ✗✣✦✻✛✥✘✾
longest?
✭✬✧ ❚✙✩✖✫✬✦✬✦✘✚✖✩✬✐
(a) Tiruvanantpuram ✭✜✧
(c) ❍✪★✛✩✬✴✬★
Hyderabad

✭✴✧
(b) ✿✢✬✦★✙✻✬✩✢
Chandigarh ✭★✧
(d) ◆✬✻✚✖✩
Nagpur

✭✙✙✙✧ ❚✢✛ ✬✘✐✣✥✚✢✛✩✛

(iii) The atmosphere ✙✥ is ✐✬✙✦✗✪
mainly ✢✛✬✘✛★
heated by ✴✪ ✘✢✛✰
the:
✭✬✧
(a) ✵✢✣✩✘
Short wave✹✬✫✛ ✥✣✗✬✩
solar ✩✬★✙✬✘✙✣✦
radiation ✭✜✧ (c) ❀✣✦✻
Long wave✹✬✫✛ ✘✛✩✩✛✥✘✩✙✬✗
terrestrial ✩✬★✙✬✘✙✣✦
radiation

✭✴✧
(b) ❁✛✺✗✛✜✘✛★
Reflected ✥✣✗✬✩
solar ✩✬★✙✬✘✙✣✦
radiation ✭★✧
(d) ✵✜✬✘✘✛✩✛★
Scattered ✥✣✗✬✩ solar ✩✬★✙✬✘✙✣✦
radiation

✭✙✫✧
(iv) ▼✬❂✛
Make ✜✣✩✩✛✜✘correct ✚✬✙✩✥
pairs ✺✩✣✐
from ✘✢✛the ✺✣✗✗✣✹✙✦✻
following ✘✹✣ two ✜✣✗✖✐✦✥✳
columns.

✭✙✧
(i) ■✦✥✣✗✬✘✙✣✦
Insolation ✭✬✧❚✢✛
(a)The ★✙✺✺✛✩✛✦✜✛
difference ✴✛✘✹✛✛✦ ✘✢✛
between the ✐✛✬✦
mean
✘✛✐✚✛✩✬✘✖✩✛ ✣✺ ✘✢✛ ✹✬✩✐✛✥✘
temperature of the warmest and the coldest ✬✦★ ✘✢✛ ✜✣✗★✛✥✘
✐✣✦✘✢✥
months
✭✙✙✧ ❆✗✴✛★✣
(ii) Albedo ✭✴✧
(b) The❚✢✛ ✗✙✦✛✥ ❃✣✙✦✙✦✻ ✘✢✛
lines joining the ✚✗✬✜✛✥
places ✣✺ of ✛✤✖✬✗
equal
✘✛✐✚✛✩✬✘✖✩✛
temperature

✭✙✙✙✧
(iii) ■✥✣✘✢✛✩✐
Isotherm ✭✜✧
(c) ❚✢✛ ✙✦✜✣✐✙✦✻
The incoming ✥✣✗✬✩ solar ✩✬★✙✬✘✙✣✦
radiation

✭✙✫✧ ❆✦✦✖✬✗ ✩✬✦✻✛

(iv) Annual range ✭★✧
(d) The❚✢✛ ✚✛✩✜✛✦✘✬✻✛
percentage ✣✺ ✫✙✥✙✴✗✛ ✗✙✻✢✘
of visible light ✩✛✺✗✛✜✘✛★ ✴✪
reflected by
✬✦
an ✣✴❃✛✜✘
object
✭✫✧ ❚✢✛ ✐✬✙✦
(v) The main ✩✛✬✥✣✦
reason ✘✢✬✘that ✘✢✛
the ✛✬✩✘✢
earth ✛❄✚✛✩✙✛✦✜✛✥
experiences ✢✙✻✢✛✥✘ highest ✘✛✐✚✛✩✬✘✖✩✛✥
temperatures ✙✦ in ✘✢✛
the
✥✖✴✘✩✣✚✙✜✥
subtropics ✙✦ in ✘✢✛
the ✦✣✩✘✢✛✩✦
northern ✢✛✐✙✥✚✢✛✩✛
hemisphere ✩✬✘✢✛✩ rather ✘✢✬✦than ✬✘ at ✘✢✛
the ✛✤✖✬✘✣✩
equator ✙✥is ✰:
✭✬✧
(a) ✵✖✴✘✩✣✚✙✜✬✗
Subtropical ✬✩✛✬✥ areas ✘✛✦★tend ✘✣ to ✢✬✫✛
have ✗✛✥✥less ✜✗✣✖★
cloud ✜✣✫✛✩
cover ✘✢✬✦
than ✛✤✖✬✘✣✩✙✬✗
equatorial
✬✩✛✬✥✳
areas.

✭✴✧
(b) ✵✖✴✘✩✣✚✙✜✬✗
Subtropical ✬✩✛✬✥areas ✢✬✫✛have ✗✣✦✻✛✩
longer ★✬✪ day ✢✣✖✩✥hours ✙✦in ✘✢✛
the ✥✖✐✐✛✩
summer ✘✢✬✦ than ✘✢✛
the
✛✤✖✬✘✣✩✙✬✗✳
equatorial.
✭✜✧
(c) ✵✖✴✘✩✣✚✙✜✬✗
Subtropical ✬✩✛✬✥areas ✢✬✫✛
have ✬✦ an ✛✦✢✬✦✜✛★
enhanced ❅✻✩✛✛✦ “green ✢✣✖✥✛
house ✛✺✺✛✜✘❇
effect” ✜✣✐✚✬✩✛★
compared
✘✣
to ✛✤✖✬✘✣✩✙✬✗
equatorial ✬✩✛✬✥✳
areas.

✭★✧
(d) ✵✖✴✘✩✣✚✙✜✬✗
Subtropical ✬✩✛✬✥
areas ✬✩✛are ✦✛✬✩✛✩
nearer ✘✣ to ✘✢✛
the ✣✜✛✬✦✙✜
oceanic ✬✩✛✬✥
areas ✘✢✬✦
than ✘✢✛
the ✛✤✖✬✘✣✩✙✬✗
equatorial
✗✣✜✬✘✙✣✦✥✳
locations.
✽✑
86 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✷✒
2. ❆✓✔✕✖✗ ✘✙✖
Answer the ✚✛✜✜✛✕✢✓✣
following ✤✥✖✔✘✢✛✓✔
questions ✢✓
in ✦✧✛✥✘
about ★✩ ✕✛✗✪✔✒
30 words.
✭✢✮
(i) How ✪✛✖✔
❍✛✕ does ✘✙✖
the ✥✓✖✤✥✦✜
unequal ✪✢✔✘✗✢✧✥✘✢✛✓
distribution ✛✚of ✙✖✦✘
heat ✛✫✖✗
over ✘✙✖ planet ✖✦✗✘✙
the ✬✜✦✓✖✘ earth ✢✓
in ✔✬✦✯✖
space
✦✓✪
and ✘✢❛✖
time ✯✦✥✔✖ ✫✦✗✢✦✘✢✛✓✔ ✢✓
cause variations ✕✖✦✘✙✖✗ ✦✓✪
in weather and ✯✜✢❛✦✘✖✰
climate?
✭✢✢✮
(ii) ❲✙✦✘ ✦✗✖
What are ✘✙✖
the ✚✦✯✘✛✗✔
factors ✘✙✦✘ control ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
that ✯✛✓✘✗✛✜ temperature ✪✢✔✘✗✢✧✥✘✢✛✓
distribution ✛✓ on ✘✙✖
the ✔✥✗✚✦✯✖
surface
✛✚
of ✘✙✖
the ✖✦✗✘✙✰
earth?

✭✢✢✢✮
(iii) ■✓
In ■✓✪✢✦✱ ✕✙✇ ✢✔
India, why is ✘✙✖
the ✪✦✇
day ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ❛✦✲✢❛✥❛
maximum ✢✓ May ✦✓✪
in ✳✦✇ ✕✙✇ ✓✛✘
and why not ✦✚✘✖✗
after
✘✙✖
the ✔✥❛❛✖✗
summer ✔✛✜✔✘✢✯✖✰
solstice?
✭✢✫✮
(iv) ❲✙✇ ✢✔
Why is ✘✙✖
the ✦✓✓✥✦✜
annual ✗✦✓✣✖
range ✛✚of ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ✙✢✣✙
high ✢✓in ✘✙✖
the ✴✢✧✖✗✢✦✓
Siberian ✬✜✦✢✓✔✰
plains?

★✒
3. ❆✓✔✕✖✗ ✘✙✖
Answer the ✚✛✜✜✛✕✢✓✣
following ✤✥✖✔✘✢✛✓✔
questions ✢✓
in ✦✧✛✥✘
about ✵✶✩ ✕✛✗✪✔✒
150 words.
✭✢✮
(i) How ✪✛
❍✛✕ do ✘✙✖
the ✜✦✘✢✘✥✪✖
latitude ✦✓✪
and ✘✙✖
the ✘✢✜✘
tilt ✢✓
in ✘✙✖
the ✦✲✢✔
axis ✛✚of ✗✛✘✦✘✢✛✓
rotation ✛✚
of ✘✙✖
the ✖✦✗✘✙
earth ✦✚✚✖✯✘
affect
✘✙✖
the ✦❛✛✥✓✘
amount ✛✚ of ✗✦✪✢✦✘✢✛✓
radiation ✗✖✯✖✢✫✖✪
received ✦✘ at ✘✙✖
the ✖✦✗✘✙t✔
earth’s ✔✥✗✚✦✯✖✰
surface?

✭✢✢✮
(ii) Discuss ✘✙✖
❉✢✔✯✥✔✔ processes ✘✙✗✛✥✣✙
the ✬✗✛✯✖✔✔✖✔ through which✕✙✢✯✙ ✘✙✖ the ✖✦✗✘✙✸✦✘❛✛✔✬✙✖✗✖
earth-atmosphere ✔✇✔✘✖❛system
❛✦✢✓✘✦✢✓✔
maintains ✙✖✦✘ ✧✦✜✦✓✯✖✒
heat balance.
✭✢✢✢✮
(iii) Compare ✘✙✖
❈✛❛✬✦✗✖ the ✣✜✛✧✦✜
global ✪✢✔✘✗✢✧✥✘✢✛✓
distribution ✛✚ of ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ✢✓ ✹✦✓✥✦✗✇ ✛✫✖✗
in January over ✘✙✖
the
✓✛✗✘✙✖✗✓
northern ✦✓✪
and ✘✙✖the ✔✛✥✘✙✖✗✓
southern ✙✖❛✢✔✬✙✖✗✖
hemisphere ✛✚ of ✘✙✖
the ✖✦✗✘✙✒
earth.

Pr♦✺✻✼✾
Project Work ✿♦r❀
Select ✦
✴✖✜✖✯✘ a ❛✖✘✖✛✗✛✜✛✣✢✯✦✜
meteorological ✛✧✔✖✗✫✦✘✛✗✇
observatory ✜✛✯✦✘✖✪
located ✢✓ city ✛✗
✇✛✥✗ ✯✢✘✇
in your or ✓✖✦✗ ✇✛✥✗ ✘✛✕✓✒
near your ❙✦✧✥✜✦✘✖
town. Tabulate
✘✙✖
the ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ✪✦✘✦ data ✦✔ as ✣✢✫✖✓
given ✢✓in ✘✙✖ climatological ✘✦✧✜✖
the ✯✜✢❛✦✘✛✜✛✣✢✯✦✜ table ✛✚of ✛✧✔✖✗✫✦✘✛✗✢✖✔
observatories ❁:
✭✢✮
(i) Note ✘✙✖
◆✛✘✖ the ✦✜✘✢✘✥✪✖✱
altitude, ✜✦✘✢✘✥✪✖
latitude ✛✚ of ✘✙✖
the ✛✧✔✖✗✫✦✘✛✗✇
observatory ✦✓✪ and ✘✙✖ period ✚✛✗
the ✬✖✗✢✛✪ ✕✙✢✯✙ ✘✙✖
for which the
❛✖✦✓
mean ✢✔ is ✯✦✜✯✥✜✦✘✖✪✒
calculated.
✭✢✢✮
(ii) Define ✘✙✖
❉✖✚✢✓✖ the ✘✖✗❛✔
terms ✗✖✜✦✘✖✪
related ✘✛ to ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ✦✔ as ✣✢✫✖✓
given ✢✓in ✘✙✖
the ✘✦✧✜✖✒
table.

✭✢✢✢✮
(iii) Calculate ✘✙✖
❈✦✜✯✥✜✦✘✖ the ✪✦✢✜✇
daily ❛✖✦✓
mean ❛✛✓✘✙✜✇
monthly ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖✒
temperature.
✭✢✫✮
(iv) Draw a ✦ ✣✗✦✬✙
❉✗✦✕ graph ✘✛ to ✔✙✛✕
show ✘✙✖the ✪✦✢✜✇
daily ❛✖✦✓
mean ❛✦✲✢❛✥❛✱
maximum, ✘✙✖ the ✪✦✢✜✇
daily ❛✖✦✓
mean ❛✢✓✢❛✥❛
minimum
✦✓✪
and ✘✙✖
the ❛✖✦✓
mean ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖✒
temperature.
✭✫✮
(v) Calculate ✘✙✖
❈✦✜✯✥✜✦✘✖ the ✦✓✓✥✦✜
annual ✗✦✓✣✖
range ✛✚ of ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖✒
temperature.

✭✫✢✮
(vi) Find ✛✥✘
❂✢✓✪ out ✢✓ ✕✙✢✯✙ ❛✛✓✘✙✔
in which months ✘✙✖ the ✪✦✢✜✇
daily ✗✦✓✣✖
range ✛✚ of ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ✢✔ is ✘✙✖
the ✙✢✣✙✖✔✘
highest
✦✓✪
and ✘✙✖
the ✜✛✕✖✔✘✒
lowest.
✭✫✢✢✮
(vii) List ✛✥✘
▲✢✔✘ out ✘✙✖the ✚✦✯✘✛✗✔
factors ✘✙✦✘
that ✪✖✘✖✗❛✢✓✖
determine ✘✙✖ the ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖
temperature ✛✚ of ✘✙✖ place ✦✓✪
the ✬✜✦✯✖ and
✖✲✬✜✦✢✓
explain ✘✙✖ the ✬✛✔✔✢✧✜✖ causes ✚✛✗
possible ✯✦✥✔✖✔ for ✘✖❛✬✖✗✦✘✥✗✖ ✫✦✗✢✦✘✢✛✓ ✢✓
temperature variation in ✘✙✖
the ❛✛✓✘✙✔
months ✛✚ of
✹✦✓✥✦✗✇✱
January, ✳✦✇✱ July ✦✓✪
May, ✹✥✜✇ and ❏✯✘✛✧✖✗✒
October.
❊❃❄❅❇●❑
Example
❏✧✔✖✗✫✦✘✛✗✇
Observatory ❁ ◆✖✕
New ❉✖✜✙✢
Delhi ✭✴✦✚✪✦✗▼✥✓✣✮
(Safdarjung)
▲✦✘✢✘✥✪✖
Latitude ❁ ✷❖◗★✶◗t
28°35° ◆ N
Based ✛✓
❘✦✔✖✪ on ✛✧✔✖✗✫✦✘✢✛✓✔
observations ❁ ✵❚✶✵
1951 ✸- ✵❚❖✩
1980
❆✜✘✢✘✥✪✖
Altitude ✦✧✛✫✖
above ❛✖✦✓
mean ✔✖✦ sea ✜✖✫✖✜
level ❁ ✷✵❯
216m❛

❱❳❨❩❬
Month ❱❡❭❨
Mean ❳❪
of ❱❡❭❨
Mean ❳❪
of ❫❴❵❬❡❜❩
Highest ❝❳❞❡❜❩
Lowest
❢❭❴❣❤
Daily ❢❭❴❣❤
Daily ✐❡❥❳❦❧❡❧
Recorded ✐❡❥❳❦❧❡❧
Recorded
❱❭♠♥♣qs✉
Max.(°C) ❱❴❨♥♣qs✉
Min.(°C) ♣qs✉
(CC) ♣qs✉
(CC)
✈①②③①④⑤
January ⑥⑦⑧⑦
21.1 ⑨⑧⑩
7.3 ⑥❶⑧⑩
29.3 ❷⑧✑
0.6

❸①⑤
May ⑩❶⑧✑
39.6 ⑥❹⑧❶
25.9 ❺⑨⑧⑥
47.2 ⑦⑨⑧❹
17.5
❙SOLAR
✁✂✄ ✄✂☎✆✂✝✆
RADIATION,✞✟ ✠✡✂✝
HEAT ☛✂✁✂✞☞✡ ✂✞☎ TEMPERATURE
BALANCE AND ✝✡✌✍✡✄✂✝✎✄✡ ✽✏
87

❉✑✒✓✔
Daily ✕✖✑✗
mean ✕✘✗✙✚✓✔
monthly ✙✖✕✛✖✜✑✙✢✜✖
temperature

✷✶✳✶✰✣✳✤
21.1+7.3 ❖
❏✑✗✢✑✜✔
January —9 ❂= ✶✥✳✷
14.2°C❈
✷
✤✸✳✻✰✷✦✳✸
May 39.6+25-9
▼✑✔
6425.
39.75°C❖❈
❂_ ✤✷✳✣✦
✷2
❆✗✗✢✑✓ ✜✑✗✧✖
Annual range ✘★ of ✙✖✕✛✖✜✑✙✢✜✖
temperature
▼✖✑✗
Mean ▼✑✩✪ ✫✖✕✛✖✜✑✙✢✜✖ ✒✗
Max. Temperature May ✬- ▼✖✑✗
in ▼✑✔ ✫✖✕✛✖✜✑✙✢✜✖ ✒✗
Mean Temperature ❏✑✗✢✑✜✔
in January
❆✗✗✢✑✓ ✜✑✗✧✖
Annual range ✘★ of ✙✖✕✛✖✜✑✙✢✜✖
temperature ✭ = ✮✯✪✱✲✴✵
32.75°C —✹ ✺✼✪✯✴✵
14.2°C ✭
= ✺✾✪✲✲✴✵
18.55°C
➩➫➭➯➲➳➵
CHAPTER

❆❚ ✁✂✄☎✆✝✞✟ ✥✞✝✟■✠✡❚✞✁☛
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
AND ✌✆✡❚☎✆✝ ✍❨✂❚✆
✡☛☞ WEATHER SYSTEMS✂

❛✎✏✑✒✎
arlier ❈✓❛✔✕✒✎✖✗✒✘✙✎✑✚✒✗✕✓✒✛✜✒✢✒✜ ✕✓✒❛✑✎❛✕
the air at ✕✓✒ the ✘✛✎✣❛✙✒
surface ✑✘ is ✗✒✜✘✒✎❛✜✗
denser and ✓✒✜✙✒ hence ✓❛✘
✗✑✘✕✎✑✚✛✕✑❞✜
distribution ❞✣ of ✕✒✤✔✒✎❛✕✛✎✒
temperature ❞✢✒✎ over ✕✓✒ ✓✑❤✓✒✎✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒s ✦✑✎✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒✑✘✤✒❛✘✛✎✒✗★✑✕✓
Chapter 9 described the uneven has

❊ ✘✛✎✣❛✙✒❞✣✕✓✒✒❛✎✕✓s✦✑✎✒✧✔❛✜✗✘★✓✒✜ ✕✓✒✓✒✏✔❞✣❛✤✒✎✙✛✎✫ ✚❛✎❞✤✒✕✒✎❞✎✕✓✒❛✜✒✎❞✑✗

HK the higher pressure. Air pressure is measured with

✓✒❛✕✒✗❛✜✗
heated and ❤✒✕✘✙❞✤✔✎✒✘✘✒✗★✓✒✜✙❞❞✏✒✗s✩✓✑✘
surface of the earth. Air expands when
✚❛✎❞✤✒✕✒✎s ❈❞✜✘✛✏✕
the help of a mercury barometer
✫❞✛✎ ✚❞❞❦❡ P❂✺❄✻❃❄✺❍❏✽❂♦
or the aneroid

✎✒✘✛✏✕✘
results ✑✜ ✢❛✎✑❛✕✑❞✜✘ ✑✜in ✕✓✒ the ❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✑✙ ❃❑ ▲❁✽▼❂✺✿❀◆ ❖ P✺❂✻ ◗ ❙❯❈❱❲✩❡ ●❇❇❳❩ ❛✜✗
gets compressed when cooled. This barometer. Consult your book, Practical Work

✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒s ✩✓✒ ✎✒✘✛✏✕

result ✑✘ is ✕✓❛✕
that ✑✕ it ✙❛✛✘✒✘
causes ✕✓✒ ✏✒❛✎✜
learn ❛✚❞✛✕
about ✕✓✒✘✒these ✑✜✘✕✎✛✤✒✜✕✘s ✩✓✒ ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
in variations atmospheric in Geography — Part I (NCERT, 2006) and

✤❞✢✒✤✒✜✕
movement ❞✣ of ❛✑✎
air ✣✎❞✤
from ✓✑❤✓
high ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
pressure ✕❞ to ✏❞★ ✗✒✙✎✒❛✘✒✘★✑✕✓✓✒✑❤✓✕s ✦✕❛✜✫
any ✒✏✒✢❛✕✑❞✜✑✕✢❛✎✑✒✘
pressure. The the instruments. The pressure

✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒❡
pressure, ✘✒✕✕✑✜❤✕✓✒❛✑✎✑✜✤❞✕✑❞✜s ✪❞✛❛✏✎✒❛✗✫ ✣✎❞✤
from ✔✏❛✙✒place ✕❞ to ✔✏❛✙✒
place ❛✜✗ and ✑✕✘ ✢❛✎✑❛✕✑❞✜ ✑✘is ✕✓✒
low decreases with height. At elevation it varies

❦✜❞★
know ✕✓❛✕ that ❛✑✎ air ✑✜
in ✓❞✎✑✬❞✜✕❛✏
horizontal ✤❞✕✑❞✜motion ✑✘ ★✑✜✗s ✔✎✑✤❛✎✫
primary ✙❛✛✘✒ cause ❞✣ of ❛✑✎
air ✤❞✕✑❞✜❡
motion, ✑s✒s ★✑✜✗ which
★✓✑✙✓
setting the air in motion. You already its variation the

✦✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✑✙ ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒ pressure ❛✏✘❞ also ✗✒✕✒✎✤✑✜✒✘ ★✓✒✜ ✤❞✢✒✘

moves ✣✎❞✤ from ✓✑❤✓ high ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
pressure ❛✎✒❛✘ areas ✕❞ to ✏❞★
is wind. i.e. wind

✕✓✒❛✑✎★✑✏✏ ✎✑✘✒ ❞✎✘✑✜❦s ✩✓✒★✑✜✗ ✎✒✗✑✘✕✎✑✚✛✕✒✘ ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒❛✎✒❛✘s

Atmospheric determines when low

✕✓✒
the ✓✒❛✕heat ❛✜✗ and ✤❞✑✘✕✛✎✒
moisture ❛✙✎❞✘✘across ✕✓✒ the ✔✏❛✜✒✕❡
the air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes pressure areas.

✕✓✒✎✒✚✫❡
thereby, ✤❛✑✜✕❛✑✜✑✜❤❛
maintaining a ✙❞✜✘✕❛✜✕constant ✕✒✤✔✒✎❛✕✛✎✒
planet,
❬❭r❪❫❴❵❜ ❬❵r❫❵❪❫❝❢ ❝❣ ❥r❭❧❧♠r❭
✣❞✎✕✓✒
for the ✔✏❛✜✒✕
planet ❛✘❛ ★✓❞✏✒s The✩✓✒✢✒✎✕✑✙❛✏
vertical ✎✑✘✑✜❤
rising ❞✣
temperature Vertical Variation of Pressure

✤❞✑✘✕
moist ❛✑✎ air ✙❞❞✏✘
cools ✑✕it ✗❞★✜✕❞
down to ✣❞✎✤
as a whole.
form ✕✓✒ the ✙✏❞✛✗✘❛✜✗
of ♥✜In ✕✓✒
the ✏❞★✒✎
lower ❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✒
atmosphere ✕✓✒ the ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
✗✒✙✎✒❛✘✒✘
decreases rapidly with height. The ✗✒✙✎✒❛✘✒
✎❛✔✑✗✏✫ ★✑✕✓ ✓✒✑❤✓✕s ✩✓✒
pressure
✚✎✑✜❤ ✔✎✒✙✑✔✑✕❛✕✑❞✜s ✩✓✑✘ ✙✓❛✔✕✒✎
chapter ✓❛✘ ✚✒✒✜
clouds and
❛✤❞✛✜✕✘✕❞❛✚❞✛✕✐
amounts to about 1 ✤✚ mb ✣❞✎✒❛✙✓✐❇✤
for each 10 m ✑✜✙✎✒❛✘✒
decrease
✗✒✢❞✕✒✗ ✕❞ ✒✧✔✏❛✑✜ ✕✓✒ ✙❛✛✘✒✘ ❞✣ ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
bring precipitation. This has been
elevation. ♥✕
✑✜in ✒✏✒✢❛✕✑❞✜s It ✗❞✒✘✜❞✕❛✏★❛✫✘✗✒✙✎✒❛✘✒❛✕✕✓✒
increase
✗✑✣✣✒✎✒✜✙✒✘❡
differences, ✕✓✒ the ✣❞✎✙✒✘
forces ✕✓❛✕ that ✙❞✜✕✎❞✏
control ✕✓✒
devoted to explain the causes of pressure
✘❛✤✒
same ✎❛✕✒s ✩❛✚✏✒ ✐❇s✐ 10.1 ❤✑✢✒✘
gives ✕✓✒ the ❛✢✒✎❛❤✒
does not always decrease at the
❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✑✙✙✑✎✙✛✏❛✕✑❞✜❡✕✓✒✕✛✎✚✛✏✒✜✕
atmospheric circulation, the turbulent ✔❛✕✕✒✎✜
the
✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒❛✜✗
pressure and ✕✒✤✔✒✎❛✕✛✎✒❛✕
temperature at ✘✒✏✒✙✕✒✗ selected ✏✒✢✒✏✘❞✣
rate. Table average
❞✣of wind,
★✑✜✗❡ ✕✓✒ the ✣❞✎✤❛✕✑❞✜
formation ❞✣ of ❛✑✎air ✤❛✘✘✒✘❡
masses, ✕✓✒
pattern
✒✏✒✢❛✕✑❞✜
elevation ✣❞✎❛ for a ✘✕❛✜✗❛✎✗
standard ❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✒s
levels of
✗✑✘✕✛✎✚✒✗ ★✒❛✕✓✒✎ when ★✓✒✜ ❛✑✎ air ✤❛✘✘✒✘
masses ✑✜✕✒✎❛✙✕
the
atmosphere.
★✑✕✓✒❛✙✓❞✕✓✒✎❛✜✗✕✓✒✔✓✒✜❞✤✒✜❞✜❞✣✢✑❞✏✒✜✕
disturbed weather interact

✕✎❞✔✑✙❛✏
tropical ✘✕❞✎✤✘s
with each other and the phenomenon of violent
storms.
qt✉✈✇①②③①④⑤⑥t⑦⑧t⑨⑧⑩⑨✇❶❶❷⑨✇t⑦⑧q✇❸❹✇⑨t⑥❷⑨✇t⑥
⑤✇✈✇❺⑥✇⑧❻✇❼✇✈❶
Table 10.1 : Standard Pressure and Temperature at
Selected Levels

✭✮✯✰✱✲✳✴✵✶✷ ✸✵✴✱✱❘✵✴ ❽❾❿❾➀ ➁➂❾➃➃➄➂❾➅➆➇➈ ➉❾➇➊❾➂➋➌➄➂❾➍➎

Level Pressure in mb Temperature °C
ATMOSPHERIC

❉❞ ✫❞✛ ✎✒❛✏✑✘✒
PRESSURE

realise ✕✓❛✕
that ❞✛✎ ✚❞✗✫ ✑✘is ✘✛✚✹✒✙✕✒✗
subjected ✕❞ to ❛
➏➐➑➒➐➓➐➔ →➣↔→↕➙➛➜
Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2→➜➙➛
✏❞✕
lot of air pressure. As one moves up the ❛✑✎
Do you
❞✣ ❛✑✎ ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒s ✦✘ ❞✜✒
our body
✤❞✢✒✘ ✛✔ ✕✓✒
a → ➝➞
1km ➟➠➟➙➡➢
898.76 8.7 ➟➙➡
❤✒✕✘✢❛✎✑✣✑✒✗
gets varified ❛✜✗ and ❞✜✒
one ✣✒✒✏✘ ✚✎✒❛✕✓✏✒✘✘s
air
5km➜ ➝➞ ➜➤↔➙➤➟
540.48 ➥→➡➙ ↕
-17.3
✩✓✒★✒✑❤✓✕
weight ❞✣ of ❛a ✙❞✏✛✤✜
column ❞✣❛✑✎ of air ✙❞✜✕❛✑✜✒✗
contained ✑✜
feels breathless.

❛a ✛✜✑✕
unit ❛✎✒❛
The
area ✣✎❞✤
from ✕✓✒✤✒❛✜
the mean ✘✒❛ sea ✏✒✢✒✏
level ✕❞✕✓✒
to the ✕❞✔
in →↔ ➝➞
10 km ➛➢➜➙↔↔
265.00 ➥➤➠➙➡
- 49.7

❞✣of ✕✓✒
the ❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✒
atmosphere ✑✘ is ✙❛✏✏✒✗
called ✕✓✒the ✺✻✼✽✾✿❀❁❂❃❄
top

✿❂❁✾✾♣❂❁s The ✩✓✒ ❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✑✙

atmospheric ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒ pressure ✑✘
atmospheric ✩✓✒✢✒✎✕✑✙❛✏
vertical ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒❤✎❛✗✑✒✜✕✣❞✎✙✒✑✘✤✛✙✓
✏❛✎❤✒✎
larger ✕✓❛✜than ✕✓❛✕ that ❞✣ of ✕✓✒
the ✓❞✎✑✬❞✜✕❛✏
horizontal ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
The pressure gradient force is much

✒✧✔✎✒✘✘✒✗ ✑✜ ✛✜✑✕✘ ❞✣ ✤✚ ❛✜✗ ❅❛✘✙❛✏✘s ✩✓✒

pressure. is
gradient. ➦✛✕❡
❤✎❛✗✑✒✜✕s But, ✑✕ it ✑✘
is ❤✒✜✒✎❛✏✏✫ ✚❛✏❛✜✙✒✗ by✚✫ ❛a
pressure

★✑✗✒✏✫ ✛✘✒✗ used ✛✜✑✕unit ✑✘is ❦✑✏❞❅❛✘✙❛✏ ★✎✑✕✕✒✜❛✘as ✓❅❛s

expressed in units of mb and Pascals. The
✜✒❛✎✏✫
nearly ✒➧✛❛✏ ✚✛✕ ❞✔✔❞✘✑✕✒
opposite ❤✎❛✢✑✕❛✕✑❞✜❛✏
gravitational ✣❞✎✙✒s
generally balanced

✦✕ ✘✒❛sea ✏✒✢✒✏
level ✕✓✒❛✢✒✎❛❤✒❛✕✤❞✘✔✓✒✎✑✙
the average atmospheric ✔✎✒✘✘✛✎✒
widely kilo Pascal written hPa.
➨✒✜✙✒❡ ★✒ ✗❞ do ✜❞✕
not ✒✧✔✒✎✑✒✜✙✒
experience ✘✕✎❞✜❤ strong ✛✔★❛✎✗
equal but force.

✑✘is ✐❡❇✐❋s●
1,013.2 ✤✚ mb ❞✎ or ✐❡❇✐❋s●
1,013.2 ✓❅❛shPa. ❉✛✒ Due ✕❞ to ❤✎❛✢✑✕✫
At pressure
★✑✜✗✘s
Hence, we upward
gravity winds.
❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝✞✟✠ ✠✟✞✠✡☛❆
ATMOSPHERIC ✟✂☞ AND
CIRCULATION ❆☞✌ WEATHER
✍✝❆ ✆✝✞ ✄✎✄ ✝✁✄
SYSTEMS ✽✏
89

❍✑✒✓✔✑✕✖✗✘
Horizontal ✙✓✚✖✒✓✛✜✖✓✑✕
Distribution ✑✢
of ✣✒✤✚✚✜✒✤
Pressure ✰✱✬✰✵✯✫✯
purposes ✵✪ of ✮✵✥✰✦✬✩✯✵✭♣
comparison. The ✷✲✫ ✯✫✦
sea ✧✫✸✫✧
level ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure
★✩✯s✬✩❞✱s✩✵✭
distribution ✩✯ is ✯✲✵✶✭
shown ✵✭ ✶✫✦s✲✫✬ ✥✦✰✯♣
on weather maps.
❙✥✦✧✧
Small ★✩✪✪✫✬✫✭✮✫✯
differences ✩✭
in ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✦✬✫
are ✲✩✳✲✧✴
highly
❋✩✳✱✬✫
Figure ✹✺♣✹
10.1 ✯✲✵✶✯
shows s✲✫ the ✰✦ss✫✬✭✯
patterns ✵✪of ✩✯✵❞✦✬✯
isobars
✯✩✳✭✩✪✩✮✦✭s
significant ✩✭
in s✫✬✥✯
terms ✵✪
of the wind direction ✦✭★
s✲✫ ✶✩✭★ ★✩✬✫✮s✩✵✭ and
✮✵✬✬✫✯✰✵✭★✩✭✳
corresponding s✵ to ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫ systems. ❝✵✶✻
pressure ✯✴✯s✫✥✯♣ Low-
~~

✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫ ✯✴✯s✫✥ ✩✯ ✫✭✮✧✵✯✫★ ❞✴

pressure system is enclosed by one or more ✵✭✫ ✵✬ ✥✵✬✫
HIGH _— 1018 mb
1018 mb =~ 1020 ✩✯✵❞✦✬✯ ✶✩s✲ s✲✫
isobars with the ✧✵✶✫✯s
lowest ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✩✭in s✲✫
the ✮✫✭s✬✫♣
centre.
= = 1016 mb
Se ✼✩✳✲✻✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
High-pressure ✯✴✯s✫✥
system ✩✯ is ✦✧✯✵
also ✫✭✮✧✵✯✫★
enclosed by ❞✴ ✵✭✫
one
a 4/ =j014 mb
✵✬
or ✥✵✬✫
more ✩✯✵❞✦✬✯ ✶✩s✲ s✲✫
isobars with the ✲✩✳✲✫✯s
highest ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✩✭ in
COL LOW d
s✲✫
the ✮✫✭s✬✫♣
centre.
No

Rid
ROT
& 1016 mb ❲✑✒✘♦ ✙✓✚✖✒✓✛✜✖✓✑✕
World of ✾✤✗
Distribution ✑✢ Sea ✿✤❀✤✘
Level ✣✒✤✚✚✜✒✤
Pressure
om 1) 1018 mb ✷✲✫ world
The ✶✵✬✧★ ★✩✯s✬✩❞✱s✩✵✭
distribution ✵✪ of ✯✫✦
sea ✧✫✸✫✧
level ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✩✭ in
HIGH
020 f ❏✦✭✱✦✬✴ ✦✭★ ❏✱✧✴ ✲✦✯ ❞✫✫✭
January and July has been shown in Figures ✯✲✵✶✭ ✩✭ ❋✩✳✱✬✫✯
✹✺♣❁ and ✹✺♣❂♣
10.2 ✦✭★ 10.3. ❃✫✦✬
Near s✲✫
the ✫❄✱✦s✵✬
equator s✲✫ the ✯✫✦
sea ✧✫✸✫✧
—™s
level
❱❳❨❩❬❭
Figure ❪❫❴❪
10.1 ❛: ②❢❥✐t❬❢③
Isobars, ♠❬❭❢❢❩❬❭
pressure t❦④
and ⑤❳❦④
wind ❢①❢❣❭q❢
systems ❳❦
in ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✩✯ is ✧✵✶
low ✦✭★
and s✲✫the ✦✬✫✦area ✩✯is ❅✭✵✶✭
known ✦✯ as
⑥❥❬❣⑦❭❬❦
Northern ⑧❭q❳❢♠⑦❭❬❭
30° P ❙
Hemisphere
❡❇❈❉❊●■❑❉▲
equatorial ▲●▼♣ ◆✧✵✭✳ ❂✺❖
low. Along 30° ❃ and ❂✺
N ✦✭★ S ✦✬✫
are
✸✫✧✵✮✩s✴♣ ✼✵✬✩⑨✵✭s✦✧
velocity. Horizontal ★✩✯s✬✩❞✱s✩✵✭
distribution ✵✪ of ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✩✯ is ✪✵✱✭★
found s✲✫ the ✲✩✳✲✻✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
high-pressure ✦✬✫✦✯ areas ❅✭✵✶✭
known ✦✯ as s✲✫
the
✯s✱★✩✫★
studied by❞✴ ★✬✦✶✩✭✳
drawing ✩✯✵❞✦✬✯
isobars ✦sat ✮✵✭✯s✦✭s
constant ✧✫✸✫✧✯♣
levels. ✯✱❞s✬✵✰✩✮✦✧ ✲✩✳✲✯♣ ❋✱✬s✲✫✬
subtropical highs. Further pole wards along✰✵✧✫ ✶✦✬★✯ ✦✧✵✭✳
⑩✯✵❞✦✬✯
Isobars ✦✬✫are ✧✩✭✫✯
lines ✮✵✭✭✫✮s✩✭✳
connecting ✰✧✦✮✫✯
places ✲✦✸✩✭✳
having 60° P N❃ ✦✭★
◗✺ and ◗✺ P ❙❘ s✲✫
60°S, the ✧✵✶✻✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
low-pressure belts ❞✫✧s✯ ✦✬✫ are
✫❄✱✦✧ pressure. ⑩✭
equal ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫♣ In ✵✬★✫✬
order s✵
to ✫✧✩✥✩✭✦s✫
eliminate s✲✫
the ✫✪✪✫✮s
effect s✫✬✥✫★
termed ✦✯ as s✲✫
the ✯✱❞sub ✰✵✧✦✬ lows. ❃✫✦✬
polar ✧✵✶✯♣ Near s✲✫the ✰✵✧✫✯
poles
✵✪
of ✦✧s✩s✱★✫
altitude ✵✭on ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫❘
pressure, ✩sit ✩✯
is ✥✫✦✯✱✬✫★
measured ✦s at ✦✭✴
any s✲✫
the ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
pressure ✩✯ is ✲✩✳✲
high ✦✭★
and ✩s is ❅✭✵✶✭
it ✩✯ known ✦✯ as s✲✫ ❚●▲❉■
the polar
✯s✦s✩✵✭
station ✦✪s✫✬ ❞✫✩✭✳ ✬✫★✱✮✫★
after being reduced s✵ to ✯✫✦
sea ✧✫✸✫✧
level ✪✵✬
for ❤❑❯❤♣ ✷✲✫✯✫ ✰✬✫✯✯✱✬✫
high. These pressure belts❞✫✧s✯ ✦✬✫are ✭✵s
not ✰✫✬✥✦✭✫✭s
permanent

❱❳❨❩❬❭
Figure ❪❫❴❵
10.2 ❛: ❜❳❢❣❬❳✐❩❣❳❥❦
Distribution ❥❧
of ♠❬❭❢❢❩❬❭
pressure ♥❳❦
(in q❳rr❳✐t❬❢✉ ✈ ✇t❦❩t❬①
millibars) — January
✾✑
90 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

] I I
nr 180
LY Aa ni OH

KG
aT +
i

or

❙❯❱❲❳❩
Figure ❬❭❪❫
10.3 ❴: ❵❯❜❝❳❯❣❲❝❯❤✐
Distribution ❤❥
of ❦❳❩❜❜❲❳❩
pressure ❧❯✐
(in ♠❯♥♥❯❣q❳❜r
millibars) s ✈❲♥①
— July

✧✪
in ✪✭✮✲✩✥♣ ❚✤✥✷ ✰✬✫✧✴✴✭✮✥
nature. They ✇✧✮✤ ✮✤✥
oscillate with the ✭✱✱✭✩✥✪✮
apparent P✒✓✔✔✕✒✓
Pressure ✖✒✗✘✙✓✚✛
Gradient ✜✢✒✣✓
Force
✯✰✉✥✯✥✪✮
movement ✰★ of ✮✤✥
the ✬✲✪♣
sun. ■✪In ✮✤✥
the ✪✰✩✮✤✥✩✪
northern
❚✤✥ ✦✧★★✥✩✥✪✫✥✬
The differences ✧✪ in ✭✮✯✰✬✱✤✥✩✧✫
atmospheric ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥
pressure
✤✥✯✧✬✱✤✥✩✥
hemisphere ✧✪ ✇✧✪✮✥✩ ✮✤✥✷
in winter they ✯✰✉✥
move ✬✰✲✮✤✇✭✩✦✬
southwards
✱✩✰✦✲✫✥✬
produces a force. The rate of change of ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥
✭ ★✰✩✫✥♣ ❚✤✥ ✩✭✮✥ ✰★ ✫✤✭✪✳✥ ✰★ pressure
✭✪✦
and ✧✪
in ✮✤✥
the ✬✲✯✯✥✩
summer ✪✰✩✮✤✇✭✩✦✬♣
northwards.
✇✧✮✤ ✩✥✬✱✥✫✮
with respect ✮✰ to ✦✧✬✮✭✪✫✥
distance ✧✬ is ✮✤✥
the ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥
pressure
❁❂❃❄❅❆ ❇❉❉❅❄❊●❍❏ ❊❑❅
Forces Affecting ▲❅❡❂❄●❊▼
the Velocity
✳✩✭✦✧✥✪✮♣ ❚✤✥ ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥
gradient. The pressure ✳✩✭✦✧✥✪✮
gradient ✧✬
is ✬✮✩✰✪✳ ✇✤✥✩✥
strong where
❛❍◆
and ❖●❃❅❄❊●❂❍
Direction ❂❉ ◗●❍◆
of Wind
✮✤✥ ✧✬✰t✭✩✬ ✭✩✥ ✫✴✰✬✥ ✮✰ ✥✭✫✤ ✰✮✤✥✩ ✭✪✦ ✧✬
the isobars are close to each other and is weak ✇✥✭✵
✇✤✥✩✥ ✮✤✥
where the ✧✬✰t✭✩✬
isobars ✭✩✥
are ✭✱✭✩✮♣
apart.
❨✰✲ ✭✴✩✥✭✦✷
You already ✵✪✰✇know ✮✤✭✮
that ✮✤✥the ✭✧✩
air ✧✬
is ✬✥✮
set ✧✪
in ✯✰✮✧✰✪
motion
✦✲✥
due ✮✰
to ✮✤✥
the ✦✧★★✥✩✥✪✫✥✬
differences ✧✪ in ✭✮✯✰✬✱✤✥✩✧✫
atmospheric ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥♣
pressure. ✜✒✙✣✛✙✢✚✗✶
Frictional ✜✢✒✣✓
Force
❚✤✥ ✭✧✩
The air ✧✪in ✯✰✮✧✰✪
motion ✧✬ is ✫✭✴✴✥✦ ✇✧✪✦♣ The
called wind. ❚✤✥ wind
✇✧✪✦
■✮
It ✭★★✥✫✮✬
affects ✮✤✥
the ✬✱✥✥✦
speed ✰★of ✮✤✥ ✇✧✪✦♣ ■✮
the wind. It ✧✬
is ✳✩✥✭✮✥✬✮
greatest ✭✮
at
t✴✰✇✬
blows ★✩✰✯
from ✤✧✳✤
high ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥
pressure ✮✰ to ✴✰✇
low ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥♣
pressure. The ❚✤✥
✮✤✥ ✬✲✩★✭✫✥ ✭✪✦ ✧✮✬ ✧✪★✴✲✥✪✫✥ ✳✥✪✥✩✭✴✴✷
the surface and its influence generally extends ✥✸✮✥✪✦✬
✇✧✪✦ ✭✮
wind at ✮✤✥
the ✬✲✩★✭✫✥
surface ✥✸✱✥✩✧✥✪✫✥✬
experiences ★✩✧✫✮✧✰✪♣
friction. ■✪ In
✲✱✮✰
upto ✭✪ an ✥✴✥✉✭✮✧✰✪
elevation ✰★ of ✹1 ✺- ✻
3 ✵✯♣
km. ✼✉✥✩
Over ✮✤✥
the ✬✥✭
sea
✭✦✦✧✮✧✰✪❘
addition, ✩✰✮✭✮✧✰✪
rotation ✰★ of ✮✤✥
the ✥✭✩✮✤
earth ✭✴✬✰
also ✭★★✥✫✮✬
affects ✮✤✥
the
✬✲✩★✭✫✥
surface ✮✤✥
the ★✩✧✫✮✧✰✪
friction ✧✬
is ✯✧✪✧✯✭✴♣
minimal.
✇✧✪✦ ✯✰✉✥✯✥✪✮♣
wind movement. The ❚✤✥ ★✰✩✫✥
force ✥✸✥✩✮✥✦
exerted t✷ by ✮✤✥
the
✩✰✮✭✮✧✰✪
rotation ✰★ of ✮✤✥
the ✥✭✩✮✤
earth ✧✬is ✵✪✰✇✪
known ✭✬ as ✮✤✥
the ✽✰✩✧✰✴✧✬
Coriolis
❈✢✒✙✢✶✙✔
Coriolis ✜✢✒✣✓
Force
★✰✩✫✥♣ ❚✤✲✬❘ ✮✤✥
force. Thus, the ✤✰✩✧❢✰✪✮✭✴
horizontal winds ✇✧✪✦✬ ✪✥✭✩ near ✮✤✥the
✥✭✩✮✤
earth ✬✲✩★✭✫✥
surface ✩✥✬✱✰✪✦
respond ✮✰ to ✮✤✥
the ✫✰✯t✧✪✥✦
combined ✥★★✥✫✮ effect ❚✤✥ ✩✰✮✭✮✧✰✪
The rotation ✰★
of ✮✤✥
the ✥✭✩✮✤
earth ✭t✰✲✮
about ✧✮✬
its ✭✸✧✬
axis ✭★★✥✫✮✬
affects
✰★
of ✮✤✩✥✥
three ★✰✩✫✥✬
forces —♦ ✮✤✥
the ✱✩✥✬✬✲✩✥
pressure ✳✩✭✦✧✥✪✮
gradient ★✰✩✫✥❘
force, ✮✤✥
the ✦✧✩✥✫✮✧✰✪
direction ✰★of ✮✤✥ ✇✧✪✦♣ This
the wind. ❚✤✧✬ ★✰✩✫✥
force ✧✬
is ✫✭✴✴✥✦
called
✮✤✥
the frictional force and the Coriolis force. ■✪
★✩✧✫✮✧✰✪✭✴ ★✰✩✫✥ ✭✪✦ ✮✤✥ ✽✰✩✧✰✴✧✬ ★✰✩✫✥♣ In ✮✤✥
the ✽✰✩✧✰✴✧✬
Coriolis ★✰✩✫✥
force ✭★✮✥✩
after ✮✤✥
the ✿✩✥✪✫✤
French ✱✤✷✬✧✫✧✬✮ ✇✤✰
physicist who
✭✦✦✧✮✧✰✪❘
addition, ✮✤✥ the ✳ ✩✭✉✧✮✭✮✧✰✪✭✴ ★✰✩✫✥
gravitational force ✭✫✮ acts✬ ✦✥✬✫✩✧t✥✦
described ✧✮it ✧✪
in ✹❞❀❀♣
1844. ■✮
It ✦✥★✴✥✫✮✬
deflects ✮✤✥ ✇✧✪✦ ✮✰
the wind to ✮✤✥
the
✦✰✇✪✇✭✩✦♣
downward. ✩✧✳✤✮
right ✦✧✩✥✫✮✧✰✪
direction ✧✪in ✮✤✥
the ✪✰✩✮✤✥✩✪
northern ✤✥✯✧✬✱✤✥✩✥
hemisphere ✭✪✦
and
❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝✞✟✠ ✠✟✞✠✡☛❆
ATMOSPHERIC ✟✂☞ AND
CIRCULATION ❆☞✌ WEATHER
✍✝❆ ✆✝✞ ✄✎✄ ✝✁✄
SYSTEMS ✾✏
91

t✑
to t✒✓
the ✔✓✕t
left ✖✗ in t✒✓
the ✘✑✙t✒✓✚✗
southern ✒✓✛✖✘✜✒✓✚✓✢
hemisphere. The ✣✒✓ ✣✒✓ wind
The ✥✖✗❞ ✤✖✚✤✙✔✩t✖✑✗
circulation ✩✚✑✙✗❞ around ✩ a ✔✑✥
low ✖✘ is
❞✓✕✔✓✤t✖✑✗
deflection ✖✘ is ✛✑✚✓
more when✥✒✓✗ t✒✓ ✥✖✗❞ velocity
the wind ✦✓✔✑✤✖t✧ ✖✘ is ✤✩✔✔✓❞
called ❻❼❻❽❾✵✸❻
cyclonic ❻✸✯❻✳❽✴❿✸❾✵✢ ✮✚✑✙✗❞ ✩
circulation. Around a ✒✖❤✒
high
✒✖❤✒✢ ✣✒✓ ★✑✚✖✑✔✖✘
high. The Coriolis ✕✑✚✤✓
force ✖✘is ❞✖✚✓✤t✔✧
directly ✜✚✑✜✑✚t✖✑✗✩✔
proportional ✖t
it ✖✘is ✤✩✔✔✓❞
called ✴✵❿✸anti ❻❼❻❽❾✵✸❻
cyclonic ❻✸✯❻✳❽✴❿✸❾✵✢
circulation. The ✣✒✓
t✑
to t✒✓
the ✩✗❤✔✓
angle ✑✕ latitude. ✪t
of ✔✩t✖t✙❞✓✢ It ✖✘is ✛✩✫✖✛✙✛
maximum ✩t at t✒✓
the ❞✖✚✓✤t✖✑✗
direction ✑✕ ✥✖✗❞✘ ✩✚✑✙✗❞
of winds around ✘✙✤✒ such ✘✧✘t✓✛✘
systems
✜✑✔✓✘
poles ✩✗❞and ✖✘ is ✩♣✘✓✗t
absent ✩t at t✒✓
the ✓✬✙✩t✑✚✢
equator. ✤✒✩✗❤
changes ✓✘ ✩✤✤✑✚❞✖✗❤
according tto✑ t✒✓✖✚ their ✔✑✤✩t✖✑✗
location ✖✗ in
✣✒✓ ★✑✚✖✑✔✖✘
The Coriolis ✕✑✚✤✓force ✩✤t✘
acts ✜✓✚✜✓✗❞✖✤✙✔✩✚
perpendicular t✑ to t✒✓
the ❞✖✕✕✓✚✓✗t hemispheres ✻✣✩♣✔✓
different ✒✓✛✖✘✜✒✓✚✓✘ (Table ✽✿✢✇❁✢
10.2).
✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure ❤✚✩❞✖✓✗t
gradient ✕✑✚✤✓✢ ✣✒✓ ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
force. The pressure ❤✚✩❞✖✓✗t
gradient The ✥✖✗❞ ✤✖✚✤✙✔✩t✖✑✗
✣✒✓ wind circulation ✩t at t✒✓
the ✓✩✚t✒➀✘
earth’s ✘✙✚✕✩✤✓
surface
✕✑✚✤✓
force ✖✘is ✜✓✚✜✓✗❞✖✤✙✔✩✚
perpendicular t✑ to ✩✗an ✖✘✑♣✩✚✢ ✣✒✓ ✒✖❤✒✓✚
isobar. The higher ✩✚✑✙✗❞
around ✔✑✥ low ✩✗❞
and ✒✖❤✒
high ✑✗ on ✛✩✗✧
many ✑✤✤✩✘✖✑✗✘
occasions ✖✘ is
t✒✓
the ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure ❤✚✩❞✖✓✗tgradient ✕✑✚✤✓✭force, t✒✓ the ✛✑✚✓
more ✖✘ is t✒✓
the ✤✔✑✘✓✔✧
closely ✚✓✔✩t✓❞
related t✑
to t✒✓ ✥✖✗❞ ✤✖✚✤✙✔✩t✖✑✗
the wind circulation ✩t at ✒✖❤✒✓✚
higher
✦✓✔✑✤✖t✧ ✑✕
velocity of t✒✓
the wind✥✖✗❞ ✩✗❞ and t✒✓ the ✔✩✚❤✓✚
larger ✖✘ is t✒✓
the level. ➁✓✗✓✚✩✔✔✧✭
✔✓✦✓✔✢ Generally, ✑✦✓✚
over ✔✑✥low ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure ✩✚✓✩area t✒✓
the ✩✖✚
air
❞✓✕✔✓✤t✖✑✗
deflection ✖✗ the ❞✖✚✓✤t✖✑✗
in t✒✓ direction ✑✕ ✥✖✗❞✢ As
of wind. ✮✘ ✩a ✚✓✘✙✔t
result ✑✕of ✥✖✔✔ ✤✑✗✦✓✚❤✓
will converge ✩✗❞ rise. ➂✦✓✚
and ✚✖✘✓✢ Over ✒✖❤✒
high ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure ✩✚✓✩area
t✒✓✘✓ t✥✑ ✕✑✚✤✓✘ ✑✜✓✚✩t✖✗❤ ✜✓✚✜✓✗❞✖✤✙✔✩✚
these two forces operating perpendicular to each t✑ ✓✩✤✒ t✒✓
the ✩✖✚ ✥✖✔✔ ✘✙♣✘✖❞✓
air will subside ✕✚✑✛ from ✩♣✑✦✓
above ✩✗❞and ❞✖✦✓✚❤✓
diverge ✩t at
✑t✒✓✚✭
other, ✖✗in t✒✓
the ✔✑✥✱✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
low-pressure ✩✚✓✩✘ areas t✒✓ ✥✖✗❞ ♣✔✑✥✘
the wind blows t✒✓
the ✘✙✚✕✩surface ✤✓ ✻✼✖❤✙✚ ✓✽✿✢➃❁✢ Apart
(Figurel0.5). ✮✜✩✚t ✕✚✑✛ from
✩✚✑✙✗❞
around ✖t✢ ✮t t✒✓
it. At the ✓✬✙✩t✑✚✭
equator, t✒✓ the ★✑✚✖✑✔✖✘
Coriolis ✕✑✚✤✓
force ✖✘is ✤✑✗✦✓✚❤
convergence, ✓✗✤✓✭ ✘✑✛ eddies, ✤✑✗✦✓
some ✓ ✓❞❞✖✓✘✭ convection✤t ✖✑✗
③✓✚✑
zero ✩✗❞
and t✒✓ ✥✖✗❞ ♣✔✑✥✘
the wind blows ✜✓✚✜✓✗❞✖✤✙✔✩✚
perpendicular t✑ to t✒✓
the ✤✙✚✚✓✗t✘✭
currents, orographic uplift and uplift ✩✔✑✗❤
✑✚✑❤✚✩✜✒✖✤ ✙✜✔✖✕t ✩✗❞ ✙✜✔✖✕t along
✖✘✑♣✩✚✘✢
isobars. The ✣✒✓ ✔✑✥ low ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure ❤✓t✘ gets ✕✖✔✔✓❞
filled ✖✗✘t✓✩❞
instead ✑✕ of fronts ✤✩✙✘✓
✕✚✑✗t✘ cause t✒✓
the ✚✖✘✖✗❤
rising ✑✕of ✩✖✚✭ ✥✒✖✤✒ ✖✘
air, which is ✓✘✘✓✗t✖✩✔
essential
❤✓tt✖✗❤
getting ✖✗t✓✗✘✖✕✖✓❞✢
intensified. That ✣✒✩t ✖✘is t✒✓
the ✚✓✩✘✑✗ ✥✒✧ t✚✑✜✖✤✩✔
reason why tropical ✕✑✚
for t✒✓
the ✕✑✚✛✩t✖✑✗
formation ✑✕ of ✤✔✑✙❞✘
clouds ✩✗❞and ✜✚✓✤✖✜✖t✩t✖✑✗✢
precipitation.
✤✧✤✔✑✗✓✘
cyclones ✩✚✓ are ✗✑t
not ✕✑✚✛✓❞
formed ✗✓✩✚near t✒✓ the ✓✬✙✩t✑✚✢
equator.
P✯✰✲✲✳✯✰
Pressure ✴✵✶
and ✷✸✵✶
Wind Divergence Convergence
Ss
\y PRE ~\
Vf eo
The ✦✓✔✑✤✖t✧ ✩✗❞
✣✒✓ velocity and ❞✖✚✓✤t✖✑✗
direction ✑✕ of t✒✓ ✥✖✗❞ ✩✚✓
the wind are t✒✓
the
✗✓t
net ✚✓✘✙✔t
result ✑✕ of t✒✓ ✥✖✗❞ ❤✓✗✓✚✩t✖✗❤
the wind generating ✕✑✚✤✓✘✢ ✣✒✓
forces. The A !

✥✖✗❞✘ ✖✗
winds in t✒✓
the ✙✜✜✓✚ atmosphere, ✇
upper ✩t✛✑✘✜✒✓✚✓✭ 2 ✱- ✹
3 ✺✛
km ✩♣✑✦✓
above Y
ae Span Sennen
eee --------% s+ ----p»--- Surface
Z ‘ / \

t✒✓
the surface, are free from frictional effect ✑✕
✘✙✚✕✩✤✓✭ ✩✚✓ ✕✚✓✓ ✕✚✑✛ ✕✚✖✤t✖✑✗✩✔ ✓✕✕✓✤t of t✒✓
the
Convergence Divergence
✘✙✚✕✩✤✓
surface ✩✗❞and ✩✚✓ are ✤✑✗t✚✑✔✔✓❞
controlled ♣✧ by t✒✓
the ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure Low High
❤✚✩❞✖✓✗t
gradient ✩✗❞and t✒✓the ★✑✚✖✑✔✖✘
Coriolis ✕✑✚✤✓✢ ❣✒✓✗ ✖✘✑♣✩✚✘
force. When isobars
✩✚✓
are ✘t✚✩✖❤✒t
straight ✩✗❞ ✥✒✓✗ t✒✓✚✓
and when there ✖✘is ✗✑
no ✕✚✖✤t✖✑✗✭
friction, t✒✓
the Figure ❇❈❉➝
➄◆➅➆■❅ 10.5 ❋: ❙❑❏➞❅■➅❅❏❘❅
Convergence ❂❏❖
and ❖◆➞❅■➅❅❏❘❅
divergence ❑▲ ➟◆❏❖❱
of winds
✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓
pressure ❤✚✩❞✖✓✗t
gradient ✕✑✚✤✓
force ✖✘is ♣✩✔✩✗✤✓❞
balanced ♣✧ by t✒✓
the
★✑✚✖✑✔✖✘
Coriolis ✕✑✚✤✓
force ✩✗❞and t✒✓
the ✚✓✘✙✔t✩✗t
resultant wind ✥✖✗❞ ♣✔✑✥✘
blows
✜✩✚✩✔✔✓✔
parallel t✑to t✒✓
the ✖✘✑♣✩✚✢ ✥✖✗❞ ✖✘
✣✒✖✘ wind
isobar. This is ✺✗✑✥✗
known ✩✘ as ➊➋➌➋➍➎➏
General ➐➑➍➐➒➏➎➓➑➔➌
circulation ➔→
of ➓➣➋
the ➎➓↔➔↕➙➣➋➍➋
atmosphere
t✒✓
the ❤✓✑✘t✚✑✜✒✖✤ ✥✖✗❞ ✻✼✖❤✙✚✓
geostrophic wind (Figure 10.4). ✽✿✢❀❁✢ ✣✒✓ ✜✩tt✓✚✗
The pattern ✑✕ of ✜✔✩✗✓t✩✚✧ ✥✖✗❞✘ ✔✩✚❤✓✔✧
planetary winds largely ❞✓✜✓✗❞✘
depends
C_ - Coriolis force ✑✗ ➛ ✻✖❁ ✔✩t✖t✙❞✖✗✩✔ ✦✩✚✖✩t✖✑✗
on : (i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric✑✕ ✩t✛✑✘✜✒✓✚✖✤
4 V_ - Geostrophic wind
P,, - Horizontal pressure
heating; ✻✖✖❁
✒✓✩t✖✗❤➜ (ii) ✓✛✓✚❤✓✗✤✓
emergence ✑✕ of ✜✚✓✘✘✙✚✓ belts; ✻✖✖✖❁
pressure ♣✓✔t✘➜ (iii)
&
radient
BP,
t✒✓
the ✛✖❤✚✩t✖✑✗
migration ✑✕ of ♣✓✔t✘
belts ✕✑✔✔✑✥✖✗❤
following ✩✜✜✩✚✓✗t
apparent ✜✩t✒path
7 ✑✕
of t✒✓ sun; ✻✖✦❁
the ✘✙✗➜ the ❞✖✘t✚✖♣✙t✖✑✗
(iv) t✒✓ distribution ✑✕ of ✤✑✗t✖✗✓✗t✘
continents
v “O4mb ✩✗❞ oceans; ✻✦❁
and ✑✤✓✩✗✘➜ (v) t✒✓
the ✚✑t✩t✖✑✗
rotation ✑✕of ✓✩✚t✒✢ ✣✒✓ ✜✩tt✓✚✗
earth. The pattern
Vv
7 O8m b 704m), ✑✕
of t✒✓
the ✛✑✦✓✛✓✗t
movement ✑✕ of t✒✓
the ✜✔✩✗✓t✩✚✧ ✥✖✗❞✘ ✖✘
planetary winds is
Cc ✤✩✔✔
called ✓❞ t✒ the✓ ❤ ✓✗ ✓✚✩✔ ✤✖✚✤✙
general ✔✩t ✖✑✗ ✑✕
circulation of t✒the✓
Northern hemisphere 7 O8mp ✩t✛✑✘✜✒✓✚✓✢
atmosphere. The general ✤✖✚✤✙✔✩t✖✑✗
✣✒✓ ❤✓✗✓✚✩✔ circulation ✑✕ of t✒✓
the
Cc ✩t✛✑✘✜✒✓✚✓
atmosphere ✩✔✘✑ also ✘✓t✘
sets ✖✗
in ✛✑t✖✑✗
motion t✒✓the ✑✤✓✩✗ ✥✩t✓✚
ocean water
Southern hemisphere
✤✖✚✤✙✔✩t✖✑✗
circulation which ✥✒✖✤✒ ✖✗✕✔✙✓✗✤✓✘
influences t✒✓ the ✓✩✚t✒➀✘
earth’s
Figure ❇❈❉➇
➄◆➅➆■❅ 10.4 ❋: ➈❅❑❱❍■❑➉◆❘ ▼◆❏❖
Geostropic Wind

❚❂❃❄❅
Table ❇❈❉❊
10.2 ❋: ●❂❍❍❅■❏
Pattern ❑▲ ▼◆❏❖ ◗◆■❅❘❍◆❑❏
of Wind Direction ◆❏
in ❙❯❘❄❑❏❅❱
Cyclones ❂❏❖ ❲❏❍◆❘❯❘❄❑❏❅❱
and Anticyclones

❳❨❩❬❬❭❨❩
Pressure ❪❫❬❴❩❵
System ❳❨❩❬❬❭❨❩
Pressure ❛❜❝❡❢❴❢❜❝
Condition ❳✐❴❴❩❨❝
Pattern ❜❥
of ❦❢❝❡
Wind ❧❢❨❩♠❴❢❜❝
Direction
✐❴
at ❴♥❩
the ❛❩❝❴❨❩
Centre ♦❜❨❴♥❩❨❝
Northern q❩❵❢❬r♥❩❨❩
Hemisphere ❪❜❭❴♥❩❨❝
Southern q❩❵❢❬r♥❩❨❩
Hemisphere

s✉✈①②④⑤
Cyclone ⑥②⑦
Low ⑧④⑨⑩✈①②✈❶⑦⑩❷⑤
Anticlockwise s①②✈❶⑦⑩❷⑤
Clockwise
⑧④⑨⑩✈✉✈①②④⑤
Anticyclone ❸⑩❹❺
High s①②✈❶⑦⑩❷⑤
Clockwise ⑧④⑨⑩✈①②✈❶⑦⑩❷⑤
Anticlockwise
✾✑
92 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❝✒✓✔✕✖✗✘
climate. A✙ ✚❝✛✗✔✕✖✓❝
schematic ✜✗✚❝✢✓✣✖✓✤✥
description ✤✦
of ✖✛✗
the ✧✗✥✗✢✕✒
general ❚✛✗ ✧✗✥✗✢✕✒
The general ❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥
circulation ✤✦of ✖✛✗
the ✕✖✔✤✚✣✛✗✢✗
atmosphere
❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥
circulation ✓✚
is ✚✛✤✩✥ in ✪✓✧★✢✗
shown ✓✥ Figure ✫✬✘✭✘
10.6. ✕✒✚✤
also ✕✦✦✗❝✖✚
affects ✖✛✗
the ✤❝✗✕✥✚✘ ❚✛✗ ✒✕✢✧✗❛✚❝✕✒✗
oceans. The ✩✓✥✜✚
large-scale winds
Polar
✤✦
of the atmosphere initiate large and ✚✒✤✩
✖✛✗ ✕✖✔✤✚✣✛✗✢✗ ✓✥✓✖✓✕✖✗ ✒✕✢✧✗ ✕✥✜ slow
Vortex ✔✤♠✓✥✧
moving ❝★✢✢✗✥✖✚
currents ✤✦of ✖✛✗ ocean. ✮❝✗✕✥✚
the ✤❝✗✕✥✘ Oceans ✓✥in ✖★✢✥
turn
N.P ~~ Polar ✣✢✤♠✓✜✗
provide ✓✥✣★✖
input ✤✦
of ✗✥✗✢✧♣
energy ✕✥✜ ✩✕✖✗✢ vapour
and water ♠✕✣✤★✢ ✓✥✖✤
into
4f Pol
yOlarCattHasterMes
fe re CN, ✖✛✗
the ✕✓✢✘ ❚✛✗✚✗ ✓✥✖✗✢✕❝✖✓✤✥✚
air. These interactions ✖✕✳✗take ✣✒✕❝✗
place ✢✕✖✛✗✢
rather
60°NL2—
Vy
SPLX—LE-NV |e roret Stream ✚✒✤✩✒♣
slowly ✤♠✗✢
over ✕
a ✒✕✢✧✗
large ✣✕✢✖
part ✤✦
of ✖✛✗
the ✤❝✗✕✥✘
ocean.
Westerlies
Ferrel
cell* Subtropical
— + -30°N -H————
/
STH.
/
●✯✰✯✱✲✴ ✵✶✷✸✹✺✻✯✱✼✽ ✿✼✱✽❀✴✲✶✼✸✰
General Atmospheric Circulation ✲✰❁
and
✼✶✹ Effects ✸✰
“a
North East Trades its ✐❂❂✯✽✶✹ on ❃✽✯✲✰✹
Oceans

l
0 a ITCZ— Equator} —_,
\ \ South East Trades ❲❄r❅❆❇❈ ❄❇❉
Warming and ❊❍❍■❆❇❈
cooling ❍❏ of ❑▲▼
the ◆❄❊❆❏❆❊
Pacific ❖❊▼❄❇
Ocean
—> \30°S -H \ STH ❆P
is ❅❍P❑
most ❆❅◗❍r❑❄❇❑
important ❆❇ in ❑▼r❅P
terms ❍❏ of ❈▼❇▼r❄■
general
❄❑❅❍P◗▲▼r❆❊
atmospheric ❊❆r❊❘■❄❑❆❍❇❙
circulation. The ❯▲▼ warm
❱❄r❅ water❱❄❑▼r
o\tE60°SL—
Ne
SPL
❍❏
of ❑▲▼
the ❊▼❇❑r❄■
central ◆❄❊❆❏❆❊
Pacific ❖❊▼❄❇
Ocean P■❍❱■♦
slowly ❉r❆❏❑P
drifts
ro SS Polar Basterlies
i Zo ❑❍❱❄r❉P
towards t❍❘❑▲ ❳❅▼r❆❊❄❇ ❊❍❄P❑
South American coast ❄❇❉ and
SS
S.P f r▼◗■❄❊▼P
replaces ❑▲▼ the ❊❍❍■cool ◆▼r❘❨❆❄❇
Peruvian ❊❘rr▼❇❑❙
current. t❘❊▲ Such
t ❄◗◗▼❄r❄❇❊▼
appearance ❍❏ ❱❄r❅ water
of warm ❱❄❑▼r ❍❏❏ off ❑▲▼
the ❊❍❄P❑
coast
➂➃➄➅➆➇
Figure ➈➉➊
10. ➋
6 ➌: ➍➃➎➏➐➃➑➃➇➒
Simplified ➄➇➓➇➆➔➐
general →➃➆→➅➐➔➣➃↔➓
circulation
❍❏
of ◆▼r❘
Peru ❆P is ❩❇❍❱❇
known ❄P as ❑▲▼
the ❬■ El ❭❆❇❍❙
Nino. The ❯▲▼ ❬■ El
↔➑
of ➣↕➇
the ➔➣➎↔➙➏↕➇➆➇
atmosphere ❭❆❇❍
Nino ▼❨▼❇❑
event ❆P is ❊■❍P▼■♦
closely ❄PP❍❊❆❄❑▼❉
associated with ❱❆❑▲ ❑▲▼
the
◗r▼PP❘r▼
pressure ❊▲❄❇❈▼P
changes ❆❇ in ❑▲▼
the ❪▼❇❑r❄■
Central ◆❄❊❆❏❆❊
Pacific
❚✛✗ ✕✓✢
The air ✕✖at ✖✛✗
the ➛✥✖✗✢ ❚✢✤✣✓❝✕✒ ❺✤✥♠✗✢✧✗✥❝✗
Inter Tropical Convergence ❄❇❉ ❳❘P❑r❄■❆❄❙ This
and Australia. ❯▲❆P ❊▲❄❇❈▼
change ❆❇ in ◗r▼PP❘r▼
pressure
Zone ❸➛❚❺➜❾
➜✤✥✗ (ITCZ) ✢✓✚✗✚ ✈✗❝✕★✚✗ ✤✦
rises because of ❝✤✥♠✗❝✖✓✤✥
convection ❝✕★✚✗✜ caused ❊❍❇❉❆❑❆❍❇
condition ❍❨▼r over ◆❄❊❆❏❆❊
Pacific ❆P is ❩❇❍❱❇
known ❄P as ❑▲▼
the
✈♣ ✛✓✧✛
by high ✓✥✚✤✒✕✖✓✤✥
insolation ✕✥✜ and ✕ a ✒✤✩
low ✣✢✗✚✚★✢✗
pressure ✓✚ is P❍❘❑▲▼r❇
southern ❍P❊❆■■❄❑❆❍❇❙
oscillation. ❯▲▼ ❊❍❅s❆❇▼❉
The combined
❝✢✗✕✖✗✜✘
created. The ❚✛✗ winds
✩✓✥✜✚ ✦✢✤✔ from ✖✛✗ the ✖✢✤✣✓❝✚
tropics ❝✤✥♠✗✢✧✗
converge ◗▲▼❇❍❅▼❇❍❇
phenomenon ❍❏ of P❍❘❑▲▼r❇
southern ❍P❊❆■■❄❑❆❍❇
oscillation ❄❇❉ and
✕✖
at ✖✛✓✚
this ✒✤✩ pressure ➝✤✥✗✘
low ✣✢✗✚✚★✢✗ zone. The ❚✛✗ ❝✤✥♠✗✢✧✗✜
converged ✕✓✢ air ❬■
El ❭❆❇❍
Nino ❆P is ❩❇❍❱❇
known ❄P as ❬❭t❖❙
ENSO. ❫❇ In ❑▲▼ ♦▼❄rP
the years
✢✓✚✗✚
rises ✕✒✤✥✧
along with ✩✓✖✛ ✖✛✗the ❝✤✥♠✗❝✖✓♠✗
convective ❝✗✒✒✘ cell. ➛✖It ✢✗✕❝✛✗✚
reaches ❱▲▼❇ ❑▲▼
when the ❬❭t❖ENSO ❆P is P❑r❍❇❈✇
strong, ■❄r❈▼❴P❊❄■▼
large-scale
✖✛✗
the ✖✤✣
top ✤✦of ✖✛✗ troposphere ★✣
the ✖✢✤✣✤✚✣✛✗✢✗ up ✖✤to ✕✥an ✕✒✖✓✖★✜✗
altitude ✤✦ of ❨❄r❆❄❑❆❍❇P ❆❇
variations ❱▼❄❑▲▼r ❍❊❊❘r
in weather occur ❍❨▼r over ❑▲▼the
✫➞
14 ✳✔✘
km. ✕✥✜ and ✔✤♠✗✚moves ✖✤✩✕✢✜✚
towards ✖✛✗ the ✣✤✒✗✚✘
poles. This ❚✛✓✚ ❱❍r■❉❙ The
world. ❯▲▼ ❄r❆❉ ❱▼P❑ ❊❍❄P❑
arid west coast ❍❏ of t❍❘❑▲
South
❝✕★✚✗✚
causes ✕❝❝★✔★✒✕✖✓✤✥
accumulation ✤✦ of ✕✓✢
air ✕✖ about ➟✬
at ✕✈✤★✖ 30° ➠ ❹
N ✕✥✜
and ❳❅▼r❆❊❄ r▼❊▼❆❨▼P
America receives ▲▼❄❨♦ heavy r❄❆❇❏❄■■✇
rainfall, ❉r❍❘❈▲❑
drought
➡✘
S. Part of the accumulated air sinks ✖✤
➢✕✢✖ ✤✦ ✖✛✗ ✕❝❝★✔★✒✕✖✗✜ ✕✓✢ ✚✓✥✳✚ to ✖✛✗
the ❍❊❊❘rP
occurs in Australia and P❍❅▼❑❆❅▼P
❆❇ ❳❘P❑r❄■❆❄ ❄❇❉ sometimes ❆❇ in
✧✢✤★✥✜
ground ✕✥✜ and ✦✤✢✔✚
forms ✕ a ✚★✈✖✢✤✣✓❝✕✒
subtropical ✛✓✧✛✘ ✙✥✤✖✛✗✢
high. Another ❫❇❉❆❄
India ❄❇❉
and ❏■❍❍❉P
floods ❆❇
in ❪▲❆❇❄❙
China. ❯▲❆P
This
✢✗✕✚✤✥
reason ✦✤✢ for ✚✓✥✳✓✥✧
sinking ✓✚ is ✖✛✗
the ❝✤✤✒✓✥✧
cooling ✤✦ of ✕✓✢ ✩✛✗✥ ✓✖
air when it ◗▲▼❇❍❅▼❇❍❇
phenomenon ❆P is ❊■❍P▼■♦
closely ❅❍❇❆❑❍r▼❉
monitored ❄❇❉ and ❆P is
reaches ➟✬
✢✗✕❝✛✗✚ 30° ➠ ❹N ✕✥✜
and ➡ ✒✕✖✓✖★✜✗✚✘ ➁✤✩✥
§ latitudes. Down below ✈✗✒✤✩ ❘P▼❉
used ❏❍r
for ■❍❇❈
long r❄❇❈▼
range ❏❍r▼❊❄P❑❆❇❈
forecasting ❆❇ in ❅❄✉❍r
major
✥✗✕✢
near ✖✛✗the ✒✕✥✜
land ✚★✢✦✕❝✗
surface ✖✛✗ the ✕✓✢air ✦✒✤✩✚
flows ✖✤✩✕✢✜✚
towards ✖✛✗ the ◗❄r❑P
parts ❍❏of ❑▲▼ ❱❍r■❉❙
the world.
✗➤★✕✖✤✢
equator ✕✚ as ✖✛✗
the ✗✕✚✖✗✢✒✓✗✚✘
easterlies. The ❚✛✗ ✗✕✚✖✗✢✒✓✗✚
easterlies ✦✢✤✔ from
✗✓✖✛✗✢
either ✚✓✜✗
side ✤✦ of ✖✛✗
the ✗➤★✕✖✤✢
equator ❝✤✥♠✗✢✧✗converge ✓✥ in ✖✛✗
the ➛✥✖✗✢
Inter ❵❜❞❡❢❣❞❤
Seasonal ❥❦❣❧ Wind
❚✢✤✣✓❝✕✒ ❺✤✥♠✗✢✧✗✥❝✗
Tropical Convergence ➜✤✥✗ Zone ❸➛❚❺➜❾✘(ITCZ). ➡★❝✛ Such
❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥✚
circulations ✦✢✤✔ from ✖✛✗ surface ★✣✩✕✢✜✚
the ✚★✢✦✕❝✗ upwards ✕✥✜ and ❚✛✗ ✣✕✖✖✗✢✥
The pattern ✤✦ ✩✓✥✜ ❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥
of wind circulation ✓✚ is ✔✤✜✓✦✓✗✜
modified ✓✥ in
⑨❦⑦❜➥⑨❜⑩❡❞
vice-versa ✕✢✗ are ❝✕✒✒✗✜
called ❝✗✒✒✚✘
cells. ➡★❝✛Such ✕ a ❝✗✒✒
cell ✓✥in ✖✛✗
the ✜✓✦✦✗✢✗✥✖
different ✚✗✕✚✤✥✚
seasons ✜★✗due ✖✤
to ✖✛✗
the ✚✛✓✦✖✓✥✧
shifting ✤✦
of ✢✗✧✓✤✥✚
regions
✖✢✤✣✓❝✚
tropics ✓✚ called ➦❞❧❤❜⑥
is ❝✕✒✒✗✜ Hadley ➧❜❤❤✘ Cell. ➛✥ In ✖✛✗
the ✔✓✜✜✒✗
middle ✤✦
of ✔✕♥✓✔★✔
maximum ✛✗✕✖✓✥✧q
heating, ✣✢✗✚✚★✢✗
pressure ✕✥✜ ✩✓✥✜ belts.
and wind ✈✗✒✖✚✘
✒✕✖✓✖★✜✗✚
latitudes ✖✛✗ the ❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥
circulation ✓✚ is ✖✛✕✖
that ✤✦ of ✚✓✥✳✓✥✧
sinking ❝✤✒✜ cold ❚✛✗ ✔✤✚✖
The most ✣✢✤✥✤★✥❝✗✜
pronounced ✗✦✦✗❝✖
effect ✤✦
of ✚★❝✛
such ✕ a ✚✛✓✦✖
shift ✓✚is
✕✓✢
air ✖✛✕✖
that ❝✤✔✗✚
comes ✦✢✤✔ from ✖✛✗ the ✣✤✒✗✚
poles ✕✥✜ and ✖✛✗ the ✢✓✚✓✥✧
rising ✥✤✖✓❝✗✜
noticed ✓✥ in ✖✛✗
the ✔✤✥✚✤✤✥✚q
monsoons, ✗✚✣✗❝✓✕✒✒♣
especially ✤♠✗✢ over
✩✕✢✔ ✕✓✢
warm air ✖✛✕✖ ✈✒✤✩✚ ✦✢✤✔
that blows from ✖✛✗ the ✚★✈✖✢✤✣✓❝✕✒
subtropical ✛✓✧✛✘ high. ✚✤★✖✛✗✕✚✖
southeast Asia. ①✤★ would
✙✚✓✕✘ You ✩✤★✒✜ be ✈✗ ✚✖★✜♣✓✥✧
studying ✖✛✗ the
At the surface ✖✛✗✚✗
✙✖ ✖✛✗ ✚★✢✦✕❝✗ ✩✓✥✜✚ ✕✢✗
these winds are ❝✕✒✒✗✜ ✩✗✚✖✗✢✒✓✗✚
called westerlies ✜✗✖✕✓✒✚
details ✤✦
of ✔✤✥✚✤✤✥
monsoon ✓✥ in ✖✛✗ ✈✤✤✳ ②❣❧❦❞
the book India ③: ④⑤⑥❡❦⑦❞❤
Physical
✕✥✜
and ✖✛✗the ❝✗✒✒
cell ✓✚is ✳✥✤✩✥
known ✕✚ as ✖✛✗the ➨❜⑩⑩❜❤
Ferrel ⑦❜❤❤✘
cell. At✙✖ ✣✤✒✕✢
polar ⑧❣⑨❦⑩❢❣❶❜❣❷
Environment ❸❹❺❻❼❚q(NCERT, ❽✬✬✭❾❿
2006). The❚✛✗ ✤✖✛✗✢
other ✒✤❝✕✒
local
✒✕✖✓✖★✜✗✚
latitudes ✖✛✗ the ❝✤✒✜
cold ✜✗✥✚✗
dense ✕✓✢ air ✚★✈✚✓✜✗✚
subsides ✥✗✕✢ near ✖✛✗ the ✜✗♠✓✕✖✓✤✥✚
deviations ✦✢✤✔from ✖✛✗
the ✧✗✥✗✢✕✒
general ❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥
circulation ✚♣✚✖✗✔
system
✣✤✒✗✚
poles ✕✥✜ ✈✒✤✩✚ ✖✤✩✕✢✜✚
and blows towards ✔✓✜✜✒✗ middle ✒✕✖✓✖★✜✗✚
latitudes ✕✚ as ✕✢✗
are ✕✚
as ✦✤✒✒✤✩✚✘
follows.
✖✛✗
the ✣✤✒✕✢
polar ✗✕✚✖✗✢✒✓✗✚✘
easterlies. This ❚✛✓✚ ❝✗✒✒cell ✓✚is ❝✕✒✒✗✜
called ✖✛✗ the ✣✤✒✕✢
polar ➀❢⑦❞❤
Local ❥❦❣❧❡
Winds
❝✗✒✒✘ ❚✛✗✚✗ ✖✛✢✗✗
cell. These three ❝✗✒✒✚
cells ✚✗✖ set ✖✛✗the ✣✕✖✖✗✢✥
pattern ✦✤✢ for ✖✛✗the
✧✗✥✗✢✕✒
general ❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥
circulation ✤✦ of ✖✛✗
the ✕✖✔✤✚✣✛✗✢✗✘
atmosphere. ❚✛✗
The ➁✓✦✦✗✢✗✥❝✗✚
Differences ✓✥
in ✖✛✗
the ✛✗✕✖✓✥✧
heating ✕✥✜
and ❝✤✤✒✓✥✧
cooling ✤✦
of ✗✕✢✖✛
earth
✖✢✕✥✚✦✗✢
transfer ✤✦ of ✛✗✕✖
heat ✗✥✗✢✧♣
energy ✦✢✤✔ from ✒✤✩✗✢lower ✒✕✖✓✖★✜✗✚
latitudes ✖✤ to ✚★✢✦✕❝✗✚
surfaces ✕✥✜
and ✖✛✗
the ❝♣❝✒✗✚
cycles ✖✛✤✚✗
those ✜✗♠✗✒✤✣
develop ✜✕✓✒♣
daily ✤✢
or
✛✓✧✛✗✢
higher ✒✕✖✓✖★✜✗✚
latitudes ✔✕✓✥✖✕✓✥✚maintains ✖✛✗ the ✧✗✥✗✢✕✒
general ✕✥✥★✕✒✒♣
annually ❝✕✥
can ❝✢✗✕✖✗
create ✚✗♠✗✢✕✒
several ❝✤✔✔✤✥q
common, ✒✤❝✕✒
local ✤✢
or
❝✓✢❝★✒✕✖✓✤✥✘
circulation. ✢✗✧✓✤✥✕✒ ✩✓✥✜✚✘
regional winds.
❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝✞✟✠ ✠✟✞✠✡☛❆
ATMOSPHERIC ✟✂☞ AND
CIRCULATION ❆☞✌ WEATHER
✍✝❆ ✆✝✞ ✄✎✄ ✝✁✄
SYSTEMS ✾✏
93

▲✑✒✓
Land ✑✒✓
and ✔✕✑
Sea ✖✗✕✕✘✕✙
Breezes ✤✛
as ✪✫✥ ✶✤✣✣✥✮ ✬✩✥✥✷✥✯
the valley breeze. ✰✲✩✦✧✳
During ✪✫✥ the ✧✦✳✫✪
night ✪✫✥ the
✛✣✭✢✥✛
slopes ✳✥✪ get ❧✭✭✣✥★
cooled ✤✧★and ✪✫✥
the ★✥✧✛✥
dense ✤✦✩
air ★✥✛❧✥✧★✛
descends
✚✛ ✥✜✢✣✤✦✧✥★
As explained ✥✤✩✣✦✥✩✱
earlier, ✪✫✥
the ✣✤✧★
land ✤✧★
and ✛✥✤
sea ✤✬✛✭✩✬
absorb
✦✧✪✭
into ✪✫✥ ✶✤✣✣✥✮ ✤✛
the valley as ✪✫✥
the ✴✭✲✧✪✤✦✧ ✵✦✧★✯ The
mountain wind. t✫✥ ❧✭✭✣
cool
✤✧★
and transfer heat differently. During the day ✪✫✥
✪✩✤✧✛❛✥✩ ✫✥✤✪ ★✦❛❛✥✩✥✧✪✣✮✯ ✰✲✩✦✧✳ ✪✫✥ ★✤✮ the
✤✦✩✱
air, ✭❛
of ✪✫✥
the ✫✦✳✫
high ✢✣✤✪✥✤✲✛
plateaus ✤✧★and ✦❧✥
ice ❛✦✥✣★✛
fields ★✩✤✦✧✦✧✳
draining
✣✤✧★
land ✫✥✤✪✛
heats ✲✢up ❛✤✛✪✥✩
faster ✤✧★
and ✬✥❧✭✴✥✛ ✵✤✩✴✥✩ ✪✫✤✧
becomes warmer than
✦✧✪✭
into ✪✫✥ ✶✤✣✣✥✮ ✦✛
the valley is ❧✤✣✣✥★
called ✹✤✪✤✬✤✪✦❧ ✵✦✧★✯ Another
katabatic wind. ✚✧✭✪✫✥✩
✪✫✥
the ✛✥✤✯ t✫✥✩✥❛✭✩✥✱ ✭✶✥✩
sea. Therefore, over ✪✫✥the ✣✤✧★
land ✪✫✥
the ✤✦✩air ✩✦✛✥✛
rises
✪✮✢✥
type of warm wind occurs on the leeward ✛✦★✥
✭❛ ✵✤✩✴ ✵✦✧★ ✭❧❧✲✩✛ ✭✧ ✪✫✥ ✣✥✥✵✤✩★ side
✳✦✶✦✧✳
giving ✩✦✛✥
rise ✪✭
to ✤a ✣✭✵
low ✢✩✥✛✛✲✩✥
pressure ✤✩✥✤✱ ✵✫✥✩✥✤✛ ✪✫✥
area, whereas the
✭❛
of ✪✫✥
the ✴✭✲✧✪✤✦✧
mountain ✩✤✧✳✥✛✯ t✫✥ ✴✭✦✛✪✲✩✥
ranges. The moisture ✦✧ in ✪✫✥✛✥
these
✛✥✤
sea ✦✛
is ✩✥✣✤✪✦✶✥✣✮
relatively ❧✭✭✣
cool ✤✧★
and ✪✫✥the ✢✩✥✛✛✲✩✥
pressure ✭✶✥✩ over ✛✥✤
sea
✵✦✧★✛✱ while
winds, ✵✫✦✣✥ ❧✩✭✛✛✦✧✳
crossing ✪✫✥ the ✴✭✲✧✪✤✦✧
mountain ✩✤✧✳✥✛ranges
✦✛
is ✩✥✣✤✪✦✶✥✣✮
relatively ✫✦✳✫✯ t✫✲✛✱ ✢✩✥✛✛✲✩✥
high. Thus, pressure ✳✩✤★✦✥✧✪
gradient ❛✩✭✴from
❧✭✧★✥✧✛✥
condense ✤✧★ and ✢✩✥❧✦✢✦✪✤✪✥✯ ❝✫✥✧ ✦✪
precipitate. When it ★✥✛❧✥✧★✛
descends
✛✥✤
sea ✪✭
to ✣✤✧★
land ✦✛is ❧✩✥✤✪✥★
created ✤✧★ and ✪✫✥ ✵✦✧★ ✬✣✭✵✛
the wind blows ❛✩✭✴from
★✭✵✧
down ✪✫✥ the ✣✥✥✵✤✩★
leeward ✛✦★✥side ✭❛
of ✪✫✥
the ✛✣✭✢✥
slope ✪✫✥
the ★✩✮
dry ✤✦✩
air
✪✫✥
the ✛✥✤
sea ✪✭
to ✪✫✥
the ✣✤✧★
land ✤✛as ✪✫✥
the ✛✥✤
sea ✬✩✥✥✷✥✯
breeze. ✸✧In ✪✫✥
the ✧✦✳✫✪
night
✳✥✪✛ ✵✤✩✴✥★ ✲✢
gets warmed up ✬✮by ✤★✦✤✬✤✪✦❧
adiabatic ✢✩✭❧✥✛✛✯ t✫✦✛ ★✩✮
process. This dry
✪✫✥
the ✩✥✶✥✩✛✤✣
reversal ✭❛ of ❧✭✧★✦✪✦✭✧
condition ✪✤✹✥✛takes ✢✣✤❧✥✯
place. Thet✫✥ ✣✤✧★
land
✤✦✩
air ✴✤✮
may ✴✥✣✪
melt ✪✫✥
the ✛✧✭✵
snow ✦✧in ✤a ✛✫✭✩✪
short ✪✦✴✥✯
time.
✣✭✛✥✛
loses ✫✥✤✪
heat ❛✤✛✪✥✩
faster ✤✧★and ✦✛is ❧✭✭✣✥✩
cooler ✪✫✤✧
than ✪✫✥
the ✛✥✤✯ t✫✥
sea. The
✢✩✥✛✛✲✩✥
pressure ✳✩✤★✦✥✧✪
gradient ✦✛ is ❛✩✭✴
from ✪✫✥the ✣✤✧★
land ✪✭ to ✪✫✥
the ✛✥✤
sea
❨❚✗ P✑✙✙✕✙
Air Masses
✤✧★
and ✫✥✧❧✥
hence ✣✤✧★land ✬✩✥✥✷✥
breeze ✩✥✛✲✣✪✛
results ✺✻✦✳✲✩✥
(Figure ✼✽✯✿❀✯
10.7).
❝✫✥✧ ✪✫✥
When the ✤✦✩air ✩✥✴✤✦✧✛
remains ✭✶✥✩ over ✤ a ✫✭✴✭✳✥✧✭✲✛
homogenous ✤✩✥✤ area
❛✭✩
for ✤a ✛✲❛❛✦❧✦✥✧✪✣✮
sufficiently ✣✭✧✳✥✩ longer ✪✦✴✥✱ time, ✦✪ it ✤❧❢✲✦✩✥✛
acquires ✪✫✥ the
❧✫✤✩✤❧✪✥✩✦✛✪✦❧✛ ✭❛ ✪✫✥ ✤✩✥✤✯
characteristics of the area. The homogenous t✫✥ ✫✭✴✭✳✥✧✭✲✛
✩✥✳✦✭✧✛
regions ❧✤✧ can ✬✥ be ✪✫✥ ✶✤✛✪ ✭❧✥✤✧
the vast ocean ✛✲✩❛✤❧✥surface ✭✩ ✶✤✛✪
or vast
✢✣✤✦✧✛✯
plains. The t✫✥ ✤✦✩ ✵✦✪✫ ★✦✛✪✦✧❧✪✦✶✥
air with distinctive ❧✫✤✩✤❧✪✥✩✦✛✪✦❧✛
characteristics
✦✧
in ✪✥✩✴✛
terms ✭❛ of ✪✥✴✢✥✩✤✪✲✩✥
temperature ✤✧★ and ✫✲✴✦★✦✪✮
humidity ✦✛ is ❧✤✣✣✥★
called
✤✧
an ✤✦✩✴✤✛✛✯
airmass. ✸✪ It ✦✛
is ★✥❛✦✧✥★
defined ✤✛ as ✤ a ✣✤✩✳✥
large ✬✭★✮ body ✭❛ of ✤✦✩
air
✫✤✶✦✧✳
having ✣✦✪✪✣✥
little ✫✭✩✦✷✭✧✪✤✣ ✶✤✩✦✤✪✦✭✧ ✦✧
horizontal variation in ✪✥✴✢✥✩✤✪✲✩✥
temperature
✤✧★
and ✴✭✦✛✪✲✩✥✯
moisture. The t✫✥ ✫✭✴✭✳✥✧✭✲✛
homogenous ✛✲✩❛✤❧✥✛✱ surfaces, ✭✶✥✩ over
which air masses form, are called ✪✫✥
✵✫✦❧✫ ✤✦✩ ✴✤✛✛✥✛ ❛✭✩✴✱ ✤✩✥ ❧✤✣✣✥★ the ✛✭✲✩❧✥
source
✩✥✳✦✭✧✛✯
regions.
t✫✥ ✤✦✩
The air ✴✤✛✛✥✛
masses ✤✩✥ are ❧✣✤✛✛✦❛✦✥★
classified ✤❧❧✭✩★✦✧✳
according ✪✭ to
Sea Breeze ✪✫✥
the ✛✭✲✩❧✥
source ✩✥✳✦✭✧✛✯
regions. Theret✫✥✩✥ ✤✩✥ are ❛✦✶✥
five ✴✤❩✭✩
major ✛✭✲✩❧✥
source
✩✥✳✦✭✧✛✯
regions. These t✫✥✛✥ ✤✩✥❡ are: ✺✦❀ ❝✤✩✴ ✪✩✭✢✦❧✤✣
(i) Warm tropical ✤✧★ and
✛✲✬✪✩✭✢✦❧✤✣
subtropical ✭❧✥✤✧✛s oceans; ✺✦✦❀ t✫✥ ✛✲✬✪✩✭✢✦❧✤✣
(ii) The subtropical ✫✭✪ hot
★✥✛✥✩✪✛s ✺✦✦✦❀ t✫✥ ✩✥✣✤✪✦✶✥✣✮
deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude❧✭✣★ ✫✦✳✫ ✣✤✪✦✪✲★✥
✭❧✥✤✧✛s
oceans; ✺✦✶❀ t✫✥ very
(iv) The ✶✥✩✮ ❧✭✣★ cold ✛✧✭✵ snow ❧✭✶✥✩✥★
covered
❧✭✧✪✦✧✥✧✪✛
continents ✦✧ in ✫✦✳✫
high ✣✤✪✦✪✲★✥✛s
latitudes; ✺✶❀ (v) ❬✥✩✴✤✧✥✧✪✣✮
Permanently
✦❧✥
ice ❧✭✶✥✩✥★
covered ❧✭✧✪✦✧✥✧✪✛
continents ✦✧ in ✪✫✥ ✚✩❧✪✦❧ ✤✧★
the Arctic and
pafo = ON) \
✚✧✪✤✩❧✪✦❧✤✯ Accordingly,
Antarctica.
✴✤✛✛✥✛
masses ✤✩✥
✚❧❧✭✩★✦✧✳✣✮✱ ❛✭✣✣✭✵✦✧✳
are ✩✥❧✭✳✧✦✛✥★❡
recognised: ✺✦❀
following ✪✮✢✥✛
(i) ♠✤✩✦✪✦✴✥
types ✭❛
Maritime ✪✩✭✢✦❧✤✣
of ✤✦✩❭
tropical
air-

✺✴t❀s
(mT); ✺✦✦❀
(ii) ❪✭✧✪✦✧✥✧✪✤✣
Continental ✪✩✭✢✦❧✤✣tropical ✺❧t❀s (cT); ✺✦✦✦❀
(iii) ♠✤✩✦✪✦✴✥
Maritime
✢✭✣✤✩
polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar ✺❧❬❀s
✺✴❬❀s ✺✦✶❀ ❪✭✧✪✦✧✥ ✧✪✤✣ ✢✭✣✤✩ (cP);
MA “— we Ag ✺✶❀
(v) ❪✭✧✪✦✧✥✧✪✤✣
Continental ✤✩❧✪✦❧ arctic ✺❧✚❀✯ t✩✭✢✦❧✤✣ ✤✦✩
(cA). Tropical air ✴✤✛✛✥✛
masses
✤✩✥ ✵✤✩✴ ✤✧★
are warm and ✢✭✣✤✩
polar ✤✦✩ air ✴✤✛✛✥✛
masses ✤✩✥ are ❧✭✣★✯
cold.

Land Breeze
❫✗◗✒❙✙
Fronts

❝✫✥✧ ✪✵✭
When two ★✦❛❛✥✩✥✧✪
different ✤✦✩
air ✴✤✛✛✥✛
masses ✴✥✥✪✱ meet, ✪✫✥ the
❋❁❂❃❄❅
Figure ❇❈❉❊
10.7 ●: ❍■❏❑
Land ■❏❑
and ▼❅■ ◆❄❅❅❖❅▼
sea breezes ✬✭✲✧★✤✩✮
boundary ✷✭✧✥zone ✬✥✪✵✥✥✧
between ✪✫✥✴
them ✦✛ is ❧✤✣✣✥★
called ✤ ❴✗◗✒❙✯
a front.
t✫✥ ✢✩✭❧✥✛✛
The process ✭❛of ❛✭✩✴✤✪✦✭✧
formation ✭❛
of ✪✫✥
the ❛✩✭✧✪✛
fronts ✦✛ is ✹✧✭✵✧
known
Mountain ✑✒✓
P◗❘✒❙✑❚✒ and ❯✑❱❱✕❲
Valley ❳❚✒✓✙
Winds
✤✛ ❴✗◗✒❙◗❵✕✒✕✙❚✙✯ There
as frontogenesis. t✫✥✩✥ ✤✩✥are ❛✭✲✩four ✪✮✢✥✛
types ✭❛ of
✸✧
In ✴✭✲✧✪✤✦✧✭✲✛
mountainous ✩✥✳✦✭✧✛✱
regions, ★✲✩✦✧✳
during ✪✫✥
the ★✤✮
day ✪✫✥
the ❛✩✭✧✪✛❡
fronts: ✺✤❀
(a) ❪✭✣★s
Cold; ✺✬❀ ❝✤✩✴s ✺❧❀
(b) Warm; (c) ❜✪✤✪✦✭✧✤✩✮s
Stationary;
✛✣✭✢✥✛
slopes ✳✥✪
get ✫✥✤✪✥★
heated ✲✢
up ✤✧★
and ✤✦✩
air ✴✭✶✥✛
moves ✲✢✛✣✭✢✥
upslope ✺★❀
(d) ❞❧❧✣✲★✥★
Occluded ❣✺✻✦✳✲✩✥✼✽✯❤
[(Figure10.8 ✺✤❀✱
(a), ✺✬❀✱
(b), ✺❧❀✐✯ ❝✫✥✧ ✪✫✥
(c)]. When the
✤✧★
and ✪✭to ❛✦✣✣
fill ✪✫✥
the ✩✥✛✲✣✪✦✧✳
resulting ✳✤✢
gap ✪✫✥
the ✤✦✩
air ❛✩✭✴
from ✪✫✥
the ❛✩✭✧✪
front remains stationary, it is called ✤
✩✥✴✤✦✧✛ ✛✪✤✪✦✭✧✤✩ ✮✱ ✦✪ ✦✛ ❧✤✣✣✥★ a
✶✤✣✣✥✮ ✬✣✭✵✛ ✲✢ ✪✫✥ ✶✤✣✣✥✮✯ t✫✦✛ ✵✦✧★ ✦✛
valley blows up the valley. This wind is known✹✧✭✵✧ ✙❙✑❙❚◗✒✑✗❲ ❴✗◗✒❙✯ When
stationary front. ❝✫✥✧ ✪✫✥the ❧✭✣★cold ✤✦✩ air ✴✭✶✥✛
moves
✾✑
94 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✔✣t✛✢❝✒✢❛✓✛✗✙
anticlockwise ✢✯✢❝✒✣✛✢
cyclonic ✢✛✕✢❢❝✔t✛✒✣✭
circulation. The ✳✘✙ ✢✯✢❝✒✣✛✢
cyclonic
✢✛✕✢❢❝✔t✛✒✣
circulation ❝✙✔✖✗ leads t✒ to ✔ ✓✙❝❝ ✖✙♠✙❝✒❧✙✖
a well developed ✙✿t✕✔ extra
t✕✒❧✛✢✔❝
tropical ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙✜
cyclone, with ✓✛t✘ ✔a warm
✓✔✕✚ ✱✕✒✣t front ✔✣✖and ✔ a ✢✒❝✖
cold
4000 m o «om ✱✕✒✣t✭ ✳✘✙ ❧❝✔✣ ✔✣✖ ✢✕✒✗✗ ✗✙✢t✛✒✣ ✒✱ ✔ ✓✙❝❝
front. The plan and cross section of a well
Warm air wer Cold air
✖✙♠✙❝✒❧✙✖
developed ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙cyclone ✛✗ is ❣✛♠✙✣
given ✛✣ in ❞✛❣❢✕✙
Figure ❀❁✭❂✭ 10.9.
—>
Km 600 400 200 0 £200 400 600 800 km
✳✘✙✕✙ ✔✕✙
There are ❧✒✢❛✙t✗
pockets ✒✱ ✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕
of warm air ✒✕ ✓✔✕✚ ✗✙✢t✒✕
or warm sector
✓✙✖❣✙✖ between
wedged ✰✙t✓✙✙✣ t✘✙ the ✱✒✕✓✔✕✖
forward ✔✣✖ and t✘✙the ✕✙✔✕
rear ✢✒❝✖
cold
✔✛✕
air or cold sector. The warm air glides over t✘✙
✒✕ ✢✒❝✖ ✗✙✢t✒✕✭ ✳✘✙ ✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕ ❣❝✛✖✙✗ ✒♠✙✕ the
✢✒❝✖
cold ✔✛✕
air ✔✣✖
and ✔ a ✗✙❃❢✙✣✢✙
sequence ✒✱ of ✢❝✒❢✖✗
clouds ✔❧❧✙✔✕
appear ✒♠✙✕ over
4000 m
t✘✙
the ✗❛✯
sky ✔✘✙✔✖
ahead ✒✱ of t✘✙ ✓✔✕✚ ✱✕✒✣t
the warm front ✔✣✖and ✢✔❢✗✙
cause
Warm air ❧✕✙✢✛❧✛t✔t✛✒✣✭
precipitation. The ✳✘✙ ✢✒❝✖cold ✱✕✒✣t
front ✔❧❧✕✒✔✢✘✙✗
approaches t✘✙ the
✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕ ✱✕✒✚ ✰✙✘✛✣✖ ✔✣✖
warm air from behind and pushes the warm ❧❢✗✘✙✗ t✘✙ ✓✔✕✚
Km 600 400 200 O 200 400 600 800 km ✔✛✕
air ❢❧✭
up. As ❄✗ ✔a ✕✙✗❢❝t✜
result, ✢❢✚❢❝❢✗
cumulus ✢❝✒❢✖✗ clouds ✖✙♠✙❝✒❧
develop
✔❝✒✣❣
along t✘✙the ✢✒❝✖
cold ✱✕✒✣t✭
front. The✳✘✙ ✢✒❝✖
cold ✱✕✒✣t
front ✚✒♠✙✗
moves ✱✔✗t✙✕
faster
t✘✔✣
than t✘✙ ✓✔✕✚ ✱✕✒✣t
the warm front ❢❝t✛✚✔t✙❝✯
ultimately ✒♠✙✕t✔❛✛✣❣
overtaking t✘✙ the
Cold Front ✓✔✕✚ ✱✕✒✣t✭ ✳✘✙ ✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕ ✛✗
warm front. The warm air is completely lifted✢✒✚❧❝✙t✙❝✯ ❝✛✱t✙✖
❢❧
up ✔✣✖
and t✘✙ the ✱✕✒✣t
front ✛✗ is ✒✢✢❝❢✖✙✖
occluded ✔✣✖ and t✘✙the ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙
cyclone
Cold air ✖✛✗✗✛❧✔t✙✗✭
dissipates.
✳✘✙ ❧✕✒✢✙✗✗✙✗
The processes ✒✱ ✓✛✣✖ ✢✛✕✢❢❝✔t✛✒✣
of wind circulation both ✰✒t✘ ✔t at
‘Occluded Front t✘✙ ✗❢✕✱✔✢✙ ✔✣✖ ✔❝✒✱t ✔✕✙ ✢❝✒✗✙❝✯
the surface and aloft are closely interlinked. ✛✣t✙✕❝✛✣❛✙✖✭
❅❆❇❈❉●
Figure ❍■❏❑
10.8 ▲: Vertical
▼●❉❡❆◆❖P ◗●◆❡❆❘❙❚
Sections ❘❯of ▲: ❱❖❳ ❨❖❉r ❅❉❘❙❡❩
(a) Warm Front;
✳✘✙ ✙✿t✕✔
The extra t✕✒❧✛✢✔❝
tropical ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙
cyclone ✖✛✱✱✙✕✗
differs ✱✕✒✚from t✘✙ the
(b) ❭❘P❪
❱❬❳ Cold ❅❉❘❙❡❩ (c) ❫◆◆P❈❪●❪
Front; ❱◆❳ Occluded ❅❉❘❙❡Front t✕✒❧✛✢✔❝
tropical ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙
cyclone ✛✣ in ✣❢✚✰✙✕
number ✒✱ ✓✔✯✗✭ The
of ways. ✳✘✙ ✙✿t✕✔
extra
t✕✒❧✛✢✔❝
tropical ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙✗
cyclones ✘✔♠✙ have ✔ a ✢❝✙✔✕
clear ✱✕✒✣t✔❝
frontal ✗✯✗t✙✚
system
t✒✓✔✕✖✗
towards t✘✙ ✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕
the warm air ✚✔✗✗✜
mass, ✛t✗its ✢✒✣t✔✢t
contact ✤✒✣✙ zone ✛✗
is
✢✔❝❝✙✖
called t✘✙
the ✥✦✧★ ✩✪✦✫✬✜ whereas
cold front, ✓✘✙✕✙✔✗ ✛✱ if t✘✙ ✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕
the warm air
✚✔✗✗
mass ✚✒♠✙✗
moves t✒✓✔✕✖✗
towards t✘✙the ✢✒❝✖
cold ✔✛✕air ✚✔✗✗✜
mass, t✘✙ the
✢✒✣t✔✢t
contact ✤✒✣✙
zone ✛✗ is ✔ ✓✔✕✚ ✱✕✒✣t✭
a warm front. ✮✱ ✔✣ ✔✛✕
Ifan air ✚✔✗✗
mass ✛✗is
✱❢❝❝✯
fully ❝✛✱t✙✖
lifted ✔✰✒♠✙
above t✘✙ the ❝✔✣✖
land ✗❢✕✱✔✢✙✜
surface, ✛t it ✛✗
is ✢✔❝❝✙✖
called
t✘✙
the ✦✥✥✧♦★✲★ ✩✪✦✫✬✭ The
occluded front. ✳✘✙ ✱✕✒✣t✗
fronts ✒✢✢❢✕
occur ✛✣ in ✚✛✖✖❝✙
middle
❝✔t✛t❢✖✙✗ ✔✣✖ ✔✕✙ ✢✘✔✕✔✢t✙✕✛✗✙✖ ✰✯ ✗t✙✙❧
latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient ❣✕✔✖✛✙✣t
✛✣
in t✙✚❧✙✕✔t❢✕✙
temperature ✔✣✖ and ❧✕✙✗✗❢✕✙✭
pressure. They ✳✘✙✯ bring✰✕✛✣❣
✔✰✕❢❧t
abrupt ✢✘✔✣❣✙✗
changes ✛✣ in t✙✚❧✙✕✔t❢✕✙
temperature ✔✣✖ and ✢✔❢✗✙
cause t✘✙
the Cold air Tae
✔✛✕
air t✒
to ✕✛✗✙
rise t✒
to ✱✒✕✚
form ✢❝✒❢✖✗
clouds ✔✣✖
and ✢✔❢✗✙
cause ❧✕✙✢✛❧✛t✔t✛✒✣✭
precipitation.

❊✴✬✪✵
Extra ✶✪✦✷✸✥✵✧
Tropical ✹✺✥✧✦✫✲✻
Cyclones
✳✘✙ ✗✯✗t✙✚✗
The systems ✖✙♠✙❝✒❧✛✣❣
developing ✛✣ in t✘✙
the ✚✛✖
mid ✔✣✖ and ✘✛❣✘
high
❝✔t✛t❢✖✙✜ ✰✙✯✒✣✖ t✘✙
latitude, beyond the t✕✒❧✛✢✗
tropics ✔✕✙are ✢✔❝❝✙✖
called t✘✙the
✼✸★★✧✲ ✧✵✬✸✬♦★✲ ✦✪ ✲✴✬✪✵ ✬✪✦✷✸✥✵✧ ✥✺✥✧✦✫✲✻✭
middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones. The ✳✘✙
❧✔✗✗✔❣✙
passage ✒✱ of ✱✕✒✣t
front ✢✔❢✗✙✗
causes ✔✰✕❢❧t
abrupt ✢✘✔✣❣✙✗
changes ✛✣ in t✘✙
the
✓✙✔t✘✙✕ ✢✒✣✖✛t✛✒✣✗
weather conditions ✒♠✙✕
over t✘✙
the ✔✕✙✔
area ✛✣in t✘✙
the ✚✛✖✖❝✙
middle
✔✣✖
and ✘✛❣✘
high ❝✔t✛t❢✖✙✗✭
latitudes.
✽✿t✕✔
Extra tropical ✢✯✢❝✒✣✙✗
t✕✒❧✛✢✔❝ cyclones ✱✒✕✚
form ✔❝✒✣❣
along t✘✙the ❧✒❝✔✕
polar
✱✕✒✣t✭
front. ✮✣✛t✛✔❝❝✯✜
Initially, t✘✙
the ✱✕✒✣t
front ✛✗
is ✗t✔t✛✒✣✔✕✯✭
stationary. ✮✣ In t✘✙
the
✣✒✕t✘✙✕✣
northern ✘✙✚✛✗❧✘✙✕✙✜
hemisphere, warm ✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕ ✰❝✒✓✗ ✱✕✒✚
air blows from t✘✙the
✗✒❢t✘
south ✔✣✖
and ✢✒❝✖
cold ✔✛✕
air ✱✕✒✚
from t✘✙
the ✣✒✕t✘
north ✒✱ of t✘✙
the ✱✕✒✣t✭
front.
❲✘✙✣ t✘✙
When the ❧✕✙✗✗❢✕✙
pressure ✖✕✒❧✗
drops ✔❝✒✣❣
along t✘✙
the ✱✕✒✣t✜
front, t✘✙
the Ee
9km
✓✔✕✚ ✔✛✕
warm air ✚✒♠✙✗
moves ✣✒✕t✘✓✔✕✖✗
northwards ✔✣✖ and t✘✙the ✢✒❝✖
cold ✔✛✕air
✚✒♠✙
move t✒✓✔✕✖✗✜
towards, ✗✒❢t✘south ✗✙tt✛✣❣
setting ✛✣ in ✚✒t✛✒✣
motion ✔✣ an ❅❆❇❈❉●
Figure ❍■❏
10. ❴
9: ▲ ❵❜❡❉❖
Extra ❡❉❘❤❆◆❖P
tropical ◆✐◆P❘❙●❚
cyclones
❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝✞✟✠ ✠✟✞✠✡☛❆
ATMOSPHERIC ✟✂☞ AND
CIRCULATION ❆☞✌ WEATHER
✍✝❆ ✆✝✞ ✄✎✄ ✝✁✄
SYSTEMS ✾✏
95

✇✑✒✓✑ ✒✔
which is ✕✖✗
not ✘✙✚✔✚✕✗
present ✒✕in ✗✑✚
the ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔✣
cyclones. A✐ ✔✓✑✚★✛✗✒✓
schematic ✙✚✘✙✚✔✚✕✗✛✗✒✖✕
representation ✖❝ of ✗✑✚ ✤✚✙✗✒✓✛✜
the vertical
❚✑✚✢ ✓✖✤✚✙
They cover ✛ a ✜✛✙✥✚✙
larger ✛✙✚✛
area ✛✕✦
and ✓✛✕
can ✖✙✒✥✒✕✛✗✚
originate ✖✤✚✙
over ✔✗✙✩✓✗✩✙✚
structure ✖❝ of ✛ a ★✛✗✩✙✚
mature ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✓✢✓✜✖✕✒✓
cyclonic ✔✗✖✙★storm
✗✑✚ ✜✛✕✦ ✛✕✦ ✔✚✛✣ t✑✚✙✚✛✔ ✗✑✚ ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔ ✒✔
is ✔✑✖✇✕
shown ✒✕ in ❏✒✥✩✙✚
Figure ❑❊✣❑❊✣
10.10.
✖✙✒✥✒✕✛✗✚
originate ✖✕✜✢only ✖✤✚✙
over ✗✑✚
the ✔✚✛✔
seas ✛✕✦
and ✖✕ on ✙✚✛✓✑✒✕✥
reaching ✐ ★✛✗✩✙✚ ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
Amature tropical ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚
cyclone ✒✔ is ✓✑✛✙✛✓✗✚✙✒✔✚✦
characterised
✗✑✚
the ✜✛✕✦
land ✗✑✚✢ they ✦✒✔✔✒✘✛✗✚✣
dissipate. The❚✑✚ ✚✧✗✙✛
extra ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✪✢ ✗✑✚
by the ✔✗✙✖✕✥
strong ✔✘✒✙✛✜✜✢
spirally ✓✒✙✓✩✜✛✗✒✕✥
circulating wind✇✒✕✦ ✛✙✖✩✕✦
around
✓✢✓✜ ✖✕✚ ✛❝❝✚✓✗
cyclone affects✔ ✛ ★✩✓✑
a much ✜✛✙✥✚ larger✙ ✛✙✚area✛ ✛✔as ✗✑✚
the ✓✚✕✗✙✚✫
centre, ✓✛✜✜✚✦
called ✗✑✚
the ✚✢✚✣ ❚✑✚ ✦✒✛★✚✗✚✙
eye. The diameter ✖❝ of ✗✑✚
the
✓✖★✘✛✙✚✦
compared ✗✖ to ✗✑✚
the ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✣
cyclone. The❚✑✚ wind
✇✒✕✦ ✓✒✙✓✩✜✛✗✒✕✥ ✔✢✔✗✚★ ✓✛✕ ✤✛✙✢
circulating system can vary between 150 and ✪✚✗✇✚✚✕ ❑▲❊ ✛✕✦
✤✚✜✖✓✒✗✢ ✒✕
velocity in ✛a ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚
cyclone ✒✔ is ★✩✓✑
much ✑✒✥✑✚✙
higher ❃▲❊
250 ✷★✣ km.
✛✕✦
and ✒✗ is ★✖✙✚
it ✒✔ more ✦✚✔✗✙✩✓✗✒✤✚✣
destructive. The❚✑✚ ✚✧✗✙✛
extra ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ❚✑✚ ✚✢✚
The eye ✒✔is ✛a ✙✚✥✒✖✕
region ✖❝ of ✓✛✜★ ✇✒✗✑ ✔✩✪✔✒✦✒✕✥
calm with subsiding
cyclones ★✖✤✚
✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔ move ❝✙✖★ ✇✚✔✗ ✗✖
from west to ✚✛✔✗ ✪✩✗ ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
east but tropical ✛✒✙✣ ✐✙✖✩✕✦ ✗✑✚
air. Around the ✚✢✚
eye ✒✔
is ✗✑✚
the ✚✢✚ ✇✛✜✜✫ where
eye wall, ✇✑✚✙✚ ✗✑✚✙✚
there
cyclones, ★✖✤✚
✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔✫ move ❝✙✖★
from ✚✛✔✗
east ✗✖ ✇✚✔✗✣
to west.
✒✔
is ✛a ✔✗✙✖✕✥
strong ✔✘✒✙✛✜✜✒✕✥
spiralling ✛✔✓✚✕✗
ascent ✖❝ of ✛✒✙
air ✗✖to ✥✙✚✛✗✚✙
greater
✑✚✒✥✑✗
height ✙✚✛✓✑✒✕✥
reaching ✗✑✚ the ✗✙✖✘✖✘✛✩✔✚✣
tropopause. The ❚✑✚ wind
✇✒✕✦
reaches ★✛✧✒★✩★
✙✚✛✓✑✚✔ maximum velocity ✤✚✜✖✓✒✗✢ ✒✕ in ✗✑✒✔
this ✙✚✥✒✖✕✫
region,
✬r♦✭✮✯✰✱
Tropical ✲✳✯✱♦✴✵✶
Cyclones
✙✚ ✛✓✑✒✕✥ ✛✔
reaching as ✑✒✥✑
high ✛✔ as ❃▲❊250 ✷★ km ✘✚✙ per ✑✖✩✙✣
hour.
❚✙✖✘✒✓✛✜ ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔
Tropical cyclones ✛✙✚ ✤✒✖✜✚✕✗ ✔✗✖✙★✔
are violent storms ✗✑✛✗ that ❚✖✙✙✚✕✗✒✛✜ ✙✛✒✕
Torrential rain ✖✓✓✩✙✔ here. ❏✙✖★
occurs ✑✚✙✚✣ From ✗✑✚ the ✚✢✚ ✇✛✜✜
eye wall
✖✙✒✥✒✕✛✗✚
originate ✖✤✚✙ over ✖✓✚✛✕✔
oceans ✒✕ in ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✛✙✚✛✔areas ✛✕✦ and ✙✛✒✕ ✪✛✕✦✔ ★✛✢
rain bands may ✙✛✦✒✛✗✚ radiate ✛✕✦and ✗✙✛✒✕✔
trains ✖❝ of ✓✩★✩✜✩✔
cumulus
★✖✤✚
move ✖✤✚✙
over ✗✖ to ✗✑✚
the ✓✖✛✔✗✛✜
coastal ✛✙✚✛✔ ✪✙✒✕✥✒✕✥ ✛✪✖✩✗
areas bringing about ✛✕✦
and ✓✩★✩✜✖✕✒★✪✩✔
cumulonimbus ✓✜✖✩✦✔ clouds ★✛✢may ✦✙✒❝✗
drift ✒✕✗✖
into ✗✑✚
the
✜✛✙✥✚
large ✔✓✛✜✚
scale ✦✚✔✗✙✩✓✗✒✖✕
destruction ✓✛✩✔✚✦ caused by ✪✢ violent
✤✒✖✜✚✕✗ ✖✩✗✚✙
outer ✙✚✥✒✖✕✣
region. The ❚✑✚ ✦✒✛★✚✗✚✙
diameter ✖❝ of ✗✑✚
the ✔✗✖✙★
storm ✖✤✚✙over
✇✒✕✦✔✫ very
winds, ✤✚✙✢ ✑✚✛✤✢
heavy ✙✛✒✕❝✛✜✜
rainfall ✛✕✦ and ✔✗✖✙★
storm ✔✩✙✥✚✔✣
surges. the ▼✛✢
✗✑✚ Bay ✖❝ of ▼✚✕✥✛✜✫ ✐✙✛✪✒✛✕ ✔✚✛
Bengal, Arabian sea ✛✕✦and ■✕✦✒✛✕
Indian
❚✑✒✔ ✒✔
This is ✖✕✚
one ✖❝ the ★✖✔✗
of ✗✑✚ most ✦✚✤✛✔✗✛✗✒✕✥
devastating ✕✛✗✩✙✛✜ natural ✖✓✚✛✕
ocean ✒✔ ✪✚✗✇✚✚✕ ◆❊❊
is between 600 ✈- ❑❃❊❊
1200 ✷★✣
km. The❚✑✚ ✔✢✔✗✚★
system
✓✛✜✛★✒✗✒✚✔✣
calamities. They ❚✑✚✢ ✛✙✚ are ✷✕✖✇✕
known ✛✔ as ✲✳✯✱♦✴✵✶
Cyclones ✒✕ in ✗✑✚
the ★✖✤✚✔
moves ✔✜✖✇✜✢ slowly ✛✪✖✩✗about ♠❊❊ 300 ✈- ▲❊❊
500 ✷★ km ✘✚✙ per ✦✛✢✣
day.
■✕✦✒✛✕
Indian ✸✓✚✛✕✫
Ocean, ❍✹rr✮✯✰✴✵✶
Hurricanes ✒✕ in ✗✑✚ ✐✗✜✛✕✗✒✓✫
the Atlantic, ❚✑✚ ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚
The cyclone ✓✙✚✛✗✚✔
creates ✔✗✖✙★
storm ✔✩✙✥✚✔
surges ✛✕✦ and ✗✑✚✢
they
✬✳✭✺♦♦✴✶
Typhoons ✒✕ in ✗✑✚ t✚✔✗✚✙✕ ♥✛✓✒❝✒✓
the Western Pacific ✛✕✦ and ✻✖✩✗✑
South ✒✕✩✕✦✛✗✚
inundate ✗✑✚ the ✓✖✛✔✗✛✜
coastal ✜✖✇ low ✜✛✕✦✔✣
lands. The ❚✑✚ ✔✗✖✙★
storm
❈✑✒✕✛ ✻✚✛✫ ✛✕✦ ❲✮✱✱✳✼✽✮✱✱✮✵✶
China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western ✒✕ ✗✑✚ t✚✔✗✚✙✕ ✘✚✗✚✙✔
peters ✖✩✗ out ✖✕ on ✗✑✚
the ✜✛✕✦✣
land.
✐✩✔✗✙✛✜✒✛✣
Australia.
Undisturbed Winds
❚✙✖✘✒✓✛✜ ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔
Tropical cyclones ✖✙✒✥✒✕✛✗✚
originate ✛✕✦ and ✒✕✗✚✕✔✒❝✢
intensify
✖✤✚✙ ✇✛✙★ ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜ ✖✓✚✛✕✔✣
over warm tropical oceans. The conditions ❚✑✚ ✓✖✕✦✒✗✒✖✕✔ WN “~W Tropopause ~W MW
❝✛✤✖✩✙✛✪✜✚
favourable ❝✖✙ the ❝✖✙★✛✗✒✖✕
for ✗✑✚ formation ✛✕✦ and ✒✕✗✚✕✔✒❝✒✓✛✗✒✖✕
intensification km|_Tro a use
E===~P Pay “ ~ 0 Oreres4
✖❝
of ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✔✗✖✙★✔
storms ✛✙✚✿ are: ❀✒❁(i) ❂✛✙✥✚
Large ✔✚✛sea ✔✩✙❝✛✓✚
surface with✇✒✗✑ 15F “SsseKe Steering Wind Flow woe 7
✗✚★✘✚✙✛✗✩✙✚ ✑✒✥✑✚✙ ✗✑✛✕
temperature higher than 27° C; (ii) Presence❃❄❅ ❈❇ ❀✒✒❁ ♥✙✚✔✚✕✓✚ — _ 7} “—1 —
Subsiding
✖❝ the ❈✖✙✒✖✜✒✔
of ✗✑✚ Coriolis ❝✖✙✓✚❇
force; ❀✒✒✒❁
(iii) ✻★✛✜✜ ✤✛✙✒✛✗✒✖✕✔ ✒✕
Small variations in ✗✑✚
the 12 Warm Air
✤✚✙✗✒✓✛✜ wind
vertical speed; ❀✒✤❁
✇✒✕✦ ✔✘✚✚✦❇ (iv) A✐ ✘✙✚✈✚✧✒✔✗✒✕✥
pre-existing weak- ✇✚✛✷✈
✜✖✇✈✘✙✚
low-pressure✔✔✩✙✚ ✛✙✚✛ area ✖✙ or ✜✖✇✈✜✚✤✚✜✈✓
low-level-cyclonic ✢✓✜✖✕✒✓
9
circulation; ❀✤❁
✓✒✙✓✩✜✛✗✒✖✕❇ (v) ❉✘✘✚✙
Upper ✦✒✤✚✙✥✚✕✓✚
divergence ✛✪✖✤✚ above ✗✑✚ the ✔✚✛
sea
T, b---------------%m\ | [| Pog---__________--4 T,
✜✚✤✚✜
level ✔✢✔✗✚★✣
system.
❚✑✚ ✚✕✚✙✥✢
The energy ✗✑✛✗ that ✒✕✗✚✕✔✒❝✒✚✔
intensifies ✗✑✚ the ✔✗✖✙★✫
storm, ✓✖★✚✔
comes 6
❝✙✖★
from ✗✑✚
the ✓✖✕✦✚✕✔✛✗✒✖✕
condensation ✘✙✖✓✚✔✔ process ✒✕ in ✗✑✚
the ✗✖✇✚✙✒✕✥
towering Ty Reena eS a | | | aot ea --- 5 T,
✓✩★✩✜✖✕✒★✪✩✔
cumulonimbus ✓✜✖✩✦✔✫ clouds, ✔✩✙✙✖✩✕✦✒✕✥
surrounding ✗✑✚ the
✓✚✕✗✙✚
centre ✖❝ of ✗✑✚
the ✔✗✖✙★✣
storm. With t✒✗✑ ✓✖✕✗✒✕✩✖✩✔
continuous ✔✩✘✘✜✢ supply
of ★✖✒✔✗✩✙✚
✖❝ moisture ❝✙✖★ from ✗✑✚ the ✔✚✛✫sea, ✗✑✚ the ✔✗✖✙★
storm ✒✔ is ❝✩✙✗✑✚✙
further
strengthened. ✸✕
✔✗✙✚✕✥✗✑✚✕✚✦✣ On ✙✚✛✓✑✒✕✥
reaching ✗✑✚ the ✜✛✕✦land ✗✑✚ the
★✖✒✔✗✩✙✚
moisture ✔✩✘✘✜✢ supply ✒✔ is ✓✩✗cut ✖❝❝ off ✛✕✦
and ✗✑✚ the ✔✗✖✙★
storm
✦✒✔✔✒✘✛✗✚✔✣
dissipates. The ❚✑✚ ✘✜✛✓✚ ✇✑✚✙✚ ✛
place where a ✗✙✖✘✒✓✛✜
tropical ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚
cyclone
✓✙✖✔✔✚✔
crosses ✗✑✚ the ✓✖✛✔✗
coast ✒✔ is ✓✛✜✜✚✦
called ✗✑✚ the ✜✛✕✦❝✛✜✜
landfall ✖❝ of ✗✑✚
the
✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✣
cyclone. The ❚✑✚ ✓✢✓✜✖✕✚✔✫
cyclones, which ✇✑✒✓✑ ✓✙✖✔✔ cross ❃❊ 20° ❋ ●N «— Direction of the Storm
✜✛✗✒✗✩✦✚
latitude ✥✚✕✚✙✛✜✜✢✫
generally, ✙✚✓✩✙✤✚recurve ✛✕✦ and ✗✑✚✢
they ✛✙✚ are ★✖✙✚
more ❖P◗❘❙❡
Figure ❯❱❳❯❱
10.10 ❨: Vertical
❩❡❙❬P❭❪❫ ❴❡❭❬P❵❛
section ❵❜
of ❬❞❡
the ❬❙❵❢P❭❪❫
tropical ❭❣❭❫❵❛❡
cyclone
✦✚✔✗✙✩✓✗✒✤✚✣
destructive. ❤❪❜❬❡❙
(after ❥❪❦❪
Rama ❧❪❴❬❙❣♣
Sastry)
✾✑
96 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❈❉●❍❏❑▲◆❖P▲◗◆
Thunderstorms ❘❍❏
and ❈P▲❍❘❏P❑◆
Tornadoes ♦❨❳❴❯❳❨
greater ❱❳✐♦❱❯❡
height. This❢❱✐❩ ❫❴❜❩❳❩
causes q❨❳❫✐q✐❯❴❯✐❪❝❡
precipitation. ✇❴❯❳❨❥
Later,
❞❪♥❝❞❨❴❤❯
downdraft brings ❞❪♥❝
❦❨✐❝♦❩ down ❯❪ to ❳❴❨❯❱
earth ❯❱❳
the ❫❪❪❭
cool ❴✐❨
air
❙❯❱❳❨
Other ❩❳❬❳❨❳
severe ❭❪❫❴❭
local ❩❯❪❨❵❩
storms ❴❨❳ are ❯❱❜❝❞❳❨❩❯❪❨❵❩
thunderstorms ❴❝❞
and ❯❱❳
the ❨❴✐❝❡
rain. ①❨❪❵From ❩❳❬❳❨❳
severe ❯❱❜❝❞❳❨❩❯❪❨❵❩
thunderstorms
❴❝❞
and tornadoes. They are ❪❤
❯❪❨❝❴❞❪❳❩❡ ❢❱❳❣ ❴❨❳ of ❩❱❪❨❯
short ❞❜❨❴❯✐❪❝❥
duration, ❩❪❵❳❯✐❵❳❩
sometimes ❩q✐❨❴❭❭✐❝♦
spiralling wind♥✐❝❞ ❞❳❩❫❳❝❞❩
descends ❭✐②❳like ❴ a
❪❫❫❜❨❨✐❝♦
occurring ❪❬❳❨over ❴ a ❩❵❴❭❭
small ❴❨❳❴area ❦❜❯but ❴❨❳ ❬✐❪❭❳❝❯❡
are violent. ❯❨❜❝② ❪❤ ❴❝ ❳❭❳q❱❴❝❯
trunk ofan elephant with ♦❨❳❴❯ ❤❪❨❫❳❥
♥✐❯❱ great force, with ❬❳❨❣
♥✐❯❱ very
❈❉●❍❏❑▲◆❖P▲ ◗◆ ❴❨❳ ❫❴❜❩❳❞
Thunderstorms are caused by intense ❦❣ ✐❝❯❳❝❩❳ ❭❪♥ pressure ❴❯
low q❨❳❩❩❜❨❳ at ❯❱❳
the ❫❳❝❯❨❳❥
centre, ❫❴❜❩✐❝♦
causing ❵❴❩❩✐❬❳
massive
❫❪❝❬❳❫❯✐❪❝
convection ❪❝ on ❵❪✐❩❯
moist ❱❪❯hot ❞❴❣❩❡
days. A❧ ❯❱❜❝❞❳❨❩❯❪❨❵
thunderstorm ❞❳❩❯❨❜❫❯✐❪❝ ❪❝ ✐❯❩
destruction on its way. ♥❴❣❡ ③❜❫❱ ❴ phenomenon ✐❩
Such a q❱❳❝❪❵❳❝❪❝ is
✐❩
is a well-grown cumulonimbus ❫❭❪❜❞
❴ ♥❳❭❭♣♦❨❪♥❝ ❫❜❵❜❭❪❝✐❵❦❜❩ cloud ❫❴❭❭❳❞
called ❴a ❖P▲❍❘❏P❡ ❢❪❨❝❴❞❪❳❩ ♦❳❝❳❨❴❭❭❣
tornado. Tornadoes generally ❪❫❫❜❨
occur
producing ❯❱❜❝❞❳❨
q❨❪❞❜❫✐❝♦ thunder ❴❝❞ and ❭✐♦❱❯❳❝✐❝♦❡
lightening. When r❱❳❝ ❯❱❳ the ✐❝
in ❵✐❞❞❭❳
middle ❭❴❯✐❯❜❞❳❩❡
latitudes. The ❢❱❳ ❯❪❨❝❴❞❪
tornado ❪❬❳❨
over ❯❱❳
the ❩❳❴
sea
❫❭❪❜❞❩
clouds ❳t❯❳❝❞
extend ❯❪ to ❱❳✐♦❱❯❩
heights where ♥❱❳❨❳ ❩❜❦♣✉❳❨❪
sub-zero ✐❩ ❫❴❭❭❳❞
is called ④❘❖❑▲
water ◆⑤▲P●❖◆❡
sprouts.
❯❳❵q❳❨❴❯❜❨❳ prevails, ❱❴✐❭❩
temperature q❨❳❬❴✐❭❩❥ hails ❴❨❳
are ❤❪❨❵❳❞
formed ❴❝❞ and ❯❱❳❣
they ❢❱❳❩❳ violent
These ❬✐❪❭❳❝❯ ❩❯❪❨❵❩
storms ❴❨❳are ❯❱❳
the ❵❴❝✐❤❳❩❯❴❯✐❪❝
manifestation
❫❪❵❳ ❞❪♥❝ ❴❩ ❱❴✐❭❩❯❪❨❵❡ ✈❤ ❯❱❳❨❳ ✐❩
come down as hailstorm. If there is insufficient ✐❝❩❜❤❤✐❫✐❳❝❯ ❪❤
of the atmosphere’s adjustments ❯❪
❯❱❳ ❴❯❵❪❩q❱❳❨❳⑥❩ ❴❞⑦❜❩❯❵❳❝❯❩ ❬❴❨❣✐❝♦
to varying
❵❪✐❩❯❜❨❳❥
moisture, ❴ a ❯❱❜❝❞❳❨❩❯❪❨❵
thunderstorm ❫❴❝ can ♦❳❝❳❨❴❯❳
generate ❞❜❩❯♣
dust- ❳❝❳❨♦❣ ❞✐❩❯❨✐❦❜❯✐❪❝❡ ❢❱❳
energy distribution. The q❪❯❳❝❯✐❴❭ potential and ❱❳❴❯
❴❝❞ heat
❩❯❪❨❵❩❡
storms. A thunderstorm is characterised ❦❣
❧ ❯❱❜❝❞❳❨❩❯❪❨❵ ✐❩ ❫❱❴❨❴❫❯❳❨✐❩❳❞ by ❳❝❳❨♦✐❳❩ ❴❨❳ ❫❪❝❬❳❨❯❳❞ ✐❝❯❪
energies are converted into ②✐❝❳❯✐❫ kinetic ❳❝❳❨♦❣
energy ✐❝ in
✐❝❯❳❝❩❳
intense ❜q❞❨❴❤❯
updraft ❪❤ of ❨✐❩✐❝♦
rising warm♥❴❨❵ ❴✐❨❥ ♥❱✐❫❱
air, which ❯❱❳❩❳
these ❩❯❪❨❵❩
storms ❴❝❞ and ❯❱❳
the ❨❳❩❯❭❳❩❩
restless ❴❯❵❪❩q❱❳❨❳
atmosphere ❴♦❴✐❝
again
❫❴❜❩❳❩
causes ❯❱❳
the ❫❭❪❜❞❩
clouds ❯❪ to ♦❨❪♥
grow ❦✐♦♦❳❨
bigger ❴❝❞ and ❨✐❩❳
rise ❯❪
to ❨❳❯❜❨❝❩
returns ❯❪to ✐❯❩
its ❩❯❴❦❭❳
stable ❩❯❴❯❳❡
state.

❊✒❊✓✔✕✖❊✖
EXERCISES ___

✶✳
1. ▼✗✘✙✚✛✘✜
Multiple ✢✣✤✚✢✜
choice ✥✗✜✦✙✚✤✧✦✳
questions.
★✚✩
(i) ■✪
If ✙✣✜
the ✦✗✫✪✬✢✜
surface ✬✚✫ air ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜
pressure ✚✦ is ✶✭✮✮✮
1,000 ✯✰✭
mb, ✙✣✜ the ✬✚✫
air ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜
pressure ✬✙ at ✶1 ✱✯
km ✬✰✤✲✜
above ✙✣✜
the
✦✗✫✪✬✢✜
surface wills✚✘✘ ✰✜✴
be:
★✬✩
(a) ✵✮✮
700 ✯✰ mb ★✢✩
(c) ✷✮✮
900 ✯✰ mb

★✰✩
(b) ✶✭✶✮✮
1,100 ✯✰ mb ★✸✩
(d) ✶✭✹✮✮
1,300 ✯✰ mb

★✚✚✩ ❚✣✜ ■✧✙✜✫

(ii) The ❚✫✤✛✚✢✬✘ ✺✤✧✲✜✫✻✜✧✢✜
Inter Tropical Convergence ✼✤✧✜ Zone ✧✤✫✯✬✘✘✽
normally ✤✢✢✗✫✦✴
occurs:
★✬✩
(a) ✧✜✬✫
near ✙✣✜the ✿✥✗✬✙✤✫
Equator ★✰✩
(b) ✧✜✬✫
near ✙✣✜ ❚✫✤✛✚✢ ✤✪
the Tropic of ✺✬✧✢✜✫
Cancer

★✢✩
(c) ✧✜✬✫
near ✙✣✜ ❚✫✤✛✚✢ ✤✪
the Tropic of ✺✬✛✫✚✢✤✫✧
Capricorn ★✸✩
(d) ✧✜✬✫
near ✙✣✜ ❆✫✢✙✚✢ ✺✚✫✢✘✜
the Arctic Circle

★✚✚✚✩ ❚✣✜ ✸✚✫✜✢✙✚✤✧

(iii) The direction ✤✪ s✚✧✸ ✬✫✤✗✧✸
of wind around ✬ a ✘✤s
low ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜
pressure ✚✧ in ✧✤✫✙✣✜✫✧
northern ✣✜✯✚✦✛✣✜✫✜
hemisphere ✚✦✴ is:
★✬✩
(a) ✢✘✤✢✱s✚✦✜
clockwise ★✢✩
(c) ✬✧✙✚❛✢✘✤✢✱
anti-clock wise s✚✦✜
★✰✩
(b) ✛✜✫✛✜✧✸✚✢✗✘✬✫
perpendicular ✙✤ to ✚✦✤✰✬✫✦
isobars ★✸✩
(d) ✛✬✫✬✘✘✜✘
parallel ✙✤ to ✚✦✤✰✬✫✦
isobars

★✚✲✩ ❲✣✚✢✣ ✤✧✜

(iv) Which one ✤✪ of ✙✣✜
the ✪✤✘✘✤s✚✧✻
following ✚✦ is ✙✣✜
the ✦✤✗✫✢✜
source ✫✜✻✚✤✧region ✪✤✫ for ✙✣✜
the ✪✤✫✯✬✙✚✤✧
formation ✤✪ of ✬✚✫
air
✯✬✦✦✜✦♠
masses?
★✬✩
(a) ✙✣✜ Equatorial ✪✤✫✜✦✙
the ✿✥✗✬✙✤✫✚✬✘ forest ★✢✩
(c) ✙✣✜
the ❀✚✰✜✫✚✬✧
Siberian ❁✘✬✚✧
Plain

★✰✩
(b) ✙✣✜
the ❂✚✯✬✘✬✽✬✦
Himalayas ★✸✩
(d) ✙✣✜
the ❃✜✢✢✬✧
Deccan ❁✘✬✙✜✬✗
Plateau

❄✳
2. ❆✧✦s✜✫ ✙✣✜
Answer the ✪✤✘✘✤s✚✧✻
following ✥✗✜✦✙✚✤✧✦
questions ✚✧ in ✬✰✤✗✙
about ✹✮ s✤✫✸✦✳
30 words.
★✚✩
(i) ❲✣✬✙ ✚✦ ✙✣✜ ✗✧✚✙ ✗✦✜✸ ✚✧ ✯✜✬✦✗✫✚✧✻
What is the unit used in measuring pressure? Why ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜♠ ❲✣✽ ✚✦is ✙✣✜
the ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜
pressure ✯✜✬✦✗✫✜✸
measured
✬✙
at ✦✙✬✙✚✤✧
station ✘✜✲✜✘
level ✫✜✸✗✢✜✸
reduced ✙✤ to ✙✣✜
the ✦✜✬sea ✘✜✲✜✘
level ✚✧ in ✛✫✜✛✬✫✬✙✚✤✧
preparation ✤✪ s✜✬✙✣✜✫ ✯✬✛✦♠
of weather maps?
★✚✚✩
(ii) ❲✣✚✘✜ ✙✣✜
While the ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜ gradient ✪✤✫✢✜
pressure ✻✫✬✸✚✜✧✙ force ✚✦ is ✪✫✤✯
from ✧✤✫✙✣
north ✙✤ to ✦✤✗✙✣✭
south, ✚✳✜✳
i.e. ✪✫✤✯
from ✙✣✜
the
✦✗✰✙✫✤✛✚✢✬✘
subtropical ✣✚✻✣ high ✛✫✜✦✦✗✫✜
pressure ✙✤ to ✙✣✜
the ✜✥✗✬✙✤✫
equator ✚✧ in ✙✣✜
the ✧✤✫✙✣✜✫✧
northern ✣✜✯✚✦✛✣✜✫✜✭
hemisphere,
s✣✽ ✬✫✜
why are ✙✣✜ s✚✧✸✦ ✧✤✫✙✣
the winds north ✜✬✦✙✜✫✘✚✜✦
easterlies ✚✧ in ✙✣✜
the ✙✫✤✛✚✢✦✳
tropics.
★✚✚✚✩
(iii) ❲✣✬✙ ✬✫✜
What are ✙✣✜the ✻✜✤✙✫✤✛✣✚✢ s✚✧✸✦♠
geotrophic winds?
★✚✲✩
(iv) Explain the land and sea ✰✫✜✜❇✜✦✳
✿❅✛✘✬✚✧ ✙✣✜ ✘✬✧✸ ✬✧✸ ✦✜✬ breezes.
❆ ✁✂✄☎✆✝✞✟✠ ✠✟✞✠✡☛❆
ATMOSPHERIC ✟✂☞ AND
CIRCULATION ❆☞✌ WEATHER
✍✝❆ ✆✝✞ ✄✎✄ ✝✁✄
SYSTEMS ✾✏
97

✸✑
3. ✒✓✔✕✖✗ ✘✙✖
Answer the ✚✛✜✜✛✕✢✓✣
following ✤✥✖✔✘✢✛✓✔
questions ✢✓
in ✦✧✛✥✘
about ★✩✪ ✕✛✗✫✔✑
150 words.
✭✢✮
(i) Discuss ✘✙✖
❉✢✔✬✥✔✔ the ✚✦✬✘✛✗✔
factors ✦✚✚✖✬✘✢✓✣
affecting ✘✙✖
the ✔✯✖✖✫
speed ✦✓✫
and ✫✢✗✖✬✘✢✛✓
direction ✛✚ ✕✢✓✫✑
of wind.
✭✢✢✮
(ii) Draw ✦
❉✗✦✕ a ✔✢✰✯✜✢✚✢✖✫
simplified ✫✢✦✣✗✦✰
diagram ✘✛ to ✔✙✛✕
show ✘✙✖the ✣✖✓✖✗✦✜ circulation ✛✚
general ✬✢✗✬✥✜✦✘✢✛✓ of ✘✙✖
the
✦✘✰✛✔✯✙✖✗✖
atmosphere ✛❛✖✗
over ✘✙✖
the ✣✜✛✧✖✑ ✱✙✦✘ ✦✗✖
globe. What are ✘✙✖ possible ✗✖✦✔✛✓✔
the ✯✛✔✔✢✧✜✖ reasons ✚✛✗
for ✘✙✖
the ✚✛✗✰✦✘✢✛✓
formation
✛✚
of ✔✥✧✘✗✛✯✢✬✦✜
subtropical ✙✢✣✙ pressure ✛❛✖✗
high ✯✗✖✔✔✥✗✖ 30° ♦ ✲
over ✸✪ N ✦✓✫
and § ✳ ✜✦✘✢✘✥✫✖✔✴
latitudes?
✭✢✢✢✮
(iii) ✱✙❲ ✫✛✖✔
Why does ✘✗✛✯✢✬✦✜ cyclone ✛✗✢✣✢✓✦✘✖
tropical ✬❲✬✜✛✓✖ originate ✛❛✖✗
over ✘✙✖
the ✔✖✦✔✴
seas? ✵✓ ✕✙✢✬✙ ✯✦✗✘
In which part ✛✚
of ✘✙✖
the
✘✗✛✯✢✬✦✜ cyclone ✫✛
tropical ✬❲✬✜✛✓✖ do ✘✛✗✗✖✓✘✢✦✜
torrential ✗✦✢✓✔
rains ✦✓✫
and ✙✢✣✙ ✕✢✓✫✔ ✧✜✛✕
❛✖✜✛✬✢✘❲ winds
high velocity blow ✦✓✫ ✕✙❲✴
and why?

Pr✶✷✹✺✻ ✼✶r✽
Project Work
✭✢✮
(i) ❈✛✜✜✖✬✘ ✕✖✦✘✙✖✗ ✢✓✚✛✗✰✦✘✢✛✓
Collect weather information ✛❛✖✗ media ✔✥✬✙
over ✰✖✫✢✦ such ✦✔
as ✓✖✕✔✯✦✯✖✗✿ ❀❁ ✦✓✫
newspaper, TV and ✗✦✫✢✛
radio
✚✛✗ ✥✓✫✖✗✔✘✦✓✫✢✓✣ ✘✙✖ ✕✖✦✘✙✖✗ ✔❲✔✘✖✰✔✑
for understanding the weather systems.
✭✢✢✮
(ii) Read ✘✙✖
❘✖✦✫ the ✔✖✬✘✢✛✓
section ✛✓ ✕✖✦✘✙✖✗ ✢✓
on weather in ✦✓❲
any ✓✖✕✔✯✦✯✖✗✿ preferably, ✛✓✖
newspaper, ✯✗✖✚✖✗✦✧✜❲✿ one ✙✦❛✢✓✣
having ✦a
map ✔✙✛✕✢✓✣
✰✦✯ showing ✦ a ✔✦✘✖✜✜✢✘✖
satellite ✯✢✬✘✥✗✖✑ Mark ✘✙✖
picture. ♠✦✗❂ the ✦✗✖✦
area ✛✚
of ✬✜✛✥✫✢✓✖✔✔✑ ✒✘✘✖✰✯✘ ✘✛
cloudiness. Attempt to
✢✓✚✖✗
infer ✘✙✖
the ✦✘✰✛✔✯✙✖✗✢✬ circulation ✚✗✛✰
atmospheric ✬✢✗✬✥✜✦✘✢✛✓ from ✘✙✖
the ✫✢✔✘✗✢✧✥✘✢✛✓
distribution ✛✚ clouds. ❈✛✰✯✦✗✖
of ✬✜✛✥✫✔✑ Compare
✘✙✖
the ✚✛✗✖✬✦✔✘
forecast ✣✢❛✖✓
given ✢✓in ✘✙✖
the ✓✖✕✔✯✦✯✖✗
newspaper with ✕✢✘✙ ✘✙✖
the ❀❁ coverage, ✢✚
TV ✬✛❛✖✗✦✣✖✿ you ✙✦❛✖
if ❲✛✥ have
✦✬✬✖✔✔
access ✘✛to ❀❁✑ Estimate, ✙✛✕
TV. ❃✔✘✢✰✦✘✖✿ many ✫✦❲✔
how ✰✦✓❲ days ✢✓
in ✦ ✕✖✖❂ was
a week ✕✦✔ ✘✙✖
the ✚✛✗✖✬✦✔✘ ✕✖✗✖
forecast were
✦✬✬✥✗✦✘✖✑
accurate.
❉CHAPTER
❋●❍❏❑▲

❲❆❚ ✁ ■✂
WATER ❚✄ ATMOSPHERE
IN THE ✥❚☎✆✝✞✄ ✁

♦✟
ou ✠✡☛☞ have ✡✌✍☞✡✎✏already ✌☞✡✍♥✑ learnt ✑✠✡✑ that ✑✠☞ the ✡✒✍ air ❊❱✴✵✶✷✴✸✹✶✺
EVAPORATION AND ✴✺✻ ✼✶✺✻❖✺✽✴✸✹✶✺
CONDENSATION
y ❝♦♥✑✡✒♥✓
contains water ✔✡✑☞✍ vapour.
☛✡✕♦✟✍✳ ✖✑It varies ☛✡✍✒☞✓ ✗✍♦♠ from
✛✠☞ ✡♠♦✟♥✑
amount ♦✗ ✔✡✑☞✍ vapour☛✡✕♦✟✍ ✒♥ in ✑✠☞
the ✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞
❨ zero ③☞✍♦ ✑♦ to ✗♦✟✍
four ✕☞✍ per ❝☞♥✑
cent by ✘✏ volume
☛♦✌✟♠☞ ♦✗of ✑✠☞ the The
✒✓is ✡✎✎☞✎
added ♦✍
of water
✔✒✑✠✎✍✡✔♥ ✎✟☞ due ✑♦
atmosphere
to ☞☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♦♥
evaporation ✡♥✎
✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞
atmosphere ✡♥✎ and ✕✌✡✏✓plays ✡♥ an ✒♠✕♦✍✑✡♥✑
important ✍♦✌☞ role ✒♥ in ✑✠☞
the
❝♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
or withdrawn
condensation ✍☞✓✕☞❝✑✒☛☞✌✏✳ respectively. ✾☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♦♥ Evaporation ✒✓
and
is ✡
✔☞✡✑✠☞✍ ✕✠☞♥♦♠☞♥✡✳
weather phenomena. Water ✇✡✑☞✍ ✒✓is ✕✍☞✓☞♥✑present ✒♥ in ✑✠☞
the
✕✍♦❝☞✓✓ ✘✏ which
✔✠✒❝✠ water ✔✡✑☞✍ ✒✓is ✑✍✡♥✓✗♦✍♠☞✎
transformed ✗✍♦♠
a
✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞
atmosphere ✒♥ in ✑✠✍☞☞
three ✗♦✍♠✓forms ♥✡♠☞✌✏ namely -❛ ✙✡✓☞♦✟✓✚gaseous, process by
✌✒❧✟✒✎
liquid ✑♦ to ✙✡✓☞♦✟✓
gaseous ✓✑✡✑☞✳ state. ✿☞✡✑Heat ✒✓ is ✑✠☞
the ♠✡✒♥
main ❝✡✟✓☞
from
✌✒❧✟✒✎
liquid ✡♥✎ and ✓♦✌✒✎✳ solid. The ✛✠☞ ♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞
moisture ✒♥ in ✑✠☞ the
✗♦✍
for ☞☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♦♥✳ ✛✠☞ ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
temperature ✡✑
cause
✔✠✒❝✠ ✑✠☞
✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞
atmosphere ✒✓ is ✎☞✍✒☛☞✎
derived ✗✍♦♠ from water ✔✡✑☞✍ bodies ✘♦✎✒☞✓ evaporation. The
✔✡✑☞✍ ✓✑✡✍✑✓
starts ☞☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♥✙
evaporating ✒✓ is ✍☞✗☞✍✍☞✎
at which
referred ✑♦ to ✡✓
the
as ✑✠☞
✑✠✍♦✟✙✠
through ☞☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♦♥
evaporation ✡♥✎ and ✗✍♦♠
from ✕✌✡♥✑✓
plants ✑✠✍♦✟✙✠through water
✧✢✩✪✲✩
latent ✫✪✢✩ heat ✦❀ of ✰✢✱✦★r✭✤✢✩✭✦✲✳
the
✑✍✡♥✓✕✒✍✡✑✒♦♥✳
transpiration. Thus, ✛✠✟✓✚ ✑✠☞✍☞ there ✒✓ is ✡ a ❝♦♥✑✒♥✟♦✟✓
continuous
✖♥❝✍☞✡✓☞
Increase ✒♥
vapourisation.
in ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
temperature ✒♥❝✍☞✡✓☞✓ ✔✡✑☞✍
☞❡❝✠✡♥✙☞
exchange ♦✗✔✡✑☞✍ of water between✘☞✑✔☞☞♥ ✑✠☞ the ✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞✚
atmosphere, ✑✠☞ the
✡✘✓♦✍✕✑✒♦♥
absorption ✡♥✎ and ✍☞✑☞♥✑✒♦♥
retention ❝✡✕✡❝✒✑✏
increases water
capacity ♦✗ of ✑✠☞
the ✙✒☛☞♥
♦❝☞✡♥✓
oceans ✡♥✎ and ✑✠☞ the ❝♦♥✑✒♥☞♥✑✓
continents ✑✠✍♦✟✙✠ through ✑✠☞ the
✕✡✍❝☞✌
parcel ♦✗ of ✡✒✍✳
air. ❁✒♠✒✌✡✍✌✏✚
Similarly, ✒✗ ✑✠☞ ♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞
moisture ❝♦♥✑☞♥✑
given
✕✍♦❝☞✓✓☞✓
processes ♦✗ of ☞☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♦♥✚
evaporation, ✑✍✡♥✓✕✒✍✡✑✒♦♥✚ transpiration,
✒✓is ✌♦✔✚
low, ✡✒✍
air ✠✡✓ has ✡ a ✕♦✑☞♥✑✒✡✌✒✑✏
ifthe
potentiality ♦✗ of ✡✘✓♦✍✘✒♥✙
absorbing ✡♥✎
content
❝♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
condensation and ✕✍☞❝✒✕✒✑✡✑✒♦♥✳
✡♥✎ precipitation.
✍☞✑✡✒♥✒♥✙
and
✇✡✑☞✍ vapour
Water ☛✡✕♦✟✍ ✕✍☞✓☞♥✑ present ✒♥ in ✑✠☞
the ✡✒✍air ✒✓ is ✜♥♦✔♥
known retaining moisture. Movement ♦✗
♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞✳ ❂♦☛☞♠☞♥✑ of ✡✒✍
air ✍☞✕✌✡❝☞✓
replaces
✡✓
as ✠✟♠✒✎✒✑✏✳
humidity. ✖✑ It ✒✓is ☞❡✕✍☞✓✓☞✎
expressed ❧✟✡♥✑✒✑✡✑✒☛☞✌✏
quantitatively ✒♥ in ✑✠☞
the ✓✡✑✟✍✡✑☞✎
saturated ✌✡✏☞✍ layer with✔✒✑✠ ✑✠☞ the ✟♥✓✡✑✟✍✡✑☞✎
unsaturated ✌✡✏☞✍✳ layer.
✎✒✗✗☞✍☞♥✑ ✔✡✏✓✳ The
different ways. ✛✠☞ ✡❝✑✟✡✌
actual ✡♠♦✟♥✑
amount ♦✗ of ✑✠☞ ✔✡✑☞✍
the water ✿☞♥❝☞✚
Hence, the greater the movement ♦✗
✑✠☞ ✙✍☞✡✑☞✍ ✑✠☞ ♠♦☛☞♠☞♥✑ of ✡✒✍✚
air, ✑✠☞
the
☛✡✕♦✟✍ ✕✍☞✓☞♥✑
vapour present ✒♥ in ✑✠☞
the ✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞
atmosphere ✒✓ is ✜♥♦✔♥
known ✡✓ as ✙✍☞✡✑☞✍
greater ✒✓ is ✑✠☞the ☞☛✡✕♦✍✡✑✒♦♥✳
evaporation.
✑✠☞
the ✢✣✤✦✧★✩✪
absolute ✫★✬✭✮✭✩✯✳
humidity. ✖✑ It ✒✓
is ✑✠☞ ✔☞✒✙✠✑ ♦✗of water
the weight ✔✡✑☞✍ ✛✠☞ ✑✍✡♥✓✗♦✍♠✡✑✒♦♥
The transformation ♦✗ ✔✡✑☞✍ vapour
of water ☛✡✕♦✟✍ ✒♥✑♦ into
☛✡✕♦✟✍ ✕☞✍
vapour per ✟♥✒✑ ☛♦✌✟♠☞ ♦✗of ✡✒✍
unit volume air ✡♥✎
and ✒✓ is ☞❡✕✍☞✓✓☞✎
expressed ✔✡✑☞✍ ✒✓is ❝✡✌✌☞✎
water called ❃✦✲✮✪✲✤✢✩✭✦✲✳
condensation. ❄♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥ Condensation ✒✓ is
✒♥
in ✑☞✍♠✓
terms ♦✗ of ✙✍✡♠✓
grams ✕☞✍ per ❝✟✘✒❝
cubic ♠☞✑✍☞✳metre. The ✛✠☞ ✡✘✒✌✒✑✏
ability ❝✡✟✓☞✎
caused by ✘✏ ✑✠☞ the ✌♦✓✓
loss ♦✗ of ✠☞✡✑✳
heat. When ✇✠☞♥ ♠♦✒✓✑ moist ✡✒✍ air ✒✓is
♦✗of ✑✠☞
the ✡✒✍
air ✑♦
to ✠♦✌✎
hold water✔✡✑☞✍ vapour
☛✡✕♦✟✍ ✎☞✕☞♥✎✓ depends ☞♥✑✒✍☞✌✏entirely ❝♦♦✌☞✎✚
cooled, ✒✑ it ♠✡✏
may ✍☞✡❝✠
reach ✡ a ✌☞☛☞✌
level when✔✠☞♥ ✒✑✓ its ❝✡✕✡❝✒✑✏
capacity
♦♥
on ✒✑✓ its ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞✳
temperature. The ✛✠☞ ✡✘✓♦✌✟✑☞
absolute ✠✟♠✒✎✒✑✏ humidity ✑♦
to ✠♦✌✎ ✔✡✑☞✍ vapour
hold water ☛✡✕♦✟✍ ❝☞✡✓☞✓✳ceases. Then, ✛✠☞♥✚ ✑✠☞ the ☞❡❝☞✓✓
excess
✎✒✗✗☞✍✓
differs ✗✍♦♠
from ✕✌✡❝☞place ✑♦ to ✕✌✡❝☞
place ♦♥ on ✑✠☞the ✓✟✍✗✡❝☞
surface ♦✗ of ✑✠☞
the ✔✡✑☞✍ vapour
water ☛✡✕♦✟✍ ❝♦♥✎☞♥✓☞✓
condenses ✒♥✑♦ into ✌✒❧✟✒✎
liquid ✗♦✍♠✳form. ✖✗ If ✒✑
it
☞✡✍✑✠✳
earth. The ✛✠☞ ✕☞✍❝☞♥✑✡✙☞
percentage ♦✗ of ♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞
moisture ✕✍☞✓☞♥✑ present ✒♥ in ✎✒✍☞❝✑✌✏
directly ❝♦♥✎☞♥✓☞✓
condenses ✒♥✑♦ into ✓♦✌✒✎
solid ✗♦✍♠✚form, ✒✑ it ✒✓
is ✜♥♦✔♥
known
✑✠☞
the ✡✑♠♦✓✕✠☞✍☞
atmosphere ✡✓ as ❝♦♠✕✡✍☞✎
compared ✑♦ to ✒✑✓
its ✗✟✌✌
full ❝✡✕✡❝✒✑✏
capacity ✡✓
as ✤★✣✧✭✬✢✩✭✦✲✳
sublimation. ✖♥ In ✗✍☞☞
free ✡✒✍✚
air, ❝♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
condensation ✍☞✓✟✌✑✓ results
✡✑
at ✡ a ✙✒☛☞♥
given ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
temperature ✒✓ is ✜♥♦✔♥
known ✡✓ as ✑✠☞the r✪✧✢✩✭✰✪
relative ✗✍♦♠
from ❝♦♦✌✒♥✙
cooling ✡✍♦✟♥✎ around very ☛☞✍✏ ✓♠✡✌✌ small ✕✡✍✑✒❝✌☞✓
particles
✫★✬✭✮✭✩✯✳
humidity. With ✇✒✑✠ ✑✠☞ the ❝✠✡♥✙☞
change ♦✗ of ✡✒✍
air ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞✚
temperature, ✑☞✍♠☞✎
termed ✡✓ as ✠✏✙✍♦✓❝♦✕✒❝
hygroscopic ❝♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
condensation ♥✟❝✌☞✒✳ nuclei.
✑✠☞
the ❝✡✕✡❝✒✑✏
capacity ✑♦ to ✍☞✑✡✒♥
retain ♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞
moisture ✒♥❝✍☞✡✓☞✓ increases ♦✍ or P✡✍✑✒❝✌☞✓
Particles ♦✗✎✟✓✑✚of dust, ✓♠♦✜☞
smoke ✡♥✎ and ✓✡✌✑✗✍♦♠
salt from ✑✠☞ the ♦❝☞✡♥
ocean
✎☞❝✍☞✡✓☞✓
decreases ✡♥✎ and ✑✠☞ the ✍☞✌✡✑✒☛☞
relative ✠✟♠✒✎✒✑✏
humidity ✒✓ is ✡✌✓♦
also ✡✍☞
are ✕✡✍✑✒❝✟✌✡✍✌✏
particularly ✙♦♦✎ good ♥✟❝✌☞✒nuclei because ✘☞❝✡✟✓☞ ✑✠☞✏ they
✡✗✗☞❝✑☞✎✳
affected. ✖✑ It ✒✓
is ✙✍☞✡✑☞✍
greater ♦☛☞✍ over ✑✠☞the ♦❝☞✡♥✓
oceans ✡♥✎ and ✌☞✡✓✑
least ✡✘✓♦✍✘
absorb water.✔✡✑☞✍✳ ❄♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
Condensation ✡✌✓♦ also ✑✡✜☞✓
takes ✕✌✡❝☞ place
♦☛☞✍ ✑✠☞ ❝♦♥✑✒♥☞♥✑✓✳
over the continents. ✔✠☞♥ ✑✠☞
when the ♠♦✒✓✑
moist ✡✒✍ air ❝♦♠☞✓
comes ✒♥ in ❝♦♥✑✡❝✑
contact with ✔✒✑✠ ✓♦♠☞some
✛✠☞ ✡✒✍
The air ❝♦♥✑✡✒♥✒♥✙
containing ♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞ moisture ✑♦ to ✒✑✓
its ✗✟✌✌full ❝♦✌✎☞✍
colder ♦✘❅☞❝✑
object ✡♥✎ and ✒✑ it ♠✡✏
may ✡✌✓♦also ✑✡✜☞ take ✕✌✡❝☞
place when ✔✠☞♥
❝✡✕✡❝✒✑✏
capacity ✡✑ at ✡ a ✙✒☛☞♥
given ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
temperature ✒✓ is ✓✡✒✎
said ✑♦ to be✘☞ ✑✠☞
the ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
temperature ✒✓ is ❝✌♦✓☞
close ✑♦ to ✑✠☞the ✎☞✔ dew ✕♦✒♥✑✳ point.
✤✢✩★r✢✩✪✮✳
saturated. ✖✑ It ♠☞✡♥✓
means ✑✠✡✑ that ✑✠☞ the ✡✒✍ air ✡✑ at ✑✠☞the ✙✒☛☞♥
given ❄♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥✚
Condensation, ✑✠☞✍☞✗♦✍☞✚ therefore, ✎☞✕☞♥✎✓ depends ✟✕♦♥ upon ✑✠☞ the
✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
temperature ✒✓ is ✒♥❝✡✕✡✘✌☞
incapable ♦✗ of ✠♦✌✎✒♥✙
holding ✡♥✏ any ✡♠♦✟♥✑
amount ♦✗ of ❝♦♦✌✒♥✙
cooling ✡♥✎ and ✑✠☞ the ✍☞✌✡✑✒☛☞
relative ✠✟♠✒✎✒✑✏
humidity ♦✗ of
✡✎✎✒✑✒♦♥✡✌
additional ✡♠♦✟♥✑ amount ♦✗ of ♠♦✒✓✑✟✍☞
moisture ✡✑ at ✑✠✡✑
that ✓✑✡✙☞✳
stage. ✑✠☞
the ✡✒✍✳air. ❄♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
Condensation ✒✓ is ✒♥✗✌✟☞♥❝☞✎
influenced by ✘✏ ✑✠☞the
✛✠☞ ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞
The temperature ✡✑ ✔✠✒❝✠ ✓✡✑✟✍✡✑✒♦♥
at which saturation ♦❝❝✟✍✓ occurs ☛♦✌✟♠☞ ♦✗
volume of ✡✒✍✚
air, ✑☞♠✕☞✍✡✑✟✍☞✚
temperature, ✕✍☞✓✓✟✍☞ pressure ✡♥✎ and
✒♥
in ✡ a ✙✒☛☞♥
given ✓✡♠✕✌☞
sample ♦✗ of ✡✒✍
air ✒✓is ✜♥♦✔♥
known ✡✓ as ✮✪❞ ✱✦✭✲✩✳
dew point. ✠✟♠✒✎✒✑✏✳
humidity. ❄♦♥✎☞♥✓✡✑✒♦♥
Condensation ✑✡✜☞✓ takes ✕✌✡❝☞❤place: ❇✒❈ ✔✠☞♥
(i) when
❲❆ ✁✂ ✄☎
WATER ✆✁ ATMOSPHERE
IN THE ❆ ❚✝✞✟✆✁✂✁ ✾✾
99

t✠✡
the t✡☛☞✡✌✍t✎✌✡
temperature ✏✑ of t✠✡
the ✍✒✌
air ✒✓
is ✌✡✔✎✕✡✔
reduced t✏ to ✔✡✖
dew ✕✏♣✔✒t✒✏♣
condition when✖✠✡♣ ✑✏✙fog ✒✓is ☛✒✲✡✔
mixed with ✖✒t✠ ✓☛✏♠✡✱
smoke, ✒✓ is
☞✏✒♣t ✖✒t✠ ✒t✓
point with ✗✏✘✎☛✡ ✌✡☛✍✒♣✒♣✙
its volume remaining ✕✏♣✓t✍♣t✚
constant; ✛✒✒✜(ii) ✔✡✓✕✌✒✇✡✔
described ✍✓ as s❀✽✿♦ ✳✠✡ ✏♣✘✪
smog. The only ✔✒✑✑✡✌✡♣✕✡
difference ✇✡t✖✡✡♣
between
✖✠✡♣ both
when ✇✏t✠ t✠✡ ✗✏✘✎☛✡ ✍♣✔
the volume and t✠✡
the t✡☛☞✡✌✍t✎✌✡
temperature ✍✌✡ are t✠✡
the ☛✒✓t
mist ✍♣✔
and ✑✏✙fog ✒✓
is t✠✍t
that ☛✒✓t
mist ✕✏♣t✍✒♣✓
contains ☛✏✌✡
more
✌✡✔✎✕✡✔✚
reduced; ✛✒✗✜ ✖✠✡♣ ☛✏✒✓t✎✌✡
(iv) when moisture ✒✓ is ✍✔✔✡✔
added t✏to t✠✡
the ✍✒✌air ☛✏✒✓t✎✌✡
moisture t✠✍♣than t✠✡the ✑✏✙♦
fog. ❜♣In ☛✒✓t
mist ✡✍✕✠
each ♣✎✕✡✘✒
nuceli
t✠✌✏✎✙✠
through ✡✗✍☞✏✌✍t✒✏♣♦
evaporation. ✢✏✖✡✗✡✌✱ However, t✠✡ the ☛✏✓t
most ✕✏♣t✍✒♣✓
contains ✍ a t✠✒✕♠✡✌ layer ✏✑
thicker ✘✍✪✡✌ of ☛✏✒✓t✎✌✡♦ Mists ✍✌✡
moisture. ❁✒✓t✓ are
✑✍✗✏✎✌✍✇✘✡
favourable ✕✏♣✔✒t✒✏♣
condition ✑✏✌ for ✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
condensation ✒✓ is t✠✡
the ✑✌✡❝✎✡♣t
frequent ✏✗✡✌
over ☛✏✎♣t✍✒♣✓
mountains ✍✓ as t✠✡
the ✌✒✓✒♣✙ ✖✍✌☛
rising warm
✔✡✕✌✡✍✓✡
decrease ✒♣ in ✍✒✌air t✡☛☞✡✌✍t✎✌✡♦
temperature. ✍✒✌
air ✎☞
up t✠✡
the ✓✘✏☞✡✓
slopes ☛✡✡t✓
meets ✍ a ✕✏✘✔
cold ✓✎✌✑✍✕✡♦
surface. ❋✏✙✓
Fogs
✣✑t✡✌ ✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
After condensation t✠✡ ✖✍t✡✌ vapour
the water ✗✍☞✏✎✌ ✏✌ or t✠✡
the ✍✌✡ ✔✌✒✡✌ t✠✍♣ ☛✒✓t ✍♣✔ t✠✡✪ ✍✌✡ ☞✌✡✗✍✘✡♣t
are drier than mist and they are prevalent where ✖✠✡✌✡
☛✏✒✓t✎✌✡ ✒♣ t✠✡ ✍t☛✏✓☞✠✡✌✡
moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the t✍♠✡✓ ✏♣✡ ✏✑ t✠✡ ✖✍✌☛ ✕✎✌✌✡♣t✓
warm currents ✏✑ of ✍✒✌
air ✕✏☛✡
come ✒♣ in ✕✏♣t✍✕t ✖✒t✠ ✕✏✘✔
contact with cold
✑✏✘✘✏✖✒♣✙
following ✑✏✌☛✓
forms — ❢ ✔✡✖✱
dew, ✑✌✏✓t✱
frost, ✑✏✙
fog ✍♣✔
and ✕✘✏✎✔✓♦
clouds. ✕✎✌✌✡♣t✓♦
currents. ❋✏✙✓ ✍✌✡ ☛✒♣✒ ✕✘✏✎✔✓
Fogs are mini clouds in which ✒♣ ✖✠✒✕✠
Forms ✏✑
❋✏✌☛✓ of ✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
condensation ✕✍♣ ✇✡ ✕✘✍✓✓✒✑✒✡✔
can be classified ✏♣
on t✠✡
the ✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
condensation t✍♠✡✓ takes ☞✘✍✕✡
place ✍✌✏✎♣✔
around ♣✎✕✘✡✒
nuclei
✇✍✓✒✓ ✏✑
basis of t✡ ☛☞✡ ✌✍t ✎✌✡ ✍
temperature ♣✔ ✘✏✕✍t✒
and location.✏♣♦ ☞✌✏✗✒✔✡✔
provided ✇✪ by t✠✡
the ✔✎✓t✱
dust, ✓☛✏♠✡✱
smoke, ✍♣✔ and t✠✡
the ✓✍✘t
salt
Condensation t✍♠✡✓
❈✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣ takes ☞✘✍✕✡ ✖✠✡♣ t✠✡
place when the ✔✡✖
dew ☞✏✒♣t
point ☞✍✌t✒✕✘✡✓♦
particles.
✒✓ lower t✠✍♣
is ✘✏✖✡✌ than t✠✡ the ✑✌✡✡✐✒♣✙
freezing ☞✏✒♣tpoint ✍✓ ✖✡✘✘ ✍✓
as well as
✠✒✙✠✡✌
higher t✠✍♣
than t✠✡ the ✑✌✡✡✐✒♣✙
freezing ☞✏✒♣t♦
point. ❂❃✭❄✸✮
Clouds

Cloud ✒✓
❈✘✏✎✔ is ✍ a ☛✍✓✓
mass ✏✑ of ☛✒♣✎t✡
minute water✖✍t✡✌ ✔✌✏☞✘✡t✓
droplets ✏✌ or
❉✤✥
Dew
t✒♣✪
tiny ✕✌✪✓t✍✘✓
crystals ✏✑ of ✒✕✡
ice ✑✏✌☛✡✔
formed ✇✪ by t✠✡
the ✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
condensation
✦✠✡♣ t✠✡
When the ☛✏✒✓t✎✌✡
moisture ✒✓ is ✔✡☞✏✓✒t✡✔
deposited ✒♣ in t✠✡
the ✑✏✌☛
form ✏✑of ✏✑
of t✠✡ ✖✍t✡✌ ✗✍☞✏✎✌
the water vapour ✒♣ in ✑✌✡✡
free ✍✒✌
air ✍t
at ✕✏♣✓✒✔✡✌✍✇✘✡
considerable
✖✍t✡✌ ✔✌✏☞✘✡t✓
water droplets ✏♣ on ✕✏✏✘✡✌
cooler ✓✎✌✑✍✕✡✓
surfaces ✏✑ of ✓✏✘✒✔
solid ✡✘✡✗✍t✒✏♣✓♦
elevations. As ✣✓ t✠✡
the ✕✘✏✎✔✓
clouds ✍✌✡ are ✑✏✌☛✡✔
formed ✍t at ✓✏☛✡
some
✏✇✧✡✕t✓ (rather t✠✍♣
objects ✛✌✍t✠✡✌ nuclei ✒♣
than ♣✎✕✘✡✒ in ✍✒✌
air ✍✇✏✗✡
above t✠✡the ✠✡✒✙✠t
height ✏✗✡✌
over t✠✡the ✓✎✌✑✍✕✡
surface ✏✑ of t✠✡
the ✡✍✌t✠✱
earth, t✠✡✪they t✍♠✡
take
✓✎✌✑✍✕✡✜
surface) ✓✎✕✠
such ✍✓
as ✓t✏♣✡✓✱
stones, ✙✌✍✓✓ ✇✘✍✔✡✓ ✍♣✔
grass blades and ☞✘✍♣t
plant various ✓✠✍☞✡✓♦
✗✍✌✒✏✎✓ ✣✕✕✏✌✔✒♣✙ t✏
shapes. According to t✠✡✒✌
their ✠✡✒✙✠t✱
height,
leaves, ✒t
✘✡✍✗✡✓✱ it ✒✓ known ✍✓
is ♠♣✏✖♣ as ❞★✩♦ ✳✠✡ ✒✔✡✍✘
dew. The ideal ✕✏♣✔✒t✒✏♣✓
conditions ✡expanse,
✲☞✍ ♣✓✡✱ ✔✡ ♣✓✒t✪ ✍
density ♣✔ ttransparency
and ✌✍♣✓ ☞✍ ✌✡ ♣✕✪ ✏✌ or
✑✏✌
for ✒t✓
its ✑✏✌☛✍t✒✏♣
formation ✍✌✡ are ✕✘✡✍✌
clear ✓♠✪✱
sky, ✕✍✘☛
calm ✍✒✌✱
air, ✠✒✙✠
high ✏☞✍❝✎✡♣✡✓✓
opaqueness ✕✘✏✎✔✓ clouds ✍✌✡ grouped ✎♣✔✡✌
are ✙✌✏✎☞✡✔ under ✑✏✎✌
four
✌✡✘✍t✒✗✡
relative ✠✎☛✒✔✒t✪✱
humidity, ✍♣✔ and ✕✏✘✔
cold ✍♣✔
and ✘✏♣✙
long ♣✒✙✠t✓♦
nights. t✪☞✡✓
types ❅: ✛✒✜(i) ✕✒✌✌✎✓✚ (ii) ✕✎☛✎✘✎✓✚
cirrus; ✛✒✒✜ cumulus; ✛✒✒✒✜ (iii) ✓t✌✍t✎✓✚
stratus;
For t✠✡
❋✏✌ the ✑✏✌☛✍t✒✏♣
formation ✏✑ of ✔✡✖✱
dew, ✒t
it ✒✓ necessary t✠✍t
is ♣✡✕✡✓✓✍✌✪ that ✛✒✗✜
(iv) ♣✒☛✇✎✓♦
nimbus.
t✠✡
the dew point is above the freezing ☞✏✒♣t♦
✔✡✖ ☞✏✒♣t ✒✓ ✍✇✏✗✡ t✠✡ ✑✌✡✡✐✒♣✙ point.
❊●❍❍■s
Cirrus
✫✬✭✮✯
Frost
Cirrus ✕✘✏✎✔✓
❈✒✌✌✎✓ clouds ✍✌✡
are ✑✏✌☛✡✔
formed ✍tat ✠✒✙✠
high ✍✘t✒t✎✔✡✓
altitudes
❋ ✌✏✓t ✑✏✌☛✓
Frost forms ✏♣
on ✕cold✏✘✔ ✓surfaces
✎✌✑✍ ✕✡✓ when✖✠✡ ♣ ✛❏✱✰✰✰ ❑ ▲▼✱✰✰✰☛✜♦ ✳✠✡✪ ✍✌✡ t✠✒♣ ✍♣✔ ✔✡t✍t✕✠✡✔
(8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
condensation t✍♠✡✓ takes ☞✘✍✕✡ ✇✡✘✏✖ ✑✌✡✡✐✒♣✙
place below freezing ☞✏✒♣t
point ✕✘✏✎✔✓
clouds ✠✍✗✒♣✙
having ✍a ✑✡✍t✠✡✌✪
feathery ✍☞☞✡✍✌✍♣✕✡♦ ✳✠✡✪ ✍✌✡
appearance. They are
✛✰ ✵
(0°C), ie. the dew point is at or below t✠✡
❈✜✱ ✒♦✡♦ t✠✡ ✔✡✖ ☞✏✒♣t ✒✓ ✍t ✏✌ ✇✡✘✏✖ the ✍✘✖✍✪✓ ✖✠✒t✡ ✒♣ ✕✏✘✏✎✌♦
always white in colour.
✑✌✡✡✐✒♣✙
freezing ☞✏✒♣t♦ ✳✠✡ ✡✲✕✡✓✓
point. The excess ☛✏✒✓t✎✌✡
moisture ✒✓ is ✔✡☞✏✓✒t✡✔
deposited
✒♣
in t✠✡
the ✑✏✌☛
form ✏✑of ☛✒♣✎t✡
minute ✒✕✡ ice ✕✌✪✓t✍✘✓
crystals ✒♣✓t✡✍✔
instead ✏✑of ❊■❀■◆■s
Cumulus
✖✍t✡✌ ✔✌✏☞✘✡t✓♦
water droplets. The✳✠✡ ✒✔✡✍✘
ideal ✕✏♣✔✒t✒✏♣✓
conditions ✑✏✌ for t✠✡
the
Cumulus ✕✘✏✎✔✓
❈✎☛✎✘✎✓ clouds ✘✏✏♠ like ✕✏tt✏♣
look ✘✒♠✡ ✖✏✏✘♦ They
cotton wool. ✳✠✡✪
✑✏✌☛✍t✒✏♣
formation ✏✑ ✖✠✒t✡ ✑✌✏✓t
of white frost ✍✌✡
are t✠✡
the ✓✍☛✡
same ✍✓as t✠✏✓✡
those
✍✌✡
are generally formed at a height of 4,000 ❑-
✙✡♣✡✌✍✘✘✪ ✑✏✌☛✡✔ ✍t ✍ ✠✡✒✙✠t ✏✑ ❛✱✰✰✰
✑✏✌
for t✠✡
the ✑✏✌☛✍t✒✏♣
formation ✏✑ of ✔✡✖✱
dew, ✡✲✕✡☞t
except t✠✍t
that t✠✡
the ✍✒✌
air
❖✱✰✰✰
7,000 ☛♦ ✳✠✡✪ ✡✲✒✓t
m. They exist ✒♣
in ☞✍t✕✠✡✓
patches ✍♣✔
and ✕✍♣ be ✓✡✡♣
can ✇✡ seen
t✡☛☞✡✌✍t✎✌✡
temperature ☛✎✓t must be✇✡ ✍t
at ✏✌ ✇✡✘✏✖ t✠✡
or below the ✑✌✡✡✐✒♣✙
freezing
✓✕✍tt✡✌✡✔ ✠✡✌✡ ✍♣✔ t✠✡✌✡♦ ✠✍✗✡ ✍ ✑✘✍t
✳✠✡✪ have a flat ✇✍✓✡♦
scattered here and there. They base.
☞✏✒♣t♦
point.
❙P❍◗P■s
Stratus
✫✭✴
Fog ✶✷✸
and ✹✺✮✯
Mist
✣✓ t✠✡✒✌
As name ✒☛☞✘✒✡✓✱
their ♣✍☛✡ implies, t✠✡✓✡
these ✍✌✡ layered ✕✘✏✎✔✓
are ✘✍✪✡✌✡✔ clouds
✦✠✡ ♣ tthe
When ✠✡ t✡ ☛☞✡ ✌✍t ✎✌✡ ✏✑
temperature of ✍♣
an ✍✒✌ air ☛✍✓✓
mass
✕✏✗✡✌✒♣✙ large ☞✏✌t✒✏♣✓
covering ✘✍✌✙✡ portions ✏✑
of t✠✡
the ✓♠✪♦ ✳✠✡✓✡ ✕✘✏✎✔✓
sky. These clouds
✕✏♣t✍✒♣✒♣✙
containing ✍ a ✘✍✌✙✡ quantity ✏✑
large ❝✎✍♣t✒t✪ ✖✍t✡✌ vapour
of water ✗✍☞✏✎✌ ✑✍✘✘✓
falls
✍✌✡
are generally formed either due to loss of ✠✡✍t
✙✡♣✡✌✍✘✘✪ ✑✏✌☛✡✔ ✡✒t✠✡✌ ✔✎✡ t✏ ✘✏✓✓ ✏✑ heat
✍✘✘
all ✏✑
of ✍
a ✓✎✔✔✡♣✱
sudden, ✕✏♣✔✡♣✓✍t✒✏♣
condensation t✍♠✡✓takes ☞✘✍✕✡ ✖✒t✠✒♣
place within
✏✌
or t✠✡
the ☛✒✲✒♣✙
mixing ✏✑ of ✍✒✌
air ☛✍✓✓✡✓
masses with✖✒t✠ ✔✒✑✑✡✌✡♣t
different
✒t✓✡✘✑
itself ✏♣
on ✑✒♣✡
fine ✔✎✓t
dust ☞✍✌t✒✕✘✡✓♦ So, t✠✡
particles. ✻✏✱ ✼✽✿ ✒✓ ✍
the fogis a ✕✘✏✎✔
cloud
t✡☛☞✡✌✍t✎✌✡✓♦
temperatures.
✖✒t✠ ✒t✓
with base ✍t
its ✇✍✓✡ at ✏✌ near t✏
✗✡✌✪ ♣✡✍✌
or very to t✠✡
the ✙✌✏✎♣✔♦
ground.
Because ✏✑
❇✡✕✍✎✓✡ of t✠✡
the ✑✏✙
fog ✍♣✔and ☛✒✓t✱
mist, t✠✡ ✗✒✓✒✇✒✘✒t✪
the visibility
❘●❀❯■s
Nimbus
✇✡✕✏☛✡✓ ☞✏✏✌ t✏ ✐✡✌✏♦ ❜♣ ✎✌✇✍♣
becomes poor to zero. In urban and industrial✍♣✔ ✒♣✔✎✓t✌✒✍✘
✕✡♣t✌✡✓
centres ✓☛✏♠✡
smoke ☞✌✏✗✒✔✡✓
provides ☞✘✡♣t✪
plenty ✏✑of ♣✎✕✘✡✒ ✖✠✒✕✠
nuclei which ❱✒☛✇✎✓
Nimbus ✕✘✏✎✔✓
clouds ✍✌✡ black ✏✌
are ✇✘✍✕♠ or ✔✍✌♠
dark ✙✌✍✪♦ ✳✠✡✪
gray. They
✠✡✘☞
help t✠✡the ✑✏✌☛✍t✒✏♣
formation ✏✑ of ✑✏✙
fog ✍♣✔
and ☛✒✓t♦
mist. ✻✎✕✠Such ✍ a ✑✏✌☛
form ✍t
at ☛✒✔✔✘✡ levels ✏✌
middle ✘✡✗✡✘✓ or ✗✡✌✪ near t✏
very ♣✡✍✌ to t✠✡
the ✓✎✌✑✍✕✡
surface
✶✑✑
100 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

♦✒
of ✓✔✕
the ✕✖✗✓✔✘ ✙✔✕✚✕ ✖✗✕
earth. These are ✕✛✓✗✕✜✕✢✣
extremely ✤✕✥✚✕
dense ✖✥✤
and P✱✲✳✴✵✴✷✸✷✴✹✺
Precipitation
♦✦✖✧★✕
opaque ✓♦ to ✓✔✕
the ✗✖✣✚
rays ♦✒
of ✓✔✕ sun. ✩♦✜✕✓✪✜✕✚✫
the ✚★✥✘ Sometimes, ✓✔✕the
✙✔✕ ✦✗♦❝✕✚✚
The process ♦✒ of ❝♦✥✓✪✥★♦★✚ condensation ✪✥
continuous ❝♦✥✤✕✥✚✖✓✪♦✥ in ✒✗✕✕
free
❝✢♦★✤✚
clouds ✖✗✕
are ✚♦
so ✢♦✬
low ✓✔✖✓
that ✓✔✕✣
they ✚✕✕✜
seem ✓♦
to ✓♦★❝✔
touch ✓✔✕
the
air helps the condensed particles to grow ✪✥
✖✪✗ ✔✕✢✦✚ ✓✔✕ ❝♦✥✤✕✥✚✕✤ ✦✖✗✓✪❝✢✕✚ ✓♦ ❣✗♦✬ in
❣✗♦★✥✤✘
ground. ✭✪✜✮★✚
Nimbus ❝✢♦★✤✚
clouds ✖✗✕
are ✚✔✖✦✕✢✕✚✚
shapeless ✜✖✚✚✕✚
masses
✚✪s✕✘ ✻✔✕✥ ✓✔✕
size. When the ✗✕✚✪✚✓✖✥❝✕
resistance ♦✒ of ✓✔✕
the ✖✪✗
air ✒✖✪✢✚
fails ✓♦to ✔♦✢✤
hold
♦✒
of ✓✔✪❝✯ ✰✖✦♦★✗✘
thick vapour.
✓✔✕✜
them ✖❣✖✪✥✚✓
against ✓✔✕ the ✒♦✗❝✕
force ♦✒of ❣✗✖✰✪✓✣✫
gravity, ✓✔✕✣ they ✒✖✢✢
fall ♦✥on ✓♦to
✓✔✕
the ✕✖✗✓✔t✚ surface. ✩♦
earth’s ✚★✗✒✖❝✕✘ So ✖✒✓✕✗
after ✓✔✕the ❝♦✥✤✕✥✚✖✓✪♦✥
condensation
♦✒ ✬✖✓✕✗ vapour,
of water ✰✖✦♦★✗✫ ✓✔✕ the ✗✕✢✕✖✚✕
release ♦✒ moisture ✪✚
of ✜♦✪✚✓★✗✕ is
✯✥♦✬✥
known ✖✚ ♣✼✽✾✿♣✿❀❁❀✿❂❃✘ This
as precipitation. ✙✔✪✚ ✜✖✣ may ✓✖✯✕ take ✦✢✖❝✕place
✪✥
in ✢✪✧★✪✤
liquid ♦✗ or ✚♦✢✪✤
solid ✒♦✗✜✘
form. The✙✔✕ ✦✗✕❝✪✦✪✓✖✓✪♦✥
precipitation ✪✥ in ✓✔✕
the
✒♦✗✜
form ♦✒ of water ✪✚
✬✖✓✕✗ is ❝✖✢✢✕✤ called ✼❁✿❃r❁❄❄✫
rainfall, when ✬✔✕✥ ✓✔✕ the
temperature ✪✚
✓✕✜✦✕✗✖✓★✗✕ is ✢♦✬✕✗
lower ✓✔✖✥
than ✓✔✕the ❅ ❆❈✫ ✦✗✕❝✪✦✪✓✖✓✪♦✥
0°C, precipitation
takes ✦✢✖❝✕
✓✖✯✕✚ place ✪✥ in ✓✔✕
the ✒♦✗✜
form ♦✒ of ✒✪✥✕
fine ✒✢✖✯✕✚
flakes ♦✒ of ✚✥♦✬
snow
and ✪✚
✖✥✤ is ❝✖✢✢✕✤
called ❇❃❂❉r❁❄❄✘ Moisture ✪✚
snowfall. ❊♦✪✚✓★✗✕ released ✪✥
is ✗✕✢✕✖✚✕✤ in
✓✔✕
the ✒♦✗✜
form ♦✒ of ✔✕✛✖❣♦✥✖✢
hexagonal ❝✗✣✚✓✖✢✚✘crystals. These✙✔✕✚✕ ❝✗✣✚✓✖✢✚
crystals
✒♦✗✜
form ✒✢✖✯✕✚
flakes ♦✒ of ✚✥♦✬✘
snow. ❢✕✚✪✤✕✚
Besides ✗✖✪✥ rain ✖✥✤ and ✚✥♦✬✫
snow,
other forms of precipitation are sleet and ❤❁✿❄✫
♦✓✔✕✗ ✒♦✗✜✚ ♦✒ ✦✗✕❝✪✦✪✓✖✓✪♦✥ ✖✗✕ ❇❄✽✽❀ ✖✥✤ hail,
⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❷ ❸❸❹❸ ✓✔♦★❣✔
though ✓✔✕ the ✢✖✓✓✕✗
latter ✖✗✕ limited ✪✥
are ✢✪✜✪✓✕✤ in ♦❝❝★✗✗✕✥❝✕
occurrence ✖✥✤ and
✖✗✕ sporadic ✪✥
are ✚✦♦✗✖✤✪❝ ✮♦✓✔ ✓✪✜✕
in both time ✖✥✤and ✚✦✖❝✕✘
space.
Sleet ✪✚
❙❄✽✽❀ is ✒✗♦s✕✥
frozen ✗✖✪✥✤✗♦✦✚
raindrops ✖✥✤ and ✗✕✒✗♦s✕✥
refrozen
✜✕✢✓✕✤
melted ✚✥♦✬♠✬✖✓✕✗✘
snow-water. When ✻✔✕✥ ✖a ✢✖✣✕✗ layer ♦✒ of ✖✪✗ ✬✪✓✔
air with
✓✔✕
the ✓✕✜✦✕✗✖✓★✗✕
temperature ✖✮♦✰✕ freezing ✦♦✪✥✓
above ✒✗✕✕s✪✥❣ point ♦✰✕✗✢✪✕✚
overlies
✖a ✚★✮✒✗✕✕s✪✥❣
subfreezing ✢✖✣✕✗ layer ✥✕✖✗ near ✓✔✕ the ❣✗♦★✥✤✫
ground,
✦✗✕❝✪✦✪✓✖✓✪♦✥ ✓✖✯✕✚ ✦✢✖❝✕
precipitation takes place in the ✒♦✗✜ ✪✥ ✓✔✕ form ♦✒ of ✚✢✕✕✓✘
sleet.
❘✖✪✥✤✗♦✦✚✫
Raindrops, which ✬✔✪❝✔ ✢✕✖✰✕ leave ✓✔✕ ✬✖✗✜✕✗ ✖✪✗✫
the warmer air,
✕✥❝♦★✥✓✕✗
encounter ✓✔✕ the ❝♦✢✤✕✗
colder ✖✪✗ ✮✕✢♦✬✘ As
air below. ❡✚ ✖a ✗✕✚★✢✓✫
result, ✓✔✕✣ they
✚♦✢✪✤✪✒✣
solidify ✖✥✤ and ✗✕✖❝✔
reach ✓✔✕ the ❣✗♦★✥✤
ground ✖✚ small ✦✕✢✢✕✓✚
as ✚✜✖✢✢ pellets
♦✒ ✪❝✕ ✥♦✓
ofice ✮✪❣❣✕✗ ✓✔✖✥
not bigger than ✓✔✕ the ✗✖✪✥✤✗♦✦✚
raindrops ✒✗♦✜ ✬✔✪❝✔
from which
✓✔✕✣
they ✖✗✕ are ✒♦✗✜✕✤✘
formed.
✩♦✜✕✓✪✜✕✚✫
Sometimes, ✤✗♦✦✚ drops ♦✒ of ✗✖✪✥
rain ✖✒✓✕✗ ✮✕✪✥❣
after being
released by the clouds become solidified ✪✥✓♦
✗✕✢✕✖✚✕✤ ✮✣ ✓✔✕ ❝✢♦★✤✚ ✮✕❝♦✜✕ ✚♦✢✪✤✪✒✪✕✤ into
✚✜✖✢✢
small ✗♦★✥✤✕✤
rounded ✚♦✢✪✤ solid ✦✪✕❝✕✚
pieces ♦✒ of ✪❝✕
ice ✖✥✤ ✬✔✪❝✔
and which
✗✕✖❝✔
reach ✓✔✕ the ✚★✗✒✖❝✕
surface ♦✒ of ✓✔✕
the ✕✖✗✓✔
earth ✖✗✕ are ❝✖✢✢✕✤
called
❤❁✿❄❇❀❂❃✽❇✘
hailstones. These ✙✔✕✚✕ ✖✗✕ are ✒♦✗✜✕✤
formed by ✮✣ ✓✔✕
the ✗✖✪✥✬✖✓✕✗
rainwater
✦✖✚✚✪✥❣
passing ✓✔✗♦★❣✔through ✓✔✕ the ❝♦✢✤✕✗
colder ✢✖✣✕✗✚✘
layers. ●✖✪✢✚✓♦✥✕✚
Hailstones
✔✖✰✕
have ✚✕✰✕✗✖✢
several ❝♦✥❝✕✥✓✗✪❝
concentric ✢✖✣✕✗✚ layers ♦✒ of ✪❝✕
ice ♦✥✕
one ♦✰✕✗over
✓✔✕ ♦✓✔✕✗✘
the other.
❚❍✵✲■
Types ✹❏of ❑✸✴✺❏✸▲▲
Rainfall

⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❷ ❸❸❹❺
Figure 11.2
❖✥ the ✮✖✚✪✚
On ✓✔✕ basis ♦✒
of ♦✗✪❣✪✥✫
origin, ✗✖✪✥✒✖✢✢ may ✮✕
rainfall ✜✖✣ be ❝✢✖✚✚✪✒✪✕✤
classified
✪✥✓♦ ✓✔✗✕✕ ✜✖✪✥ ✓✣✦✕✚ ✐ ✓✔✕ ❝♦✥✰✕❝✓✪♦✥✖✢✫
into three main types — the convectional,
❬❭❪❫❴❵❛❜
Identify ❴❞❪❥❪
these ❦❧♥q❭
cloud ❴❜✉❪❥ ✈❞❵❦❞ ✇①❪
types which are ♦✗♦❣✗✖✦✔✪❝
orographic ♦✗or ✗✕✢✪✕✒
relief ✖✥✤
and ✓✔✕
the ❝✣❝✢♦✥✪❝
cyclonic ♦✗
or ✒✗♦✥✓✖✢✘
frontal.
❥❞♥✈❫
shown ❵❫in ②❵③q①❪ 11.1 ✇❫❭
Figure ④④⑤④ and ④④⑤⑥⑤
11.2.
▼❂❃◆✽❃❀✿❂❃❁❄
Conventional ◗❁✿❃ Rain
A❡ ❝♦✜✮✪✥✖✓✪♦✥
combination ♦✒ of ✓✔✕✚✕
these ✒♦★✗ ✮✖✚✪❝ ✓✣✦✕✚
four basic types ❝✖✥
can
❣✪✰✕ ✙✔✕✫ ✖✪✗
The, on ✮✕✪✥❣
air ♦✥ heated, ✮✕❝♦✜✕✚
being ✔✕✖✓✕✤✫ becomes ✢✪❣✔✓light ✖✥✤
and
give ✗✪✚✕
rise ✓♦
to ✓✔✕
the ✒♦✢✢♦✬✪✥❣
following ✓✣✦✕✚
types ♦✒ clouds: ❤✿❱❤
of ❝✢♦★✤✚❯ high
✾❄❂❲❳❇ rises up in convection currents. As it rises, ✪✓
✗✪✚✕✚ ★✦ ✪✥ ❝♦✥✰✕❝✓✪♦✥ ❝★✗✗✕✥✓✚✘ ❡✚ ✪✓ ✗✪✚✕✚✫ it
clouds —✐ ❝✪✗✗★✚✫
cirrus, ❝✪✗✗♦✚✓✗✖✓★✚✫
cirrostratus, ❝✪✗✗♦❝★✜★✢★✚➊
cirrocumulus;
❨✿❳❳❄✽
middle ✾❄❂❲❳❇
clouds —✐ ✖✢✓♦✚✓✗✖✓★✚
altostratus ✖✥✤
and ✖✢✓♦❝★✜★✢★✚➊
altocumulus;
✕✛✦✖✥✤✚
expands ✖✥✤ and ✢♦✚✕✚
loses ✔✕✖✓
heat ✖✥✤
and ❝♦✥✚✕✧★✕✥✓✢✣✫
consequently,
❄❂❉
low ✾❄❂❲❳❇
clouds —✐ ✚✓✗✖✓♦❝★✜★✢★✚
stratocumulus ✖✥✤ and ✥✪✜✮♦✚✓✗✖✓★✚
nimbostratus ❝♦✥✤✕✥✚✖✓✪♦✥
condensation ✓✖✯✕✚ takes ✦✢✖❝✕
place ✖✥✤and ❝★✜★✢♦★✚
cumulous
✖✥✤
and ✾❄❂❲❳❇
clouds ❉✿❀❤
with ✽❩❀✽❃❇✿◆✽
extensive’ ◆✽✼❀✿✾❁❄
vertical ❝✢♦★✤✚
clouds ✖✗✕
are ✒♦✗✜✕✤✘
formed. ✻✪✓✔
With ✓✔★✥✤✕✗
thunder ✖✥✤and ✢✪❣✔✓✕✥✪✥❣✫
lightening,
❳✽◆✽❄❂♣❨✽❃❀
development-—✐ ❝★✜★✢★✚
cumulus ✖✥✤ and ❝★✜★✢♦✥✪✜✮★✚✘
cumulonimbus. ✔✕✖✰✣
heavy ✗✖✪✥✒✖✢✢ takes ✦✢✖❝✕
rainfall ✓✖✯✕✚ place ✮★✓
but ✓✔✪✚
this ✤♦✕✚
does ✥♦✓
not ✢✖✚✓
last
❲❆ ✁✂ ✄☎
WATER ✆✁ ATMOSPHERE
IN THE ❆ ❚✝✞✟✆✁✂✁ ✶✠✶
101

❧✡☛☞✌
long. ✍✎✏✑
Such ✒✓✔☛
rain ✔✕
is ✏✡✖✖✡☛
common ✔☛ in ✗✑✘
the ✕✎✖✖✘✒
summer ✡✒or ✗✑✘
the ✏✡☛✗✔☛✘☛✗✕✌
continents. The ♠✑✘ ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✔✕ is ✖✡✒✘
more ✡✢✘✒ over ✗✑✘ the
✔☛
in ✗✑✘
the ✑✡✗✗✘✒ part ✡✙
hotter ✐✓✒✗ of ✗✑✘
the ✚✓✛✌ It ✔✕
day. ✜✗ ✢✘✒✛ ✏✡✖✖✡☛
is very common ✡✏✘✓☛✕
oceans ✗✑✓☛ than ✡☛ on ✗✑✘ the ❧✓☛✚✖✓✕✕✘✕
landmasses ✡✙ of ✗✑✘ ♦✡✒❧✚
the world
✔☛
in ✗✑✘
the ✘✣✎✓✗✡✒✔✓❧
equatorial ✒✘☞✔✡☛✕
regions ✓☛✚
and ✔☛✗✘✒✔✡✒ parts ✡✙
interior ✐✓✒✗✕ of because ✡✙
✻✘✏✓✎✕✘ being ☞✒✘✓✗
of ✻✘✔☛☞ great ✕✡✎✒✏✘✕
sources ✡✙ ♦✓✗✘✒✌
of water.
✗✑✘
the ✏✡☛✗✔☛✘☛✗✕t particularly ✔☛
continents, ✐✓✒✗✔✏✎❧✓✒❧✛ in ✗✑✘
the ☛✡✒✗✑✘✒☛
northern Between ✗✑✘
▲✘✗♦✘✘☛ the ❧✓✗✔✗✎✚✘✕
latitudes ▼◆ 35°◗ ✓☛✚
and ❘✽ 40° ◗ ❙N ✓☛✚
and ✍ S ✡✙
of
✑✘✖✔✕✐✑✘✒✘✌
hemisphere. ✗✑✘
the ✘✣✎✓✗✡✒t
equator, ✗✑✘ the ✒✓✔☛
rain ✔✕ is ✑✘✓✢✔✘✒
heavier ✡☛ on ✗✑✘
the ✘✓✕✗✘✒☛
eastern
✏✡✓✕✗✕
coasts ✓☛✚ and ☞✡✘✕goes ✡☛ decreasing ✗✡♦✓✒✚✕
on ✚✘✏✒✘✓✕✔☛☞ towards ✗✑✘ the
❖✤✥✦✤✧★✩✪✫
Orographic ✬✧✪✭
Rain ♦✘✕✗✌ ▲✎✗t
west. between ❘◆
But, ✻✘✗♦✘✘☛ 45°◗ ✓☛✚and ❯◆ 65°◗ ❙ N ✓☛✚and ✍ S ✡✙of
✘✣✎✓✗✡✒t
equator, ✚✎✘ due ✗✡ to ✗✑✘ ♦✘✕✗✘✒❧✔✘✕t ✗✑✘
the westerlies, the ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✔✕ is
✮✑✘☛ ✗✑✘
When the ✕✓✗✎✒✓✗✘✚
saturated ✓✔✒ air ✖✓✕✕
mass ✏✡✖✘✕
comes ✓✏✒✡✕✕
across ✓ a first ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘✚
✙✔✒✕✗ received ✡☛ on ✗✑✘ ♦✘✕✗✘✒☛ ✖✓✒☞✔☛✕
the western margins ✡✙ of ✗✑✘
the
✖✡✎☛✗✓✔☛t
mountain, ✔✗ it ✔✕ forced ✗✡
is ✙✡✒✏✘✚ to ✓✕✏✘☛✚
ascend ✓☛✚ and ✓✕
as ✔✗
it ✒✔✕✘✕t
rises, ✏✡☛✗✔☛✘☛✗✕
continents ✓☛✚ and ✔✗ it ☞✡✘✕
goes ✡☛ decreasing ✗✡♦✓✒✚✕
on ✚✘✏✒✘✓✕✔☛☞ towards
✔✗
it ✘✯✐✓☛✚✕✰
expands; ✗✑✘ the ✗✘✖✐✘✒✓✗✎✒✘
temperature ✙✓❧❧✕t falls, ✓☛✚
and ✗✑✘ the ✗✑✘
the east. Wherever mountains run parallel ✗✡
✘✓✕✗✌ ✮✑✘✒✘✢✘✒ ✖✡✎☛✗✓✔☛✕ ✒✎☛ ✐✓✒✓❧❧✘❧ to
✖✡✔✕✗✎✒✘
moisture ✔✕ is ✏✡☛✚✘☛✕✘✚✌
condensed. The ♠✑✘ ✏✑✔✘✙
chief ✏✑✓✒✓✏✗✘✒✔✕✗✔✏
characteristic ✗✑✘
the ✏✡✓✕✗t
coast, ✗✑✘ the ✒✓✔☛rain ✔✕ is ☞✒✘✓✗✘✒
greater ✡☛ on ✗✑✘ the ✏✡✓✕✗✓❧
coastal
✡✙
of ✗✑✔✕
this ✕✡✒✗
sort ✡✙ of ✒✓✔☛
rain ✔✕is ✗✑✓✗
that ✗✑✘ ♦✔☛✚♦✓✒✚ ✕❧✡✐✘✕
the windward slopes plain, ✡☛
✐❧✓✔☛t on ✗✑✘ ♦✔☛✚♦✓✒✚ ✕✔✚✘
the windward side ✓☛✚and ✔✗ it ✚✘✏✒✘✓✕✘✕
decreases
✒✘✏✘✔✢✘
receive ☞✒✘✓✗✘✒
greater ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧✌ r✙✗✘✒ ☞✔✢✔☛☞
rainfall. After giving ✒✓✔☛
rain ✡☛on ✗✑✘
the ✗✡♦✓✒✚✕ ✗✑✘ ❧✘✘♦✓✒✚
towards the leeward side. ✕✔✚✘✌
♦✔☛✚♦✓✒✚ ✕✔✚✘t
windward side, when♦✑✘☛ ✗✑✘✕✘ ♦✔☛✚✕ ✒✘✓✏✑
these winds reach ✗✑✘ the On ✗✑✘
❱☛ basis ✡✙
the ✻✓✕✔✕ of ✗✑✘
the ✗✡✗✓❧
total ✓✖✡✎☛✗
amount ✡✙ of ✓☛☛✎✓❧
annual
✡✗ ✑✘✒ ✕slope,
other ❧✡✐ ✘t ✗they ✑✘✛ ✚ ✘✕✏ ✘ ☛✚ t ✓☛✚
descend, and ✗their
✑✘ ✔✒ precipitation, ✖✓♣✡✒
✐✒✘✏✔✐✔✗✓✗✔✡☛t precipitation ✒✘☞✔✖✘✕
major ✐✒✘✏✔✐✔✗✓✗✔✡☛ regimes ✡✙ of ✗✑✘
the
✗✘✖✐✘✒✓✗✎✒✘
temperature ✒✔✕✘✕✌ ♠✑✘☛ ✗✑✘✔✒
rises. Then their ✏✓✐✓✏✔✗✛
capacity ✗✡ to ✗✓✱✘
take world ✓✒✘
♦✡✒❧✚ are ✔✚✘☛✗✔✙✔✘✚
identified ✓✕ as ✙✡❧❧✡♦✕✌
follows.
✔☛
in ✖✡✔✕✗✎✒✘
moisture ✔☛✏✒✘✓✕✘✕
increases ✓☛✚ and ✑✘☛✏✘t
hence, ✗✑✘✕✘
these ❧✘✘♦✓✒✚
leeward ♠✑✘ ✘✣✎✓✗✡✒✔✓❧
The equatorial ✻✘❧✗t belt, ✗✑✘ windward ✕❧✡✐✘✕
the ♦✔☛✚♦✓✒✚ slopes
✕❧✡✐✘✕
slopes ✒✘✖✓✔☛
remain ✒✓✔☛❧✘✕✕ rainless ✓☛✚ and ✚✒✛✌ ♠✑✘ ✓✒✘✓
dry. The area ✡✙
of ✗✑✘
the ✖✡✎☛✗✓✔☛✕
mountains ✓❧✡☛☞ along ✗✑✘ western ✏✡✓✕✗✕
the ♦✘✕✗✘✒☛ coasts ✔☛ in
✕✔✗✎✓✗✘✚
situated on the leeward side, which gets ❧✘✕✕
✡☛ ✗✑✘ ❧✘✘♦✓✒✚ ✕✔✚✘t ♦✑✔✏✑ ☞✘✗✕ less ✗✑✘
the ✏✡✡❧
cool ✗✘✖✐✘✒✓✗✘
temperate ❳✡☛✘ zone ✓☛✚ and ✗✑✘the ✏✡✓✕✗✓❧
coastal ✓✒✘✓✕ areas
✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✔✕ known ✓✕
is ✱☛✡♦☛ as ✗✑✘
the ✤✧✪✭✲✳✩✧✴✥✵
rain-shadow ✧✤✷✧✌ area. ✜✗ It ✡✙
of ✗✑✘
the ✖✡☛✕✡✡☛
monsoon ❧✓☛✚ land ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘
receive ✑✘✓✢✛heavy ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✡✙ of
✔✕
is ✓❧✕✡ known ✓✕
also ✱☛✡♦☛ as ✗✑✘
the ✤✷✸✪✷✹
relief ✤✧✪✭✌
rain. ✡✢✘✒
over ❩✽✽200 ✏✖cm ✐✘✒ per ✓☛☛✎✖✌
annum. ✜☛✗✘✒✔✡✒Interior ✏✡☛✗✔☛✘☛✗✓❧
continental
✓✒✘✓✕
areas ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘
receive ✖✡✚✘✒✓✗✘
moderate ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧ rainfall ✢✓✒✛✔☛☞
varying ✙✒✡✖ from
❈✺✫✸✥✭✪✫
Cyclonic ✬✧✪✭
Rain 100 - 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas ✡✙
✼✽✽ ❬ ❩✽✽ ✏✖ ✐✘✒ ✓☛☛✎✖✌ ♠✑✘ ✏✡✓✕✗✓❧ ✓✒✘✓✕ of
✗✑✘
the ✏✡☛✗✔☛✘☛✗✕
continents ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘ receive ✖✡✚✘✒✓✗✘
moderate ✓✖✡✎☛✗ amount ✡✙ of
❨✡✎ ✑✓✢✘
You have ✓❧✒✘✓✚✛
already ✒✘✓✚
read ✓✻✡✎✗
about ✘✯✗✒✓
extra ✗✒✡✐✔✏✓❧
tropical
✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧✌
rainfall. The♠✑✘ ✏✘☛✗✒✓❧
central ✐✓✒✗✕ parts ✡✙ of ✗✑✘
the ✗✒✡✐✔✏✓❧
tropical ❧✓☛✚ land
✏✛✏❧✡☛✘✕
cyclones ✓☛✚and ✏✛✏❧✡☛✔✏
cyclonic ✒✓✔☛
rain ✔☛
in ❝✑✓✐✗✘✒
Chapter ✼✽✌10.
✓☛✚
and ✗✑✘ the ✘✓✕✗✘✒☛
eastern ✓☛✚ and ✔☛✗✘✒✔✡✒
interior ✐✓✒✗✕ parts ✡✙ of ✗✑✘the
Please ✏✡☛✕✎❧✗
P❧✘✓✕✘ consult ❝✑✓✐✗✘✒
Chapter ✼✽10 ✗✡
to ✎☛✚✘✒✕✗✓☛✚
understand
✗✘✖✐✘✒✓✗✘
temperate ❧✓☛✚✕ lands ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘ receive ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✢✓✒✛✔☛☞varying
✏✛✏❧✡☛✔✏
cyclonic ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧✌
rainfall.
✻✘✗♦✘✘☛
between ◆✽ 100 ✏✖
50 ❬- ✼✽✽ cm ✐✘✒ per ✓☛☛✎✖✌
annum. Areas r✒✘✓✕ ❧✛✔☛☞ lying
✔☛
in ✗✑✘
the ✒✓✔☛
rain ✕✑✓✚✡♦
shadow ❳✡☛✘ zone ✡✙ of ✗✑✘
the ✔☛✗✘✒✔✡✒
interior ✡✙ of ✗✑✘
the
✾✿❀❁❂ ❃❄❅❇❀❄❉❊❇❄✿❋
World Distribution ✿●
of ❍■❄❋●■❁❁
Rainfall ✏✡☛✗✔☛✘☛✗✕
continents ✓☛✚ and ✑✔☞✑ high ❧✓✗✔✗✎✚✘✕
latitudes ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘
receive ✢✘✒✛ very ❧✡♦ low
❏✔✙✙✘✒✘☛✗ places ✡☛
Different ✐❧✓✏✘✕ on ✗✑✘
the ✘✓✒✗✑❑✕
earth’s ✕✎✒✙✓✏✘
surface ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘
receive ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧❬❧✘✕✕
rainfall-less ✗✑✓☛ than ◆✽ 50 ✏✖cm ✐✘✒per ✓☛☛✎✖✌
annum. ✍✘✓✕✡☛✓❧ Seasonal
different ✓✖✡✎☛✗✕
✚✔✙✙✘✒✘☛✗ amounts ✡✙ of ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✔☛
in ✓ ✛✘✓✒ ✓☛✚
a year and ✗✑✓✗
that distribution ✡✙
✚✔✕✗✒✔✻✎✗✔✡☛ of ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧ provides ✓☛
rainfall ✐✒✡✢✔✚✘✕ an ✔✖✐✡✒✗✓☛✗
important
✗✡✡
too ✔☛ different ✕✘✓✕✡☛✕✌
in ✚✔✙✙✘✒✘☛✗ seasons. ✓✕✐✘✏✗
aspect ✗✡ ♣✎✚☞✘ ✔✗✕
to judge its ✘✙✙✘✏✗✔✢✘☛✘✕✕✌
effectiveness. ✜☛ In ✕✡✖✘
some
In ☞✘☛✘✒✓❧t
✜☛ general, ✓✕ ♦✘ ✐✒✡✏✘✘✚
as we from ✗✑✘
proceed ✙✒✡✖ the ✘✣✎✓✗✡✒
equator ✒✘☞ ✔✡ ☛✕ ✒rainfall
regions ✓✔☛✙✓❧❧ ✔✕ is ✚✔✕✗✒ ✔✻✎ ✗ ✘✚ ✘✢
distributed ✘☛❧✛
evenly
✗✡♦✓✒✚✕
towards ✗✑✘ poles, ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
the ✐✡❧✘✕t rainfall ☞✡✘✕
goes ✡☛
on ✚✘✏✒✘✓✕✔☛☞
decreasing ✗✑✒✡✎☞✑✡✎✗
throughout ✗✑✘ year ✕✎✏✑
the ✛✘✓✒ such ✓✕ as ✔☛
in ✗✑✘
the ✘✣✎✓✗✡✒✔✓❧
equatorial
✕✗✘✓✚✔❧✛✌ ♠✑✘ ✏✡✓✕✗✓❧
steadily. The coastal ✓✒✘✓✕
areas ✡✙of ✗✑✘ ♦✡✒❧✚ ✒✘✏✘✔✢✘
the world receive belt ✓☛✚
✻✘❧✗ and ✔☛in ✗✑✘
the ♦✘✕✗✘✒☛
western ✐✓✒✗✕ parts ✡✙ of ✏✡✡❧
cool ✗✘✖✐✘✒✓✗✘
temperate
☞✒✘✓✗✘✒
greater ✓✖✡✎☛✗✕
amounts ✡✙ of ✒✓✔☛✙✓❧❧
rainfall ✗✑✓☛
than ✗✑✘
the ✔☛✗✘✒✔✡✒
interior ✡✙
of ✒✘☞✔✡☛✕✌
regions.

❭❪❭❫❴❵❛❭❛
EXERCISES ___

❜❞
1. ❡❢❣❤❥❦❣♥
Multiple qs✉❥q♥
choice ✈❢♥✇❤❥✉①✇❞
questions.
②❥③
(i) ④s❥qs ✉①♥
Which one ✉⑤
of ❤s♥
the ⑤✉❣❣✉⑥❥①⑦
following ❥✇
is ❤s♥
the ⑧✉✇❤
most ❥⑧❦✉⑨❤⑩①❤
important q✉①✇❤❥❤❢♥①❤
constituent ✉⑤
of ❤s♥
the
⑩❤⑧✉✇❦s♥⑨♥
atmosphere ⑤✉⑨ s❢⑧⑩① ❶♥❥①⑦✇❷
for human beings?
②⑩③ ④⑩❤♥⑨ ❸⑩❦✉❢⑨
(a) Water vapour ②q③
(c) ❹❢✇❤
Dust ❦⑩⑨❤❥q❣♥
particle

②❶③
(b) ❺❥❤⑨✉⑦♥①
Nitrogen ②❻③
(d) ❼❽❾⑦♥①
Oxygen
✶✑✒
102 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✭✓✓✔ ❲✕✓✖✕ ✗✘✙

(ii) Which one ✗✚of ✛✕✙
the ✚✗✜✜✗✢✓✘✣
following ✤✥✗✖✙✦✦
process ✓✦ is ✥✙✦✤✗✘✦✓✧✜✙
responsible ✚✗✥ for ✛✥★✘✦✚✗✥✩✓✘✣
transforming ✜✓✪✫✓✬
liquid
✓✘✛✗ ✐★✤✗✫✥✮
into vapour?
✭★✔
(a) ✯✗✘✬✙✘✦★✛✓✗✘
Condensation ✭✖✔
(c) ✰✐★✤✗✥★✛✓✗✘
Evaporation

✭✧✔ ✱✥★✘✦✤✓✥★✛✓✗✘
(b) Transpiration ✭✬✔
(d) ✲✥✙✖✓✤✓✛★✛✓✗✘
Precipitation

✭✓✓✓✔ ✱✕✙ ★✓✥

(iii) The air ✛✕★✛
that ✖✗✘✛★✓✘✦
contains ✩✗✓✦✛✫✥✙
moisture ✛✗ to ✓✛✦
its ✚✫✜✜
full ✖★✤★✖✓✛❚
capacity ✳:
✭★✔
(a) ✴✙✜★✛✓✐✙
Relative ✕✫✩✓✬✓✛❚
humidity ✭✖✔ ✵✧✦✗✜✫✛✙ ✕✫✩✓✬✓✛❚
(c) Absolute humidity

✭✧✔
(b) ✷✤✙✖✓✚✓✖
Specific ✕✫✩✓✬✓✛❚
humidity ✭✬✔
(d) ✷★✛✫✥★✛✙✬
Saturated ★✓✥air

✭✓✐✔ ❲✕✓✖✕ ✗✘✙

(iv) Which one ✗✚of ✛✕✙
the ✚✗✜✜✗✢✓✘✣
following ✓✦ is ✛✕✙
the ✕✓✣✕✙✦✛
highest ✖✜✗✫✬
cloud ✓✘in ✛✕✙
the ✦✸❚✮
sky?
✭★✔
(a) ✯✓✥✥✫✦
Cirrus ✭✖✔
(c) ✹✓✩✧✫✦
Nimbus

✭✧✔
(b) ✷✛✥★✛✫✦
Stratus ✭✬✔
(d) ✯✫✩✫✜✫✦
Cumulus

✺✻
2. ✵✘✦✢✙✥ ✛✕✙
Answer the ✚✗✜✜✗✢✓✘✣
following ✪✫✙✦✛✓✗✘✦
questions ✓✘ in ★✧✗✫✛
about ❆✼ ✢✗✥✬✦✻
30 words.
✭✓✔
(i) ✹★✩✙
Name ✛✕✙ the ✛✕✥✙✙
three ✛❚✤✙✦
types ✗✚of ✤✥✙✖✓✤✓✛★✛✓✗✘✻
precipitation.
✭✓✓✔
(ii) ✰①✤✜★✓✘
Explain ✥✙✜★✛✓✐✙
relative ✕✫✩✓✬✓✛❚✻
humidity.
✭✓✓✓✔ ❲✕❚ ✬✗✙✦
(iii) Why does ✛✕✙the ★✩✗✫✘✛
amount ✗✚ ✢★✛✙✥ vapour
of water ✐★✤✗✫✥ ✬✙✖✥✙★✦✙✦
decreases ✥★✤✓✬✜❚ ✢✓✛✕ ★✜✛✓✛✫✬✙✮
rapidly with altitude?
✭✓✐✔
(iv ) ❍✗✢
How ★✥✙are ✖✜✗✫✬✦
clouds ✚✗✥✩✙✬✮
formed? ✯✜★✦✦✓✚❚
Classify ✛✕✙✩✻them.
❆✻
3. ✵✘✦✢✙✥ ✛✕✙
Answer the ✚✗✜✜✗✢✓✘✣
following ✪✫✙✦✛✓✗✘✦
questions ✓✘ in ★✧✗✫✛
about ✽✾✼ ✢✗✥✬✦✻
150 words.
✭✓✔
(i) ❉✓✦✖✫✦✦
Discuss ✛✕✙ the ✦★✜✓✙✘✛
salient ✚✙★✛✫✥✙✦
features ✗✚ of ✛✕✙ ✢✗✥✜✬ ✬✓✦✛✥✓✧✫✛✓✗✘
the world distribution ✗✚ of ✤✥✙✖✓✤✓✛★✛✓✗✘✻
precipitation.
✭✓✓✔ ❲✕★✛ ★✥✙
(ii) What are ✚✗✥✩✦
forms ✗✚ of ✖✗✘✬✙✘✦★✛✓✗✘✮
condensation? ❉✙✦✖✥✓✧✙
Describe ✛✕✙ the ✤✥✗✖✙✦✦
process ✗✚ of ✬✙✢
dew ★✘✬
and ✚✥✗✦✛
frost
✚✗✥✩★✛✓✗✘✻
formation.

Pr♦✿❀❁❂ ❃♦r❄
Project Work
❇✥✗✢✦✙
Browse ✛✕✥✗✫✣✕
through ✛✕✙
the ✘✙✢✦✤★✤✙✥
newspaper ✚✥✗✩
from ✽✦✛ ❅✫✘✙ ✛✗
lst June to ❆✽✦✛
3lst ❉✙✖✙✩✧✙✥
December ★✘✬
and ✘✗✛✙
note ✛✕✙
the ✘✙✢✦
news
★✧✗✫✛
about ✙①✛✥✙✩✙
extreme ✥★✓✘✚★✜✜
rainfall ✓✘
in ✬✓✚✚✙✥✙✘✛
different ✤★✥✛✦
parts ✗✚
of ✛✕✙
the ✖✗✫✘✛✥❚✻
country.
 ➎CHAPTER
➏➐➑➒➓➔

WZ
❲❖ ✁✂ ✥✁▲✄☎❚❊
WoRLD ☎❆✂
CLIMATE AND
✥✁▲✄☎❚❊
CLIMATE ✥❍☎❆✆❊
CHANGE

❤✞ ✟✠✡☛☞ ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞
he world climate ✌✏✒can be✓✞ ✔✑✕☞✍✞☞
studied by ✓✖ ✡✞☛✏✑✞☞related ✑❤✞✎ them ✑✠ to ✑❤✞
the ☞✍✔✑✡✍✓✕✑✍✠✒
distribution ✠✗ ❛✞♦✞✑✏✑✍✠✒
of vegetation
✠✡♦✏✒✍✔✍✒♦
organising ✍✒✗✠✡✎✏✑✍✠✒
information ✏✒☞ and ☞✏✑✏data ✠✒ on ✏✒☞
and ✕✔✞☞ used ✑❤✞✔✞these values ❛✏☛✕✞✔ ✗✠✡ for ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✖✍✒♦
classifying ✑❤✞ the
✝ ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞ climate ✏✒☞ and ✔✖✒✑❤✞✔✍✔✍✒♦
synthesising ✑❤✞✎ them ✍✒ in ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞✔✘
climates. ✰✑ Itis✍✔✏✒ an ✞✎❞✍✡✍✌✏☛
empirical ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✍✌✏✑✍✠✒
classification based ✓✏✔✞☞
✔✎✏☛☛✞✡
smaller ✕✒✍✑✔ units ✗✠✡ for ✞✏✔✖
easy ✕✒☞✞✡✔✑✏✒☞✍✒♦s
understanding, ✠✒
on ✎✞✏✒ mean ✏✒✒✕✏☛ annual ✏✒☞ and ✎✞✏✒ mean ✎✠✒✑❤☛✖ monthly
☞✞✔✌✡✍❞✑✍✠✒
description ✏✒☞ and ✏✒✏☛✖✔✍✔✘
analysis. Three✙❤✡✞✞ broad ✓✡✠✏☞ ✑✞✎❞✞✡✏✑✕✡✞
temperature ✏✒☞
and ❞✡✞✌✍❞✍✑✏✑✍✠✒
precipitation ☞✏✑✏✘
data. ✯✞
He
✏❞❞✡✠✏✌❤✞✔
approaches ❤✏❛✞ ✓✞✞✒ ✏☞✠❞✑✞☞
have been adopted ✗✠✡for ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✖✍✒♦
classifying ✍✒✑✡✠☞✕✌✞☞ ✑❤✞ ✕✔✞ ✠✗ ✌✏❞✍✑✏☛
introduced the use of capital and small letters ✏✒☞ ✔✎✏☛☛ ☛✞✑✑✞✡✔
✌☛✍✎✏✑✞✘
climate. They ✙❤✞✖ ✏✡✞ are ✞✎❞✍✡✍✌✏☛s
empirical, ♦✞✒✞✑✍✌
genetic ✏✒☞ and ✑✠to ☞✞✔✍♦✒✏✑✞
designate ✌☛✍✎✏✑✍✌ climatic ♦✡✠✕❞✔ groups ✏✒☞ and ✑✖❞✞✔✘
types.
✏❞❞☛✍✞☞✘
applied. ✚✎❞✍✡✍✌✏☛Empirical ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✍✌✏✑✍✠✒
classification ✍✔ ✓✏✔✞☞ ✠✒
is based on ❝☛✑❤✠✕♦❤ ☞✞❛✞☛✠❞✞☞
Although developed ✍✒ in ✱✲✱✴
1918 ✏✒☞ and ✎✠☞✍✗✍✞☞
modified ✠❛✞✡over
✠✓✔✞✡❛✞☞
observed ☞✏✑✏s data, ❞✏✡✑✍✌✕☛✏✡☛✖
particularly ✠✒ on ✑✞✎❞✞✡✏✑✕✡✞
temperature ✏a ❞✞✡✍✠☞
period ✠✗ time, ✳✠✞❞❞✞✒✵✔
of ✑✍✎✞s Koeppen’s ✔✌❤✞✎✞ scheme ✍✔ is ✔✑✍☛☛
still
✏✒☞
and ❞✡✞✌✍❞✍✑✏✑✍✠✒✘
precipitation. ✛✞✒✞✑✍✌ Genetic ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✍✌✏✑✍✠✒
classification ❞✠❞✕☛✏✡
popular ✏✒☞ and ✍✒ in ✕✔✞✘
use.
✏✑✑✞✎❞✑✔
attempts ✑✠ to ✠✡♦✏✒✍✔✞
organise ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞✔
climates ✏✌✌✠✡☞✍✒♦
according ✑✠ to ✑❤✞✍✡
their ✳✠✞❞❞✞✒
Koeppen ✡✞✌✠♦✒✍✔✞☞ recognised ✗✍❛✞ five ✎✏✶✠✡
major ✌☛✍✎✏✑✍✌
climatic
✌✏✕✔✞✔✘
causes. Applied ❝❞❞☛✍✞☞ ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✍✌✏✑✍✠✒
classification ✍✔ is ✗✠✡
for ✔❞✞✌✍✗✍✌
specific ♦✡✠✕❞✔s✗✠✕✡✠✗
groups, four of ✑❤✞✎✏✡✞
them are ✓✏✔✞☞
based ✠✒
on ✑✞✎❞✞✡✏✑✕✡✞
temperature
❞✕✡❞✠✔✞✘
purpose. ✏✒☞
and ✠✒✞ one ✠✒ on ❞✡✞✌✍❞✍✑✏✑✍✠✒✘
precipitation. Table ✙✏✓☛✞ ✱✷✘✱ 12.1 ☛✍✔✑✔
lists ✑❤✞
the
✌☛✍✎✏✑✍✌
climatic ♦✡✠✕❞✔ groups ✏✒☞ and ✑❤✞✍✡ their ✌❤✏✡✏✌✑✞✡✍✔✑✍✌✔
characteristics
❑✜✢✣✣✢◆➆❙ ✤❈✦✢✧✢ ✜★
OF ✩✪✫❙❙✬★✬❈✫✭✬✜◆ ✏✌✌✠✡☞✍✒♦
according ✑✠ to ✳✠✞❞❞✞✒✘✙❤✞
Koeppen. The ✌✏❞✍✑✏☛ capital ☛✞✑✑✞✡✔
letters ✸: A,C,
❝s✹s
KoEPPEN’S
✜★
OF ✩✪✬✧✫✭✢
SCHEME CLASSIFICATION
❉D and E delineate humid climates and B ☞✡✖
✏✒☞ ✚ ☞✞☛✍✒✞✏✑✞ ❤✕✎✍☞ ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞✔ ✏✒☞ ✺ dry
CLIMATE
✌☛✍✎✏✑✞✔✘
climates.
✙❤✞ ✎✠✔✑
The ✟✍☞✞☛✖ ✕✔✞☞
most widely used ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✍✌✏✑✍✠✒
classification ✠✗ of ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞
climate ✙❤✞ ✌☛✍✎✏✑✍✌
The climatic ♦✡✠✕❞✔ groups ✏✡✞ are ✔✕✓☞✍❛✍☞✞☞
subdivided ✍✒✑✠ into
✍✔is ✑❤✞ ✞✎❞✍✡✍✌✏☛ ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞ ✌☛✏✔✔✍✗✍✌✏✑✍✠✒
the empirical climate classification scheme ✔✌❤✞✎✞ ✑✖❞✞✔s
types, ☞✞✔✍♦✒✏✑✞☞
designated by ✓✖ ✔✎✏☛☛
small ☛✞✑✑✞✡✔s
letters, based ✓✏✔✞☞ ✠✒ on
☞✞❛✞☛✠❞✞☞
developed by ✓✖ V.✮✘ ✳✠✞❞❞✞✒✘
Koeppen. ✳✠✞❞❞✞✒
Koeppen ✍☞✞✒✑✍✗✍✞☞
identified ✔✞✏✔✠✒✏☛✍✑✖
seasonality ✠✗ of ❞✡✞✌✍❞✍✑✏✑✍✠✒
precipitation ✏✒☞ and ✑✞✎❞✞✡✏✑✕✡✞
temperature
✏a ✌☛✠✔✞
close ✡✞☛✏✑✍✠✒✔❤✍❞ ✓✞✑✟✞✞✒ ✑❤✞
relationship between the ☞✍✔✑✡✍✓✕✑✍✠✒
distribution ✌❤✏✡✏✌✑✞✡✍✔✑✍✌✔✘
characteristics. The ✙❤✞ ✔✞✏✔✠✒✔
seasons ✠✗ of ☞✡✖✒✞✔✔
dryness ✏✡✞ are
✠✗of vegetation
❛✞♦✞✑✏✑✍✠✒ ✏✒☞ and ✌☛✍✎✏✑✞✘
climate. ✯✞He ✔✞☛✞✌✑✞☞
selected ✌✞✡✑✏✍✒
certain ✍✒☞✍✌✏✑✞☞
indicated by ✓✖ ✑❤✞ the ✔✎✏☛☛
small ☛✞✑✑✞✡✔letters ✸: ✗s f, ✎sm, w✟ ✏✒☞
and ✔ss,
❛✏☛✕✞✔ ✠✗of ✑✞✎❞✞✡✏✑✕✡✞
values temperature ✏✒☞ and ❞✡✞✌✍❞✍✑✏✑✍✠✒
precipitation ✏✒☞ and ✟❤✞✡✞ ✗f ✌✠✡✡✞✔❞✠✒☞✔
where corresponds ✑✠ to ✒✠no ☞✡✖ dry ✔✞✏✔✠✒s
season,
✻✼✽✾✿
Table ❀❁❂❀
12.1 ❃: ❄✾❅❇✼❋❅●
Climatic ■❏▼P◗❘ ❯●●▼❏❱❅❳❨ ❋▼❩▼✿◗◗✿❳
Groups According to Koeppen

❬❭❪❫❴
Group ❵❜❡❭❡❢❣✐❭❥❦❣❥❢❦
Characteristics

❧ ♠♥♣qrt✉✈✇
A- Tropical ❧①②♣✈③② ④②⑤r②♣✈④⑥♣②
Average temperature q⑦ of ④⑧②
the ✉q✇⑨②⑩④
coldest ⑤q❶④⑧
month t⑩ is ❷❸❹
18° ❺ C q♣or ⑧t③⑧②♣
higher

❻B ♠- ❼♣❽❺✇t⑤✈④②⑩
Dry Climates ❾q④②❶④t✈✇
Potential ②①✈rq♣✈④tq❶
evaporation ②❿✉②②⑨⑩
exceeds r♣②✉trt④✈④tq❶
precipitation

❺C ♠➀✈♣⑤ ♥②⑤r②♣✈④② ♥⑧②✈①②♣✈③②④②⑤r②♣✈④⑥♣②q⑦④⑧②✉q✇⑨②⑩④⑤q❶④⑧q⑦④⑧②➁➂t⑨♠✇✈④t④⑥⑨②➃ ✉✇t⑤✈④②⑩

- Warm Temperate
❽②✈♣⑩ t⑩is ⑧t③⑧②♣
higher ④⑧✈❶
than ⑤t❶⑥⑩
minus ➄❹❺ 3°C ➅⑥④
but ➅②✇q➇
below ❷❸❹❺
The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years 18°C

❼D ♠❺q✇⑨➈❶q➇
- Cold Snow ➉q♣②⑩④
Forest ❺✇t⑤✈④②⑩
Climates ♥⑧② ✈①②♣✈③②
The average ④②⑤r②♣✈④⑥♣②
temperature q⑦ of ④⑧②
the ✉q✇⑨②⑩④
coldest ⑤q❶④⑧
month t⑩ is ⑤t❶⑥⑩
minus ➄❹ 3° ❺ C q♣or ➅②✇q➇
below

➊E ♠❺q✇⑨❺✇t⑤✈④②⑩
- Cold Climates ❧①②♣✈③② ④②⑤r②♣✈④⑥♣②
Average temperature ⑦q♣ for ✈✇✇
all ⑤q❶④⑧⑩
months t⑩ is ➅②✇q➇
below ❷➋❹10° ❺ C

➌H ♠- ➌t③⑧
High ➍✈❶⑨
Land ❺q✇⑨⑨⑥②④q
Cold due to ②✇②①✈④tq❶
elevation
✶✑✒
104 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

♠m ✓- ♠✔✕✖✔✔✕
monsoon ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜✢
climate, w-✣✓ winter
✣✙✕✛✜✤ ✥✤✦
dry ✖✜✚✖✔✕
season ✚✕✥
and ✙✖✘✚✕✥✖
islands ✔❝ of ✐✚✖✛
East ❡✕✥✙✜✖✧
Indies. ✰✙✫✕✙❝✙✗✚✕✛
Significant ✚♠✔s✕✛
amount ✔❝ of
✖s ✓- ✖s♠♠✜✤
summer ✥✤✦ dry ✖✜✚✖✔✕✧ ★✩✜ ✖♠✚✘✘
season. The small ✘✜✛✛✜✤✖ a, ✪✢
letters ✚✢ b, ✤✚✙✕❝✚✘✘
rainfall ✔✗✗s✤✖
occurs ✙✕ in ✜✬✜✤✦
every ♠✔✕✛✩
month ✔❝ of ✛✩✜ ✦✜✚✤ ✚✖
the year as
✗c ✚✕✥
and ✥ d ✤✜❝✜✤
refer ✛✔ to ✛✩✜
the ✥✜✫✤✜✜
degree ✔❝ of ✖✜✬✜✤✙✛✦
severity ✔❝of ✛✩s✕✥✜✤
thunder ✖✩✔✣✜✤✖
showers ✙✕ in ✛✩✜
the ✚❝✛✜✤✕✔✔✕✧
afternoon. The ★✩✜
✛✜♠t✜✤✚✛s✤✜✧ ★✩✜ ✭✓ ✮✤✦
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are ✯✘✙♠✚✛✜✖ ✚✤✜ ✛✜♠t✜✤✚✛s✤✜
temperature ✙✖ is s✕✙❝✔✤♠✘✦
uniformly ✩✙✫✩high ✚✕✥
and ✛✩✜the ✚✕✕s✚✘
annual
subdivided s✖✙✕✫
✖s✪✥✙✬✙✥✜✥ using ✛✩✜the ✗✚t✙✛✚✘ letters ✰
capital ✘✜✛✛✜✤✖ S ❝✔✤
for ✖✛✜tt✜
steppe ✤✚✕✫✜
range ✔❝ of ✛✜♠t✜✤✚✛s✤✜
temperature ✙✖ is ✕✜✫✘✙✫✙✪✘✜✧
negligible. The ★✩✜
✔✤
or ✖✜♠✙✓✚✤✙✥
semi-arid ✚✕✥and W ♦ ❝✔✤
for ✥✜✖✜✤✛✖✧
deserts. The★✩✜ ✗✘✙♠✚✛✙✗
climatic
♠✚❆✙♠s♠
maximum ✛✜♠t✜✤✚✛s✤✜
temperature ✔✕ on ✚✕✦
any ✥✚✦
day ✙✖is ✚✤✔s✕✥
around
✛✦t✜✖ ★✚✪✘✜ ✱✲✧✲✧ ★✩✜ ✥✙✖✛✤✙✪s✛✙✔✕ ❭❪❫✯ ✣✩✙✘✜ ✛✩✜
30°C while the ♠✙✕✙♠s♠
minimum ✛✜♠t✜✤✚✛s✤✜
temperature ✙✖ is
types ✚✤✜
are ✘✙✖✛✜✥ ✙✕ Table
listed in 12.2. The distribution
around ✲❪❫✯✧
✚✤✔s✕✥ ★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ ✜✬✜✤✫✤✜✜✕
20°C. Tropical evergreen ❝✔✤✜✖✛✖ ✣✙✛✩
forests with
✔❝ ✫✤✔st✖
of climatic groups and types is ✖✩✔✣✕
✗✘✙♠✚✛✙✗ ✚✕✥ ✛✦t✜✖ ✙✖ shown ✙✕ in ✥✜✕✖✜
dense ✗✚✕✔t✦
canopy ✗✔✬✜✤cover ✚✕✥ large ✪✙✔✥✙✬✜✤✖✙✛✦
and ✘✚✤✫✜ biodiversity ✚✤✜
are
★✚✪✘✜ ✱✲✧✱✧
Table 12.1. ❝✔s✕✥
found ✙✕in ✛✩✙✖
this ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜✧
climate.
✈①②③④
Table ⑤⑥⑦⑥
12.2 ⑧: ⑨③⑩❶①❷⑩❸
Climatic ✈❹❺④❻
Types ❼❸❸❽❾❿⑩➀➁
According ❷❽to ➂❽④❺❺④➀
Koeppen

➃➄➅➆➇
Group ➈➉➇➊
Type ➋➊➌➌➊➄
Letter ➍➅➎➊
Code ➍➏➐➄➐➑➌➊➄➒➓➌➒➑➓
Characteristics
➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜
Tropical ➝➞➟
wet ➠➡
Af ➢➣
No ➤→➥
dry ➦➞➛➦➣➧
season
➠➻➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜ ➽➳➨↕➤
A-Tropical Humid
➾➜↕➨➛➟➞
Climate ➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜ ➨➣➧➦➣➣➧
Tropical monsoon Am➠➨ ➩➣➧➦➣➣➧➛➜➫
Monsoonal, ➦➭➣→➟short ➤→➥
dry ➦➞➛➦➣➧
season
➔→➣↔↕➙➛➜
Tropical ➝➞➟
wet ➛➧➤
and ➤→➥
dry ➠➝
Aw ➯↕➧➟➞→ ➤→➥ ➦➞➛➦➣➧
Winter dry season
➲➳➵➟→➣↔↕➙➛➜ ➦➟➞↔↔➞
Subtropical steppe ➸➲➭
BSh ➺➣➝➻➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞
Low-latitude ➦➞➨↕ semi ➛→↕➤
arid ➣→or ➤→➥
dry
➲➳➵➟→➣↔↕➙➛➜
Subtropical ➤➞➦➞→➟
desert ➸➯➭
BWh ➺➣➝➻➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞
Low-latitude ➛→↕➤arid ➣→
or ➤→➥
dry
➸➻➚→➥
B-Dry ➾➜↕➨➛➟➞
Climate
➩↕➤➻➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞
Mid-latitude ➦➟➞↔↔➞
steppe ➸➲➼
BSk ➩↕➤➻➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞
Mid-latitude ➦➞➨↕semi ➛→↕➤
arid ➣→or ➤→➥
dry
➩↕➤➻➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞
Mid-latitude ➤➞➦➞→➟
desert ➸➯➼
BWk ➩↕➤➻➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞
Mid-latitude ➛→↕➤arid ➣→
or ➤→➥
dry

C-w.
➾➻➯➛→➨ ➽➳➨↕➤
Humid ➦➳➵➟→➣↔↕➙➛➜
subtropical ➾➡➛
Cfa ➢➣
No ➤→➥
dry ➦➞➛➦➣➧➫
season, ➝➛→➨
warm ➦➳➨➨➞→
summer

temperate ➷➩↕➤➻
➟➞➨↔➞→➛➟➞ (Mid- ➩➞➤↕➟➞→→➛➧➞➛➧
Mediterranean ➾➦
Cs ➚→➥
Dry ➭➣➟
hot ➦➳➨➨➞→
summer
➜➛➟↕➟➳➤➞➬
latitude) ➾➜↕➨➛➟➞➦
Climates
➩➛→↕➧➞
Marine ➝➞➦➟
west ➙➣➛➦➟
coast ➾➡➵
Cfb ➢➣
No ➤→➥
dry ➦➞➛➦➣➧➫
season, ➝➛→➨
warm ➛➧➤ and ➙➣➣➜
cool ➦➳➨➨➞→
summer

➚➻➾➣➜➤
D-Cold ➲➧➣➝➻
Snow- ➽➳➨↕➤
Humid ➙➣➧➟↕➧➞➧➟➛➜
continental ➚➡
Df ➢➣
No ➤→➥
dry ➦➞➛➦➣➧➫
season, ➦➞➪➞→➞
severe ➝↕➧➟➞→
winter
➡➣→➞➦➟ ➾➜↕➨➛➟➞➦
forest Climates ➲➳➵➛→➙➟↕➙
Subarctic ➚➝
Dw ➯↕➧➟➞→ ➤→➥
Winter dry ➛➧➤
and ➪➞→➥
very ➦➞➪➞→➞
severe
➔➳➧➤→➛
Tundra ➶➔
ET ➢➣
No ➟→➳➞
true ➦➳➨➨➞→
summer
➶➻➾➣➜➤
E-Cold ➾➜↕➨➛➟➞➦
Climates
➹➣➜➛→
Polar ↕➙➞
ice ➙➛↔
cap ➶➘
EF ➹➞→➞➧➧↕➛➜
Perennial ↕➙➞
ice

➽➻➽↕➴➭➜➛➧➤
H-Highland ➽↕➴➭➜➛➧➤
Highland ➽
H ➽↕➴➭➜➛➧➤
Highland ➝↕➟➭
with ➦➧➣➝
snow ➙➣➪➞→
cover

●✳✴✵✷
Group A: ✸ ✹ ✺✳✴✷✻✼✽✾
Tropical ✿✵❀✻❁ Humid ❂✾✻❀✽❃❄❅
Climates ❚r■❏❑▲▼◆
Tropical ❴■❵❛■■❵
Monsoon ❘◆❑❙▼◗P
Climate ❯❱❙❳
(Am)
★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ ✩s♠✙✥
Tropical humid ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜✖ exist ✪✜✛✣✜✜✕
climates ✜❆✙✖✛ ★✤✔t✙✗
between Tropic ★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ ♠✔✕✖✔✔✕
Tropical climate ❇❍♠❉
monsoon ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜ is ❝✔s✕✥
(Am) ✙✖ found ✔✬✜✤
over
of ✯✚✕✗✜✤
✔❝ Cancer ✚✕✥ ★✤✔t✙✗ ✔❝
and Tropic of ✯✚t✤✙✗✔✤✕✧
Capricorn. The ★✩✜ ✖s✕
sun the ❡✕✥✙✚✕
✛✩✜ sub-continent, ❈✔✤✛✩
Indian ✖s✪✓✗✔✕✛✙✕✜✕✛✢ North ✐✚✖✛✜✤✕
Eastern t✚✤✛
part
✪✜✙✕✫
being ✔✬✜✤✩✜✚✥
overhead ✛✩✤✔s✫✩✔s✛
throughout ✛✩✜ ✦✜✚✤ ✚✕✥
the year and ✛✩✜
the of ✰✔s✛✩
✔❝ ❍♠✜✤✙✗✚ ✚✕✥
South America and ❈✔✤✛✩✜✤✕ ❍s✖✛✤✚✘✙✚✧
Northern Australia.
t✤✜✖✜✕✗✜ ✔❝ ❡✕✛✜✤ ★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ ✯✔✕✬✜✤✫✜✕✗✜
presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone ❣✔✕✜ ❜✜✚✬✦
Heavy ✤✚✙✕❝✚✘✘
rainfall ✔✗✗s✤✖
occurs ♠✔✖✛✘✦
mostly ✙✕in ✖s♠♠✜✤✧ ♦✙✕✛✜✤
summer. Winter
❇❡❈★✯❣❉
(INTCZ) ♠✚❊✜ make ✛✩✜ climate ✩✔✛
the ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜ hot ✚✕✥and ✩s♠✙✥✧
humid. ✙✖
is ✥✤✦✧ ★✩✜ ✥✜✛✚✙✘✜✥
dry. The detailed ✗✘✙♠✚✛✙✗
climatic ✚✗✗✔s✕✛
account ✔❝of ✛✩✙✖
this
❍✕✕s✚✘ ✤✚✕✫✜
Annual range ✔❝ of ✛✜♠t✜✤✚✛s✤✜
temperature ✙✖ ✬✜✤✦ ✘✔✣
is very low ✚✕✥
and ✗✘✙♠✚✛✙✗
climatic ✛✦t✜
type ✙✖ is ✫✙✬✜✕
given ✙✕ the ✪✔✔❊
in ✛✩✜ book ✔✕on ❞❵❢❑▼❤
India:
✚✕✕s✚✘
annual ✤✚✙✕❝✚✘✘
rainfall ✙✖ is ✩✙✫✩✧ ★✩✜ ✛✤✔t✙✗✚✘
high. The tropical ✫✤✔st
group ✙✖ is ❥❦❧❛❑▲▼◆
Physical ♥❵♣❑r■❵❙P❵◗✧
Environment.
✥✙✬✙✥✜✥
divided ✙✕✛✔
into ✛✩✤✜✜
three ✛✦t✜✖✢ namely ❇✙❉
types, ✕✚♠✜✘✦ ❍❝✓ Tropical
(i) Af- ★✤✔t✙✗✚✘
climate; ❇✙✙❉
✣✜✛ ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜✇
wet ❍♠ ✓- Tropical
(ij) Am ★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ ♠✔✕✖✔✔✕
monsoon ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜✇
climate; ❚r■❏❑▲▼◆
Tropical ❖P◗
Wet ▼❵❢
and qr❧
Dry ❘◆❑❙▼◗P
Climate ❯❱✉❳
(Aw)
❇✙✙✙❉ ❍✣✓ Tropical
(iii) Aw- ★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ wet ✣✜✛ ✚✕✥
and ✥✤✦
dry ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜✧
climate.
★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ wet
Tropical ✣✜✛ ✚✕✥
and ✥✤✦
dry ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜
climate ✔✗✗s✤✖
occurs ✕✔✤✛✩
north ✚✕✥
and
❚r■❏❑▲▼◆ ✖✔s✛✩
south ✔❝ ❍❝ ✛✦t✜
of Af type ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜ regions. ❡✛
climate ✤✜✫✙✔✕✖✧ It ✪✔✤✥✜✤✖ ✣✙✛✩
borders with
Tropical ❖P◗
Wet ❘◆❑❙▼◗P
Climate ❯❱❲❳
(Af)
✥✤✦
dry ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜
climate ✔✕on ✛✩✜ ✣✜✖✛✜✤✕ t✚✤✛
the western part ✔❝
of ✛✩✜
the ✗✔✕✛✙✕✜✕✛
continent
★✤✔t✙✗✚✘ wet
Tropical ✣✜✛ ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜ is ❝✔s✕✥
climate ✙✖ found ✕✜✚✤
near ✛✩✜
the ✜❨s✚✛✔✤✧
equator. ✚✕✥ ✯❝ ✔✤ ✯✣ ✔✕ ✛✩✜ ✜✚✖✛✜✤✕ t✚✤✛✧
and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive ✐❆✛✜✕✖✙✬✜
★✩✜ ♠✚❩✔✤
The major ✚✤✜✚✖
areas ✚✤✜
are ✛✩✜ ❍♠✚❬✔✕ ✭✚✖✙✕
the Amazon in ✰✔s✛✩
Basin ✙✕ South ❍✣ ✗✘✙♠✚✛✜
Aw climate ✙✖is ❝✔s✕✥
found ✛✔ to ✛✩✜
the ✕✔✤✛✩
north ✚✕✥and ✖✔s✛✩
south ✔❝
of
❍♠✜✤✙✗✚✢ ✜❨s✚✛✔✤✙✚✘ ❍❝✤✙✗✚
America, western equatorial Africa and ✛✩✜
✣✜✖✛✜✤✕ ✚✕✥ the ✛✩✜ ❍♠✚❬✔✕ ❝✔✤✜✖✛
the Amazon forest ✙✕in ✭✤✚❬✙✘
Brazil ✚✕✥ adjoining t✚✤✛✖
and ✚✥❩✔✙✕✙✕✫ parts
❲ ✁✂✄ ☎✂✆✝✞✟✠
WORLD ✞✡✄ ☎✂✆✝✞✟✠
CLIMATE AND CLIMATE ☎☛✞✡☞✠
CHANGE ✶✌✍
105

♦❢
of ✎♦✏✑✒✑✓
Bolivia ✓✔✕ and ✖✓✗✓✘✙✓✚
Paraguay ✑✔ in ✛♦✙✜✢ ✣✤✥✗✑✦✓✧
South America, ♦❢✜✥✔
often ✦✓✙❙✑✔✘ famine. ❭✓✑✔
causing ❢✓✤✑✔✥✩ Rain ♦✦✦✙✗❙
occurs ✑✔ in ❙✢♦✗✜
short
✛✙✕✓✔
Sudan ✓✔✕and ❙♦✙✜✢ of ★✥✔✜✗✓✏
south ♦❢ Central Africa. ✪✢✥ ✓✔✔✙✓✏
✣❢✗✑✦✓✩ The annual ✑✔✜✥✔❙✥
intense ✜✢✙✔✕✥✗❙✢♦❛✥✗❙
thundershowers ✑✔ in ✕✥❙✥✗✜❙
deserts ✓✔✕and ✑❙is
✗✓✑✔❢✓✏✏
rainfall ✑✔
in ✜✢✑❙
this ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥
climate ✑❙
is ✦♦✔❙✑✕✥✗✓r✏✚
considerably ✏✥❙❙ less ✜✢✓✔
than ✑✔✥❢❢✥✦✜✑✒✥
ineffective ✑✔ building ❙♦✑✏
in r✙✑✏✕✑✔✘ moisture. ❪❋❫
soil ✤♦✑❙✜✙✗✥✩ Fog ✑❙is
✜✢✓✜
that ✑✔ ✣❢ ✓✔✕
in Af and Am✣✤ ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥
climate ✜✚t✥❙
types ✓✔✕
and ✑❙ ✒✓✗✑✓r✏✥
is variable ✦♦✤✤♦✔
common ✑✔ in ✦♦✓❙✜✓✏
coastal ✕✥❙✥✗✜❙
deserts r♦✗✕✥✗✑✔✘
bordering ✦♦✏✕cold
✓✏❙♦✩ ✪✢✥ wet
also. The ❛✥✜ ❙✥✓❙♦✔
season ✑❙ is ❙✢♦✗✜✥✗
shorter ✓✔✕and ✜✢✥the ✕✗✚
dry currents. ❴✓✺✑✤✙✤
✦✙✗✗✥✔✜❙✩ Maximum ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥
temperature ✑✔ the ❙✙✤✤✥✗
in ✜✢✥ summer
❙✥✓❙♦✔ ✑❙ ✏♦✔✘✥✗ ❛✑✜✢ ✜✢✥ ✕✗♦✙✘✢✜
season is longer with the drought being more r✥✑✔✘ ✤♦✗✥ ✑❙ ✪✢✥ ❙✢✓✕✥
is very high. The highest shade temperature ♦❢
✒✥✗✚ ✢✑✘✢✩ ✢✑✘✢✥❙✜ ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥ of
❙✥✒✥✗✥✩ ✪✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥ ✑❙
severe. Temperature is ✢✑✘✢
high ✜✢✗♦✙✘✢♦✙✜
throughout ✜✢✥ the ✼❵✽
58° ★ ❛✓❙ ✗✥✦♦✗✕✥✕
C was recorded ✓✜ ❜❑ Aziziyah,
at Al ❜❞❍❞❍❡❏❖✧ ❩✑r✚✓
Libya ♦✔on
✚✥✓✗ ✓✔✕
year and ✕✑✙✗✔✓✏
diurnal ✗✓✔✘✥❙
ranges ♦❢ of ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥
temperature ✓✗✥ are ✜✢✥
the ✻❧ September ✻❤✐✐✩
13 ✛✥t✜✥✤r✥✗ ✪✢✥ ✓✔✔✙✓✏
1922. The annual ✓✔✕ and ✕✑✙✗✔✓✏
diurnal
✘✗✥✓✜✥❙✜
greatest ✑✔in ✜✢✥ dry ❙✥✓❙♦✔✩
the ✕✗✚ season. ❣✥✦✑✕✙♦✙❙
Deciduous ❢♦✗✥❙✜
forest ✓✔✕
and ✗✓✔✘✥❙
ranges ♦❢of ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥
temperature ✓✗✥ are ✓✏❙♦
also ✢✑✘✢✩
high.
✜✗✥✥✫❙✢✗✥✕✕✥✕
tree-shredded ✘✗✓❙❙✏✓✔✕❙
grasslands ♦✦✦✙✗
occur ✑✔in ✜✢✑❙
this ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥✩
climate.
❱❏❊❨
Warm ❥▲❨●▲❊❏❈▲
Temperate ▼❦❍❘♠♥❏❈❍❈❆❘▲P
(Mid-Latitude) ❳❑❍❨❏❈▲❯♠❳
Climates-C
❉✬✭
Dry ✮✯✰✱✲✳✴✵
Climates ✷: ✸ B
❃✓✗✤ ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✥
Warm temperate s✤✑✕✫✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❂
(mid-latitude) ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙
climates ✥✺✜✥✔✕
extend
❣✗✚
Dry ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙
climates ✓✗✥ are ✦✢✓✗✓✦✜✥✗✑❙✥✕
characterised r✚ ✒✥✗✚ ✏♦❛
by very low from ❧✿✽
❢✗♦✤ 30° ✫- ✼✿✽
50° ♦❢
of ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥
latitude ✤✓✑✔✏✚
mainly ♦✔ on ✜✢✥
the ✥✓❙✜✥✗✔
eastern
✗✓✑✔❢✓✏✏
rainfall ✜✢✓✜that ✑❙is ✔♦✜
not ✓✕✥✹✙✓✜✥
adequate ❢♦✗ for ✜✢✥
the ✘✗♦❛✜✢
growth ♦❢ of ✓✔✕ ❛✥❙✜✥✗✔ ✤✓✗✘✑✔❙
and western margins ♦❢ of ✦♦✔✜✑✔✥✔✜❙✩ ✪✢✥❙✥
continents. These
t✏✓✔✜❙✩ ✪✢✥❙✥ ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙
plants. These climates ✦♦✒✥✗
cover ✓ ✒✥✗✚ ✏✓✗✘✥
a very large ✓✗✥✓
area ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙
climates ✘✥✔✥✗✓✏✏✚
generally ✢✓✒✥ ❛✓✗✤ ❙✙✤✤✥✗❙
have warm summers with ❛✑✜✢
♦❢ the t✏✓✔✥✜
of ✜✢✥ planet ✥✺✜✥✔✕✑✔✘
extending ♦✒✥✗ over ✏✓✗✘✥
large ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙
latitudes ❢✗♦✤
from ✤✑✏✕ ✪✢✥✚ ✓✗✥
❛✑✔✜✥✗❙✩ They
mild winters. are ✘✗♦✙t✥✕
grouped ✑✔✜♦ into ❢♦✙✗
four ✜✚t✥❙♣
types:
✻✼✽ ✫ ✾✿✽ ✔♦✗✜✢ ✓✔✕ ❙♦✙✜✢ ♦❢
15° - 60° north and south of the equator. At ✜✢✥ ✥✹✙✓✜♦✗✩ ✣✜ (i) q✙✤✑✕
s✑❂ Humid ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏✧
subtropical, ✑✩✥✩ i.e. ✕✗✚
dry ✑✔ ❛✑✔✜✥✗ ✓✔✕
in winter and
✏♦❛
low ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙✧
latitudes, ❢✗♦✤ ✻✼✽ ✫ ❧✿✽✧
from 15° - 30°, ✜✢✥✚ they ♦✦✦✙✗
occur ✑✔ in ✜✢✥
the ✢♦✜
hot ✑✔ ❙✙✤✤✥✗
in summer s★❛✓❂✉ (Cwa); s✑✑❂ ❴✥✕✑✜✥✗✗✓✔✥✓✔
(ii) Mediterranean s★❙❂✉ (Cs);
✓✗✥✓
area ♦❢ of ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
subtropical ✢✑✘✢ ❛✢✥✗✥ ❙✙r❙✑✕✥✔✦✥
high where subsidence ✓✔✕ and (iii) q✙✤✑✕
s✑✑✑❂ Humid ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏✧
subtropical, ✑✩✥✩ i.e. ✔♦ dry ❙✥✓❙♦✔
no ✕✗✚ season ✓✔✕and
✑✔✒✥✗❙✑♦✔
inversion ♦❢ of ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥
temperature ✕♦ do ✔♦✜not t✗♦✕✙✦✥
produce ✤✑✏✕ ❛✑✔✜✥✗ s★❢✓❂✉
mild winter (iv) ❴✓✗✑✔✥
(Cfa); s✑✒❂ Marine west ❛✥❙✜ ✦♦✓❙✜
coast ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥
climate
rainfall. ❀✔
✗✓✑✔❢✓✏✏✩ On ✜✢✥ ❛✥❙✜✥✗✔ ✤✓✗✘✑✔
the western margin ♦❢ of ✜✢✥
the s★❢r❂✩
(Cfb).
✦♦✔✜✑✔✥✔✜❙✧
continents, ✓✕❝♦✑✔✑✔✘ adjoining ✜✢✥ the ✦♦✏✕ cold ✦✙✗✗✥✔✜✧
current,
t✓✗✜✑✦✙✏✓✗✏✚
particularly ♦✒✥✗ over ✜✢✥ ❛✥❙✜ ✦♦✓❙✜
the west coast ♦❢ of ✛♦✙✜✢
South ✈❆❨❍❘
Humid ❅❆❇❈❊❋●❍■❏❑
Subtropical ❳❑❍❨❏❈▲
Climate ▼❳✇❏P
(Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards ✓✔✕
✣✤✥✗✑✦✓✧ ✜✢✥✚ ✥✺✜✥✔✕ ✤♦✗✥ ✥✹✙✓✜♦✗❛✓✗✕❙ and q✙✤✑✕
Humid ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
subtropical ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥ occurs t♦✏✥❛✓✗✕
climate ♦✦✦✙✗❙ poleward ♦❢of
♦✦✦✙✗
occur ♦✔ on ✜✢✥
the ✦♦✓❙✜
coast ✏✓✔✕✩
land. ❁✔In ✤✑✕✕✏✥
middle ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙✧
latitudes, ✪✗♦t✑✦ ♦❢
Tropic of ★✓✔✦✥✗ and ★✓t✗✑✦♦✗✔✧
Cancer ✓✔✕ Capricorn, ✤✓✑✔✏✚
mainly ✑✔ in
from ❧✼✽
❢✗♦✤ 35° ✫- ✾✿✽
60° ✔♦✗✜✢
north ✓✔✕ and ❙♦✙✜✢
south ♦❢ of ✥✹✙✓✜♦✗✧
equator, ✜✢✥✚
they ①♦✗✜✢ Indian t✏✓✑✔❙
North ❁✔✕✑✓✔ plains ✓✔✕ South ★✢✑✔✓
and ✛♦✙✜✢ China ✑✔✜✥✗✑♦✗
interior
✓✗✥
are ✦♦✔❢✑✔✥✕
confined ✜♦ to ✜✢✥
the ✑✔✜✥✗✑♦✗
interior ♦❢of ✦♦✔✜✑✔✥✔✜❙
continents where❛✢✥✗✥ t✏✓✑✔❙✩ ✪✢✥ ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥
plains. The climate ✑❙is ❙✑✤✑✏✓✗
similar ✜♦ ✣❛ ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥
to Aw climate
✤✓✗✑✜✑✤✥✫✢✙✤✑✕
maritime-humid winds ❛✑✔✕❙ ✕♦ do ✔♦✜
not ✗✥✓✦✢
reach ✓✔✕and ✜♦ to ✥✺✦✥t✜ ✜✢✓✜ ✜✢✥ ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥ ✑✔ ❛✑✔✜✥✗ ✑❙ ❛✓✗✤✩
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
✓✗✥✓❙ often ❙✙✗✗♦✙✔✕✥✕
areas ♦❢✜✥✔ surrounded r✚ by ✤♦✙✔✜✓✑✔❙✩
mountains.
❣✗✚
Dry ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙
climates ✓✗✥ are ✕✑✒✑✕✥✕
divided ✑✔✜♦ into ❙✜✥tt✥
steppe ♦✗ or ❦▲❘❍❈▲❊❊❏◗▲❏◗
Mediterranean ❳❑❍❨❏❈▲ Climate ▼❳❯P
(Cs)
❙✥✤✑✫✓✗✑✕
semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate s✎❃❂✩
✦✏✑✤✓✜✥ s✎✛❂ ✓✔✕ ✕✥❙✥✗✜ ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥ (BW).
✪✢✥✚ ✓✗✥
They further ❙✙r✕✑✒✑✕✥✕
are ❢✙✗✜✢✥✗ subdivided ✓❙ as ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
subtropical ✣❙ ✜✢✥
As name ❙✙✘✘✥❙✜❙✧
the ✔✓✤✥ suggests, ❴✥✕✑✜✥✗✗✓✔✥✓✔
Mediterranean ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥ climate
❙✜✥tt✥
steppe s✎✛✢❂(BSh) ✓✔✕and ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
subtropical ✕✥❙✥✗✜ desert s✎❃✢❂
(BWh) ✓✜ at ♦✦✦✙✗❙ ❴✥✕✑✜✥✗✗✓✔✥✓✔
occurs around Mediterranean sea, along ✜✢✥
✓✗♦✙✔✕ ❙✥✓✧ ✓✏♦✔✘ the
✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙
latitudes ❢✗♦✤ from ✻✼✽ 15° ✫- ❧✼✽35° ✓✔✕and ✤✑✕✫✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥
mid-latitude west ✦♦✓❙✜
❛✥❙✜ coast ♦❢
of ✦♦✔✜✑✔✥✔✜❙
continents ✑✔ in ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
subtropical ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙
latitudes
❙✜✥tt✥
steppe s✎✛❄❂(BSk) ✓✔✕and ✤✑✕✫✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥
mid-latitude ✕✥❙✥✗✜ desert s✎❃❄❂
(BWk) ✓✜ at between ❧✿✽
r✥✜❛✥✥✔ 30° ✫- ②✿✽
40° ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙
latitudes ✥✩✘✩e.g. ③— ★✥✔✜✗✓✏
Central
✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙ between ❧✼✽
latitudes r✥✜❛✥✥✔ 35° ✫- ✾✿✽✩
60°. ★✓✏✑❢♦✗✔✑✓✧
California, ★✥✔✜✗✓✏
Central ★✢✑✏✥✧
Chile, ✓✏♦✔✘
along ✜✢✥
the ✦♦✓❙✜
coast ✑✔ in
❙♦✙✜✢
south ✥✓❙✜✥✗✔
eastern ✓✔✕ and ❙♦✙✜✢ ❛✥❙✜✥✗✔ Australia.
south western ✣✙❙✜✗✓✏✑✓✩
❅❆❇❈❊❋●❍■❏❑
Subtropical ❅❈▲●●▲Steppe ▼◆❅❖P
(BSh) ❏◗❘
and ❅❆❇❈❊❋●❍■❏❑
Subtropical ✪✢✥❙✥ ✓✗✥✓❙
These areas ✦♦✤✥
come ✙✔✕✥✗
under ✜✢✥ the ✑✔❢✏✙✥✔✦✥
influence ♦❢ of ❙✙r
sub
❚▲❯▲❊❈ ▼◆❱❖P ❳❑❍❨❏❈▲❯
Desert (BWh) Climates ✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
tropical ✢✑✘✢
high ✑✔in ❙✙✤✤✥✗
summer ✓✔✕ ❛✥❙✜✥✗✏✚ wind
and westerly ❛✑✔✕ ✑✔ in
❛✑✔✜✥✗✩ q✥✔✦✥✧ ✜✢✥ ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥ ✑❙ ✦✢✓✗✓✦✜✥✗✑❙✥✕
winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by r✚
Subtropical ❙✜✥tt✥
✛✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏ steppe s✎✛✢❂ and ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
(BSh) ✓✔✕ subtropical ✢♦✜✧ dry ❙✙✤✤✥✗
hot, ✕✗✚ summer ✓✔✕ and ✤✑✏✕✧
mild, ✗✓✑✔✚ ❛✑✔✜✥✗✩ ❴♦✔✜✢✏✚
rainy winter. Monthly
✕✥❙✥✗✜ s✎❃✢❂ ✢✓✒✥ ✦♦✤✤♦✔ t✗✥✦✑t✑✜✓✜✑♦✔
desert (BWh) have common precipitation ✓✔✕ and
✓✒✥✗✓✘✥
average ✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥
temperature ✑✔ in ❙✙✤✤✥✗
summer ✑❙ is ✓✗♦✙✔✕
around
✜✥✤t✥✗✓✜✙✗✥ characteristics. ❩♦✦✓✜✥✕
temperature ✦✢✓✗✓✦✜✥✗✑❙✜✑✦❙✩ Located ✑✔ in ✜✢✥
the ✐✼✽
29° ★ C ✓✔✕
and ✑✔ below ✻✿✽★✩
❛✑✔✜✥✗ r✥✏♦❛
in winter ✪✢✥ ✓✔✔✙✓✏
10°C. The annual
transition ❬♦✔✥
✜✗✓✔❙✑✜✑♦✔ zone r✥✜❛✥✥✔
between ✢✙✤✑✕humid ✓✔✕ and ✕✗✚ dry t✗✥✦✑t✑✜✓✜✑♦✔
precipitation ✗✓✔✘✥❙ between ❧✼
ranges r✥✜❛✥✥✔ 35 ✫- ❤✿
90 ✦✤✩
cm.
climates, ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙✧ subtropical ❙✜✥tt✥ receives ❙✏✑✘✢✜✏✚
steppe ✗✥✦✥✑✒✥❙ slightly
✤♦✗✥
more ✗✓✑✔❢✓✏✏
rainfall ✜✢✓✔
than ✜✢✥
the ✕✥❙✥✗✜✧
desert, ✓✕✥✹✙✓✜✥
adequate ✥✔♦✙✘✢
enough ✈❆❨❍❘
Humid ❅❆❇❈❊❋●❍■❏❑
Subtropical ▼❳④❏P
(Cfa}) ❳❑❍❨❏❈▲
Climate
❢♦✗
for ✜✢✥
the ✘✗♦❛✜✢
growth ♦❢ of ❙t✓✗❙✥
sparse ✘✗✓❙❙✏✓✔✕❙✩ ✪✢✥ ✗✓✑✔❢✓✏✏
grasslands. The rainfall
✑✔
in r♦✜✢
both ✜✢✥
the ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥❙
climates ✑❙ is ✢✑✘✢✏✚ ✒✓✗✑✓r✏✥✩ The
highly variable. ✪✢✥ q✙✤✑✕
Humid ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
subtropical ✦✏✑✤✓✜✥
climate ✏✑✥❙
lies ♦✔
on ✜✢✥
the ✥✓❙✜✥✗✔
eastern
variability in the rainfall affects the life in ✜✢✥
✒✓✗✑✓r✑✏✑✜✚ ✑✔ ✜✢✥ ✗✓✑✔❢✓✏✏ ✓❢❢✥✦✜❙ ✜✢✥ ✏✑❢✥ ✑✔ the t✓✗✜❙
parts ♦❢of ✜✢✥
the ✦♦✔✜✑✔✥✔✜ in ❙✙r✜✗♦t✑✦✓✏
continent ✑✔ subtropical ✏✓✜✑✜✙✕✥❙✩
latitudes.
❙✜✥tt✥
steppe ✤✙✦✢
much ✤♦✗✥more ✜✢✓✔
than ✑✔in ✜✢✥
the ✕✥❙✥✗✜✧
desert, ✤♦✗✥
more ❁✔
In ✜✢✑❙
this ✗✥✘✑♦✔
region ✜✢✥
the ✓✑✗
air ✤✓❙❙✥❙
masses ✓✗✥are ✘✥✔✥✗✓✏✏✚
generally
✶✑✒
106 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✉✓✔✕✖✗✘✙
unstable ✖✓✚ and ✛✖✉✔✙
cause ✜✖✢✓✣✖✘✘
rainfall ✕✤✜✥✉✦✤✥✉✕
throughout ✕✤✙ the ✾✿❀❫
Cold ✾❀✹❁✷✽✻
Climate ❴✹✽❵ Dry ✼✹✺✽✻✸❡
with ❢✸❣ Winters ❂❢❴❅
(Dw)
②✙✖✜✳ They
year. ✧✤✙② ✥✛✛✉✜
occur ✢✓in ✙✖✔✕✙✜✓
eastern ♥✓✢✕✙✚
United ★✕✖✕✙✔
States ✥✣ of ✫✥✘✚
Cold ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙ ✲✢✕✤ ✚✜②
climate with ✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✥✛✛✉✜✔
dry winter occurs ✩✖✢✓✘②
mainly
❆✩✙✜✢✛✖✪ ✔✥✉✕✤✙✜✓
America, southern ✖✓✚ and ✙✖✔✕✙✜✓
eastern ✫✤✢✓✖✪
China, ✥✭✙✜
over Northeastern Asia. The development ✥✣
◆✥✜✕✤✙✖✔✕✙✜✓ ❆✔✢✖✳ ✧✤✙ ✚✙✭✙✘✥✬✩✙✓✕ of
✔✥✉✕✤✙✜✓ s✖✬✖✓✪ ✓✥✜✕✤✙✖✔✕✙✜✓
southern Japan, ❆✜✦✙✓✕✢✓✖✪
northeastern Argentina, ✬✜✥✓✥✉✓✛✙✚
pronounced winter✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✖✓✕✢anti ✛②✛✘✥✓✙
cyclone ✖✓✚ and ✢✕✔ its
✛✥✖✔✕✖✘
coastal ✔✥✉✕✤ ❆✣✜✢✛✖ ✖✓✚
south Africa and ✙✖✔✕✙✜✓
eastern ✛✥✖✔✕
coast ✥✣ of ✲✙✖✇✙✓✢✓✦ ✢✓
weakening in ✔✉✩✩✙✜
summer ✔✙✕✔ sets ✢✓
in ✩✥✓✔✥✥✓
monsoon ✘✢✇✙ like
❆✉✔✕✜✖✘✢✖✳ The
Australia. ✧✤✙ ✖✓✓✉✖✘
annual ✖✭✙✜✖✦✙✔
averages ✥✣ of ✬✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
precipitation ✜✙✭✙✜✔✖✘
reversal ✥✣ ✲✢✓✚ ✢✓
of wind in ✕✤✢✔
this ✜✙✦✢✥✓✳
region. t✥✘✙✲✖✜✚
Poleward
✭✖✜② ✣✜✥✩
vary from ✈✮✯✰✮✱
75-150 ✛✩✳ ✧✤✉✓✚✙✜✔✕✥✜✩✔ ✢✓
cm. Thunderstorms in ✔✉✩✩✙✜
summer ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙✔
temperatures ✖✜✙ are ✘✥✲✙✜
lower ✖✓✚ ✲✢✓✕✙✜
and winter
✔✉✩✩✙✜
summer ✖✓✚ and ✣✜✥✓✕✖✘
frontal ✬✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
precipitation ✢✓ ✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✖✜✙
in winter are ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙✔
temperatures are extremely low with ✩✖✓②
✖✜✙ ✙❤✕✜✙✩✙✘② ✘✥✲ ✲✢✕✤ many
✛✥✩✩✥✓✳
common. ❝✙✖✓ Mean ✩✥✓✕✤✘②
monthly ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature ✢✓ in ✘✥✛✖✕✢✥✓✔
locations ✙❤✬✙✜✢✙✓✛✢✓✦
experiencing ✗✙✘✥✲ below ✣✜✙✙❧✢✓✦
freezing ✬✥✢✓✕
point
✔✉✩✩✙✜
summer ✢✔ is ✖✜✥✉✓✚
around ✴✈✵✫✪
27°C, ✖✓✚
and ✢✓ ✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✢✕
in winter ✭✖✜✢✙✔
it varies ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙✔
temperatures ✣✥✜for ✉✬
up ✕✥
to ✔✙✭✙✓
seven ✩✥✓✕✤✔
months ✢✓ in ✖ ②✙✖✜✳
a year.
✣✜✥✩
from ✮✵✯✰✴✵
5°-12° ✫✳ ✧✤✙ ✚✖✢✘②
C. The daily ✜✖✓✦✙
range ✥✣of ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature t✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
Precipitation ✥✛✛✉✜✔
occurs ✢✓ in ✔✉✩✩✙✜✳
summer. The ✧✤✙ ✖✓✓✉✖✘
annual
✢✔
is ✔✩✖✘✘✳
small. ✬✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
precipitation ✢✔
is ✘✥✲
low ✣✜✥✩
from ✰✴✯✰✮
12-15 ✛✩✳
cm.

▼✷✸✹✺✻
Marine ✼✻❡✽
West ✾✿✷❡✽
Coast ✾❀✹❁✷✽✻
Climate ❂✾❃❄❅(Cfb) Polar ●■❯❱❲❚❘❙
✐❍■❲◗ Climates ❳❥❩(E)
❝✖✜✢✓✙ ✲✙✔✕ ✛✥✖✔✕
Marine west coast ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙
climate ✢✔ is ✘✥✛✖✕✙✚
located ✬✥✘✙✲✖✜✚
poleward t✥✘✖✜
Polar ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙✔
climates ✙❤✢✔✕
exist ✬✥✘✙✲✖✜✚
poleward ✗✙②✥✓✚
beyond ✈✱✵
70°
✣✜✥✩
from ✕✤✙
the ❝✙✚✢✕✙✜✜✖✓✙✖✓
Mediterranean ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙ climate ✥✓ on ✕✤✙ ✲✙✔✕
the west ✘✖✕✢✕✉✚✙✳ t✥✘✖✜ ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙✔ ✛✥✓✔✢✔✕ ✥✣ ✕✲✥ ✕②✬✙✔❇
latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
✛✥✖✔✕
coast ✥✣of ✕✤✙
the ✛✥✓✕✢✓✙✓✕✔✳
continents. The ✧✤✙ ✩✖✢✓main ✖✜✙✖✔
areas ✖✜✙❇
are: ❬✢❭ ✧✉✓✚✜✖ ❬❈✧❭❪
(i) Tundra (ET); ❬✢✢❭ Ice ✫✖✬
(ii) ❦✛✙ Cap ❬❈♠❭✳
(EF).
◆✥✜✕✤✲✙✔✕✙✜✓
Northwestern ❈✉✜✥✬✙✪Europe, west✲✙✔✕ ✛✥✖✔✕coast ✥✣ of ◆✥✜✕✤
North
❆✩✙✜✢✛✖✪ ✓✥✜✕✤
America, north ✥✣ of ✫✖✘✢✣✥✜✓✢✖✪
California, ✔✥✉✕✤✙✜✓
southern ✫✤✢✘✙✪
Chile, Tundra ✾❀✹❁✷✽✻
♦❞✺❫✸✷ Climate ❂♣♦❅
(ET)
✔✥✉✕✤✙✖✔✕✙✜✓ ❆✉✔✕✜✖✘✢✖ ✖✓✚
southeastern Australia and ◆✙✲ New ❛✙✖✘✖✓✚✳
Zealand. ❉✉✙Due ✧✤✙ ✕✉✓✚✜✖
The tundra ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙
climate ❬❈✧❭
(ET) ✢✔is ✔✥
so ✛✖✘✘✙✚
called ✖✣✕✙✜
after ✕✤✙
the
✕✥
to ✩✖✜✢✓✙
marine ✢✓✣✘✉✙✓✛✙✪
influence, ✕✤✙ the ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature ✢✔ is ✕②✬✙✔
types ✥✣ ✭✙✦✙✕✖✕✢✥✓✪ ✘✢✇✙
of vegetation, like ✘✥✲
low ✦✜✥✲✢✓✦
growing ✩✥✔✔✙✔✪
mosses,
✩✥✚✙✜✖✕✙
moderate ✖✓✚ and ✢✓ ✲✢✓✕✙✜✪ ✢✕
in winter, it ✢✔ ✲✖✜✩✙✜ ✕✤✖✓
is warmer than ✣✥✜for ✘✢✛✤✙✓✔
lichens ✖✓✚
and ✣✘✥✲✙✜✢✓✦
flowering ✬✘✖✓✕✔✳ ✧✤✢✔ ✢✔
plants. This is ✕✤✙
the ✜✙✦✢✥✓
region
✢✕✔
its ✘✖✕✢✕✉✚✙✳ ✧✤✙ ✩✙✖✓
latitude. The mean ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature ✢✓ in ✔✉✩✩✙✜
summer ✥✣ ✬✙✜✩✖✣✜✥✔✕ ✲✤✙✜✙ ✕✤✙ ✔✉✗ ✔✥✢✘ ✢✔ ✬✙✜✩✖✓✙✓✕✘②
of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently
✩✥✓✕✤✔ ✜✖✓✦✙✔ ✣✜✥✩ ✰✮✵✯✴✱✵✫
months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter ✖✓✚ ✢✓ ✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✣✜✥❧✙✓✳ ✧✤✙ ✔✤✥✜✕
frozen. The short ✦✜✥✲✢✓✦
growing ✔✙✖✔✥✓
season ✖✓✚ ✲✖✕✙✜
and water
❊✵✯✰✱✵✫✳
4°-10°C. The ✧✤✙ ✖✓✓✉✖✘
annual ✖✓✚ and ✚✖✢✘②daily ✜✖✓✦✙✔
ranges ✥✣ of ✘✥✦✦✢✓✦
logging ✔✉✬✬✥✜✕
support ✥✓✘②only ✘✥✲
low ✦✜✥✲✢✓✦
growing ✬✘✖✓✕✔✳
plants.
✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature ✖✜✙ are ✔✩✖✘✘✳
small. t✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
Precipitation ✥✛✛✉✜✔ occurs ❉✉✜✢✓✦
During ✔✉✩✩✙✜✪
summer, ✕✤✙ the ✕✉✓✚✜✖
tundra ✜✙✦✢✥✓✔
regions ✤✖✭✙ ✭✙✜②
have very
✕✤✜✥✉✦✤✥✉✕
throughout ✕✤✙ ②✙✖✜✳ t✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
the year. Precipitation varies ✭✖✜✢✙✔ ✘✥✓✦
long ✚✉✜✖✕✢✥✓
duration ✥✣of ✚✖②
day ✘✢✦✤✕✳
light.
✦✜✙✖✕✘②
greatly ✣✜✥✩
from ✮✱✯✴✮✱✛✩✳
50-250cm.
Ice ✾✷①
qr✻ Cap ✾❀✹❁✷✽✻
Climate ❂♣③❅(EF)
●❍■❏
Cold ❑▲❍❖
Snow P❍◗❘❙❚
Forest ●■❯❱❲❚❘❙
Climates ❳❨❩ (D)
✧✤✙ ✢✛✙
The ice ✛✖✬
cap ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙
climate ❬❈♠❭(EF) ✥✛✛✉✜✔
occurs ✥✭✙✜
over ✢✓✕✙✜✢✥✜
interior
✫✥✘✚
Cold ✔✓✥✲
snow ✣✥✜✙✔✕
forest ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙✔
climates ✥✛✛✉✜
occur ✢✓ in ✕✤✙ the ✘✖✜✦✙
large Greenland ✖✓✚
④✜✙✙✓✘✖✓✚ ❆✓✕✖✜✕✢✛✖✳ ❈✭✙✓
and Antartica. Even ✢✓in ✔✉✩✩✙✜✪
summer, ✕✤✙ the
✛✥✓✕✢✓✙✓✕✖✘
continental ✖✜✙✖
area ✢✓
in ✕✤✙
the ✓✥✜✕✤✙✜✓
northern ✤✙✩✢✔✬✤✙✜✙
hemisphere ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙ ✢✔ ✗✙✘✥✲ ✣✜✙✙❧✢✓✦ ✬✥✢✓✕✳
temperature is below freezing point. This area ✧✤✢✔ ✖✜✙✖
✗✙✕✲✙✙✓
between ❊✱✵✯✈✱✵
40°-70° ✓✥✜✕✤
north ✘✖✕✢✕✉✚✙✔
latitudes ✢✓ in ❈✉✜✥✬✙✪
Europe, ✜✙✛✙✢✭✙✔ ✭✙✜② ✘✢✕✕✘✙
receives very little ✬✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓✳
precipitation. The✧✤✙ ✔✓✥✲
snow ✖✓✚
and
Asia and North America. Cold snow ✣✥✜✙✔✕
❆✔✢✖ ✖✓✚ ◆✥✜✕✤ ❆✩✙✜✢✛✖✳ ✫✥✘✚ ✔✓✥✲ forest ✢✛✙
ice ✦✙✕
get ✖✛✛✉✩✉✘✖✕✙✚
accumulated ✖✓✚ and ✕✤✙
the ✩✥✉✓✕✢✓✦
mounting ✬✜✙✔✔✉✜✙
pressure
✛✘✢✩✖✕✙✔
climates ✖✜✙
are ✚✢✭✢✚✙✚
divided ✢✓✕✥
into ✕✲✥
two ✕②✬✙✔❇
types: ❬✢❭(i) ❉✣✯
Df- ✛✥✘✚
cold ✛✖✉✔✙✔
causes ✕✤✙ the ✚✙✣✥✜✩✖✕✢✥✓
deformation ✥✣ of ✕✤✙
the ✢✛✙
ice ✔✤✙✙✕✔
sheets ✖✓✚
and
✛✘✢✩✖✕✙ ✲✢✕✤ ✤✉✩✢✚
climate with ✲✢✓✕✙✜❪ ❬✢✢❭
humid winter; (ii) ❉✲✯
Dw- ✛✥✘✚
cold ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙
climate ✕✤✙②
they ✗✜✙✖✇✳ ✧✤✙② ✩✥✭✙
break. They move ✖✔ as ✢✛✙✗✙✜✦✔
icebergs ✕✤✖✕
that ✣✘✥✖✕
float ✢✓
in
✲✢✕✤ ✚✜②
with ✲✢✓✕✙✜✳ The
dry winter. ✧✤✙ ✔✙✭✙✜✢✕②
severity ✥✣ ✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✢✔
of winter is ✩✥✜✙
more ✕✤✙ ❆✜✛✕✢✛ ✖✓✚ ❆✓✕✖✜✛✕✢✛ ✲✖✕✙✜✔✳ t✘✖✕✙✖✉
the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau Station ★✕✖✕✢✥✓
✬✜✥✓✥✉✓✛✙✚
pronounced ✢✓ in ✤✢✦✤✙✜
higher ✘✖✕✢✕✉✚✙✔✳
latitudes. ✪, Antarctica
❆✓✕✖✜✛✕✢✛✖ ✪✈⑤✵★✪
,79°S, ✬✥✜✕✜✖②
portray ✕✤✢✔
this ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙✳
climate.

✾✿❀❫
Cold ✾❀✹❁✷✽✻
Climate ❴✹✽❵ Humid ✼✹✺✽✻✸❡
with ❜❞❁✹❫ Winters ❂❢❃❅
(Df) ⑥❯⑦⑧■❲▲❏
Highland ●■❯❱❲❚❘❙
Climates ❳⑥❩
(H)
✫✥✘✚
Cold ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙ ✲✢✕✤ ✤✉✩✢✚
climate with ✲✢✓✕✙✜ ✥✛✛✉✜✔
humid winter occurs ⑨✢✦✤✘✖✓✚
Highland ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙✔
climates ✖✜✙
are ✦✥✭✙✜✓✙✚
governed ✗② by ✕✥✬✥✦✜✖✬✤②✳
topography.
✬✥✘✙✲✖✜✚
poleward ✥✣of ✩✖✜✢✓✙ ✲✙✔✕ ✛✥✖✔✕
marine west coast ✛✘✢✩✖✕✙
climate ✖✓✚and ✩✢✚
mid In ✤✢✦✤
❦✓ high ✩✥✉✓✕✖✢✓✔✪
mountains, ✘✖✜✦✙
large ✛✤✖✓✦✙✔
changes ✢✓ in ✩✙✖✓
mean
✘✖✕✢✕✉✚✙ ✔✕✙✬✬✙✳ ✧✤✙ ✲✢✓✕✙✜✔ ✖✜✙
latitude steppe. The winters are cold and ✛✥✘✚ ✖✓✚ ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature ✥✛✛✉✜occur ✥✭✙✜
over ✔✤✥✜✕
short ✚✢✔✕✖✓✛✙✔✳
distances.
✔✓✥✲②✳ ✧✤✙ ✣✜✥✔✕
snowy. The frost ✣✜✙✙
free ✔✙✖✔✥✓
season ✢✔ is ✔✤✥✜✕✳
short. The✧✤✙ t✜✙✛✢✬✢✕✖✕✢✥✓
Precipitation ✕②✬✙✔
types ✖✓✚
and ✢✓✕✙✓✔✢✕②
intensity ✖✘✔✥ ✭✖✜②
also vary
✖✓✓✉✖✘
annual ✜✖✓✦✙✔
ranges ✥✣of ✕✙✩✬✙✜✖✕✉✜✙
temperature ✖✜✙ are ✘✖✜✦✙✳ ✧✤✙
large. The ✔✬✖✕✢✖✘✘② ✖✛✜✥✔✔ ✤✢✦✤ ✘✖✓✚✔✳ ✧✤✙✜✙ ✢✔
spatially across high lands. There is vertical✭✙✜✕✢✛✖✘
✲✙✖✕✤✙✜ ✛✤✖✓✦✙✔
weather changes ✖✜✙ are ✖✗✜✉✬✕
abrupt ✖✓✚ and ✔✤✥✜✕✳
short. ❧✥✓✖✕✢✥✓ ✥✣
zonation of ✘✖②✙✜✢✓✦
layering ✥✣ of ✛✘✢✩✖✕✢✛
climatic ✕②✬✙✔ ✲✢✕✤
types with
t✥✘✙✲✖✜✚✪
Poleward, ✕✤✙ ✲✢✓✕✙✜✔ ✖✜✙
the winters are ✩✥✜✙
more ✔✙✭✙✜✙✳
severe. ✙✘✙✭✖✕✢✥✓
elevation ✢✓
in ✕✤✙
the ✩✥✉✓✕✖✢✓
mountain ✙✓✭✢✜✥✓✩✙✓✕✳
environment.
❲ ✁✂✄ ☎✂✆✝✞✟✠
WORLD ✞✡✄ ☎✂✆✝✞✟✠
CLIMATE AND CLIMATE ☎☛✞✡☞✠
CHANGE ✶✌✍
107

❈▲■▼❆✎✏
CimaTE ❈❍❆✑✒✏ CHANGE ✙✖✢✚
crop ✧✕✘✗✥✖✔✜✯
failures, ✢✧of ✧✗✢✢✦✜
floods ✕✣✦
and ✤✘♦✖✕✛✘✢✣
migration ✢✧ of ✚✔✢✚✗✔
people
✛✔✗✗
tell ✕❜✢✥✛
about ✛✓✔the ✔✧✧✔✙✛✜
effects ✢✧of ✙✓✕✣♦✘✣♦
changing ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔✪
climate. A❞
❚✓✔ ✔✕✖✗✘✔✖
The earlier ✙✓✕✚✛✔✖✜
chapters ✢✣ on ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✜✥✤✤✕✖✘✜✔✦
summarised ✣✥✤❜✔✖
number ✢✧ of ✛✘✤✔✜
times ♥✥✖✢✚✔ ✩✘✛✣✔✜✜✔✦ warm,
Europe witnessed ✩✕✖✤✯ wet,
✩✔✛✯
✢✥✖
our ✥✣✦✔✖✜✛✕✣✦✘✣♦
understanding ✢✧ of ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✕✜ as ✘✛
it ✚✖✔★✕✘✗✜
prevails ✣✢✩✪now. ✙✢✗✦
cold ✕✣✦
and ✦✖✫
dry ✚✔✖✘✢✦✜✯
periods, ✛✓✔the ✜✘♦✣✘✧✘✙✕✣✛
significant ✔✚✘✜✢✦✔✜
episodes
❚✓✔ ✛✫✚✔
The type ✢✧ of ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate we ✩✔ ✔✬✚✔✖✘✔✣✙✔
experience ✣✢✩ now ✤✘♦✓✛
might ✩✔✖✔ ✛✓✔ ✩✕✖✤ ✕✣✦
were the warm and ✦✖✫
dry ✙✢✣✦✘✛✘✢✣✜
conditions ✘✣ in ✛✓✔
the ✛✔✣✛✓
tenth
❜✔
be ✚✖✔★✕✘✗✘✣♦
prevailing ✢★✔✖ over ✛✓✔the ✗✕✜✛
last ✭✮✯✮✮✮
10,000 years ✫✔✕✖✜ with
✩✘✛✓ ✕✣✦
and ✔✗✔★✔✣✛✓
eleventh ✙✔✣✛✥✖✘✔✜✯
centuries, when✩✓✔✣ ✛✓✔ ❱✘❣✘✣♦✜
the Vikings
✤✘✣✢✖ ✕✣✦ ✢✙✙✕✜✘✢✣✕✗✗✫ ✩✘✦✔
minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The ✧✗✥✙✛✥✕✛✘✢✣✜✪ ❚✓✔ ✜✔✛✛✗✔✦
settled ✘✣in ❝✖✔✔✣✗✕✣✦✪
Greenland. ♥✥✖✢✚✔ ✩✘✛✣✔✜✜✔✦ ❬❭✘✛✛✗✔
Europe witnessed “Little
✚✗✕✣✔✛
planet ✔✕✖✛✓earth ✓✕✜ ✩✘✛✣✔✜✜✔✦ ✤✕✣✫
has witnessed ★✕✖✘✕✛✘✢✣✜ ✘✣
many variations in ✰✙✔ ❞♦✔❪ ✧✖✢✤
Ice Age” from ✭ss✮
1550 ✛✢to ✕❜✢✥✛
about ✭✳s✮✪
1850. ✹✖✢✤
From ✕❜✢✥✛
about
✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✜✘✣✙✔since ✛✓✔ the ❜✔♦✘✣✣✘✣♦✪
beginning. ❝✔✢✗✢♦✘✙✕✗
Geological ✖✔✙✢✖✦✜
records ✭✳✳s✲✭❡❫✮
1885-1940 world temperature showed ✕✣
✩✢✖✗✦ ✛✔✤✚✔✖✕✛✥✖✔ ✜✓✢✩✔✦ an
✜✓✢✩
show ✕✗✛✔✖✕✛✘✢✣
alteration ✢✧ of ♦✗✕✙✘✕✗
glacial ✕✣✦ and ✘✣✛✔✖✲♦✗✕✙✘✕✗
inter-glacial ✥✚✩✕✖✦
upward ✛✖✔✣✦✪ ❞✧✛✔✖ ✭❡❫✮✯
trend. After 1940, ✛✓✔
the ✖✕✛✔
rate ✢✧
of ✘✣✙✖✔✕✜✔
increase
✚✔✖✘✢✦✜✪
periods. The geomorphological ✧✔✕✛✥✖✔✜✯
❚✓✔ ♦✔✢✤✢✖✚✓✢✗✢♦✘✙✕✗ features, ✘✣
in ✛✔✤✚✔✖✕✛✥✖✔
temperature ✜✗✢✩✔✦slowed ✦✢✩✣✪
down.
✔✜✚✔✙✘✕✗✗✫
especially ✘✣ in ✓✘♦✓
high ✕✗✛✘✛✥✦✔✜
altitudes ✕✣✦ and ✓✘♦✓
high ✗✕✛✘✛✥✦✔✜✯
latitudes,
✔✬✓✘❜✘✛
exhibit ✛✖✕✙✔✜ traces ✢✧ of ✕✦★✕✣✙✔✜
advances ✕✣✦ and ✖✔✛✖✔✕✛✜
retreats ✢✧ of ✾❂❴❏❄❏
Causes ❵❢ of ✾✿❀❁❂❃❄
Climate ✾❇❂❅❤❄ Change
♦✗✕✙✘✔✖✜✪
glaciers. The ❚✓✔ ✜✔✦✘✤✔✣✛
sediment ✦✔✚✢✜✘✛✜deposits ✘✣ in ♦✗✕✙✘✕✗
glacial ✗✕❣✔✜
lakes
✕✗✜✢
also ✖✔★✔✕✗
reveal ✛✓✔ the ✢✙✙✥✖✖✔✣✙✔
occurrence ✢✧ ✩✕✖✤ ✕✣✦
of warm and ✙✢✗✦
cold ❚✓✔ ✙✕✥✜✔✜
The causes ✧✢✖ for ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✙✓✕✣♦✔change ✕✖✔ are ✤✕✣✫✪
many. They❚✓✔✫
✚✔✖✘✢✦✜✪
periods. The ❚✓✔ ✖✘✣♦✜rings ✘✣ in ✛✓✔
the ✛✖✔✔✜
trees ✚✖✢★✘✦✔
provide ✙✗✥✔✜clues ✙✕✣
can ❜✔ be ♦✖✢✥✚✔✦
grouped ✘✣✛✢ into ✕✜✛✖✢✣✢✤✘✙✕✗
astronomical ✕✣✦ and
✕❜✢✥✛
about wet ✩✔✛ ✕✣✦ and ✦✖✫dry ✚✔✖✘✢✦✜✪
periods. ❛✘✜✛✢✖✘✙✕✗
Historical ✖✔✙✢✖✦✜records ✛✔✖✖✔✜✛✖✘✕✗
terrestrial ✙✕✥✜✔✜✪
causes. The ❚✓✔ ✕✜✛✖✢✣✢✤✘✙✕✗
astronomical ✙✕✥✜✔✜ causes ✕✖✔are
✦✔✜✙✖✘❜✔
describe ✛✓✔ ★✕♦✕✖✘✔✜ ✘✣
the vagaries in ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔✪
climate. All ❞✗✗ ✛✓✔✜✔
these ✛✓✔ ✙✓✕✣♦✔✜ ✘✣ ✜✢✗✕✖ ✢✥✛✚✥✛
the changes in solar output associated with ✕✜✜✢✙✘✕✛✔✦ ✩✘✛✓
✔★✘✦✔✣✙✔✜
evidences ✘✣✦✘✙✕✛✔ indicate ✛✓✕✛ that ✙✓✕✣♦✔
change ✘✣ in ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✘✜ is ✕
a ✜✥✣✜✚✢✛
sunspot ✕✙✛✘★✘✛✘✔✜✪
activities. ✽✥✣✜✚✢✛✜Sunspots ✕✖✔ are ✦✕✖❣
dark ✕✣✦and
✣✕✛✥✖✕✗ ✕✣✦ ✙✢✣✛✘✣✥✢✥✜
natural and continuous process. ✚✖✢✙✔✜✜✪ ✙✢✢✗✔✖
cooler ✚✕✛✙✓✔✜
patches ✢✣ on ✛✓✔
the ✜✥✣ ✩✓✘✙✓ ✘✣✙✖✔✕✜✔
sun which increase ✕✣✦ and
✰✣✦✘✕
India ✕✗✜✢ ✩✘✛✣✔✜✜✔✦ ✕✗✛✔✖✣✕✛✔
also witnessed alternate wet ✩✔✛ ✕✣✦and ✦✖✫
dry ✦✔✙✖✔✕✜✔
decrease ✘✣ in ✕ a ✙✫✙✗✘✙✕✗
cyclical ✤✕✣✣✔✖✪ ❞✙✙✢✖✦✘✣♦ ✛✢
manner. According to
✚✔✖✘✢✦✜✪ ❞✖✙✓✕✔✢✗✢♦✘✙✕✗ ✧✘✣✦✘✣♦✜
periods. Archacological findings ✜✓✢✩ show ✛✓✕✛that ✛✓✔
the ✜✢✤✔
some meteorologists, when the number ✢✧
✤✔✛✔✢✖✢✗✢♦✘✜✛✜✯ ✩✓✔✣ ✛✓✔ ✣✥✤❜✔✖ of
❘✕✱✕✜✛✓✕✣
Rajasthan ✦✔✜✔✖✛ desert ✔✬✚✔✖✘✔✣✙✔✦
experienced wet ✩✔✛ ✕✣✦ and ✙✢✢✗
cool ✜✥✣✜✚✢✛✜
sunspots ✘✣✙✖✔✕✜✔✯
increase, ✙✢✢✗✔✖ cooler ✕✣✦ ✩✔✛✛✔✖ weather
and wetter ✩✔✕✛✓✔✖
✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✕✖✢✥✣✦around ✳✯✮✮✮ 8,000 ✴✪✵✪ B.C. The❚✓✔ ✚✔✖✘✢✦
period ✷✯✮✮✮✲
3,000- ✕✣✦
and ♦✖✔✕✛✔✖
greater ✜✛✢✖✤✘✣✔✜✜
storminess ✢✙✙✥✖✪ occur. A❞ ✦✔✙✖✔✕✜✔
decrease ✘✣ in
✭✯✸✮✮
1,700 ✴✪✵✪ B.C. ✓✕✦ had ✓✘♦✓✔✖
higher ✖✕✘✣✧✕✗✗✪
rainfall. ✹✖✢✤ From ✕❜✢✥✛about ✜✥✣✜✚✢✛
sunspot ✣✥✤❜✔✖✜
numbers ✘✜ is ✕✜✜✢✙✘✕✛✔✦
associated with ✩✘✛✓ warm
✩✕✖✤ ✕✣✦and
✺✯✮✮✮✲✭✯✸✮✮
2,000-1,700 ✴✪✵✪✯ B.C., ✛✓✘✜this ✖✔♦✘✢✣
region was ✩✕✜ ✛✓✔ the ✙✔✣✛✖✔
centre ✦✖✘✔✖
drier ✙✢✣✦✘✛✘✢✣✜✪
conditions. Yet, ✐✔✛✯ ✛✓✔✜✔
these ✧✘✣✦✘✣♦✜
findings ✕✖✔ are ✣✢✛
not
✢✧
of ✛✓✔
the ❛✕✖✕✚✚✕✣
Harappan ✙✘★✘✗✘✜✕✛✘✢✣✪
civilisation. ✻✖✫ Dry ✙✢✣✦✘✛✘✢✣✜
conditions ✜✛✕✛✘✜✛✘✙✕✗✗✫ ✜✘♦✣✘✧✘✙✕✣✛✪
statistically significant.
✕✙✙✔✣✛✥✕✛✔✦
accentuated ✜✘✣✙✔ since ✛✓✔✣✪
then. ❞✣ ✕✣✢✛✓✔✖
An another ✕✜✛✖✢✣✢✤✘✙✕✗
astronomical ✛✓✔✢✖✫ theory ✘✜ is
✰✣
In ✛✓✔
the ♦✔✢✗✢♦✘✙✕✗
geological ✚✕✜✛✯ past, ✛✓✔the ✔✕✖✛✓
earth was ✩✕✜ warm
✩✕✖✤ Millankovitch ✢✜✙✘✗✗✕✛✘✢✣✜✯
❥✘✗✗✕✣❣✢★✘✛✙✓ oscillations, which ✩✓✘✙✓ ✘✣✧✔✖infer ✙✫✙✗✔✜
cycles
✜✢✤✔
some s✮✮✲✷✮✮
500-300 ✤✘✗✗✘✢✣ million years✫✔✕✖✜ ✕♦✢✯ ago, ✛✓✖✢✥♦✓
through ✛✓✔ the ✘✣
in ✛✓✔ ★✕✖✘✕✛✘✢✣✜ ✘✣
the variations in ✛✓✔
the ✔✕✖✛✓❦✜
earth’s ✢✖❜✘✛✕✗
orbital
✵✕✤❜✖✘✕✣✯
Cambrian, ✼✖✦✢★✘✙✘✕✣ Ordovician ✕✣✦ and ✽✘✗✥✖✘✕✣
Silurian ✚✔✖✘✢✦✜✪
periods. ✙✓✕✖✕✙✛✔✖✘✜✛✘✙✜ ✕✖✢✥✣✦ ✛✓✔
characteristics around the sun, the wobbling ✜✥✣✯ ✛✓✔ ✩✢❜❜✗✘✣♦
✻✥✖✘✣♦
During ✛✓✔ the ❉✗✔✘✜✛✢✙✔✣✔
Pleistocene ✔✚✢✙✓✯ epoch, ♦✗✕✙✘✕✗glacial ✕✣✦ and ✢✧
of ✛✓✔
the ✔✕✖✛✓
earth ✕✣✦and ✛✓✔the ✙✓✕✣♦✔✜
changes ✘✣ in ✛✓✔
the ✔✕✖✛✓❦✜
earth’s ✕✬✘✕✗
axial
✘✣✛✔✖✲♦✗✕✙✘✕✗ ✚✔✖✘✢✦✜ ✢✙✙✥✖✖✔✦✯
inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major ✛✓✔ ✗✕✜✛ ✤✕✱✢✖ ✛✘✗✛✪ ❞✗✗ ✛✓✔✜✔
tilt. All these ✕✗✛✔✖
alter ✛✓✔ the ✕✤✢✥✣✛
amount ✢✧ of ✘✣✜✢✗✕✛✘✢✣
insolation
✚✔✕❣
peak ♦✗✕✙✘✕✗
glacial ✚✔✖✘✢✦ period was ✩✕✜ ✕❜✢✥✛about ✭✳✯✮✮✮18,000 years✫✔✕✖✜ ✖✔✙✔✘★✔✦
received ✧✖✢✤ from ✛✓✔ the ✜✥✣✯
sun, which✩✓✘✙✓ ✘✣ in ✛✥✖✣✯
turn, ✤✘♦✓✛
might
✕♦✢✪
ago. The❚✓✔ ✚✖✔✜✔✣✛
present ✘✣✛✔✖✲♦✗✕✙✘✕✗
inter-glacial ✚✔✖✘✢✦ period ✜✛✕✖✛✔✦
started ✓✕★✔ ✕ ❜✔✕✖✘✣♦ ✢✣
have a bearing on the climate.✛✓✔ ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔✪
✭✮✯✮✮✮
10,000 years ✫✔✕✖✜ ✕♦✢✪ ago. ❱✢✗✙✕✣✘✜✤ ✘✜
Volcanism is ✙✢✣✜✘✦✔✖✔✦
considered ✕✜ as ✕✣✢✛✓✔✖
another ✙✕✥✜✔
cause
✧✢✖
for ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✙✓✕✣♦✔✪ ❱✢✗✙✕✣✘✙ ✔✖✥✚✛✘✢✣
change. Volcanic eruption ✛✓✖✢✩✜
throws
✾✿❀❁❂❃❄
Climate ❀❅ in ❃❇❄ the ❊❄❋❄❅❃
recent ●❂❏❃ past ✥✚
up ✗✢✛✜
lots ✢✧of ✕✔✖✢✜✢✗✜
aerosols ✘✣✛✢ into ✛✓✔the ✕✛✤✢✜✚✓✔✖✔✪
atmosphere. These ❚✓✔✜✔
❱✕✖✘✕❜✘✗✘✛✫ ✘✣
Variability in ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✢✙✙✥✖✜
occurs ✕✗✗ all ✛✓✔
the ✛✘✤✔✪ ❚✓✔
time. The ✕✔✖✢✜✢✗✜
aerosols ✖✔✤✕✘✣ remain ✘✣ in ✛✓✔the ✕✛✤✢✜✚✓✔✖✔
atmosphere ✧✢✖ for ✕ a
✣✘✣✔✛✘✔✜
nineties ✦✔✙✕✦✔ decade ✢✧ of ✛✓✔
the ✗✕✜✛
last ✙✔✣✛✥✖✫ ✩✘✛✣✔✜✜✔✦
century witnessed ✙✢✣✜✘✦✔✖✕❜✗✔ ✚✔✖✘✢✦ ✢✧ ✛✘✤✔ ✖✔✦✥✙✘✣♦
considerable period of time reducing the sun’s ✛✓✔ ✜✥✣❦✜
✔✬✛✖✔✤✔
extreme weather✩✔✕✛✓✔✖ ✔★✔✣✛✜✪ events. The ❚✓✔ ✭❡❡✮✜
1990s ✖✔✙✢✖✦✔✦
recorded ✖✕✦✘✕✛✘✢✣
radiation ✖✔✕✙✓✘✣♦
reaching ✛✓✔ Earth’s ✜✥✖✧✕✙✔✪
the ♥✕✖✛✓❦✜ ❞✧✛✔✖ ✛✓✔
surface. After the
✛✓✔ ✩✕✖✤✔✜✛ ✛✔✤✚✔✖✕✛✥✖✔
the warmest temperature ✢✧ of ✛✓✔
the ✙✔✣✛✥✖✫
century ✕✣✦ and ✖✔✙✔✣✛
recent ❉✘✣✕✛✢❜✕
Pinatoba ✕✣✦ and ♥✗ El ✵✘✢✣ ★✢✗✙✕✣✘✙
Cion volcanic
✜✢✤✔ ✢✧ ✛✓✔ ✩✢✖✜✛ ✧✗✢✢✦✜ ✕✖✢✥✣✦
some of the worst floods around the world. The ✛✓✔ ✩✢✖✗✦✪ ❚✓✔ ✔✖✥✚✛✘✢✣✜✯
eruptions, ✛✓✔ the ✕★✔✖✕♦✔
average ✛✔✤✚✔✖✕✛✥✖✔
temperature ✢✧ of ✛✓✔
the ✔✕✖✛✓
earth
✩✢✖✜✛ ✦✔★✕✜✛✕✛✘✣♦
worst devastating ✦✖✢✥♦✓✛ drought ✘✣ in ✛✓✔
the ✽✕✓✔✗
Sahel ✖✔♦✘✢✣✯
region, ✧✔✗✗ ✛✢ ✜✢✤✔ ✔✬✛✔✣✛ ✧✢✖
fell to some extent for some years. ✜✢✤✔ ✫✔✕✖✜✪
✜✢✥✛✓
south ✢✧ of ✛✓✔
the ✽✕✓✕✖✕
Sahara ✦✔✜✔✖✛✯desert, ✧✖✢✤ from ✭❡❑✸✲✭❡✸✸
1967-1977 ❚✓✔ ✤✢✜✛
The most ✘✤✚✢✖✛✕✣✛
important ✕✣✛✓✖✢✚✢♦✔✣✘✙
anthropogenic ✔✧✧✔✙✛ effect
✘✜
is ✢✣✔
one ✜✥✙✓ ★✕✖✘✕❜✘✗✘✛✫✪ ✻✥✖✘✣♦
such variability. During ✛✓✔ the ✭❡✷✮✜✯
1930s, ✢✣
on ✛✓✔
the ✙✗✘✤✕✛✔
climate ✘✜ is ✛✓✔
the ✘✣✙✖✔✕✜✘✣♦
increasing ✛✖✔✣✦ trend ✘✣ in ✛✓✔
the
✜✔★✔✖✔
severe ✦✖✢✥♦✓✛
drought ✢✙✙✥✖✖✔✦occurred ✘✣ in ✜✢✥✛✓✩✔✜✛✔✖✣
southwestern ❝✖✔✕✛ Great ✙✢✣✙✔✣✛✖✕✛✘✢✣
concentration ✢✧ of ♦✖✔✔✣✓✢✥✜✔
greenhouse ♦✕✜✔✜ gases ✘✣ in ✛✓✔
the
❉✗✕✘✣✜
Plains of the United States, described as ✛✓✔
✢✧ ✛✓✔ P✣✘✛✔✦ ✽✛✕✛✔✜✯ ✦✔✜✙✖✘❜✔✦ ✕✜ the ✕✛✤✢✜✚✓✔✖✔
atmosphere which ✩✓✘✙✓ ✘✜ is ✗✘❣✔✗✫
likely ✛✢ to ✙✕✥✜✔
cause ♦✗✢❜✕✗
global
◆❖◗❙ bowl. ❛✘✜✛✢✖✘✙✕✗
dust ❯❳❨❩✪ Historical ✖✔✙✢✖✦✜ records ✢✧ of ✙✖✢✚ ✫✘✔✗✦ ✢✖
crop yield or ✩✕✖✤✘✣♦✪
warming.
✶✑✒
108 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

●✓✔✕✖✓ ✗✖r♠✘✙✚
Global Warming ✮✢ ✇✮✱✱ ✢✬✲✜
it will take ✪✣✦ for ✜✬✦✢✤❀✧
earth’s ✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✮✩
atmospheric ✧✿✧✢✜❛ system ✢✣ to
✦✜✩✣✰✜✦
recover ✪✦✣❛ from ✬★✿ any ✩✤✬★✫✜
change ✯✦✣✛✫✤✢brought ✬✯✣✛✢ about ✯✿ by ✢✤✜
the
❉✛✜
Due ✢✣to ✢✤✜
the ✥✦✜✧✜★✩✜
presence ✣✪ of ✫✦✜✜★✤✣✛✧✜
greenhouse ✫✬✧✜✧✭
gases, ✢✤✜
the
✱✬✢✢✜✦✻
latter.
✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜ ✮✧ ✯✜✤✬✰✮★✫ ✱✮✲✜ ✬ ❣✳✴✴✵✷✸✹✺✴✻
atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The ✼✤✜ ✼✤✜ ❷❥✳❣✴✺❃
The largest ❂✸✵❂✴✵❃✳❥❃❸✸✵
concentration ✣✪ of ♣q♣✧
GHGs ✮★ in ✢✤✜
the
✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
atmosphere ✬✱✧✣ also ✢✦✬★✧❛✮✢✧
transmits ✢✤✜ the ✮★✩✣❛✮★✫
incoming ✧✣✱✬✦
solar
✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
atmosphere ✮✧ is ❂❥✳❹✸✵
carbon ❺❸✸❻❸❺✴✻dioxide. The ✼✤✜ ✜❛✮✧✧✮✣★
emission
✦✬✽✮✬✢✮✣★
radiation ✯✛✢
but ✬✯✧✣✦✯✧
absorbs ✢✤✜ ✰✬✧✢ ❛✬✾✣✦✮✢✿
the vast majority ✣✪of ✱✣★✫
long
of ✉✈
✣✪ CO, ① ✩✣❛✜✧
comes ❛✬✮★✱✿ mainly ✪✦✣❛ from ✪✣✧✧✮✱fossil ✪✛✜✱ fuel
✇✬✰✜ ✦✬✽✮✬✢✮✣★
wave radiation ✜❛✮✢✢✜✽
emitted ✛✥✇✬✦✽✧
upwards ✯✿ by ✢✤✜
the ✜✬✦✢✤❀✧
earth’s
✩✣❛✯✛✧✢✮✣★ t✣✮✱✭ ③✣✦✜✧✢✧
combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests ✬★✽
✫✬✧ ✬★✽ ✩✣✬✱②✻ and
✧✛✦✪✬✩✜✻
surface. The✼✤✜ ✫✬✧✜✧
gases ✢✤✬✢
that ✬✯✧✣✦✯
absorb ✱✣★✫ ✇✬✰✜
long wave
✣✩✜✬★✧
oceans ✬✦✜ are ✢✤✜the ✧✮★✲✧
sinks ✪✣✦ for ✢✤✜
the ✩✬✦✯✣★
carbon ✽✮✣s✮✽✜✻
dioxide.
✦✬✽✮✬✢✮✣★
radiation ✬✦✜are ✩✬✱✱✜✽
called ✫✦✜✜★✤✣✛✧✜
greenhouse ✫✬✧✜✧✻gases. The✼✤✜ ③✣✦✜✧✢✧
Forests ✛✧✜ use ✉✈ CO, ① ✮★ in ✢✤✜✮✦ growth. ⑧✣✭
their ✫✦✣✇✢✤✻ So,
✥✦✣✩✜✧✧✜✧ ✢✤✬✢ ✇✬✦❛ ✢✤✜ ✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
processes that warm the atmosphere are often ✬✦✜ ✣✪✢✜★ ✽✜✪✣✦✜✧✢✬✢✮✣★
deforestation ✽✛✜ due ✢✣ to ✩✤✬★✫✜✧
changes ✮★ in ✱✬★✽
land ✛✧✜✭ use, ✬✱✧✣
also
✩✣✱✱✜✩✢✮✰✜✱✿
collectively ✦✜✪✜✦✦✜✽
referred ✢✣to ✬✧
as ✢✤✜ ❣✳✴✴✵✷✸✹✺✴ ✴❁❁✴❂❃✻
the greenhouse effect. ✮★✩✦✜✬✧✜✧
increases ✢✤✜ the ✩✣★✩✜★✢✦✬✢✮✣★
concentration ✣✪ of ✉✣
Co,.①✻ The
✼✤✜ ✢✮❛✜time
❚❄❅ ❆❅❇❈ ✢✬✲✜★
taken ✪✣✦ atmospheric ✉✈
for ✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✮✩ CO, ① ✢✣
to ✬✽✾✛✧✢
adjust ✢✣ to ✩✤✬★✫✜✧
changes
The term ❊❍■■❏❑▲▼◆■
greenhouse ❖P is ◗❅❇❖❘❅◗
derived ❙❇❯❈
from ❆❄❅the
❱❲❱❳❯❨❩
analogy ❆❯ to ❱a ❨❇❅❅❲❄❯❬P❅
greenhouse ❬P❅◗ used ❖❲ in ❭❯❳◗
cold
✮★
in ✧✣✛✦✩✜✧
sources ✢✣ to ✧✮★✲✧
sinks ✮✧ is ❼❽❾❿❽ ✿✜✬✦✧✻ ➀✢
20-50 years. It ✮✧
is ✦✮✧✮★✫
rising
❱❇❅❱P
areas ❙❯❇for ❪❇❅P❅❇❘❖❲❨
preserving ❄❅❱❆❫heat. A❴ ❊❍■■❏❑▲▼◆■
greenhouse ✬✢
at ✬✯✣✛✢
about ❽✻❿ 0.5 ✥✜✦ per ✩✜★✢cent ✬★★✛✬✱✱✿✻
annually. ❉✣✛✯✱✮★✫
Doubling ✣✪ of
❖P
is ❈❱◗❅
made ❬❪ up ❯❙of ❨❳❱PP❫
glass. The❚❄❅ ❨❳❱PP ✐❄❖❭❄ ❖P
glass which is ✩✣★✩✜★✢✦✬✢✮✣★ ✣✪ ✉✈ ✣✰✜✦ ✥✦✜❾✮★✽✛✧✢✦✮✬✱
concentration of CO, ① over pre-industrial level ✱✜✰✜✱
❆❇❱❲P❪❱❇❅❲❆
transparent ❆❯ to ❖❲❭❯❈❖❲❨
incoming P❄❯❇❆ ✐❱❘❅ P❯❳❱❇
short wave solar ✮✧
is ✛✧✜✽
used ✬✧ as ✬★an ✮★✽✜s
index ✪✣✦ for ✜✧✢✮❛✬✢✮★✫
estimating ✢✤✜ the ✩✤✬★✫✜✧
changes
❇❱◗❖❱❆❖❯❲
radiation ❖P is ❯❪❱❵❬❅
opaque ❆❯ to ❯❬❆❨❯❖❲❨
outgoing ❳❯❲❨ ✐❱❘❅
long wave ✮★
in ✩✱✮❛✬✢✜
climate ✮★ in ✩✱✮❛✬✢✮✩
climatic ❛✣✽✜✱✧✻ models.
❇❱◗❖❱❆❖❯❲❫
radiation. The ❚❄❅ ❨❳❱PP❜
glass, ❆❄❅❇❅❙❯❇❅❜
therefore, ❱❳❳❯✐P
allows ❖❲ in ✉✤✱✣✦✣✪✱✛✣✦✣✩✬✦✯✣★✧
Chlorofluorocarbons t✉③✉✧② (CFCs) ✬✦✜ are ✥✦✣✽✛✩✢✧
products
❈❯❇❅
more ❇❱◗❖❱❆❖❯❲
radiation ❱❲◗ and ❪❇❅❘❅❲❆P
prevents ❆❄❅ the ❳❯❲❨
long ✣✪
of ✤✛❛✬★
human ✬✩✢✮✰✮✢✿✻ activity. ⑨⑩✸✵✴ Ozone ✣✩✩✛✦✧ occurs ✮★ in ✢✤✜the
✐❱❘❅ ❇❱◗❖❱❆❖❯❲
wave radiation ❨❯❖❲❨ going ❯❬❆P❖◗❅
outside ❆❄❅the ❨❳❱PP
glass ✧✢✦✬✢✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
stratosphere where ✇✤✜✦✜ ✛✱✢✦✬❾✰✮✣✱✜✢
ultra-violet ✦✬✿✧ rays ✩✣★✰✜✦✢
convert
❄❯❬P❅❜
house, ❭❱❬P❖❲❨
causing ❆❄❅ the ❆❅❈❪❅❇❱❆❬❇❅
temperature ❖❲P❖◗❅ inside ✣s✿✫✜★
oxygen ✮★✢✣ into ✣⑥✣★✜✻
ozone. Thus, ✼✤✛✧✭ ✛✱✢✦✬ ✰✮✣✱✜✢ ✦✬✿✧
ultra violet rays ✽✣ do
❆❄❅
the ❨❳❱PP❄❯❬P❅
glasshouse P❆❇❬❭❆❬❇❅ ✐❱❇❈❅❇ ❆❄❱❲
structure warmer than
★✣✢
not ✦✜✬✩✤
reach ✢✤✜ the ✜✬✦✢✤❀✧
earth’s ✧✛✦✪✬✩✜✻
surface. The ✼✤✜ ✉③✉✧
CFCs which ✇✤✮✩✤
❯❬❆P❖◗❅❫ ♦❄❅❲ you
outside. When ❩❯❬ ❅❲❆❅❇
enter ❱ a ❭❱❇
car ❯❇
or ❱a ❝❬P❜
bus,
◗❬❇❖❲❨
during P❬❈❈❅❇P❜
summers, where ✐❄❅❇❅ windows
✐❖❲◗❯✐P ❱❇❅ are
✽✦✮✪✢
drift ✮★✢✣
into ✢✤✜the ✧✢✦✬✢✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
stratosphere ✽✜✧✢✦✣✿ destroy ✢✤✜ the ✣⑥✣★✜✻
ozone.
❭❳❯P❅◗❜
closed, you❩❯❬ ❙❅❅❳
feel ❈❯❇❅
more ❄❅❱❆heat ❆❄❱❲
than ❯❬❆P❖◗❅❫
outside. ➁✬✦✫✜
Large ✽✜✥✱✜✢✮✣★
depletion ✣✪ of ✣⑥✣★✜
ozone ✣✩✩✛✦✧occurs ✣✰✜✦ ❶★✢✬✦✩✢✮✩✬✻
over Antarctica.
❞❖❡❅✐❖P❅
Likewise ◗❬❇❖❲❨ ✐❖❲❆❅❇ ❆❄❅
during winter ❘❅❄❖❭❳❅P with
the vehicles ✐❖❆❄ ➂✷✴
The ✽✜✥✱✜✢✮✣★
depletion ✸❁ of ✸⑩✸✵✴
ozone ❂✸✵❂✴✵❃✳❥❃❸✸✵
concentration ❸✵ in ❃✷✴
the
❭❳❯P❅◗
closed ◗❯❯❇P
doors ❱❲◗ ✐❖❲◗❯✐P ❇❅❈❱❖❲
and windows ✐❱❇❈❅❇
remain warmer ✧✢✦✬✢✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
stratosphere ✮✧ is ✩✬✱✱✜✽
called ✢✤✜ the ✸⑩✸✵✴
ozone ✷✸❷✴✻ hole. This ✼✤✮✧
❆❄❱❲
than ❆❄❅the ❆❅❈❪❅❇❱❆❬❇❅
temperature ❯❬❆P❖◗❅❫outside. This❚❄❖P ❖P is ✬✱✱✣✇✧
allows ✢✤✜ the ✛✱✢✦✬ ✰✮✣✱✜✢ ✦✬✿✧
ultra violet rays ✢✣to ✥✬✧✧
pass ✢✤✦✣✛✫✤
through ✢✤✜ the
❱❲❯❆❄❅❇
another ❅❢❱❈❪❳❅
example ❯❙ of ❆❄❅
the ❨❇❅❅❲❄❯❬P❅
greenhouse ❅❙❙❅❭❆❫
effect. ✢✦✣✥✣✧✥✤✜✦✜✻
troposphere.
➀★✢✜✦★✬✢✮✣★✬✱
International ✜✪✪✣✦✢✧ efforts ✤✬✰✜ have ✯✜✜★
been ✮★✮✢✮✬✢✜✽
initiated ✪✣✦ for
❤✳✴✴✵✷✸✹✺✴
Greenhouse ❤❥✺✴✺❦❤❧❤✺♥Gases(GHGs)
✦✜✽✛✩✮★✫
reducing ✢✤✜ the ✜❛✮✧✧✮✣★
emission ✣✪ of ♣q♣✧
GHGs ✮★✢✣ into ✢✤✜ the
✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜✻
atmosphere. The ✼✤✜ ❛✣✧✢ most ✮❛✥✣✦✢✬★✢
important ✣★✜ one ✮✧ is ✢✤✜
the
✼✤✜ ✥✦✮❛✬✦✿
The primary ♣q♣✧GHGs ✣✪ of ✩✣★✩✜✦★
concern ✢✣✽✬✿
today ✬✦✜are ✩✬✦✯✣★
carbon ➃➄✸❃✸ ➅✳✸❃✸❂✸❷ ✥✦✣✩✱✬✮❛✜✽
Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997. This ✮★ ➆➇➇➈✻ ✼✤✮✧
dioxide t✉✈
✽✮✣s✮✽✜ (CO,),① ②✭ ✉✤✱✣✦✣✪✱✛✣✦✣✩✬✦✯✣★✧
Chlorofluorocarbons t✉③✉✧②✭
(CFCs), ✥✦✣✢✣✩✣✱
protocol went ✇✜★✢ ✮★✢✣ into ✜✪✪✜✩✢
effect ✮★ in ❼❽❽❿✭
2005, ✦✬✢✮✪✮✜✽
ratified ✯✿ by
methane t✉q
❛✜✢✤✬★✜ (CH,), ④②✭ ★✮✢✦✣✛✧
nitrous ✣s✮✽✜oxide t⑤ ①✈② ✬★✽
(N,O) and ✣⑥✣★✜
ozone ➆➉➆
141 ★✬✢✮✣★✧✻
nations. ➊✿✣✢✣ Kyoto ✥✦✣✢✣✩✣✱
protocol ✯✣✛★✽✧ bounds ✢✤✜ the ➋❿ 35
t✈ ②✻
(O,). ⑧✣❛✜
⑦ Some ✣✢✤✜✦ other ✫✬✧✜✧
gases ✧✛✩✤
such ✬✧ as ★✮✢✦✮✩ oxide t⑤✈②
nitric ✣s✮✽✜ (NO) ✮★✽✛✧✢✦✮✬✱✮✧✜✽
industrialised ✩✣✛★✢✦✮✜✧ countries ✢✣ to ✦✜✽✛✩✜
reduce ✢✤✜✮✦ their
✬★✽
and ✩✬✦✯✣★ monoxide t✉✈②
carbon ❛✣★✣s✮✽✜ (CO) ✜✬✧✮✱✿
easily ✦✜✬✩✢
react with✇✮✢✤ ✜❛✮✧✧✮✣★✧
emissions ✯✿ by ✢✤✜the year✿✜✬✦ ❼❽➆❼ 2012 ✢✣ to ❿ 5 ✥✜✦
per ✩✜★✢ cent ✱✜✧✧
less
♣q♣✧
GHGs ✬★✽ and ✬✪✪✜✩✢
affect ✢✤✜✮✦
their ✩✣★✩✜★✢✦✬✢✮✣★
concentration ✮★ in ✢✤✜
the ✢✤✬★
than ✢✤✜ the ✱✜✰✜✱✧
levels ✥✦✜✰✬✱✜★✢
prevalent ✮★ in ✢✤✜ ✿✜✬✦ ➆➇➇❽✻
the year 1990.
✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜✻
atmosphere. ✼✤✜ ✮★✩✦✜✬✧✮★✫
The increasing ✢✦✜★✽ trend ✮★ in ✢✤✜
the ✩✣★✩✜★✢✦✬✢✮✣★
concentration
✼✤✜ ✜✪✪✜✩✢✮✰✜★✜✧✧
The effectiveness ✣✪ of ✬★✿
any ✫✮✰✜★
given ♣q♣ GHG ✣✪
of GHGs in the atmosphere may, ✮★
♣q♣✧ ✮★ ✢✤✜ ✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜ ❛✬✿✭ in ✢✤✜the ✱✣★✫
long
❛✣✱✜✩✛✱✜
molecule will ✇✮✱✱ ✽✜✥✜★✽
depend ✣★ on ✢✤✜
the ❛✬✫★✮✢✛✽✜
magnitude ✣✪ of ✢✤✜
the ✦✛★✭
run, warm✇✬✦❛ ✛✥ up ✢✤✜ the ✜✬✦✢✤✻ ✈★✩✜
earth. Once ✢✤✜ the ✫✱✣✯✬✱
global
✮★✩✦✜✬✧✜
increase in its concentration, its life time in ✢✤✜
✮★ ✮✢✧ ✩✣★✩✜★✢✦✬✢✮✣★✭ ✮✢✧ ✱✮✪✜ ✢✮❛✜ ✮★ the ✇✬✦❛✮★✫ ✧✜✢✧
warming sets ✮★✭ in, ✮✢ ✇✮✱✱ ✯✜
it will be ✽✮✪✪✮✩✛✱✢
difficult ✢✣ to ✦✜✰✜✦✧✜
reverse ✮✢✻ it.
✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
atmosphere ✬★✽ and ✢✤✜ ✇✬✰✜✱✜★✫✢✤ ✣✪
the wavelength of ✦✬✽✮✬✢✮✣★
radiation ✼✤✜ ✜✪✪✜✩✢
The effect ✣✪ of ✫✱✣✯✬✱
global warming✇✬✦❛✮★✫ ❛✬✿ may ★✣✢ not ✯✜ be
✢✤✬✢
that ✮✢ it ✬✯✧✣✦✯✧✻
absorbs. The ✼✤✜ ✩✤✱✣✦✣✪✱✛✣✦✣✩✬✦✯✣★✧
chlorofluorocarbons ✛★✮✪✣✦❛ everywhere. ⑤✜✰✜✦✢✤✜✱✜✧✧✭
uniform ✜✰✜✦✿✇✤✜✦✜✻ Nevertheless, ✢✤✜ the ✬✽✰✜✦✧✜
adverse
t✉③✉✧②
(CFCs) ✬✦✜ are ✤✮✫✤✱✿
highly ✜✪✪✜✩✢✮✰✜✻
effective. ⑨⑩✸✵✴Ozone which✇✤✮✩✤ ✜✪✪✜✩✢
effect ✽✛✜
due ✢✣ to ✫✱✣✯✬✱ ✇✬✦❛✮★✫ will
global warming ✇✮✱✱ ✬✽✰✜✦✧✜✱✿
adversely ✬✪✪✜✩✢ affect
✬✯✧✣✦✯✧
absorbs ✛✱✢✦✬
ultra violet ✰✮✣✱✜✢ ✦✬✽✮✬✢✮✣★
radiation ✮★ in ✢✤✜ the ✢✤✜
the ✱✮✪✜
life ✧✛✥✥✣✦✢✮★✫
supporting ✧✿✧✢✜❛✻ system. ➌✮✧✜ Rise ✮★ in ✢✤✜
the ✧✜✬ sea ✱✜✰✜✱
level
✧✢✦✬✢✣✧✥✤✜✦✜
stratosphere ✮✧ ✰✜✦✿ ✜✪✪✜✩✢✮✰✜
is very effective ✮★ in ✬✯✧✣✦✯✮★✫
absorbing ✽✛✜
due ✢✣ to ❛✜✱✢✮★✫
melting ✣✪ of ✫✱✬✩✮✜✦✧
glaciers ✬★✽ and ✮✩✜❾✩✬✥✧
ice-caps ✬★✽ and
✢✜✦✦✜✧✢✦✮✬✱
terrestrial ✦✬✽✮✬✢✮✣★
radiation when ✇✤✜★ ✮✢ it ✮✧
is ✥✦✜✧✜★✢
present ✮★ in ✢✤✜
the ✢✤✜✦❛✬✱ ✜s✥✬★✧✮✣★ ✣✪
thermal expansion of the sea may inundate ✢✤✜ ✧✜✬ ❛✬✿ ✮★✛★✽✬✢✜
✱✣✇✜✦
lower troposphere. Another important point ✢✣
✢✦✣✥✣✧✥✤✜✦✜✻ ❶★✣✢✤✜✦ ✮❛✥✣✦✢✬★✢ ✥✣✮★✢ to ✱✬✦✫✜
large ✥✬✦✢✧
parts ✣✪ of ✢✤✜the ✩✣✬✧✢✬✱
coastal ✬✦✜✬ area ✬★✽ and ✮✧✱✬★✽✧✭
islands,
✯✜
be ★✣✢✜✽
noted ✮✧ is ✢✤✬✢
that ✢✤✜the ❛✣✦✜
more ✢✮❛✜ time ✢✤✜ the ♣q♣ GHG ✱✜✬✽✮★✫
leading ✢✣ to ✧✣✩✮✬✱
social ✥✦✣✯✱✜❛✧✻
problems. This ✼✤✮✧ ✮✧ is ✬★✣✢✤✜✦
another
❛✣✱✜✩✛✱✜
molecule ✦✜❛✬✮★✧
remains ✮★ in ✢✤✜
the ✬✢❛✣✧✥✤✜✦✜✭
atmosphere, ✢✤✜ the ✱✣★✫✜✦
longer ✩✬✛✧✜
cause ✪✣✦ for ✧✜✦✮✣✛✧
serious ✩✣★✩✜✦★ concern ✪✣✦ for ✢✤✜ ✇✣✦✱✽
the world
❲ ✁✂✄ ☎✂✆✝✞✟✠
WORLD ✞✡✄ ☎✂✆✝✞✟✠
CLIMATE AND CLIMATE ☎☛✞✡☞✠
CHANGE ✶✌✍
109

❝✎✏✏✑✒✓✔✕✖
community. ❊✗✗✎✘✔s Efforts ❤❛✙✚
have ❛✛✘✚❛✜✕ ✢✚✚✒ ✓✒✓✔✓❛✔✚✜
already been initiated ❛✒✒✑❛✛
annual ✒✚❛✘near s✑✘✗❛❝✚
surface ✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚
temperature ✎✙✚✘ over ✛❛✒✜
land
✔✎
to ❝✎✒✔✘✎✛
control ✔❤✚ the ✚✏✓ss✓✎✒
emission ✎✗ of t✣ts
GHGs ❛✒✜ and ✔✎ to ❛✘✘✚s✔
arrest ✗✘✎✏
from ♠❢✲✫✬✳✭✭✭✴
1856-2000, ✘✚✛❛✔✓✙✚ relative ✔✎ to ✔❤✚
the ✧✚✘✓✎✜
period
✔❤✚
the ✔✘✚✒✜
trend ✔✎✤❛✘✜s
towards ✥✛✎✢❛✛ ✤❛✘✏✓✒✥✖ ✦✚✔
global warming. Let ✑sus ❤✎✧✚
hope ♠✪✫♠✬✪✭
1961-90 ❛s as ✒✎✘✏❛✛
normal ✗✎✘ for ✔❤✚
the ✥✛✎✢✚✖
globe.
✔❤✚ ✤✎✘✛✜ ❝✎✏✏✑✒✓✔✕
the world community ✘✚s✧✎✒✜s
responds ✔✎ to ✔❤✓s
this ❝❤❛✛✛✚✒✥✚
challenge ❆✒ ✓✒❝✘✚❛s✓✒✥
An increasing ✔✘✚✒✜trend ✓✒ in ✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚
temperature was ✤❛s
❛✒✜
and ❛✜✎✧✔s
adopts ❛ a ✛✓✗✚s✔✕✛✚
lifestyle ✔❤❛✔
that ✛✚❛✙✚s ✢✚❤✓✒✜ ❛a
leaves behind ✜✓s❝✚✘✒✓✢✛✚
discernible ✓✒ in ✔❤✚
the ✳✭✔❤
20th ❝✚✒✔✑✘✕✖
century. The❚❤✚ ✥✘✚❛✔✚s✔
greatest
✛✓✙❛✢✛✚ ✤✎✘✛✜ ✗✎✘
livable world for ✔❤✚
the ✥✚✒✚✘❛✔✓✎✒s
generations ✔✎ to ❝✎✏✚✖
come. ✤❛✘✏✓✒✥ ✎✗
warming of ✔❤✚
the ✳✭✔❤
20th ❝✚✒✔✑✘✕
century was ✤❛s ✜✑✘✓✒✥
during ✔❤✚ the
❖✒✚
One ✎✗ of ✔❤✚
the ✏❛★✎✘
major ❝✎✒❝✚✘✒s
concerns ✎✗ of ✔❤✚ ✤✎✘✛✜
the world ✔✤✎
two ✧✚✘✓✎✜s✴
periods, ♠✪✭♠✬✯✯
1901-44 ❛✒✜ and ♠✪✵✵✬✪✪✖
1977-99. ❖✙✚✘
Over ✚❛❝❤
each
✔✎✜❛✕
today ✓s is ✥✛✎✢❛✛ ✤❛✘✏✓✒✥✖ ✦✚✔
global warming. Let ✑s
us ✛✎✎✩
look ❛✔ at ❤✎✤
how ✎✗
of ✔❤✚s✚
these ✔✤✎
two ✧✚✘✓✎✜s✴
periods, ✥✛✎✢❛✛
global ✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚s
temperatures ✘✎s✚ rose
✏✑❝❤
much ✔❤✚ the ✧✛❛✒✚✔
planet ❤❛s ✤❛✘✏✚✜ ✑✧
has warmed up ✗✘✎✏
from ✔❤✚ the ✢✕ ❛✢✎✑✔
by about ✭✖✯✰✱✖
0.4°C. ❜✒ ✢✚✔✤✚✚✒✴ ✔❤✚✘✚
In between, ✤❛s ❛a s✛✓✥❤✔
there was slight
✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚
temperature ✘✚❝✎✘✜s✖records. ❝✎✎✛✓✒✥✴ ✤❤✓❝❤ was
cooling, which ✤❛s ✏✎✘✚more ✏❛✘✩✚✜
marked ✓✒ in ✔❤✚
the
❚✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚ ✜❛✔❛
Temperature data ❛✘✚
are ❛✙❛✓✛❛✢✛✚
available ✗✘✎✏from ✔❤✚ the ◆✎✘✔❤✚✘✒
Northern ✣✚✏✓s✧❤✚✘✚✖
Hemisphere.
✏✓✜✜✛✚
middle ✎✗ of ✔❤✚
the ♠✪✔❤
19th ❝✚✒✔✑✘✕
century ✏✎s✔✛✕
mostly ✗✎✘ ✤✚s✔✚✘✒
for western ❚❤✚ ✥✛✎✢❛✛✛✕
The globally ❛✙✚✘❛✥✚✜
averaged ❛✒✒✑❛✛ annual ✏✚❛✒ mean
❊✑✘✎✧✚✖
Europe. The ❚❤✚ ✘✚✗✚✘✚✒❝✚
reference ✧✚✘✓✎✜
period ✗✎✘for ✔❤✓s
this s✔✑✜✕
study ✓s is ✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚
temperature ❛✔ at ✔❤✚
the ✚✒✜
end ✎✗of ✔❤✚
the ✳✭✔❤
20th ❝✚✒✔✑✘✕
century was✤❛s
♠✪✫♠✬✪✭✖
1961-90. The ❚❤✚ ✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚
temperature ❛✒✎✏❛✛✓✚s
anomalies ✗✎✘ for ✔❤✚
the ❛✢✎✑✔
about ✭✖✫✰✱
0.6°C ❛✢✎✙✚
above ✔❤❛✔
that ✘✚❝✎✘✜✚✜
recorded ❛✔ at ✔❤✚
the ✚✒✜
end ✎✗of
✚❛✘✛✓✚✘
earlier ❛✒✜
and ✛❛✔✚✘
later ✧✚✘✓✎✜s
periods ❛✘✚
are ✚s✔✓✏❛✔✚✜
estimated ✗✘✎✏ from ✔❤✚the ✔❤✚
the ♠✪✔❤
19th ❝✚✒✔✑✘✕✖
century. The ❚❤✚ s✚✙✚✒ ✤❛✘✏✚s✔ years
seven warmest ✕✚❛✘s
❛✙✚✘❛✥✚ ✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚ ✗✎✘ ✔❤✚
average temperature for the period 1961-90.✧✚✘✓✎✜ ♠✪✫♠✬✪✭✖ ✜✑✘✓✒✥
during ✔❤✚the ♠❢✲✫✬✳✭✭✭
1856-2000 were ✤✚✘✚ ✘✚❝✎✘✜✚✜
recorded ✓✒ in ✔❤✚
the
❚❤✚ ❛✒✒✑❛✛
The annual ❛✙✚✘❛✥✚ average ✒✚❛✘ ✬s✑✘✗❛❝✚ ❛✓✘
near-surface air ✛❛s✔ ✜✚❝❛✜✚✖ ❚❤✚ ✕✚❛✘ ♠✪✪❢ ✤❛s
last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest ✔❤✚ ✤❛✘✏✚s✔
✔✚✏✧✚✘❛✔✑✘✚
temperature ✎✗ of ✔❤✚ ✤✎✘✛✜ ✓s
the world is ❛✧✧✘✎✮✓✏❛✔✚✛✕
approximately ✕✚❛✘✴ ✧✘✎✢❛✢✛✕
year, probably ✒✎✔ not ✎✒✛✕
only ✗✎✘for ✔❤✚
the ✳✭✔❤
20th ❝✚✒✔✑✘✕
century
♠✯✰✱✖
14°C. The❚❤✚ ✔✓✏✚ time s✚✘✓✚s
series s❤✎✤
show ❛✒✎✏❛✛✓✚s
anomalies ✎✗ of ✢✑✔
but ❛✛s✎
also ✗✎✘
for ✔❤✚
the ✤❤✎✛✚
whole ✏✓✛✛✚✒✒✓✑✏✖
millennium.

Greenhouse gases rising alarmingly

Ancient Air Bubbles Buried In Antarctic Ice To Shed More Light On Global Warming
_ did not get as far as humans
It has happened in the North Atlantic
and Z have,” said Richard BAlleya J
may happen again. According toscientists, os = geosciences professor at
global warming could lead to prolonged chill ht Om...) Pennsylvania State Univer-
sity who is an expert on Ice
cores. “We're changing the
world really hugely — way
past where it’s been for a
long time.”
James White, a geology
professor at the University
of Colorado, Boulder, not in-
volved with the study, said
that although the ice-age ev-
idence showed that levels ot
carbon dioxide and the oth-
er greenhouse gases rose)
and fell in response te
warming and cooling, the
he research station for the European Project for ice Coring in Antarctica. gases could clearly take th
lead as well.
he Bure “rhe dinette ned athe kan lenena patlnaind 24 She
ve Corin

‘se. Gangotri is shrinking 23m every year

hilah:

cometh
Gene ’ Himalayan glaciers, in- ; Bes ed 1g of Himalayan
cluding the Gangotri, are receding ar crease the vol-
at among the fastest rates in the vers, causing
world due to global warming, said Jennifer
Air pollution biggest killer threatening water shortages for
millions of people in India, China
and Nepal, a leading conservation
Southeast Asia, says WH group said on Monday
The Worldwide Fund for Nature
aS ne that eal sud Michal af n ratory pr
Kreyzanowskianalr quality pottedly diwi. Tt (WWF) said in a new study that Hi-
Southenst Asia
As hismonth. specialist at the WHO's Eu ment could not ct malayan glaciers were receding 1U-
forcing schools und host ropenn Center for Envirun- smoky alr was to!
Sesees to close, ls jump one et vent and Health io Bonn, Worldwide, wir 15 metres per year on average and
pur- contributes to aor
set forwst Ores tn In- deaths ench year: that the rate was accelerating as This image shows how the Gangotri
of thousands of people ix donesia caused Malaysia to geocy in Malaysin
a, global warming increases glacier terminus has retracted since
the region annually tho declares state of amerrency
— Health ‘Organisation {nat week in two areas out: ogists are poate In India, the Gangotri glacier is 1780, The contour lines are approxi-
site Kuala Lompar Parts of cloud will mate. (Image by Jesse Allen, Earth
war pollution, in major Thailand wore alsa blanket- of Malaysis ap¢ receding at an average rate of 23
Southeast Asian and Ch) odin the haze Sings:
metres per year, the study said. ; based on data provided
nese cities ranks among the = =Malaysis oe pewvlisis
worst in the world and can- Cyccatecl a Wee by the ASTER Science Team)
tributes to the deaths of roaitina peoubems and bev. “Himalayan glaciers are among
about 40,600 poopy wach #npevple whohad ahinory snnual problem « the fastest retreating glaciers glob- on glacier-dependent rivers in In-
ally due to the effects of global dia, China and Nepal,” it said.
✷✘✓✔✚ ❛✒
Write an ✚✮✧✛❛✒❛✔✎✘✕
explanatory ✒✎✔✚
note warming,” the WWF said in a
statement, “This will eventually re
Himalayan glaciers feed seyen of
Asia's greatest rivers — Ganga,
✎✒
n ♦✥✛✎✢❛✛ ✤❛✘✏✓✒✥✸✖
“global warming”. sult in water shortages for hun-
Mrode af milliane af noants wha rely
Indus,
Malnana
Brahmaputra, Salween,
Vonotrvo and Hnanoa Ha
✶✶✑
110 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

—____ ❊✒❊✓✔✕✖❊✖
EXERCISES ___

✗✳
1. ▼✘✙✚✛✜✙✢
Multiple ✣✤✥✛✣✢
choice ✦✘✢✧✚✛✥★✧✳
questions.
✭✛✮ ❲✤✛✣✤ ✥★✢
(i) Which one ✥✩ of ✚✤✢
the ✩✥✙✙✥✪✛★✫
following ✛✧ is ✧✘✛✚✬✯✙✢
suitable ✩✥✰ for ✱✥✢✜✜✢★✲✧
Koeppen’s ✴✵✷ “A” ✚✸✜✢
type ✥✩
of ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✺
climate?
✭✬✮
(a) ❍✛✫✤
High ✰✬✛★✩✬✙✙
rainfall ✛★ in ✬✙✙
all ✚✤✢
the ✹✥★✚✤✧
months

✭✯✮
(b) ▼✢✬★
Mean ✹✥★✚✤✙✸
monthly ✚✢✹✜✢✰✬✚✘✰✢
temperature ✥✩ of ✚✤✢
the ✣✥✙✻✢✧✚
coldest ✹✥★✚✤month ✹✥✰✢ more ✚✤✬★
than ✩✰✢✢✼✛★✫
freezing
✜✥✛★✚
point

✭✣✮
(c) ▼✢✬★
Mean ✹✥★✚✤✙✸
monthly ✚✢✹✜✢✰✬✚✘✰✢
temperature ✥✩ of ✬✙✙
all ✚✤✢
the ✹✥★✚✤✧
months ✹✥✰✢ more ✚✤✬★ than ✗✽ ♦❈
18°C
✭✻✮
(d) ✵❆✢✰✬✫✢ ✚✢✹✜✢✰✬✚✘✰✢
Average temperature ✩✥✰ for ✬✙✙all ✚✤✢
the ✹✥★✚✤✧
months below ✯✢✙✥✪ ✗✾✿ 10° ❈ C

✭✛✛✮
(ii) ✱✥✢✜✜✢★✲✧
Koeppen’s ✧✸✧✚✢✹ system ✥✩ of ✣✙✬✧✧✛✩✛✣✬✚✛✥★
classification ✥✩ of ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✧
climates ✣✬★ can be ✯✢ ✚✢✰✹✢✻
termed ✬✧ as ❑:
✭✬✮ ✵✜✜✙✛✢✻
(a) Applied ✭✯✮
(b) ❙✸✧✚✢✹✬✚✛✣
Systematic ✭✣✮
(c) ❀✢★✢✚✛✣
Genetic ✭✻✮
(d) ❁✹✜✛✰✛✣✬✙
Empirical

✭✛✛✛✮
(iii) ▼✥✧✚
Most ✥✩ of ✚✤✢
the ❂★✻✛✬★
Indian ❃✢★✛★✧✘✙✬
Peninsula will ✪✛✙✙ be✯✢ ✫✰✥✘✜✢✻
grouped ✬✣✣✥✰✻✛★✫
according ✚✥ to ✱✥✢✜✜✢★✲✧
Koeppen’s ✧✸✧✚✢✹
system
✘★✻✢✰❑
under:
✭✬✮
(a) ✴✵✩✷
“Af” ✭✯✮
(b) ✴➇❙✤✷
“BSh” ✭✣✮
(c) ✴❈✩✯✷
“Cfb” ✭✻✮
(d) ✴✵✹✷
“Am”
✭✛❆✮ ❲✤✛✣✤ ✥★✢
(iv) Which one ✥✩of ✚✤✢
the ✩✥✙✙✥✪✛★✫ ✸✢✬✰✧ ✛✧
following years is ✧✘✜✜✥✧✢✻
supposed ✚✥ to ✤✬❆✢
have ✰✢✣✥✰✻✢✻
recorded ✚✤✢ ✪✬✰✹✢✧✚
the warmest
✚✢✹✜✢✰✬✚✘✰✢
temperature ✚✤✢ ✪✥✰✙✻ ✥❆✢✰✺
the world over?
✭✬✮
(a) ✗❄❄✾
1990 ✭✯✮
(b) ✗❄❄✽
1998 ✭✣✮
(c) ✗✽✽❅
1885 ✭✻✮
(d) ✗❄❅✾
1950
✭❆✮ ❲✤✛✣✤ ✥★✢
(v) Which one ✥✩ of ✚✤✢
the ✩✥✙✙✥✪✛★✫
following ✫✰✥✘✜✧groups ✥✩ of ✩✥✘✰
four ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✧
climates ✰✢✜✰✢✧✢★✚✧
represents ✤✘✹✛✻ humid
✣✥★✻✛✚✛✥★✧✺
conditions?
✭✬✮
(a) ✵❇➇❇❈❇❁
A—B—C—E
✭✯✮
(b) ✵❇❈❇❉❇❁
A—C—D—E
✭✣✮
(c) ➇❇❈❇❉❇❁
B—C—D—E
✭✻✮
(dq) ✵❇❈❇❉❇➋
A—C—D—F
●✳
2. ✵★✧✪✢✰ ✚✤✢
Answer the ✩✥✙✙✥✪✛★✫
following ✦✘✢✧✚✛✥★✧
questions ✛★ in ✬✯✥✘✚
about ■✾ ✪✥✰✻✧✳
30 words.
✭✛✮ ❲✤✛✣✤ ✚✪✥
(i) Which two ✣✙✛✹✬✚✛✣ ❆✬✰✛✬✯✙✢✧ ✬✰✢
climatic variables are ✘✧✢✻
used by ✯✸ ✱✥✢✜✜✢★
Koeppen ✩✥✰ for ✣✙✬✧✧✛✩✛✣✬✚✛✥★
classification ✥✩ of ✚✤✢
the
✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✺
climate?
✭✛✛✮
(ii) ❍✥✪
How ✛✧ is ✚✤✢the ✴✫✢★✢✚✛✣✷
“genetic” ✧✸✧✚✢✹
system ✥✩ of ✣✙✬✧✧✛✩✛✣✬✚✛✥★
classification ✻✛✩✩✢✰✢★✚
different ✩✰✥✹ from ✚✤✢the ✴✢✹✜✛✰✛✣✬✙
“empirical
✥★✢✷✺
one”?
✭✛✛✛✮
(iii) ❲✤✛✣✤ ✚✸✜✢✧
Which types ✥✩ of ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✧
climates ✤✬❆✢ have very ❆✢✰✸ ✙✥✪low ✰✬★✫✢
range ✥✩ of ✚✢✹✜✢✰✬✚✘✰✢✺
temperature?
✭✛❆✮
(iv) ❲✤✬✚ ✚✸✜✢
What type ✥✩ of ✣✙✛✹✬✚✛✣
climatic ✣✥★✻✛✚✛✥★✧
conditions would ✪✥✘✙✻ ✜✰✢❆✬✛✙
prevail ✛✩ if ✚✤✢
the ✧✘★sun ✧✜✥✚✧
spots ✛★✣✰✢✬✧✢✺
increase?
■✳
3. ✵★✧✪✢✰ ✚✤✢
Answer the ✩✥✙✙✥✪✛★✫
following ✦✘✢✧✚✛✥★✧
questions ✛★ in ✬✯✥✘✚
about ✗❅✾ ✪✥✰✻✧✳
150 words.
✭✛✮
(i) ▼✬❏✢
Make ✬ a ✣✥✹✜✬✰✛✧✥★
comparison ✥✩ of ✚✤✢
the ✣✙✛✹✬✚✛✣
climatic ✣✥★✻✛✚✛✥★✧
conditions between ✯✢✚✪✢✢★ ✚✤✢ the ✴✵✷
“A” ✬★✻
and ✴➇✷“B”
✚✸✜✢✧
types ✥✩ of ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✳
climate.
✭✛✛✮ ❲✤✬✚ ✚✸✜✢
(ii) What type ✥✩ ❆✢✫✢✚✬✚✛✥★ would
of vegetation ✪✥✘✙✻ you ✸✥✘ ✩✛★✻
find ✛★in ✚✤✢
the ✴❈✷
“C” ✬★✻and ✴✵✷“A” ✚✸✜✢✭✧✮
type(s) ✥✩of ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢✺
climate?
✭✛✛✛✮
(iii) ❲✤✬✚ ✻✥
What do you✸✥✘ ✘★✻✢✰✧✚✬★✻
understand by ✯✸ ✚✤✢the ✚✢✰✹
term ✴❀✰✢✢★✤✥✘✧✢
“Greenhouse ❀✬✧✢✧✷✺ Gases”? ▼✬❏✢ Make ✬ a ✙✛✧✚
list ✥✩
of
✫✰✢✢★✤✥✘✧✢
greenhouse ✫✬✧✢✧✳ gases.

Pr▲◆❖◗❘ ❚▲r❯
Project Work
❈✥✙✙✢✣✚
Collect ✛★✩✥✰✹✬✚✛✥★
information ✬✯✥✘✚
about ✱✸✥✚✥
Kyoto ✻✢✣✙✬✰✬✚✛✥★
declaration ✰✢✙✬✚✢✻
related ✚✥
to ✫✙✥✯✬✙
global ✣✙✛✹✬✚✢
climate ✣✤✬★✫✢✧✳
changes.
 ❯◆✤✦

a
❱
+

A
~A

❲❆ ✁✂ ✥✄❈✁❆☎✆✮
Water (Oceans)
❚✝✞✟
This ✠✡✞☛
unit ☞✌✍✎✟
deals ✏✞☛✝
with
➄¢ ❍✑☞✒✓✎✓✔✞✕✍✎
Hydrological ✖✑✕✎✌
Cycle
➄« ❖✕✌✍✡✟
Oceans ✗ — ✟✠✘✙✍✒✞✡✌
submarine ✒✌✎✞✌✚✛
relief; ☞✞✟☛✒✞✘✠☛✞✓✡
distribution ✓✚
of ☛✌✙✜✌✒✍☛✠✒✌
temperature ✍✡☞
and
salinity; ✙✓s✌✙✌✡☛✟
✟✍✎✞✡✞☛✑✛ movements ✓✚of ✓✕✌✍✡
ocean ✏✍☛✌✒✢✏✍s✌✟✣
water-waves, ☛✞☞✌✟
tides ✍✡☞
and ✕✠✒✒✌✡☛✟
currents
✭CHAPTER
✯✰✱✲✳✴

ILS) ❲❆❚ ✁ ✥✂❈

Water ❆✄☎✮
(OcEAns)

✠✡ ✇✝ t✆✑✡❝
an we think ✞✖ of ☛✑✖✝ ✇✑t✆✞✚t water?
life without ✇✠t✝✎❉ ♣tIt ✑✒is t✆✝
the ✞✟✝✠✡
ocean t✞ to ☛✠✡☞
land ✠✡☞
and ☛✠✡☞
land t✞ to ✞✟✝✠✡✌
ocean. The ✍✆✝
✒✠✑☞
said t✆✠t
that t✆✝ ✇✠t✝✎ ✑✒is ☛✑✖✝✌
the water s✠t✝✎ ✑✒is ✠✡
life. Water an ✆❤☞✎✞☛✞✏✑✟✠☛
hydrological ✟❤✟☛✝ cycle ☞✝✒✟✎✑✓✝✒
describes t✆✝ the ✔✞✕✝✔✝✡t
movement ✞✖ of
❇✝✒✒✝✡t✑✠☛ essential ✟✞✔❛✞✡✝✡t✞✖
component of ✠☛☛ all ☛✑✖✝
life ✖✞✎✔✒t✆✠t
forms that ✇✠t✝✎ ✞✡✗
water on, ✑✡✗in, ✠✡☞
and ✠✓✞✕✝
above t✆✝the ✝✠✎t✆✌
earth. The ✍✆✝ water
✇✠t✝✎
✝✙✑✒t✞✕✝✎
exist over t✆✝ the ✒✚✎✖✠✟✝✞✖t✆✝✝✠✎t✆✌
surface of the earth. The ✍✆✝✟✎✝✠t✚✎✝✒
creatures ✟❤✟☛✝
cycle ✆✠✒
has ✓✝✝✡ ✇✞✎❝✑✡✏ ✖✞✎
been working for ✓✑☛☛✑✞✡✒
billions ✞✖ ❤✝✠✎✒
of years
✞✡
on t✆✝ the ✝✠✎t✆
earth ✠✎✝are ☛✚✟❝❤
lucky t✆✠t
that ✑tit ✑✒
is ✠ ✇✠t✝✎ ❛☛✠✡✝t✗
a water planet, ✠✡☞
and ✠☛☛
all t✆✝
the ☛✑✖✝
life ✞✡
on ✝✠✎t✆
earth ☞✝❛✝✡☞✒
depends ✞✡ on ✑t✌
it. ✘✝✙t
Next t✞
to
✞t✆✝✎✇✑✒✝✇✝
otherwise we ✠☛☛ ✇✞✚☛☞ ✆✠✕✝
all would have ✡✞no ✝✙✑✒t✝✡✟✝✌ s✠t✝✎
existence. Water ✠✑✎✗ ✇✠t✝✎ ✑✒is t✆✝
air, water the ✔✞✒t
most ✑✔❛✞✎t✠✡t
important ✝☛✝✔✝✡t element
✑✒is ✠arare
✎✠✎✝ ✟✞✔✔✞☞✑t❤
commodity ✑✡ in ✞✚✎
our ✒✞☛✠✎
solar ✒❤✒t✝✔✌ ✍✆✝✎✝
system. There ✎✝r✚✑✎✝☞
required ✖✞✎ for t✆✝
the ✝✙✑✒t✝✡✟✝
existence ✞✖ of ☛✑✖✝
life ✞✡
on ✝✠✎t✆✌ ✍✆✝
earth. The
✑✒is ✡✞ ✇✠t✝✎ ✞✡
no water on t✆✝
the ✒✚✡
sun ✞✎or ✠✡❤✇✆✝✎✝
anywhere ✝☛✒✝ else ✑✡
in t✆✝
the ☞✑✒t✎✑✓✚t✑✞✡
distribution ✞✖ ✇✠t✝✎ ✞✡on ✝✠✎t✆
earth ✑✒is r✚✑t✝
quite ✚✡✝✕✝✡✌
✒✞☛✠✎
solar ✒❤✒t✝✔✌
system. The ✍✆✝ ✝✠✎t✆✗
earth, ✖✞✎t✚✡✠t✝☛❤
fortunately ✆✠✒ has ✠✡ an ▼✠✡❤
Many ☛✞✟✠t✑✞✡✒
of water
locations ✆✠✕✝ have ❛☛✝✡t❤
plenty ✞✖
uneven.
✇✠t✝✎ while✇✆✑☛✝
✠✓✚✡☞✠✡t
abundant ✒✚❛❛☛❤ supply ✞✖✇✠t✝✎
of water ✞✡on ✑t✒
its ✒✚✎✖✠✟✝✌
surface. ❊✝✡✟✝✗
Hence,
✞t✆✝✎✒
others ✆✠✕✝ ✕✝✎❤ ☛✑✔✑t✝☞
of water
limited r✚✠✡t✑t❤✌ ✍✆✝
✞✚✎
our ❛☛✠✡✝t
planet ✑✒is ✟✠☛☛✝☞
called t✆✝
the ➅●✦❍✫
‘Blue ■✦✪❏✫❑▲◆
Planet’.
✛✜✢✣✤✦✤✧★✩✪✦
have very
✩✜✩✦✫✗ ✑✒ t✆✝
quantity. The
✟✑✎✟✚☛✠t✑✞✡
hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water ✞✖ ✇✠t✝✎
❖❨P◗❘❙❘❯❱❳❩❙
HypDROLOGICAL ❬❨❳❙❭
✇✑t✆✑✡ t✆✝
within the ✝✠✎t✆✬✒
earth’s ✆❤☞✎✞✒❛✆✝✎✝
hydrosphere ✑✡ in ☞✑✖✖✝✎✝✡t
different
CYCLE
✖✞✎✔✒
forms ✑✌✝✌
i.e. t✆✝
the ☛✑r✚✑☞✗
liquid, ✒✞☛✑☞
solid ✠✡☞
and t✆✝ the ✏✠✒✝✞✚✒
gaseous
s✠t✝✎ ✑✒is ✠a ✟❤✟☛✑✟
Water cyclic ✎✝✒✞✚✎✟✝✌
resource. ♣t It ✟✠✡
can ✓✝ be ✚✒✝☞
used ✠✡☞and ❛✆✠✒✝✒✌
phases. ♣t It ✠☛✒✞
also ✎✝✖✝✎✒
refers t✞ to t✆✝
the ✟✞✡t✑✡✚✞✚✒
continuous
✎✝❡✚✒✝☞✌
re-used. Water s✠t✝✎ ✠☛✒✞ also ✚✡☞✝✎✏✞✝✒
undergoes ✠ a ✟❤✟☛✝
cycle ✖✎✞✔
from ✝✙✟✆✠✡✏✝
exchange ✞✖ ✇✠t✝✎ ✓✝t✇✝✝✡
of water between t✆✝ the ✞✟✝✠✡✒✗
oceans,

Precipitation (23%) Condensation’ ~

Vapotranspiration
(16%) Transport by wind
(advection) (7%)

❋✵✶✷✸✹✺✻✼✺
Figure 13.1 ✽: ✾✿❀✸❁❂❁✶✵❃❄❂
Hydrological ❅✿❃❂✹
Cycle
❲❆❚ ✁ ✂✄☎
WATER ❆✆✝✞
(OCEANS) ✶✶✟
113

❦❧♠♣q
Table rs✉r
13.1 ✈: Water
✇❧①q② ③④ on ①⑤q
the ⑥❧②①⑤⑦⑧
Earth’s ⑧⑨②⑩❧❶q
surface ✗✏✙☞✙☞
crisis ✙✓
in ✔✙✖✖✎✏✎✓✠
different ✌❛✏✠☞
parts ☛✖
of ✠✍✎ ✣☛✏✒✔ —❝ ☞✌❛✠✙❛✒✒✦
the world spatially
❷❸❹❸❺❻❼❽❺
Reservoir ❾❼❿➀➁❸
Volume ➂❸❺➃❸➄➅➆➇❸
Percentage ❛✓✔
and ✠✎✡✌☛✏❛✒✒✦✚ ✛✍✎ ✌☛✒✒✕✠✙☛✓
temporally. The pollution ☛✖ of ✏✙❡✎✏ ✣❛✠✎✏☞
river waters
➈➉❽❿❿❽❼➄
(Million ❼➊
of ➅➋❸
the ➌❼➅➆❿
Total ✍❛☞
has ✖✕✏✠✍✎✏
further ❛tt✏❛❡❛✠✎✔
aggravated ✠✍✎the ✗✏✙☞✙☞✚ How ✗❛✓
crisis. ❤☛✣ ✦☛✕
can you
➍➀➎❽➃
Cubic ➏➁ km) ➐ ✙✓✠✎✏❡✎✓✎
intervene ✙✓in ✙✡✌✏☛❡✙✓t
improving ✠✍✎ ✣❛✠✎✏ ✫✕❛✒✙✠✦
the water quality ❛✓✔
and
❛✕t✡✎✓✠✙✓t
augmenting ✠✍✎ the ❛❡❛✙✒❛✘✒✎
available ✫✕❛✓✠✙✠✦
quantity ☛✖ ✣❛✠✎✏✬
of water?
➑➒➓➔→➣
Oceans ↔↕➙➛➜
1,370 ➝➛➞➟➠
97.25
➡➒➓
Ice ➢➔➤➣
Caps ➟➝
29 ➟➞➜➠
2.05
❘❊✭✮❊✯
RELIEF ❖✯
OF ✰✱❊
THE ✲❈❊✳✴
OcEAN ✵✭❖❖▲
FLOOR
➔→➥
and ➦➧➔➒➨➓➩➣
Glaciers
➦➩➫➭→➥➯➔➲➓➩
Groundwater ➝➞➠
9.5 ➜➞➳➵
0.68 ✛✍✎ ☛✗✎❛✓☞
The oceans ❛✏✎ are ✗☛✓✖✙✓✎✔
confined ✠☛ to ✠✍✎ the t✏✎❛✠
great
➸➔➺➓➣
Lakes ➜➞↔➟➠
0.125 ➜➞➜↔
0.01 ✔✎✌✏✎☞☞✙☛✓☞
depressions ☛✖ of ✠✍✎
the ✎❛✏✠✍❞☞
earth’s ☛✕✠✎✏
outer ✒❛✦✎✏✚
layer. ■✓ In ✠✍✙☞
this
➻➫➨➧
Soil ➼➫➨➣➲➭➩➓
Moisture ➜➞➜➳➠
0.065 ➜➞➜➜➠
0.005 ☞✎✗✠✙☛✓✑ ✣✎ ☞✍❛✒✒ ☞✎✎ ✠✍✎ ✓❛✠✕✏✎
section, we shall see the nature of the ocean ☛✖ ✠✍✎ ☛✗✎❛✓
➽➲➾➫➣➤➚➓➩➓
Atmosphere ➜➞➜↔➙
0.013 ➜➞➜➜↔
0.001 ✘❛☞✙✓☞
basins ☛✖of ✠✍✎
the ✎❛✏✠✍
earth ❛✓✔
and ✠✍✎✙✏
their ✠☛✌☛t✏❛✌✍✦✚
topography. The ✛✍✎
➻➲➩➓➔➾➣
Streams ➜➞➜➜↔➛
0.0017 ➜➞➜➜➜↔
0.0001
☛✗✎❛✓☞✑
oceans, ✕✓✒✙✐✎
unlike ✠✍✎ the ✗☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠☞✑
continents, ✡✎✏t✎ merge ☞☛ so
➔→➥
and ➪➨➶➓➩➣
Rivers ✓❛✠✕✏❛✒✒✦
naturally ✙✓✠☛into ☛✓✎
one ❛✓☛✠✍✎✏
another ✠✍❛✠ that ✙✠ it ✙☞
is ✍❛✏✔
hard ✠☛ to
➹➨➫➣➤➚➓➩➓
Biosphere ➜➞➜➜➜➳
0.0006 ➜➞➜➜➜➜➘
0.00004
✔✎✡❛✏✗❛✠✎
demarcate ✠✍✎✡✚ ✛✍✎ t✎☛t✏❛✌✍✎✏☞
them. The geographers ✍❛❡✎ have ✔✙❡✙✔✎✔
divided
✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓✙✗
oceanic ✌❛✏✠part ☛✖
of ✠✍✎
the ✎❛✏✠✍
earth ✙✓✠☛
into ✖☛✕✏
four ☛✗✎❛✓☞✑
oceans,
✓❛✡✎✒✦
namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian ❛✓✔
✠✍✎ ♥❛✗✙✖✙✗✑ ✠✍✎ ✤✠✒❛✓✠✙✗✑ ✠✍✎ ■✓✔✙❛✓ and
❦❧♠♣q
Table rs✉➴
13.2: ✈ ➷③➬➮③④q④①⑧
Components ❧④➱ and ✃②③❶q⑧⑧q⑧
Processes ✠✍✎ ✤✏✗✠✙✗✚ The
the Arctic. ✛✍✎ various
❡❛✏✙☛✕☞ ☞✎❛☞✑seas, ✘❛✦☞✑
bays, t✕✒✖☞gulfs ❛✓✔and
③⑩
of ①⑤q ✇❧①q② ➷❐❶♣q
the Water Cycle
☛✠✍✎✏
other ✙✓✒✎✠☞
inlets ❛✏✎
are ✌❛✏✠☞
parts ☛✖of ✠✍✎☞✎
these ✖☛✕✏
four ✒❛✏t✎
large ☛✗✎❛✓☞✚
oceans.
➍❼➁❒❼➄❸➄➅❹
Components ➂❺❼➃❸❹❹❸❹
Processes A✤ ✡❛✷☛✏
major ✌☛✏✠✙☛✓
portion ☛✖ of ✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓
ocean ✖✒☛☛✏
floor ✙☞ is ✖☛✕✓✔
found
✘✎✠✣✎✎✓
between ✢❢❜ 3-6 ✐✡km ✘✎✒☛✣
below ✠✍✎ the ☞✎❛
sea ✒✎❡✎✒✚
level. The✛✍✎ ✸✒❛✓✔❞
‘land’
❮➔➲➓➩ ➣➲➫➩➔❰➓
Water storage Ï➶➔➤➫➩➔➲➨➫→
Evaporation
➨→
in ➫➒➓➔→➣
oceans Ï➶➔➤➫➲➩➔→➣➤➨➩➔➲➨➫→
Evapotranspiration
✕✓✔✎✏
under ✠✍✎ ✣❛✠✎✏☞ ☛✖
the waters of ✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓☞✑
oceans, ✠✍❛✠ that ✙☞✑is, ✠✍✎
the
➻➭Ð➧➨➾➔➲➨➫→
Sublimation ☛✗✎❛✓
ocean ✖✒☛☛✏
floor ✎✹✍✙✘✙✠☞
exhibits ✗☛✡✌✒✎✹
complex ❛✓✔ ❡❛✏✙✎✔
and varied
❮➔➲➓➩ ➨→
Water in ➲➚➓
the ➢➫→➥➓→➣➔➲➨➫→
Condensation
✖✎❛✠✕✏✎☞
features ❛☞ as ✠✍☛☞✎
those ☛✘☞✎✏❡✎✔
observed ☛❡✎✏ over ✠✍✎ the ✒❛✓✔
land
➔➲➾➫➣➤➚➓➩➓
atmosphere Ñ➩➓➒➨➤➨➲➔➲➨➫→
Precipitation ♦✩✙t✕✏✎
(Figure ✜✢✚✺✪✚ ✛✍✎ ✖✒☛☛✏☞
13.2). The floors ☛✖of ✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓☞
oceans ❛✏✎
are
✏✕tt✎✔ ✣✙✠✍ ✠✍✎
rugged with ✣☛✏✒✔❞☞ ✒❛✏t✎☞✠
the world’s largest ✡☛✕✓✠❛✙✓
mountain
❮➔➲➓➩ ➣➲➫➩➔❰➓
Water storage ➨→
in ➻→➫➯➾➓➧➲
Snowmelt ➩➭→➫ÒÒ
runoff
➨➒➓
ice ➔→➥
and ➣→➫➯
snow ➲➫
to ➣➲➩➓➔➾➣
streams
✏❛✓t✎☞✑
ranges, ✔✎✎✌✎☞✠
deepest ✠✏✎✓✗✍✎☞
trenches ❛✓✔
and ✠✍✎
the ✒❛✏t✎☞✠
largest ✌✒❛✙✓☞✚
plains.
✛✍✎☞✎ ✖✎❛✠✕✏✎☞
These features ❛✏✎
are ✖☛✏✡✎✔✑
formed, ✒✙✐✎like ✠✍☛☞✎
those ☛✖of ✠✍✎
the
➻➭➩Ò➔➒➓
Surface ➩➭→➫ÒÒ
runoff ➻➲➩➓➔➾
Stream Ò➧➫➯
flow Ò➩➓➣➚➯➔➲➓➩
freshwater
✗☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠☞✑
➣➲➫➩➔❰➓ continents, ✘✦by ✠✍✎
the ✖❛✗✠☛✏☞
factors ☛✖
of ✠✎✗✠☛✓✙✗✑ ❡☛✒✗❛✓✙✗
tectonic, voleanic
storage ➨→Ò➨➧➲➩➔➲➨➫→
infiltration
❛✓✔
and ✔✎✌☛☞✙✠✙☛✓❛✒
depositional ✌✏☛✗✎☞☞✎☞✚
processes.
➦➩➫➭→➥➯➔➲➓➩
Groundwater ➣➲➫➩➔❰➓
storage ➦➩➫➭→➥➯➔➲➓➩
Groundwater
➥➨➣➒➚➔➩❰➓
discharge ➣➤➩➨→❰➣
springs
❉✻✼✻✽✻✾✿✽
Divisions ✾❀
of ❁❂❃
the ❄❅❃❇✿
Ocean ❋●✾✾❍✽
Floors

❛✠✡☛☞✌✍✎✏✎✑
atmosphere, ✒❛✓✔☞✕✏✖❛✗✎
landsurface ❛✓✔ and ☞✕✘☞✕✏✖❛✗✎
subsurface ❛✓✔ and ✛✍✎ ☛✗✎❛✓
The ocean ✖✒☛☛✏☞
floors ✗❛✓
can ✘✎
be ✔✙❡✙✔✎✔
divided ✙✓✠☛
into ✖☛✕✏
four ✡❛✷☛✏
major
✠✍✎
the ☛✏t❛✓✙☞✡☞✚
organisms. ✔✙❡✙☞✙☛✓☞❏
divisions: ♦✙✪
(i) ✠✍✎
the ❑☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠❛✒
Continental ▼✍✎✒✖P Shelf; ♦✙✙✪
(ii) ✠✍✎
the
✛❛✘✒✎ ✜✢✚✜
Table 13.1 ☞✍☛✣☞
shows ✔✙☞✠✏✙✘✕✠✙☛✓
distribution ☛✖ ✣❛✠✎✏ ☛✓
of water on ❑☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠❛✒ Slope; ♦✙✙✙✪
Continental ▼✒☛✌✎P (iii) ✠✍✎
the ◗✎✎✌
Deep ▼✎❛Sea ♥✒❛✙✓P
Plain;
✠✍✎
the ☞✕✏✖❛✗✎
surface ☛✖ of ✠✍✎
the ✎❛✏✠✍✚ ✤✘☛✕✠ ✥✜
earth. About 71 ✌✎✏
per ✗✎✓✠
cent ☛✖ of ♦✙❡✪
(iv) ✠✍✎
the ❙✗✎❛✓✙✗
Oceanic ◗✎✎✌☞✚ Besides, ✠✍✎☞✎
Deeps. ❯✎☞✙✔✎☞✑ these ✔✙❡✙☞✙☛✓☞
divisions
✠✍✎ ✌✒❛✓✎✠❛✏✦ ✣❛✠✎✏ ✙☞ ✖☛✕✓✔ ✙✓ ✠✍✎
the planetary water is found in the oceans. The ☛✗✎❛✓☞✚ ✛✍✎ ✠✍✎✏✎
there are also major and minor relief ✖✎❛✠✕✏✎☞
❛✏✎ ❛✒☞☛ ✡❛✷☛✏ ❛✓✔ ✡✙✓☛✏ ✏✎✒✙✎✖ features
✏✎✡❛✙✓✙✓t
remaining ✙☞ is ✍✎✒✔
held ❛☞as ✖✏✎☞✍✣❛✠✎✏
freshwater ✙✓ in t✒❛✗✙✎✏☞
glaciers ❛✓✔
and ✙✓
in ✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓
ocean ✖✒☛☛✏☞
floors ✒✙✐✎like ✏✙✔t✎☞✑
ridges, ✍✙✒✒☞✑
hills, ☞✎❛sea
✙✗✎✗❛✌☞✑
icecaps, t✏☛✕✓✔✣❛✠✎✏
groundwater ☞☛✕✏✗✎☞✑ sources, ✒❛✐✎☞✑
lakes, ☞☛✙✒soil ✡☛✕✓✠☞✑
mounts, t✕✦☛✠☞✑
guyots, ✠✏✎✓✗✍✎☞✑
trenches, ✗❛✓✦☛✓☞✑
canyons, ✎✠✗✚etc.
✡☛✙☞✠✕✏✎✑
moisture, ❛✠✡☛☞✌✍✎✏✎✑
atmosphere, ☞✠✏✎❛✡☞streams ❛✓✔ ✣✙✠✍✙✓ ✒✙✖✎✚
and within life.
◆✎❛✏✒✦
Nearly ✧★ 59 ✌✎✏
per ✗✎✓✠
cent ☛✖
of ✠✍✎ ✣❛✠✎✏ ✠✍❛✠
the water that ✖❛✒✒☞
falls ☛✓on
❱❳❨❩❬❨❭❨❩❪❫
Continental ❴❵❭❫❣
Shelf
✒❛✓✔
land ✏✎✠✕✏✓☞
returns ✠☛ to ✠✍✎
the ❛✠✡☛☞✌✍✎✏✎
atmosphere ✠✍✏☛✕t✍ through ✛✍✎ ✗☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠❛✒
The continental ☞✍✎✒✖shelf ✙☞
is ✠✍✎
the ✎✹✠✎✓✔✎✔
extended ✡❛✏t✙✓
margin
✎❡❛✌☛✏❛✠✙☛✓
evaporation ✖✏☛✡ from ☛❡✎✏
over ✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓☞
oceans ❛☞ ✣✎✒✒ ❛☞
as well as ☛✖
of ✎❛✗✍
each ✗☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠
continent ☛✗✗✕✌✙✎✔
occupied ✘✦ by ✏✎✒❛✠✙❡✎✒✦
relatively
✖✏☛✡ ☛✠✍✎✏ ✌✒❛✗✎☞✚ ✛✍✎ ✏✎✡❛✙✓✔✎✏
from other places. The remainder runs-off on ✏✕✓☞❢☛✖✖ ☛✓ ☞✍❛✒✒☛✣
shallow ☞✎❛☞
seas ❛✓✔
and t✕✒✖☞✚
gulfs. ■✠
It ✙☞
is ✠✍✎
the ☞✍❛✒✒☛✣✎☞✠
shallowest ✌❛✏✠
part
✠✍✎
the ☞✕✏✖❛✗✎✑
surface, ✙✓✖✙✒✠✏❛✠✎☞
infiltrates ✙✓✠☛
into ✠✍✎
the t✏☛✕✓✔
ground ☛✏ or ❛a ✌❛✏✠
part ☛✖
of ✠✍✎
the ☛✗✎❛✓
ocean ☞✍☛✣✙✓t
showing ❛✓ an ❛❡✎✏❛t✎
average t✏❛✔✙✎✓✠
gradient ☛✖of
☛✖
of ✙✠
it ✘✎✗☛✡✎☞
becomes t✒❛✗✙✎✏
glacier ♦✩✙t✕✏✎
(Figure ✜✢✚✜✪✚
13.1). ✜❥
1° ☛✏
or ✎❡✎✓
even ✒✎☞☞✚ ✛✍✎ ☞✍✎✒✖
less. The shelf ✠✦✌✙✗❛✒✒✦
typically ✎✓✔☞
ends ❛✠
at ❛a
■✠
It ✙☞
is ✠☛
to ✘✎
be ✓☛✠✎✔
noted ✠✍❛✠
that ✠✍✎
the ✏✎✓✎✣❛✘✒✎
renewable water ✣❛✠✎✏ ❡✎✏✦ ☞✠✎✎✌
very steep ☞✒☛✌✎✑
slope, ✗❛✒✒✎✔
called ✠✍✎
the ☞✍✎✒✖
shelf ✘✏✎❛✐✚
break.
☛✓
on ✠✍✎
the ✎❛✏✠✍
earth ✙☞ is ✗☛✓☞✠❛✓✠ ✣✍✙✒✎ ✠✍✎
constant while the ✔✎✡❛✓✔
demand ✙☞ is ✛✍✎ width
The ✣✙✔✠✍ ☛✖ of ✠✍✎
the ✗☛✓✠✙✓✎✓✠❛✒
continental ☞✍✎✒❡✎☞ ❡❛✏✦
shelves vary
✙✓✗✏✎❛☞✙✓t
increasing ✠✏✎✡✎✓✔☛✕☞✒✦✚
tremendously. This ✛✍✙☞ ✒✎❛✔☞
leads ✠☛ ✣❛✠✎✏
to water ✖✏☛✡ ☛✓✎ ☛✗✎❛✓ ✠☛ ❛✓☛✠✍✎✏✚ ✛✍✎ ❛❡✎✏❛t✎
from one ocean to another. The average width ✣✙✔✠✍
✶✶✑
114 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

♦✒
of ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
continental ✚✛✗✙✜✗✚
shelves ✖✚ is ✘✢♦✣✕
about ✤✥ 80 ✦✧★
km. The✩✛✗ ❈✴✵✷✸✵✹✵✷✺✻
Continental ✼✻✴✽✹ Slope
✚✛✗✙✜✗✚
shelves ✘s✗are ✘✙✧♦✚✕
almost ✘✢✚✗✔✕
absent ♦s ✜✗s✪ ✔✘ss♦✫
or very narrow ✘✙♦✔✬
along
✩✛✗ ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
The continental ✚✙♦✇✗
slope ✓♦✔✔✗✓✕✚
connects ✕✛✗the ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
continental
✚♦✧✗
some ♦✒ of ✕✛✗
the ✧✘s✬✖✔✚
margins ✙✖✦✗ like ✕✛✗
the ✓♦✘✚✕✚
coasts ♦✒ of ✭✛✖✙✗✮
Chile,
✚✛✗✙✒ ✘✔❧ ✕✛✗ ♦✓✗✘✔ ✢✘✚✖✔✚★ ✳✕ ✢✗✬✖✔✚ ✫✛✗s✗ ✕✛✗
shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where the
✕✛✗ ✫✗✚✕ ✓♦✘✚✕
the west of t✣✧✘✕s✘✮
coast ♦✒ Sumatra, ✗✕✓★ etc. ✯✔
On ✕✛✗
the ✓♦✔✕s✘s✪✮
contrary,
✢♦✕✕♦✧ ♦✒
bottom of ✕✛✗
the ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
continental ✚✛✗✙✒ sharply ❧s♦✇✚
shelf ✚✛✘s✇✙✪ drops
the t✖✢✗s✖✘✔
✕✛✗ Siberian ✚✛✗✙✒
shelf ✖✔ in ✕✛✗ ✰s✓✕✖✓ ✯✓✗✘✔✮
the Arctic Ocean, ✕✛✗ the
♦✒✒ ✖✔✕♦ ✘a ✚✕✗✗✇
offinto steep ✚✙♦✇✗★ ✩✛✗ ✬s✘❧✖✗✔✕
slope. The gradient ♦✒ of ✕✛✗
the ✚✙♦✇✗
slope
✙✘s✬✗✚✕ ✫♦s✙❧✮
largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km ✖✔
✖✔ ✕✛✗ ✚✕s✗✕✓✛✗✚ ✕♦ ✱✮✲✥✥ ✦✧ in
s✗✬✖♦✔ ✜✘s✖✗✚ between
✢✗✕✫✗✗✔ r✾✲✿★ ✩✛✗ ❧✗✇✕✛
region varies 2-5°. The depth ♦✒of ✕✛✗
the
✫✖❧✕✛★ ✩✛✗ ❧✗✇✕✛
width. The depth ♦✒ of ✕✛✗
the ✚✛✗✙✜✗✚
shelves ✘✙✚♦ ✜✘s✖✗✚★ ✳✕
also varies. It
slope s✗✬✖♦✔
✚✙♦✇✗ ✜✘s✖✗✚ between
region varies ✢✗✕✫✗✗✔ r✥✥200 ✘✔❧and ♠✮✥✥✥
3,000 ✧★m.
✧✘✪
may be✢✗ ✘✚
as ✚✛✘✙✙♦✫
shallow ✘✚ as ♠✥
30 ✧ m ✖✔in ✚♦✧✗
some ✘s✗✘✚ ✫✛✖✙✗
areas while
✩✛✗ ✚✙♦✇✗
The ✢♦✣✔❧✘s✪ ✖✔❧✖✓✘✕✗✚
slope boundary indicates ✕✛✗the ✗✔❧
end ♦✒of ✕✛✗
the
✖✔
in ✚♦✧✗
some ✘s✗✘✚
areas ✖✕it ✖✚ as ❧✗✗✇
is ✘✚ deep ✘✚ as ✐✥✥
600 ✧★m.
✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✚★
continents. ✭✘✔✪♦✔✚
Canyons ✘✔❧and ✕s✗✔✓✛✗✚
trenches ✘s✗are ♦✢✚✗s✜✗❧
observed
✩✛✗ ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
The continental ✚✛✗✙✜✗✚
shelves ✘s✗ are ✓♦✜✗s✗❧
covered with✫✖✕✛ s✗✬✖♦✔★
✖✔
in ✕✛✖✚
this region.
✜✘s✖✘✢✙✗ ✕✛✖✓✦✔✗✚✚✗✚
variable thicknesses ♦✒ of ✚✗❧✖✧✗✔✕✚
sediments brought✢s♦✣✬✛✕
❧♦✫✔
down by ✢✪ s✖✜✗s✚✮
rivers, ✬✙✘✓✖✗s✚✮ ✫✖✔❧✮ ✒s♦✧
glaciers, wind, from ✕✛✗ the ✙✘✔❧
land
✘✔❧ ❧✖✚✕s✖✢✣✕✗❧ ✫✘✜✗✚
and distributed by waves and currents. ❛✘✚✚✖✜✗
✢✪ ✘✔❧ ✓✣ss✗✔✕✚★ Massive ❉✹✹✽
Deep ✼✹✺
Sea ❀✻✺✸✵
Plain
sedimentary ❧✗✇♦✚✖✕✚
✚✗❧✖✧✗✔✕✘s✪ deposits s✗✓✗✖✜✗❧
received ♦✜✗sover ✘ a ✙♦✔✬
long ✕✖✧✗
time ❁✗✗✇
Deep ✚✗✘
sea ✇✙✘✖✔✚ are ✬✗✔✕✙✪
plains ✘s✗ gently ✚✙♦✇✖✔✬
sloping ✘s✗✘✚
areas ♦✒
of ✕✛✗
the
✢✪ ✕✛✗
by the ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
continental ✚✛✗✙✜✗✚✮ ✢✗✓♦✧✗ ✕✛✗
shelves, become the ✚♦✣s✓✗
source ♦✓✗✘✔ ✢✘✚✖✔✚★ These
ocean basins. ✩✛✗✚✗ ✘s✗are ✕✛✗
the ✒✙✘✕✕✗✚✕
flattest ✘✔❧
and
♦✒
of ✒♦✚✚✖✙
fossil ✒✣✗✙✚★
fuels. smoothest s✗✬✖♦✔✚
✚✧♦♦✕✛✗✚✕ regions ♦✒of ✕✛✗ ✫♦s✙❧★ The
the world. ✩✛✗ ❧✗✇✕✛✚
depths
vary ✢✗✕✫✗✗✔ ♠✮✥✥✥
✜✘s✪ between 3,000 ✘✔❧
and ✐✮✥✥✥✧★ ✩✛✗✚✗ ✇✙✘✖✔✚
6,000m. These plains
✘s✗
are ✓♦✜✗s✗❧
covered with✫✖✕✛ ✒✖✔✗✾✬s✘✖✔✗❧
fine-grained ✚✗❧✖✧✗✔✕✚
sediments ✙✖✦✗like
Continent
✓✙✘✪
clay ✘✔❧
and ✚✖✙✕★
silt.

❖❂✹✺✵✸❂
Oceanic ❉✹✹✽❃
Deeps ✴❄
or ❅❄✹✵❂❡✹❃
Trenches
✩✛✗✚✗ ✘s✗✘✚
These areas ✘s✗ the ❧✗✗✇✗✚✕
are ✕✛✗ deepest ✇✘s✕✚
parts ♦✒of ✕✛✗
the ♦✓✗✘✔✚★
oceans.
✩✛✗ ✕s✗✔✓✛✗✚ ✘s✗ s✗✙✘✕✖✜✗✙✪
The trenches are relatively steep sided, ✔✘ss♦✫
✚✕✗✗✇ ✚✖❧✗❧✮ narrow
✢✘✚✖✔✚★ They
basins. ✩✛✗✪ ✘s✗ some ♠✾✲
are ✚♦✧✗ 3-5 ✦✧km ❧✗✗✇✗s
deeper ✕✛✘✔than
✕✛✗
the ✚✣ss♦✣✔❧✖✔✬
surrounding ♦✓✗✘✔ ocean ✒✙♦♦s★ ✩✛✗✪ ♦✓✓✣s
floor. They occur ✘✕ at ✕✛✗
the
✢✘✚✗✚ ♦✒
bases of ✓♦✔✕✖✔✗✔✕✘✙
continental ✚✙♦✇✗✚
slopes ✘✔❧ and ✘✙♦✔✬
along ✖✚✙✘✔❧
island
✘s✓✚
arcs ✘✔❧
and ✘s✗
are ✘✚✚♦✓✖✘✕✗❧
associated with ✫✖✕✛ ✘✓✕✖✜✗ ✜♦✙✓✘✔♦✗✚
active volcanoes
✘✔❧
and ✚✕s♦✔✬
strong ✗✘s✕✛❆✣✘✦✗✚★
earthquakes. That ✩✛✘✕ ✖✚ ✫✛✪ ✕✛✗✪
is why they ✘s✗
are
0 100km
✜✗s✪ ✚✖✬✔✖✒✖✓✘✔✕ ✖✔ ✕✛✗
very significant in the study of plate ✚✕✣❧✪ ♦✒ ✇✙✘✕✗
✧♦✜✗✧✗✔✕✚★
movements. As ✰✚ ✧✘✔✪
many ✘✚ as ✲❇57 ❧✗✗✇✚
deeps ✛✘✜✗ ✢✗✗✔
have been
✗❊✇✙♦s✗❧
explored ✚♦ so ✒✘s● of ✫✛✖✓✛
far; ♦✒ which ♠r 32 ✘s✗
are ✖✔in ✕✛✗
the ❍✘✓✖✒✖✓
Pacific
✯✓✗✘✔●
Ocean; ✱■ 19 ✖✔
in ✕✛✗ ✰✕✙✘✔✕✖✓ ✯✓✗✘✔
the Atlantic Ocean ✘✔❧ and ✐ 6 ✖✔
in ✕✛✗
the
Indian ✯✓✗✘✔★
✳✔❧✖✘✔ Ocean.

▼❏❑▲◆
Minor P◗❘❏◗❙
Relief ❚◗❯❱❲◆◗❳
Features

✰✇✘s✕ ✒s♦✧
Apart from ✕✛✗
the ✘✢♦✜✗
above ✧✗✔✕✖♦✔✗❧ major s✗✙✖✗✒
mentioned ✧✘❨♦s relief
✒✗✘✕✣s✗✚
features ♦✒of ✕✛✗
the ♦✓✗✘✔
ocean ✒✙♦♦s✮
floor, ✚♦✧✗
some ✧✖✔♦s
minor ✢✣✕
but
✚✖✬✔✖✒✖✓✘✔✕ ✒✗✘✕✣s✗✚ ✇s✗❧♦✧✖✔✘✕✗ ✖✔ ❧✖✒✒✗s✗✔✕
significant features predominate in different
✇✘s✕✚
parts ♦✒
of ✕✛✗
the ♦✓✗✘✔✚★
oceans.

❩✸❬❭❖❂✹✺✵✸❂
Mid-Oceanic ❪✸❬❫✹❃
Ridges

mid-oceanic s✖❧✬✗
A✰ ✧✖❧✾♦✓✗✘✔✖✓ ridge ✖✚
is ✓♦✧✇♦✚✗❧
composed ♦✒ of ✕✫♦
two ✓✛✘✖✔✚
chains
♦✒
of ✧♦✣✔✕✘✖✔✚
mountains ✚✗✇✘s✘✕✗❧
separated ✢✪ by ✘ large ❧✗✇s✗✚✚✖♦✔★
a ✙✘s✬✗ depression.
The mountain s✘✔✬✗✚
✩✛✗ ✧♦✣✔✕✘✖✔ ranges ✓✘✔can ✛✘✜✗
have ✇✗✘✦✚
peaks ✘✚ as ✛✖✬✛
high
✘✚
as r✮✲✥✥
2,500 ✧ m ✘✔❧
and ✚♦✧✗ even s✗✘✓✛
some ✗✜✗✔ reach ✘✢♦✜✗
above ✕✛✗
the
♦✓✗✘✔❴✚
ocean’s ✚✣s✒✘✓✗★
surface. ✳✓✗✙✘✔❧✮
Iceland, ✘ a ✇✘s✕
part ♦✒of ✕✛✗
the ✧✖❧✾
mid-
❜❝❞❢❣❤
Figure ❥❦♥♣
13.2 q: ✉❤✈❝❤①
Relief ①❤②③❢❣❤④
features ⑤①
of ⑤⑥❤②⑦
ocean ①✈⑤⑤❣④
floors ✰✕✙✘✔✕✖✓ ❵✖❧✬✗✮
Atlantic Ridge, ✖✚
is ✘✔
an ✗❊✘✧✇✙✗★
example.
❲❆❚ ✁ ✂✄☎
WATER ❆✆✝✞
(OCEANS) ✶✶✟
115

❙✠✡☛☞✌✍✎
Seamount ✖✓✙✓✐✜✓
receive ♠♦✖✓
more ✑✓❛t heat ✔✉✓due t♦to t✑✓✐✖
their ✙♦♥t❛✙t ✏✐t✑
contact with
✘❛✖✗✓✖
larger ✓✪t✓♥t
extent ♦❢ of ✘❛♥✔
land t✑❛♥
than t✑✓ the ♦✙✓❛♥s
oceans ✐♥ in
■t
It ✐s
is ❛
a ♠♦✉♥t❛✐♥
mountain with✏✐t✑ ✒♦✐♥t✓✔
pointed s✉♠♠✐ts✕
summits, ✖✐s✐♥✗
rising
t✑✓
the s♦✉t✑✓✖♥
southern ✑✓♠✐s✒✑✓✖✓✚
hemisphere.
❢✖♦♠
from t✑✓
the s✓❛❢✘♦♦✖
seafloor t✑❛t
that ✔♦✓s
does ♥♦t
not ✖✓❛✙✑
reach t✑✓
the s✉✖❢❛✙✓
surface
✻✐✐✐✼
(iii) ♣✯✠q✡✰✺✰✍r
Prevailing ❧✰✍❞ wind ❜: t✑✓ ✏✐♥✔s blowing
the winds ✣✘♦✏✐♥✗ ❢✖♦♠
from
♦❢
of t✑✓
the ♦✙✓❛♥✚
ocean. ✛✓❛♠♦✉♥ts
Seamounts ❛✖✓ ✜♦✘✙❛♥✐✙ ✐♥
are volcanic in ♦✖✐✗✐♥✚
origin.
t✑✓
the ✘❛♥✔
land t♦✏❛✖✔s
towards t✑✓ the ♦✙✓❛♥s
oceans ✔✖✐✜✓ ✏❛✖♠
drive warm
✢✑✓s✓ ✙❛♥
These ✣✓ ✤✕✥✥✥✦✧✕★✥✥
can be 3,000-4,500 ♠ m t❛✘✘✚ ✢✑✓ ✩♠✒✓✖♦✖
tall. The Emperor
s✉✖❢❛✙✓
surface water ✏❛t✓✖ ❛✏❛✴ away ❢♦✖♠ form t✑✓ the ✙♦❛st
coast
s✓❛♠♦✉♥t✕
seamount, ❛♥ an ✓✪t✓♥s✐♦♥
extension ♦❢
of t✑✓
the ✫❛✏❛✐✐❛♥
Hawaiian ■s✘❛♥✔s
Islands
✖✓s✉✘t✐♥✗ ✐♥ t✑✓ ✉✒✏✓✘✘✐♥✗
resulting in the upwelling of cold water ♦❢ ✙♦✘✔ ✏❛t✓✖
✐♥
in t✑✓
the ✬❛✙✐❢✐✙
Pacific ✭✙✓❛♥✕
Ocean, ✐s
is ❛
a ✗♦♦✔
good ✓✪❛♠✒✘✓✚
example.
❢✖♦♠ ✣✓✘♦✏✚ ■t
from below. It ✖✓s✉✘ts
results ✐♥t♦
into t✑✓
the ✘♦♥✗✐t✉✔✐♥❛✘
longitudinal
✜❛✖✐❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥
variation in t✑✓
the t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓✚
temperature. ✷♦♥t✖❛✖✴ Contrary t♦ to
❙✌✮☛✡✯✰✍✠
Submarine ✱✡✍✲☞✍✳
Canyons
t✑✐s✕
this, t✑✓the ♦♥s✑♦✖✓
onshore winds ✏✐♥✔s ✒✐✘✓ pile ✉✒ ✏❛✖♠
up warm
✢✑✓s✓ ❛✖✓
These are ✔✓✓✒ ✜❛✘✘✓✴s✕ s♦♠✓
deep valleys, some ✙♦♠✒❛✖❛✣✘✓
comparable t♦ to ✏❛t✓✖ ♥✓❛✖
water near t✑✓ the ✙♦❛st
coast ❛♥✔and t✑✐sthis ✖❛✐s✓s
raises t✑✓
the
t✑✓
the ✵✖❛♥✔
Grand ✷❛♥✴♦♥
Canyon ♦❢ of t✑✓
the ✷♦✘♦✖❛✔♦
Colorado ✖✐✜✓✖✚ ✢✑✓✴
river. They t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓✚
temperature.
❛✖✓
are s♦♠✓t✐♠✓s
sometimes ❢♦✉♥✔ found ✙✉tt✐♥✗
cutting ❛✙✖♦ss
across t✑✓the ✻✐✜✼
(iv) ✈✇✠✡✍
Ocean ✇✌✯✯✠✍✎✳
currents ❜: warm ✏❛✖♠ ♦✙✓❛♥ocean ✙✉✖✖✓♥ts
currents
✙♦♥t✐♥✓♥t❛✘
continental shelves and slopes, often ✓✪t✓♥✔✐♥✗
s✑✓✘✜✓s ❛♥✔ s✘♦✒✓s✕ ♦❢t✓♥ extending ✖❛✐s✓
raise t✑✓
the t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature ✐♥ in ✙♦✘✔
cold ❛✖✓❛s ✏✑✐✘✓
areas while
❢✖♦♠
from t✑✓
the ♠♦✉t✑s
mouths ♦❢ of ✘❛✖✗✓
large ✖✐✜✓✖s✚ ✢✑✓ ✫✉✔s♦♥
rivers. The Hudson t✑✓
the ✙♦✘✔
cold ✙✉✖✖✓
currents ♥ts ✔✓✙✖✓❛s✓
decrease t✑✓
the
✷❛♥✴♦♥
Canyon ✐s is t✑✓ ✣✓st ❈♥♦✏♥
the best known ✙❛♥✴♦♥
canyon ✐♥ in t✑✓ ✏♦✖✘✔✚
the world. t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature ✐♥ ✏❛✖♠ ♦✙✓❛♥
in warm ocean ❛✖✓❛s✚
areas. ✵✉✘❢
Gulf
st✖✓❛♠
stream ✻(warm ✏❛✖♠ ✙✉✖✖✓♥t✼current) ✖❛✐s✓s raises t✑✓ the
●✌✲☞✎✳
Guyots t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature ♥✓❛✖ near t✑✓ the ✓❛st✓✖♥
eastern ✙♦❛stcoast ♦❢of
■t
It ✐s
is ❛
a ❢✘❛t
flat t♦✒✒✓✔
topped s✓❛♠♦✉♥t✚
seamount. They✢✑✓✴ s✑♦✏
show
①♦✖t✑ ②♠✓✖✐✙❛ ❛♥✔
North America and the West Coast oft✑✓ ③✓st ✷♦❛st ♦❢
✓✜✐✔✓♥✙✓s
evidences ♦❢ of ✗✖❛✔✉❛✘
gradual s✉✣s✐✔✓♥✙✓
subsidence t✑✖♦✉✗✑
through
✩✉✖♦✒✓
Europe while✏✑✐✘✓ t✑✓ the ④❛✣✖❛✔♦✖
Labrador ✙✉✖✖✓♥t
current ✻✙♦✘✔
(cold
st❛✗✓s
stages t♦ ✣✓✙♦♠✓ ❢✘❛t
to become flat t♦✒✒✓✔
topped s✉✣♠✓✖✗✓✔
submerged
✙✉✖✖✓♥t✼
current) ✘♦✏✓✖s
lowers t✑✓ the t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature ♥✓❛✖ near t✑✓
the
♠♦✉♥t❛✐♥s✚
mountains. ■t It ✐s
is ✓st✐♠❛t✓✔
estimated t✑❛t
that ♠♦✖✓
more t✑❛♥
than
♥♦✖t✑✦✓❛st
north-east ✙♦❛st coast ♦❢ of ①♦✖t✑ ②♠✓✖✐✙❛✚
North America.
✸✥✕✥✥✥
10,000 s✓❛♠♦✉♥ts
seamounts ❛♥✔ and ✗✉✴♦ts
guyots ✓✪✐st
exist ✐♥
in t✑✓
the
②✘✘ t✑✓s✓
All these ❢❛✙t♦✖s
factors ✐♥❢✘✉✓♥✙✓
influence t✑✓ the t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature
✬❛✙✐❢✐✙
Pacific ✭✙✓❛♥
Ocean ❛✘♦♥✓✚
alone.
♦❢
of t✑✓
the ♦✙✓❛♥
ocean ✙✉✖✖✓♥ts
currents ✘♦✙❛✘✘✴✚
locally. The✢✑✓ ✓♥✙✘♦s✓✔
enclosed s✓❛s
seas
✐♥
in t✑✓the ✘♦✏low ✘❛t✐t✉✔✓s
latitudes ✖✓✙♦✖✔ record ✖✓✘❛t✐✜✓✘✴
relatively ✑✐✗✑✓✖
higher
✹✎☞✺✺
Atoll
t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature t✑❛♥ than t✑✓ the ♦✒✓♥
open s✓❛s⑤ ✏✑✓✖✓❛s t✑✓
seas; whereas the
✓♥✙✘♦s✓✔
enclosed seas in the high latitudes ✑❛✜✓
s✓❛s ✐♥ t✑✓ ✑✐✗✑ ✘❛t✐t✉✔✓s have ✘♦✏✓✖
lower
✢✑✓s✓ ❛✖✓
These are ✘♦✏
low ✐s✘❛♥✔s
islands ❢♦✉♥✔
found ✐♥in t✑✓
the t✖♦✒✐✙❛✘
tropical t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature t✑❛♥ than t✑✓ the ♦✒✓♥
open s✓❛s✚
seas.
♦✙✓❛♥s
oceans ✙♦♥s✐st✐♥✗
consisting ♦❢
of ✙♦✖❛✘
coral ✖✓✓❢s
reefs s✉✖✖♦✉♥✔✐♥✗
surrounding
❛a ✙✓♥t✖❛✘
central ✔✓✒✖✓ss✐♦♥✚
depression. ■tIt ♠❛✴
may be✣✓ ❛a ✒❛✖t
part ♦❢
of t✑✓
the Horizontal ❑❨⑨
⑥◆P❳⑦◆❨▼❑⑧ ⑩❱P▼❳▲❑⑧ ❴❳◗▼P❳❵❫▼❳◆❨
and Vertical Distribution
s✓❛
sea ✻✘❛✗♦♦♥✼✕
(lagoon), ♦✖
or s♦♠✓t✐♠✓s
sometimes ❢♦✖♠
form ✓♥✙✘♦s✐♥✗
enclosing ❛ a ◆❯
of ❬❱❭❪❱P❑▼❫P❱
Temperature
✣♦✔✴ ♦❢
body of ❢✖✓s✑✕ ✣✖❛✙❈✐s✑✕ ♦✖
fresh, brackish, or ✑✐✗✑✘✴
highly s❛✘✐♥✓ ✏❛t✓✖✚
saline water.
✢✑✓ t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓✦✔✓✒t✑
The temperature-depth ✒✖♦❢✐✘✓
profile ❢♦✖
for t✑✓
the ♦✙✓❛♥
ocean
✽❊✾✿❊❀❁❂❃❀❊
TEMPERATURE ❖❄
OF ❅❇❊❁❉ ❋❁❂❊❀❍
OCEAN WATERS ✏❛t✓✖ s✑♦✏s ✑♦✏ t✑✓ t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
water shows how the temperature decreases ✔✓✙✖✓❛s✓s
✏✐t✑ t✑✓
with the ✐♥✙✖✓❛s✐♥✗
increasing ✔✓✒t✑✚ ✢✑✓ ✒✖♦❢✐✘✓
depth. The profile s✑♦✏s
shows ❛ a
✢✑✐s s✓✙t✐♦♥
This section ✔✓❛✘s ✏✐t✑ t✑✓
deals with the s✒❛t✐❛✘
spatial ❛♥✔ ✜✓✖t✐✙❛✘
and vertical ✣♦✉♥✔❛✖✴ ✖✓✗✐♦♥
boundary ✣✓t✏✓✓♥ t✑✓
region between the s✉✖❢❛✙✓ ✏❛t✓✖s
surface waters
✜❛✖✐❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢
variations of t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature ✐♥ ✜❛✖✐♦✉s ♦✙✓❛♥s✚
in various oceans. ♦❢
of t✑✓
the ♦✙✓❛♥
ocean ❛♥✔
and t✑✓
the ✔✓✓✒✓✖
deeper ✘❛✴✓✖s✚ ✢✑✓
layers. The
✭✙✓❛♥ ✏❛t✓✖s ✗✓t
Ocean waters get ✑✓❛t✓✔
heated ✉✒ ✣✴ t✑✓
up by the s♦✘❛✖
solar ✓♥✓✖✗✴
energy ✣♦✉♥✔❛✖✴ ✉s✉❛✘✘✴
boundary ✣✓✗✐♥s ❛✖♦✉♥✔
usually begins around ✸✥✥100 ✦- ✧✥✥
400 ♠m
❥✉st ❛s
just as ✘❛♥✔✚ ✢✑✓ ✒✖♦✙✓ss
land. The process ♦❢of ✑✓❛t✐♥✗
heating ❛♥✔
and ✙♦♦✘✐♥✗
cooling ✣✓✘♦✏ t✑✓
below the s✓❛
sea s✉✖❢❛✙✓
surface ❛♥✔
and ✓✪t✓♥✔s
extends s✓✜✓✖❛✘
several
♦❢
of t✑✓
the ♦✙✓❛♥✐✙ ✏❛t✓✖ ✐s
oceanic water is s✘♦✏✓✖
slower t✑❛♥
than ✘❛♥✔✚
land. ✑✉♥✔✖✓✔
hundred ♦❢ of ♠ m ✔♦✏♥✏❛✖✔
downward ✻❶✐✗✉✖✓
(Figure ✸✤✚✤✼✚ ✢✑✐s
13.3). This
✣♦✉♥✔❛✖✴ ✖✓✗✐♦♥✕
boundary region, ❢✖♦♠ ✏✑✓✖✓ t✑✓✖✓
from where there ✐s is ❛a ✖❛✒✐✔
rapid
❏❑▲▼◆P◗ ❘❯❯❱▲▼❳❨❩ ❬❱❭❪❱P❑▼❫P❱
Factors Affecting Temperature ❴❳◗▼P❳❵❫▼❳◆❨
Distribution ✔✓✙✖✓❛s✓
decrease ♦❢ of t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓✕
temperature, ✐s is ✙❛✘✘✓✔
called t✑✓ the
✢✑✓ ❢❛✙t♦✖s
The ✏✑✐✙✑ ❛❢❢✓✙t
factors which affect t✑✓
the ✔✐st✖✐✣✉t✐♦♥
distribution ♦❢
of ✎❷✠✯☛☞✇✺✰✍✠✚
thermocline. About ②✣♦✉t ❸✥ 90 ✒✓✖
per ✙✓♥t
cent ♦❢of t✑✓
the t♦t❛✘
total
t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓
temperature ♦❢ of ♦✙✓❛♥ ✏❛t✓✖ ❛✖✓
ocean water are : ❜ ✜♦✘✉♠✓ ♦❢
volume ✏❛t✓✖ ✐s
of water is ❢♦✉♥✔ ✣✓✘♦✏ t✑✓
found below the t✑✓✖♠♦✙✘✐♥✓
thermocline
✻✐✼
(i) Latitude : the temperature ♦❢
❝✡✎✰✎✌❞✠ ❜ t✑✓ t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓ of s✉✖❢❛✙✓ ✏❛t✓✖
surface water ✐♥
in t✑✓
the ✔✓✓✒
deep ♦✙✓❛♥✚
ocean. ■♥ In t✑✐s ❹♦♥✓✕ t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓s
this zone, temperatures
✔✓✙✖✓❛s✓s
decreases ❢✖♦♠
from t✑✓
the ✓❡✉❛t♦✖
equator t♦✏❛✖✔s
towards t✑✓
the ❛✒✒✖♦❛✙✑
approach ✥❺ 0° ✷✚C.
✒♦✘✓s ✣✓✙❛✉s✓ t✑✓
poles because the ❛♠♦✉♥t
amount ♦❢ of ✐♥s♦✘❛t✐♦♥
insolation The temperature st✖✉✙t✉✖✓
✢✑✓ t✓♠✒✓✖❛t✉✖✓ structure ♦❢of ♦✙✓❛♥s
oceans ♦✜✓✖ over
✔✓✙✖✓❛s✓s
decreases ✒♦✘✓✏❛✖✔✚
poleward. ♠✐✔✔✘✓
middle ❛♥✔and ✘♦✏ low ✘❛t✐t✉✔✓s
latitudes ✙❛♥ ✣✓ ✔✓s✙✖✐✣✓✔
can be described ❛s as
✻✐✐✼
(ii) ❣✍✠❤✌✡✺
Unequal ❞✰✳✎✯✰✮✌✎✰☞✍
distribution ☞❦of ✺✡✍❞
land ✡✍❞and ❧✡✎✠✯
water ❜: ❛a t✑✖✓✓✦✘❛✴✓✖
three-layer s✴st✓♠
system ❢✖♦♠
from s✉✖❢❛✙✓
surface t♦
to t✑✓ ✣♦tt♦♠✚
the bottom.
t✑✓
the ♦✙✓❛♥s
oceans ✐♥in t✑✓
the ♥♦✖t✑✓✖♥
northern ✑✓♠✐s✒✑✓✖✓
hemisphere ✢✑✓ first
The ❦✰✯✳✎ ✺✡✲✠✯
layer ✖✓✒✖✓s✓♥ts
represents t✑✓
the t♦✒
top ✘❛✴✓✖
layer ♦❢ of
✶✶✑
116 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✲✪✣✴ ✧✦✓✪✫✥✦
warm ✲✪✭✓✣ ✪✫✩
oceanic water and ✥✭it ✥✜
is ✪♦✧✉✭
about ✐❛❛✴
500m ✭✒✥✦■
thick ✒✓✴✥✜✮✒✓✣✓
hemisphere ✣✓✦✧✣✩ record ✣✓★✪✭✥✢✓★✤
relatively ✒✥✸✒✓✣ higher ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature
✲✥✭✒ ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓✜
with temperatures ✣✪✫✸✥✫✸ ♦✓✭✲✓✓✫ ✹❛✵
ranging between 20° ✪✫✩
and ✭✒✪✫
than ✥✫ in ✭✒✓
the ✜✧✉✭✒✓✣✫
southern ✒✓✴✥✜✮✒✓✣✓✳
hemisphere. The ❚✒✓ ✒✥✸✒✓✜✭
highest
✹✐✵
29° ✷✳ ❚✒✥✜ ★✪✤✓✣❆
C. This ✲✥✭✒✥✫ ✭✒✓
layer, within the ✭✣✧✮✥✦✪★
tropical ✣✓✸✥✧✫❆
region, ✥✜
is ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature ✥✜ is ✫✧✭
not ✣✓✦✧✣✩✓✩
recorded ✪✭ at ✭✒✓
the ✓❞✉✪✭✧✣
equator but ♦✉✭
✮✣✓✜✓✫✭
present ✭✒✣✧✉✸✒✧✉✭
throughout ✭✒✓ ✤✓✪✣ but
the year ♦✉✭ ✥✫
in ✴✥✩
mid ✜★✥✸✒✭★✤
slightly ✭✧✲✪✣✩✜towards ✫✧✣✭✒ north ✧✯ of ✥✭✳ ❚✒✓ ✪✢✓✣✪✸✓
it. The average ✪✫✫✉✪★ annual
★✪✭✥✭✉✩✓✜
latitudes ✥✭ it ✩✓✢✓★✧✮✜
develops ✧✫★✤ only ✩✉✣✥✫✸
during ✜✉✴✴✓✣✳
summer. ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓✜
temperatures ✯✧✣ for ✭✒✓
the ✫✧✣✭✒✓✣✫
northern ✪✫✩ and ✜✧✉✭✒✓✣✫
southern
❚✒✓ second layer called ✭✒✓
The s✛❥❦❧✗ ✘✙✚✛✖ ✦✪★★✓✩ the ✭✒✓✣✴✧✦★✥✫✓
thermocline ✒✓✴✥✜✮✒✓✣✓
hemisphere ✪✣✓ are ✪✣✧✉✫✩
around ✻❤✵ 19° ✷ C ✪✫✩and ✻✽✵ 16° ✷ C
★✪✤✓✣
layer ★✥✓✜ ♦✓★✧✲ ✭✒✓
lies below the ✯✥✣✜✭
first ★✪✤✓✣
layer ✪✫✩
and ✥✜
is ✦✒✪✣✪✦✭✓✣✥✜✓✩
characterised ✣✓✜✮✓✦✭✥✢✓★✤✳
respectively. This ❚✒✥✜ variation
✢✪✣✥✪✭✥✧✫ ✥✜ is ✩✉✓due ✭✧ to ✭✒✓the
♦✤ ✣✪✮✥✩
by rapid ✩✓✦✣✓✪✜✓
decrease ✥✫ in ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature with ✲✥✭✒ ✥✫✦✣✓✪✜✥✫✸
increasing ✉✫✓❞✉✪★
unequal ✩✥✜✭✣✥♦✉✭✥✧✫
distribution ✧✯ of ★✪✫✩
land ✪✫✩ ✲✪✭✓✣ ✥✫
and water in ✭✒✓
the
✩✓✮✭✒✳ ❚✒✓ ✭✒✓✣✴✧✦★✥✫✓
depth. The thermocline ✥✜ is ✐❛❛ -1,000 ✴
500 q✻❆❛❛❛ m ✭✒✥✦■✳
thick. ✫✧✣✭✒✓✣✫
northern ✪✫✩ and ✜✧✉✭✒✓✣✫
southern ✒✓✴✥✜✮✒✓✣✓✜✳
hemispheres. ♥✥✸✉✣✓ Figure
✻✾✳✼
13.4 ✜✒✧✲✜ shows ✭✒✓ the ✜✮✪✭✥✪★
spatial ✮✪✭✭✓✣✫ pattern ✧✯ of ✜✉✣✯✪✦✓
surface
Increasing Temperature (°C}—> ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature of the oceans. ✧✯ ✭✒✓ ✧✦✓✪✫✜✳
o° 4° 8° 12° 16° 20° 24° ✰✭
It ✥✜
is ✪ ✲✓★★ ■✫✧✲✫
a well known ✯✪✦✭ fact ✭✒✪✭that ✭✒✓ the ✴✪✬✥✴✉✴
maximum

i ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature of the oceans is always ✪✭
✜✉✣✯✪✦✓✜
surfaces because
✧✯
♦✓✦✪✉✜✓ ✭✒✓✤
✭✒✓ ✧✦✓✪✫✜
they ✩✥✣✓✦✭★✤
✥✜
directly ✣✓✦✓✥✢✓
✪★✲✪✤✜
receive ✭✒✓
at ✭✒✓✥✣
their
the ✒✓✪✭
heat
500 - ✯✣✧✴
from ✭✒✓ the ✜✉✫ sun ✪✫✩ and ✭✒✓ the ✒✓✪✭heat ✥✜ is ✭✣✪✫✜✴✥✭✭✓✩
transmitted ✭✧ to
✭✒✓
the ★✧✲✓✣lower ✜✓✦✭✥✧✫✜
sections ✧✯ of ✭✒✓
the ✧✦✓✪✫✜
oceans ✭✒✣✧✉✸✒ through ✭✒✓ the
Thermocline |
1000
✮✣✧✦✓✜✜
process ✧✯ of ✦✧✫✩✉✦✭✥✧✫✳
conduction. ✰✭ It ✣✓✜✉★✭✜
results ✥✫✭✧ into ✩✓✦✣✓✪✜✓
decrease
✧✯
of ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature with ✲✥✭✒ ✭✒✓ the ✥✫✦✣✓✪✜✥✫✸
increasing ✩✓✮✭✒❆ depth, but ♦✉✭
4
✭✒✓
the ✣✪✭✓rate ✧✯ of ✩✓✦✣✓✪✜✓
decrease ✥✜ is ✫✧✭
not ✉✫✥✯✧✣✴
uniform ✭✒✣✧✉✸✒✧✉✭✳
throughout.
1500
❚✒✓ ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
The temperature ✯✪★★✜ falls very✢✓✣✤ ✣✪✮✥✩★✤
rapidly ✉✮ up ✭✧ to ✭✒✓
the
———>

✩✓✮✭✒
depth ✧✯ of ✹❛❛200m✴ ✪✫✩ and ✭✒✓✣✓✪✯✭✓✣❆
thereafter, ✭✒✓ the ✣✪✭✓rate ✧✯ of
2000 F 5 ✩✓✦✣✓✪✜✓
decrease ✧✯ of ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature ✥✜ is ✜★✧✲✓✩
slowed ✩✧✲✫✳ down.
(m)

❙✿❀❁❂❁❃❄
SALINITY ❖❅ OF ❇❈❉✿❂
OCEAN WATERS ❊✿❃❉●❍
2500 F 5
Increasing Depth

✱★★ waters
All ✲✪✭✓✣✜ ✥✫ in ✫✪✭✉✣✓❆
nature, whether ✲✒✓✭✒✓✣ ✣✪✥✫ ✲✪✭✓✣ ✧✣
rain water or
✧✦✓✪✫
ocean water, ✲✪✭✓✣❆ ✦✧✫✭✪✥✫contain ✩✥✜✜✧★✢✓✩
dissolved ✴✥✫✓✣✪★ mineral ✜✪★✭✜✳ salts.
3000 F 5 Salinity ✥✜
❏✪★✥✫✥✭✤ is ✭✒✓
the ✭✓✣✴ term ✉✜✓✩ used ✭✧ to ✩✓✯✥✫✓
define ✭✒✓ the ✭✧✭✪★total
✦✧✫✭✓✫✭
content ✧✯ of ✩✥✜✜✧★✢✓✩
dissolved ✜✪★✭✜ salts ✥✫ in ✜✓✪ sea water✲✪✭✓✣
3500 F 5 (Table ✻✾✳✼▲✳
❑❚✪♦★✓ 13.4). ✰✭ It ✥✜
is ✦✪★✦✉★✪✭✓✩
calculated ✪✜ as ✭✒✓
the ✪✴✧✉✫✭
amount ✧✯ of
✜✪★✭
salt ❑✥✫ (in ✸✴▲gm) ✩✥✜✜✧★✢✓✩
dissolved ✥✫ in ✻❆❛❛❛
1,000 ✸✴ gm ❑✻ kg) ✧✯
(1 ■✸▲ of
✜✓✪✲✪✭✓✣✳ ✰✭ ✥✜ ✉✜✉✪★★✤ ✓✬✮✣✓✜✜✓✩
seawater. It is usually expressed as parts per ✪✜ ✮✪✣✭✜ ✮✓✣
4000 F 5
✭✒✧✉✜✪✫✩ ▼◆ ▲ ✧✣
thousand ❑(°/,.) ▼▼ or ✮✮✭✳ Salinity ✥✜
ppt. ❏✪★✥✫✥✭✤ is ✪✫
an ✥✴✮✧✣✭✪✫✭
important
▼◆ ✒✪✜
4500 ! ! ! It !
✮✣✧✮✓✣✭✤ ✧✯ ✜✓✪
property of sea water. ❏✪★✥✫✥✭✤ ✲✪✭✓✣✳ Salinity of ✹✼✳✺ ✧✯ 24.7°/, ▼▼ has
♦✓✓✫ ✦✧✫✜✥✩✓✣✓✩
been considered ✪✜ as ✭✒✓ the ✉✮✮✓✣ upper ★✥✴✥✭ limit ✭✧ to
❘❯❱❳❨❩
Figure ❬❭❪❭
13.3 ❫: ❴❵❩❨❜❝❡❢❯❣❩
Thermocline ✩✓✴✪✣✦✪✭✓
demarcate P♦✣✪✦■✥✜✒ ‘brackish water’. ✲✪✭✓✣◗✳
Factors ✪✯✯✓✦✭✥✫✸
♥✪✦✭✧✣✜ affecting ✧✦✓✪✫ ocean ✜✪★✥✫✥✭✤ salinity ✪✣✓ are
❚✒✓ t✔✕✖✗
The third ✘✙✚✛✖
layer ✥✜ ✢✓✣✤ ✦✧★✩
is very cold ✪✫✩
and ✓✬✭✓✫✩✜
extends ✴✓✫✭✥✧✫✓✩
mentioned below: ♦✓★✧✲♠
✉✮✭✧
upto ✭✒✓the ✩✓✓✮
deep ✧✦✓✪✫
ocean ✯★✧✧✣✳
floor. ✰✫In ✭✒✓ ✱✣✦✭✥✦ ✪✫✩
the Arctic and ❑✥▲ ❚✒✓ ✜✪★✥✫✥✭✤
(i) The salinity ✧✯ ✲✪✭✓✣ ✥✫
of water in ✭✒✓the ✜✉✣✯✪✦✓
surface ★✪✤✓✣ layer
✱✫✭✪✣✭✥✦ ✦✥✣✦★✓✜❆ ✭✒✓ ✜✉✣✯✪✦✓ ✲✪✭✓✣
Antartic circles, the surface water temperatures ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓✜ ✧✯
of ✧✦✓✪✫✜
oceans ✩✓✮✓✫✩ depend ✴✪✥✫★✤ mainly ✧✫ on ✓✢✪✮✧✣✪✭✥✧✫
evaporation
✪✣✓
are ✦★✧✜✓
close ✭✧to ❛✵
0° ✷C ✪✫✩
and ✜✧ so ✭✒✓
the ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature ✦✒✪✫✸✓change ✪✫✩
and ✮✣✓✦✥✮✥✭✪✭✥✧✫✳
precipitation.
✲✥✭✒ ✭✒✓
with the ✩✓✮✭✒
depth ✥✜ ✢✓✣✤ ✜★✥✸✒✭✳
is very slight. ✇✓✣✓❆
Here, ✧✫★✤
only ✧✫✓
one ❑✥✥▲ Surface ✜✪★✥✫✥✭✤
(ii) ❏✉✣✯✪✦✓ salinity ✥✜ is ✸✣✓✪✭★✤
greatly ✥✫✯★✉✓✫✦✓✩
influenced ✥✫ in
★✪✤✓✣
layer ✧✯of ✦✧★✩ ✲✪✭✓✣ ✓✬✥✜✭✜❆
cold water ✲✒✥✦✒ ✓✬✭✓✫✩✜
exists, which extends ✯✣✧✴from ✦✧✪✜✭✪★
coastal ✣✓✸✥✧✫✜ regions by ♦✤ ✭✒✓ the ✯✣✓✜✒ ✲✪✭✓✣ ✯★✧✲
fresh water flow
✜✉✣✯✪✦✓
surface ✭✧ to ✩✓✓✮
deep ✧✦✓✪✫
ocean ✯★✧✧✣✳
floor. ✯✣✧✴
from ✣✥✢✓✣✜❆
rivers, ✪✫✩ and ✥✫ in ✮✧★✪✣
polar ✣✓✸✥✧✫✜
regions by ♦✤ ✭✒✓the
❚✒✓ ✪✢✓✣✪✸✓
The average ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature ✧✯ of ✜✉✣✯✪✦✓ ✲✪✭✓✣
surface water ✮✣✧✦✓✜✜✓✜ ✧✯ ✯✣✓✓♣✥✫✸
processes of freezing and thawing of ice.✪✫✩ ✭✒✪✲✥✫✸ ✧✯ ✥✦✓✳
✧✯
of ✭✒✓
the ✧✦✓✪✫✜
oceans ✥✜ is ✪♦✧✉✭
about ✹✺✵✷
27°C ✪✫✩ and ✥✭it ✸✣✪✩✉✪★★✤
gradually ❑✥✥✥▲ ❲✥✫✩❆ ✪★✜✧
(iii) Wind, also ✥✫✯★✉✓✫✦✓✜
influences ✜✪★✥✫✥✭✤ salinity ✧✯ of ✪✫
an ✪✣✓✪
area
✩✓✦✣✓✪✜✓✜
decreases ✯✣✧✴ from ✭✒✓the ✓❞✉✪✭✧✣
equator ✭✧✲✪✣✩✜
towards ✭✒✓ the ✮✧★✓✜✳
poles. ♦✤ ✭✣✪✫✜✯✓✣✣✥✫✸ ✲✪✭✓✣
by transferring water to other areas. ✭✧ ✧✭✒✓✣ ✪✣✓✪✜✳
❚✒✓ ✣✪✭✓ ✧✯ ✩✓✦✣✓✪✜✓ ✧✯
The rate of decrease of temperature with ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓ ✲✥✭✒ ❑✥✢▲
(iv) The❚✒✓ ✧✦✓✪✫ ocean ✦✉✣✣✓✫✭✜
currents ✦✧✫✭✣✥♦✉✭✓ contribute ✭✧ to ✭✒✓the
✥✫✦✣✓✪✜✥✫✸
increasing ★✪✭✥✭✉✩✓latitude ✥✜ is ✸✓✫✓✣✪★★✤
generally ❛✳✐✵✷0.5°C ✮✓✣ per ✜✪★✥✫✥✭✤ ✢✪✣✥✪✭✥✧✫✜✳ ❏✪★✥✫✥✭✤❆
salinity variations. Salinity, ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature
★✪✭✥✭✉✩✓✳
latitude. The ❚✒✓ ✪✢✓✣✪✸✓
average ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature ✥✜ is ✪✣✧✉✫✩
around ✪✫✩
and ✩✓✫✜✥✭✤
density ✧✯ ✲✪✭✓✣ ✪✣✓
of water are ✥✫✭✓✣✣✓★✪✭✓✩✳
interrelated.
✹✹✵✷
22°C ✪✭ at ✹❛✵
20° ★✪✭✥✭✉✩✓✜❆
latitudes, ✻✼✵ 14° ✷ C ✪✭
at ✼❛✵
40° ★✪✭✥✭✉✩✓✜
latitudes ✇✓✫✦✓❆
Hence, ✪✫✤ any ✦✒✪✫✸✓
change ✥✫ in ✭✒✓
the ✭✓✴✮✓✣✪✭✉✣✓
temperature ✧✣ or
✪✫✩
and ❛✵0° ✷C ✫✓✪✣
near ✮✧★✓✜✳
poles. The❚✒✓ ✧✦✓✪✫✜
oceans ✥✫ in ✭✒✓
the ✫✧✣✭✒✓✣✫
northern ✩✓✫✜✥✭✤
density ✥✫✯★✉✓✫✦✓✜
influences ✭✒✓ the ✜✪★✥✫✥✭✤
salinity ✧✯ of ✪✫
an ✪✣✓✪✳
area.
❲❆❚ ✁ ✂✄☎
WATER ❆✆✝✞
(OCEANS) ✶✶✟
117

B 28 —
haw — ee
4 «y” or Cc = (Fe
ome 5
FFi¢ _— . ( a
SE a — Tt _
/ Q 7 25 — fr ‘ vi _/
Le a — — 2 _ ™ .
= — 2—_— eo, —— _

= —
SS. ee 15
5— —___
+yg all —_— _———
15 —~____-»
hg
S15"
ee
ee

=
$$$ ra 5——— en
Lt ee — __—— =
— -—__- el a
0 2h) 6000 Km
ed or isn’ i607”
I I I I I I I I I I

❋✸✹✺✻✼
Figure ✽✾✿❀
13.4 ❁: ❂❃❄❅✸❄❇
Spatial ❃❄❅❅✼✻❈
pattern ❉❊
of ●✺✻❊❄❍✼
surface ❅✼■❃✼✻❄❅✺✻✼
temperature ❏❑▲◆
(°C) ❉❊
of ❅❖✼
the ❉❍✼❄❈●
oceans

❘✠✡
Red ☛✠☞✌
Sea, ✍✎ it ✍✏is ☞✏as ✑✍✒✑
high ☞✏ as ✓✔ ♦✴ ✌ while
❸✍✒✑✠✏✎
Highest ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
salinity ✍✖ ❤❢✡✍✠✏
✱☞✎✠✗ bodies
in water
41°/,, ♦♦ ✱✑✍✕✠ ✍✖ in ✎✑✠ the
❹☞❺✠ ❻☞✖ ✍✖ ✩❡✗❺✠✚ ✯✤✤✢ ♦✴ ✰✌ ✠✏✎❡☞✗✍✠✏
estuaries ☞✖✡ and ✎✑✠ ✘✗✙✎✍✙✌ ✎✑✠
the Arctic, the ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
salinity ✛✕❡✙✎❡☞✎✠✏
fluctuates
Lake Van in Turkey (330°/,,),
♦♦
❜✠☞✡ ♦ from ✢
✛✗❢✜ O ✣- ✤✥ 35 ♦°/,, seasonally. ✧✖
✴♦♦✌ ✏✠☞✏❢✖☞✕✕✚✦ In ✑❢✎hot ☞✖✡and ✡✗✚ dry
Sea ✯✭✤❼
Dead ☛✠☞ ✴♦♦✰✌
(238°/,.),
❽✗✠☞✎
Great ☛☞✕✎ Lake ✯✭✭✢
Salt ❹☞❺✠ ♦✴ ✰
(220°/,)
✗✠✒✍❢✖✏✌ ✱✑✠✗✠ ✠r☞★❢✗☞✎✍❢✖
regions, where evaporation ✍✏ is ✑✍✒✑✌
high, ✎✑✠ the ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
salinity
♦♦ ♦✴ ✦
✏❢✜✠✎✍✜✠✏
sometimes ✗✠☞✙✑✠✏ reaches ✎❢ to s✢70°/... ♦♦
✩✑✠ ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
The r☞✗✍☞✎✍❢✖ ✍✖
salinity variation the ✪☞✙✍✛✍✙
in ✎✑✠ Pacific ✫✙✠☞✖
Ocean
Table ✽✾✿❀
P❄◗❇✼ 13.4 ❁: ❙✸●●❉❇❯✼❞
Dissolved ❂❄❇❅●
Salts ✸❈
in ❂✼❄ ❱❄❅✼✻
Sea Water is ✜☞✍✖✕✚
✍✏ mainly ✡❡✠ due ✎❢ to ✍✎✏
its ✏✑☞★✠
shape ☞✖✡ and ✕☞✗✒✠✗
larger ☞✗✠☞✕
areal
❏✹■ ❉❊ ❂❄❇❅ ❃✼✻ ❳✹ ❉❊ ❱❄❅✼✻◆
(gm of Salt per kg of Water) ✠✬✎✠✖✎✦
extent. ☛☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
Salinity ✡✠✙✗✠☞✏✠✏
decreases ✛✗❢✜ from ✤✥ ♦✴ ✣- ✤✔
35°/,, 31°/,, ♦✴
♦♦ ♦♦
ore: 18.97 ❢✖
on ✎✑✠ ✱✠✏✎✠✗✖ ★☞✗✎✏
the western parts ❢✛ of ✎✑✠the ✖❢✗✎✑✠✗✖
northern
❨❩❬❭❪❫❴❵ ❝❣❥❦❧
—— , ✑✠✜✍✏★✑✠✗✠
hemisphere because ❤✠✙☞❡✏✠ ❢✛ of ✎✑✠ influx ❢✛
the ✍✖✛✕❡✬ of ✜✠✕✎✠✡
melted
♠❭♥❫♣q
Sodium ❝t❥✉❧
10.47 : .
♠♣❬✈❩✇①❵ ②❥③④ ✱☞✎✠✗ ✛✗❢✜ ✎✑✠ ✘✗✙✎✍✙ ✗✠✒✍❢✖✦
water from the Arctic region. In the same way, ✧✖ ✎✑✠ ✏☞✜✠ ✱☞✚✌
Sulphate
———
2.65
1.28 ☞✛✎✠✗
after ✔✥❛
5
✣ ✭✢❛
6
15° - 20° ✏❢❡✎✑✌ south, ✍✎
.
it ✡✠✙✗✠☞✏✠✏
decreases ✎❢ ✤✤
to 33 ✴ ♦
°
°/,,♦♦. ✦
⑤✇⑥❴❵⑦❫♣q ❝❥②❣
Calcium
❨✇❬⑧❫♣q 0.41
t❥✉❝ ✩✑✠average
The ☞r✠✗☞✒✠ salinity ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚ ❢✛ of ✎✑✠ ✘✎✕☞✖✎✍✙ ✫✙✠☞✖
the Atlantic Ocean
Potassium
⑨❭①✇⑦⑦❫♣q 0.38
t❥⑩❣ ✍✏ around ✤✐
is ☞✗❢❡✖✡ 36 ♦✴ °/,,
♦♦✮ ✩✑✠
The ✑✍✒✑✠✏✎
highest ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
salinity ✍✏
is
Bicarbonate
❶❫⑧✇❪❷❭❴✇①❵ 0.14
t❥❝✉ ✗✠✙❢✗✡✠✡
recorded between ❤✠✎✱✠✠✖ ✔✥❛ 15° ☞✖✡ and ✭✢❛ 20° ✕☞✎✍✎❡✡✠✏✦
latitudes.
▼☞✬✍✜❡✜ salinity ✯✤s ♦✴ ✰ ✍✏
Bromine
❶❪❭q❫❴❵ 0.06
t❥t③ Maximum ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚ (87°/,) ♦♦ is ❢❤✏✠✗r✠✡
observed between❤✠✎✱✠✠✖
Beer
❶❭❪✇①❵ 0.02
t❥t② ✭✢❛ ✷ ☞✖✡ ✤✢❛ ✷ ☞✖✡ ✭✢❛ ✲
20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W. It gradually ✣ ✐✢❛ ✲✦ ✧✎ ✒✗☞✡❡☞✕✕✚
♠①❪❭❴①❫♣q
Siaoraviannn t❥t❝
0.01 ✡✠✙✗✠☞✏✠✏
decreases ✎❢✱☞✗✡✏towards ✎✑✠ the ✖❢✗✎✑✦
north. The ✩✑✠ ✷❢✗✎✑
North ☛✠☞✌Sea,
✍✖ spite ❢✛
in ✏★✍✎✠ of ✍✎✏its ✕❢✙☞✎✍❢✖
location ✍✖ in ✑✍✒✑✠✗
higher ✕☞✎✍✎❡✡✠✏✌
latitudes,
✗✠✙❢✗✡✏
records ✑✍✒✑✠✗
higher ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
salinity ✡❡✠ due ✎❢ to ✜❢✗✠
more ✏☞✕✍✖✠ ✱☞✎✠✗
saline water
❾❿➀➁➂❿➃➄➅➆
HorIzonTAL ➇➁➈➄➀➁➉➊➄➁❿➃
DISTRIBUTION ❿➋
OF ➌➅➆➁➃➁➄➍
SALINITY ❤✗❢❡✒✑✎
brought by ❤✚ ✎✑✠
the ✷❢✗✎✑ ✘✎✕☞✖✎✍✙ ❜✗✍✛✎✦
North Atlantic Drift. ✳☞✕✎✍✙
Baltic ☛✠☞ Sea
✩✑✠ ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
The salinity ✛❢✗ normal ❢★✠✖
for ✖❢✗✜☞✕ open ❢✙✠☞✖
ocean ✗☞✖✒✠✏
ranges ✗✠✙❢✗✡✏
records ✕❢✱low ✏☞✕✍✖✍✎✚
salinity ✡❡✠ due ✎❢ influx ❢✛
to ✍✖✛✕❡✬ of ✗✍r✠✗ ✱☞✎✠✗✏
river waters
❤✠✎✱✠✠✖ ✤✤ ♦✴ , ☞✖✡ 37 ♦°/,.
between 33°/ ♦♦ and ✤s ✴♦♦ ✦ ✧✖
In ✎✑✠
the ✕☞✖✡
land ✕❢✙❺✠✡
locked ✍✖ large ✵❡☞✖✎✍✎✚✦
in ✕☞✗✒✠ quantity. The ✩✑✠ ▼✠✡✍✎✠✗✗☞✖✠☞✖
Mediterranean ☛✠☞ Sea
✶✶✑
118 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

I
180°

wn
“Wy
we &
4
:
eu) 35
—" Tropic of Capricom

Te Se
ee CE
NL a ee
ATA
RE TEED ~ 93330 3990 Km
180° 90° 0° 90° 180°
I I rT 1

●❍■❏❑▲▼◆❖P
Figure13.5 ◗: ❘❏❑❢❯❲▲
Surface ❳❯❨❍❩❍❬❭
salinity ❪❢
of ❬❫▲ ❴❪❑❨❵❛❳ ❝❲▲❯❩❳
the World’s Oceans

r✒✓✔r✕✖
records ✗✘✙✗✒r
higher ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✕✤✒
due ✢✔ to ✗✘✙✗
high ✒✥✚✦✔r✚✢✘✔✜✧
evaporation. ✩✚✢✒r ✢✔
water to ✘✓✒
ice ✔ror ✒✥✚✦✔r✚✢✘✔✜★
evaporation, ✔r or ✕✒✓r✒✚✖✒✕
decreased ✭✣ by
Salinity ✘✖★
❙✚✛✘✜✘✢✣ is, ✗✔✩✒✥✒r★
however, very✥✒r✣ ✛✔✩
low ✘✜in ✱✛✚✓✪
Black ❙✒✚Sea ✕✤✒
due ✢✗✒
the ✘✜✦✤✢
input ✔✫ of ✫r✒✖✗ ✩✚✢✒r✖★ ✖✤✓✗
fresh waters, such ✚✖as ✫r✔t
from ✢✗✒ the
✢✔
to ✒✜✔rt✔✤✖
enormous ✫r✒✖✗ ✩✚✢✒r ✘✜✫✛✤✬
fresh water influx ✭✣ by r✘✥✒r✖✧
rivers. ❙✒✒
See r✘✥✒r✖✧ Salinity ✚✢
rivers. ❙✚✛✘✜✘✢✣ at ✕✒✦✢✗
depth ✘✖ ✥✒r✣ t✤✓✗
is very much ✫✘✬✒✕★
fixed,
✢✗✒ ✚✢✛✚✖ ✢✔ ✫✘✜✕ ✔✤✢ ✢✗✒ r✘✥✒r✖ ✮✔✘✜✘✜✙ ✱✛✚✓✪
the atlas to find out the rivers joining Black Sea. ❙✒✚✧ ✭✒✓✚✤✖✒
because ✢✗✒r✒
there ✘✖
is ✜✔
no ✩✚✣
way ✢✗✚✢
that ✩✚✢✒r
water ✘✖
is ❞✛✔✖✢✺★
‘lost’, ✔r
or
❚✗✒ ✚✥✒r✚✙✒ ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣ ✔✫ ✢✗✒ ✯✜✕✘✚✜
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is ✰✓✒✚✜ ✘✖ ✢✗✒ ✖✚✛✢ ✘✖ ❞✚✕✕✒✕✧✺ ❚✗✒r✒ ✘✖ ✚ t✚r✪✒✕
the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference ✕✘✫✫✒r✒✜✓✒
35 ♦°/,,
✸✲ ❚✗✒ ✛✔✩
✴♦♦✳ The low ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✢r✒✜✕
trend ✘✖ is ✔✭✖✒r✥✒✕
observed ✘✜ in ✘✜
in ✢✗✒
the ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✭✒✢✩✒✒✜
between ✢✗✒ the ✖✤r✫✚✓✒ zones ✚✜✕
surface ✐✔✜✒✖ and
✢✗✒ Bay ✔✫
the ✱✚✣ Bengal ✕✤✒
of ✱✒✜✙✚✛ due ✢✔to ✘✜✫✛✤✬
influx ✔✫ of r✘✥✒r ✩✚✢✒r ✢✗✒
river water the ✕✒✒✦ zones ✔✫
deep ✐✔✜✒✖ of ✢✗✒
the ✔✓✒✚✜✖✧
oceans. The ❚✗✒ ✛✔✩✒r
lower ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity
✭✣
by ✢✗✒
the r✘✥✒r
river ❜✚✜✙✚✧
Ganga. ✰✜ On ✢✗✒ the ✓✔✜✢r✚r✣★
contrary, ✢✗✒ the ✩✚✢✒r r✒✖✢✖
water rests ✚✭✔✥✒above ✢✗✒ the ✗✘✙✗✒r
higher ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✕✒✜✖✒
dense
❆r✚✭✘✚✜ ❙✒✚
Arabian Sea ✖✗✔✩✖
shows ✗✘✙✗✒r
higher ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✕✤✒due ✢✔to ✗✘✙✗
high water. Salinity, ✙✒✜✒r✚✛✛✣★
✩✚✢✒r✧ ❙✚✛✘✜✘✢✣★ generally, ✘✜✓r✒✚✖✒✖ ✩✘✢✗ ✕✒✦✢✗
increases with depth
✒✥✚✦✔r✚✢✘✔✜
evaporation ✚✜✕ and ✛✔✩
low ✘✜✫✛✤✬
influx ✔✫of ✫r✒✖✗ ✩✚✢✒r✧ ✵✘✙✤r✒
fresh water. Figure ✚✜✕
and ✢✗✒r✒
there ✘✖ is ✚a ✕✘✖✢✘✜✓✢
distinct ✐✔✜✒zone ✓✚✛✛✒✕
called ✢✗✒
the ❤❣❥❦❧❥♠♥♣q
haloeline,
✷✸✧✲
13.5 ✖✗✔✩✖
shows ✢✗✒ the ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✔✫of ✢✗✒ ✹✔r✛✕✺✖ ✔✓✒✚✜✖✧
the World’s oceans. ✩✗✒r✒ ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
where salinity ✘✜✓r✒✚✖✒✖
increases ✖✗✚r✦✛✣✧
sharply. ✰✢✗✒r
Other ✫✚✓✢✔r✖
factors
✭✒✘✜✙ ✓✔✜✖✢✚✜✢★ ✘✜✓r✒✚✖✘✜✙ ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
being constant, increasing salinity of seawater ✔✫ ✖✒✚✩✚✢✒r
❱❡✻✼✽✾✿❀ ❁✽❂✼✻✽❃❄✼✽❅❇
Vertical Distribution ❅❈ of ❉✿❀✽❇✽✼❊
Salinity ✓✚✤✖✒✖
causes ✘✢✖ its ✕✒✜✖✘✢✣
density ✢✔ to ✘✜✓r✒✚✖✒✧
increase. s✘✙✗ High ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity
Salinity ✓✗✚✜✙✒✖
❙✚✛✘✜✘✢✣ changes with ✩✘✢✗ ✕✒✦✢✗★
depth, ✭✤✢ but ✢✗✒ ✩✚✣ ✘✢
the way it ✖✒✚✩✚✢✒r★
seawater, ✙✒✜✒r✚✛✛✣★
generally, ✖✘✜✪✖ sinks ✭✒✛✔✩
below ✢✗✒the ✛✔✩✒r
lower
✓✗✚✜✙✒✖ ✕✒✦✒✜✕✖ ✤✦✔✜ ✢✗✒ ✛✔✓✚✢✘✔✜
changes depends upon the location of the sea. ✔✫ ✢✗✒ ✖✒✚✧ ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣
salinity ✩✚✢✒r✧
water. ❚✗✘✖
This ✛✒✚✕✖
leads ✢✔
to ✖✢r✚✢✘✫✘✓✚✢✘✔✜
stratification ✭✣
by
❙✚✛✘✜✘✢✣ ✚✢ ✢✗✒ ✖✤r✫✚✓✒ ✘✜✓r✒✚✖✒✖ ✭✣
Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of ✢✗✒ ✛✔✖✖ ✔✫ ✖✚✛✘✜✘✢✣✧
salinity.

—____ ✉✈✉✇①②③✉③
EXERCISES __

④⑤
1. ⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩❶⑧❷
Multiple ❸❹❺⑩❸❷
choice ❻⑦❷❼⑨⑩❺❽❼⑤
questions.
❾⑩❿
(i) ➀➁❷❽⑨⑩➂➃
Identify ⑨❹❷
the ❷⑧❷➄❷❽⑨ ➅❹⑩❸❹ ⑩❼
element which is ❽❺⑨
not ➆a ❶➆➇⑨
part ❺➂
of ⑨❹❷
the ❹➃➁➇❺⑧❺➈⑩❸➆⑧
hydrological ❸➃❸⑧❷
cycle
❾➆❿
(a) ➉➊➆❶❺➇➆⑨⑩❺❽
Evaporation ❾❸❿
(c) ➋➇❷❸⑩❶⑩⑨➆⑨⑩❺❽
Precipitation

❾➌❿
(b) ➍➃➁➇➆⑨⑩❺❽
Hydration ❾➁❿
(d) ➎❺❽➁❷❽❼➆⑨⑩❺❽
Condensation
❲❆❚ ✁ ✂✄☎
WATER ❆✆✝✞
(OCEANS) ✶✶✟
119

✭✠✠✡ ☛☞✌ ✍✎✌✏✍✑✌

(ii) The average ✒✌✓✔☞ depth ✕✖ of ✗✕✘✔✠✘✌✘✔✍✙
continental ✚✙✕✓✌ ✎✍✏✠✌✚ between
slope varies ✛✌✔✜✌✌✘
✭✍✡
(a) ✢✣✢✤✥
2-20m ✭✗✡
(c) ✢✤✣✢✤✤✥
20-200m

✭✛✡
(b) ✢✤✤✣✢✦✤✤✤✥
200-2,000m ✭✒✡
(d) ✢✦✤✤✤✣✢✤✦✤✤✤✥
2,000-20,000m
✭✠✠✠✡ ✧☞✠✗☞ ✕✘✌
(iii) Which one ✕✖ of ✔☞✌
the ✖✕✙✙✕✜✠✘✑
following ✠✚ is ✘✕✔
not ✍ a ✥✠✘✕✏
minor ✏✌✙✠✌✖
relief ✖✌✍✔★✏✌
feature ✠✘
in ✔☞✌
the ✕✗✌✍✘✚✩
oceans:
✭✍✡
(a) ✪✌✍✥✕★✘✔
Seamount ✭✗✡
(c) ✫✗✌✍✘✠✗
Oceanic ✬✌✌✓ Deep

✭✛✡ ✮✔✕✙✙
(b) Atoll ✭✒✡
(d) ●★✯✕✔
Guyot

✭✠✎✡ Salinity ✠✚
(iv) ✪✍✙✠✘✠✔✯ is ✌❙✓✏✌✚✚✌✒
expressed ✍✚ as ✔☞✌
the ✍✥✕★✘✔
amount ✕✖ of ✚✍✙✔
salt ✠✘
in ✑✏✍✥✚
grams ✒✠✚✚✕✙✎✌✒
dissolved ✠✘in ✚✌✍
sea
✜✍✔✌✏ ✓✌✏
water per

✭✍✡ 10 ✑✥
(a) ✰✤ gm ✭✗✡ 100 ✑✥
(c) ✰✤✤ gm
✭✛✡ 1,000 ✑✥
(b) ✰✦✤✤✤ gm ✭✒✡ 10,000 ✑✥
(d) ✰✤✦✤✤✤ gm
✭✎✡
(v) ✧☞✠✗☞ ✕✘✌
Which one ✕✖ of ✔☞✌
the ✖✕✙✙✕✜✠✘✑
following ✠✚ is ✔☞✌
the ✚✥✍✙✙✌✚✔
smallest ✕✗✌✍✘✩
ocean:
✭✍✡
(a) ✱✘✒✠✍✘
Indian ✫✗✌✍✘Ocean ✭✗✡ ✮✔✙✍✘✔✠✗ ✫✗✌✍✘
(c) Atlantic Ocean

✭✛✡ ✮✏✗✔✠✗ ✫✗✌✍✘

(b) Arctic Ocean ✭✒✡
(d) ✲✍✗✠✖✠✗
Pacific ✫✗✌✍✘
Ocean

✢✷
2. ✮✘✚✜✌✏ ✔☞✌
Answer the ✖✕✙✙✕✜✠✘✑ questions ✠✘
following ✳★✌✚✔✠✕✘✚ in ✍✛✕★✔
about ✴✤ ✜✕✏✒✚✷
30 words.
✭✠✡ ✧☞✯ ✒✕
(i) Why ✜✌ ✗✍✙✙
do we call ✔☞✌
the ✌✍✏✔☞
earth ✍ a ✵✙★✌
Blue ✲✙✍✘✌✔✸
Planet?
✭✠✠✡ ✧☞✍✔ ✠✚
(ii) What is ✍a ✗✕✘✔✠✘✌✘✔✍✙
continental ✥✍✏✑✠✘✸ margin?
✭✠✠✠✡ List ✕★✔
(iii) ▲✠✚✔ out ✔☞✌
the ✒✌✌✓✌✚✔
deepest ✔✏✌✘✗☞✌✚
trenches ✕✖ ✎✍✏✠✕★✚ ✕✗✌✍✘✚✷
of various oceans.
✭✠✎✡
(iv) ✧☞✍✔ ✠✚
What is ✍a ✔☞✌✏✥✕✗✙✠✘✌✸
thermocline?
✭✎✡
(v ) ✧☞✌✘ you
When ✯✕★ ✥✕✎✌
move ✠✘✔✕into ✔☞✌the ✕✗✌✍✘
ocean what ✜☞✍✔ ✔☞✌✏✥✍✙
thermal ✙✍✯✌✏✚ ✜✕★✙✒ you
layers would ✯✕★ ✌✘✗✕★✘✔✌✏✸
encounter?
✧☞✯ ✔☞✌
Why the ✔✌✥✓✌✏✍✔★✏✌
temperature varies ✎✍✏✠✌✚ with✜✠✔☞ ✒✌✓✔☞✸
depth?
✭✎✠✡
(vi) ✧☞✍✔ ✠✚
What is ✚✍✙✠✘✠✔✯
salinity ✕✖ of ✚✌✍ ✜✍✔✌✏✸
sea water?
✴✷
3. ✮✘✚✜✌✏ ✔☞✌
Answer the ✖✕✙✙✕✜✠✘✑ questions ✠✘
following ✳★✌✚✔✠✕✘✚ in ✍✛✕★✔
about ✰✹✤ ✜✕✏✒✚✷
150 words.
✭✠✡
(i) How ✍✏✌
❍✕✜ ✎✍✏✠✕★✚ ✌✙✌✥✌✘✔✚
are various elements ✕✖
of ✔☞✌
the ☞✯✒✏✕✙✕✑✠✗✍✙
hydrological ✗✯✗✙✌
cycle ✠✘✔✌✏✏✌✙✍✔✌✒✸
interrelated?
✭✠✠✡
(ii) Examine ✔☞✌
❊❙✍✥✠✘✌ the ✖✍✗✔✕✏✚
factors ✔☞✍✔
that ✠✘✖✙★✌✘✗✌
influence ✔☞✌
the ✔✌✥✓✌✏✍✔★✏✌
temperature ✒✠✚✔✏✠✛★✔✠✕✘
distribution ✕✖
of ✔☞✌
the
✕✗✌✍✘✚✷
oceans.

Pr♦✺✻✼✽ ✾♦r✿
Project Work
✭✠✡
(i) Consult ✔☞✌
❈✕✘✚★✙✔ the ✍✔✙✍✚
atlas ✍✘✒
and ✚☞✕✜
show ✕✗✌✍✘
ocean ✖✙✕✕✏
floor ✏✌✙✠✌✖
relief ✕✘
on ✔☞✌
the ✕★✔✙✠✘✌
outline ✕✖
of ✔☞✌ ✜✕✏✙✒
the world
✥✍✓✷
map.
✭✠✠✡
(ii) Identify ✔☞✌
✱✒✌✘✔✠✖✯ the ✍✏✌✍✚
areas ✕✖
of ✥✠✒
mid ✕✗✌✍✘✠✗
oceanic ✏✠✒✑✌✚
ridges ✖✏✕✥
from ✔☞✌
the ✱✘✒✠✍✘
Indian ✫✗✌✍✘✷
Ocean.
❃CHAPTER
❄❅❇❉❊●

▼❖ ✁✂✁✄☎✆ ❖✝
MOVEMENTS OF ✥❈✁✞✄ ✟✞☎✁❚
OCEAN WATER

❤✡
he ☛☞✡✌✍
ocean water✎✌✏✡✑ ✒✓is ✔✕✍✌✖✒☞✗
dynamic. ✘✏✓ Its ✙❤✕✓✒☞✌✚
physical ✎✌✐✡✚✡✍❛✏❤ ☛❢ ✏❤✡ ✎✌✐✡✜ ✏❤✡ ✎✌✐✡ ✣✑✡✌❝✓✗ ✳❤✡
wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The
☞❤✌✑✌☞✏✡✑✒✓✏✒☞✓
characteristics ✚✒❝✡ like ✏✡✖✙✡✑✌✏✛✑✡✜
temperature, ✚✌✑❛✡✓✏ ✎✌✐✡✓ ✌✑✡ ❢☛✛✍✔ ✒✍ ✏❤✡ ☛✙✡✍ ☛☞✡✌✍✓✗
largest waves are found in the open oceans.
✠ ✓✌✚✒✍✒✏✕✜ salinity, ✔✡✍✓✒✏✕density ✌✍✔ and ✏❤✡ the ✡s✏✡✑✍✌✚
external ✤✌✐✡✓ ☞☛✍✏✒✍✛✡ ✏☛ ❛✑☛✎ ✚✌✑❛✡✑ ✌✓ ✏❤✡✕ ✖☛✐✡
Waves continue to grow larger as they move
❢☛✑☞✡✓ ✚✒❝✡ ☛❢ ✏❤✡ ✓✛✍✜ ✖☛☛✍
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds ✌✍✔ ✏❤✡ ✎✒✍✔✓ ✌✍✔ ✌✣✓☛✑✣ ✡✍✡✑❛✕ ❢✑☛✖ ✏❤✡ ✎✒✍✔✗
and absorb energy from the wind.
✒✍❢✚✛✡✍☞✡
influence ✏❤✡ the ✖☛✐✡✖✡✍✏
movement ☛❢ of ☛☞✡✌✍ ✎✌✏✡✑✗ The
ocean water. ✳❤✡ ✪☛✓✏ ☛❢ ✏❤✡ ✎✌✐✡✓ ✌✑✡ ☞✌✛✓✡✔ ✣✕ ✏❤✡ ✎✒✍✔
Most of the waves are caused by the wind
❤☛✑✒✢☛✍✏✌✚
horizontal ✌✍✔ ✐✡✑✏✒☞✌✚ ✖☛✏✒☛✍✓
and vertical motions ✌✑✡ are ☞☛✖✖☛✍
common ✔✑✒✐✒✍❛ ✌❛✌✒✍✓✏ ✎✌✏✡✑✗ ✤❤✡✍ ✌ ✣✑✡✡✢✡ ☛❢ ✏✎☛
driving against water. When a breeze of two
✒✍
in ☛☞✡✌✍ ✎✌✏✡✑ ✣☛✔✒✡✓✗
ocean water bodies. The ✳❤✡ ❤☛✑✒✢☛✍✏✌✚
horizontal ✖☛✏✒☛✍ motion ❝✍☛✏✓ ☛✑ ✚✡✓✓ ✣✚☛✎✓ ☛✐✡✑ ☞✌✚✖ ✎✌✏✡✑✜ ✓✖✌✚✚
knots or less blows over calm water, small
✑✡❢✡✑✓
refers ✏☛ to ✏❤✡
the ☛☞✡✌✍
ocean ☞✛✑✑✡✍✏✓
currents ✌✍✔ ✎✌✐✡✓✗ The
and waves. ✳❤✡ ✑✒✙✙✚✡✓ ❢☛✑✖ ✌✍✔ ❛✑☛✎ ✌✓ ✏❤✡ ✎✒✍✔ ✓✙✡✡✔
ripples form and grow as the wind speed
✐✡✑✏✒☞✌✚ ✖☛✏✒☛✍
vertical motion ✑✡❢✡✑✓refers ✏☛ to ✏✒✔✡✓✗
tides. ✈☞✡✌✍
Ocean ☞✛✑✑✡✍✏✓
currents ✒✍☞✑✡✌✓✡✓ ✛✍✏✒✚ ✎❤✒✏✡ ☞✌✙✓ ✌✙✙✡✌✑ ✒✍ ✏❤✡
increases until white caps appear in the
✌✑✡
are ✏❤✡ the ☞☛✍✏✒✍✛☛✛✓
continuous ❢✚☛✎ flow ☛❢ of ❤✛❛✡huge ✌✖☛✛✍✏
amount ☛❢ of ✣✑✡✌❝✒✍❛ ✎✌✐✡✓✗ ✤✌✐✡✓ ✖✌✕ ✏✑✌✐✡✚ ✏❤☛✛✓✌✍✔✓
breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands
✎✌✏✡✑ ✒✍ ✌ ✔✡❢✒✍✒✏✡ ✔✒✑✡☞✏✒☛✍
water in a definite direction hil¢ the waves ✎❤✒✚✡ ✏❤✡ ✎✌✐✡✓ ☛❢ ❝✖ ✣✡❢☛✑✡ ✑☛✚✚✒✍❛ ✌✓❤☛✑✡✜ ✣✑✡✌❝✒✍❛ ✌✍✔
of km before rolling ashore, breaking and
✌✑✡
are ✏❤✡❤☛✑✒✢☛✍✏✌✚
the horizontal ✖☛✏✒☛✍ motion ☛❢✎✌✏✡✑✗
of water! Water✤✌✏✡✑ ✖☛✐✡✓ moves ✔✒✓✓☛✚✐✒✍❛ ✌✓ ✓✛✑❢✗
dissolving as surf.
✌❤✡✌✔
ahead ❢✑☛✖☛✍✡
from one ✙✚✌☞✡ place ✏☛ to ✌✍☛✏❤✡✑
another ✏❤✑☛✛❛❤ through ☛☞✡✌✍
ocean ✩ ✎✌✐✡✫✓ ✓✒✢✡ ✌✍✔ ✓❤✌✙✡ ✑✡✐✡✌✚ ✒✏✓ ☛✑✒❛✒✍✗
A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin.
☞✛✑✑✡✍✏✓
currents while ✎❤✒✚✡ ✏❤✡ ✎✌✏✡✑ ✒✍
the water in ✏❤✡ ✎✌✐✡✓ ✔☛✡✓
the waves does ✍☛✏
not ❙✏✡✡✙ ✎✌✐✡✓ ✌✑✡ ❢✌✒✑✚✕ ✕☛✛✍❛ ☛✍✡✓ ✌✍✔ ✌✑✡
Steep waves are fairly young ones and are
✖☛✐✡✜
move, ✣✛✏ but ✏❤✡
the wave✎✌✐✡ ✏✑✌✒✍✓
trains ✖☛✐✡ move ✌❤✡✌✔✗ahead. The ✳❤✡ ✙✑☛✣✌✣✚✕ ❢☛✑✖✡✔ ✣✕ ✚☛☞✌✚ ✎✒✍✔✗ ❙✚☛✎ ✌✍✔
probably formed by local wind. Slow and
✐✡✑✏✒☞✌✚ ✖☛✏✒☛✍
vertical motion ✑✡❢✡✑✓
refers ✏☛ to ✏❤✡✑✒✓✡✌✍✔
the rise and ❢✌✚✚☛❢✎✌✏✡✑
fall of water ✓✏✡✌✔✕ ✎✌✐✡✓ ☛✑✒❛✒✍✌✏✡ ❢✑☛✖ ❢✌✑ ✌✎✌✕ ✙✚✌☞✡✓✜
steady waves originate from far away places,
✒✍
in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction ☛❢
✏❤✡ ☛☞✡✌✍✓ ✌✍✔ ✓✡✌✓✗ ✦✛✡ ✏☛ ✌✏✏✑✌☞✏✒☛✍ of ✙☛✓✓✒✣✚✕ ❢✑☛✖ ✌✍☛✏❤✡✑ ❤✡✖✒✓✙❤✡✑✡✗ ✳❤✡
possibly from another hemisphere. The
✏❤✡
the ✓✛✍sun ✌✍✔
and ✏❤✡
the ✖☛☛✍✜
moon, ✏❤✡☛☞✡✌✍
the ocean water ✎✌✏✡✑ ✒✓✑✌✒✓✡✔
is raised ✖✌s✒✖✛✖ ✎✌✐✡ ❤✡✒❛❤✏ ✒✓ ✔✡✏✡✑✖✒✍✡✔ ✣✕ ✏❤✡
maximum wave height is determined by the
✛✙
up ✌✍✔and ❢✌✚✚✓
falls ✔☛✎✍
down ✏✎✒☞✡ twice ✌ a ✔✌✕✗
day. The✳❤✡ ✛✙✎✡✚✚✒✍❛
upwelling ✓✏✑✡✍❛✏❤ ☛❢ ✏❤✡ ✎✒✍✔✜ ✒✗✡✗ ❤☛✎ ✚☛✍❛ ✒✏ ✣✚☛✎✓ ✌✍✔
strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and
☛❢of ☞☛✚✔ ✎✌✏✡✑ ❢✑☛✖
cold water from ✓✛✣✓✛✑❢✌☞✡
subsurface ✌✍✔ and ✏❤✡ the ✓✒✍❝✒✍❛
sinking ✏❤✡ ✌✑✡✌☛✐✡✑ ✎❤✒☞❤ ✒✏✣✚☛✎✓ ✒✍ ✌ ✓✒✍❛✚✡✔✒✑✡☞✏✒☛✍✗
the area over which it blows in a single direction.
☛❢of ✓✛✑❢✌☞✡
surface water✎✌✏✡✑ ✌✑✡ are ✌✚✓☛also ❢☛✑✖✓
forms ☛❢ ✐✡✑✏✒☞✌✚
of vertical ✤✌✐✡✓ ✏✑✌✐✡✚ ✣✡☞✌✛✓✡ ✎✒✍✔ ✙✛✓❤✡✓ ✏❤✡
Waves travel because wind pushes the
✖☛✏✒☛✍
motion ☛❢ of ☛☞✡✌✍
ocean water.✎✌✏✡✑✗ ✎✌✏✡✑ ✣☛✔✕ ✒✍ ✒✏✓ ☞☛✛✑✓✡ ✎❤✒✚✡ ❛✑✌✐✒✏✕ ✙✛✚✚✓ ✏❤✡
water body in its course while gravity pulls the
☞✑✡✓✏✓☛❢ ✏❤✡✎✌✐✡✓✔☛✎✍✎✌✑✔✗ ✳❤✡ ❢✌✚✚✒✍❛✎✌✏✡✑
crests of the waves downward. The falling water
❲❆❱✧★
Waves ✙✛✓❤✡✓ ✏❤✡ ❢☛✑✖✡✑ ✏✑☛✛❛❤✓ ✛✙✎✌✑✔✜ ✌✍✔ ✏❤✡
pushes the former troughs upward, and the
✤✌✐✡✓ ✌✑✡
Waves are ✌☞✏✛✌✚✚✕
actually ✏❤✡ the ✡✍✡✑❛✕✜
energy, ✍☛✏ not ✏❤✡ ✎✌✏✡✑
the water
✌✓ ✓✛☞❤✜✎❤✒☞❤ ✖☛✐✡✓ ✌☞✑☛✓✓
as such, which moves across the ocean surface. ✏❤✡☛☞✡✌✍ ✓✛✑❢✌☞✡✗ . Crest Crest
✤✌✏✡✑ ✙✌✑✏✒☞✚✡✓
Water particles ☛✍✚✕ only ✏✑✌✐✡✚
travel ✒✍ in ✌a ✓✖✌✚✚
small ☞✒✑☞✚✡circle ✌✓asa✌
Wave travelling
toward the =>
falling falling
✎✌✐✡ ✙✌✓✓✡✓✗
wave passes. Wind ✤✒✍✔ ✙✑☛✐✒✔✡✓
provides ✡✍✡✑❛✕ energy ✏☛ to ✏❤✡
the right
J ¥
✎✌✐✡✓✗✤✒✍✔
waves. Wind ☞✌✛✓✡✓✎✌✐✡✓
causes waves ✏☛ to ✏✑✌✐✡✚
travel ✒✍in ✏❤✡☛☞✡✌✍
the ocean
✌✍✔
and ✏❤✡the ✡✍✡✑❛✕
energy ✒✓ is ✑✡✚✡✌✓✡✔
released ☛✍ on ✓❤☛✑✡✚✒✍✡✓✗
shorelines. The ✳❤✡
✖☛✏✒☛✍
motion ☛❢ of ✏❤✡
the ✓✛✑❢✌☞✡
surface water ✎✌✏✡✑ ✓✡✚✔☛✖
seldom ✌❢❢✡☞✏✓
affects ✏❤✡ the
Se \ J)
✓✏✌❛✍✌✍✏
stagnant ✔✡✡✙ deep ✣☛✏✏☛✖
bottom water ✎✌✏✡✑ ☛❢of ✏❤✡the ☛☞✡✌✍✓✗
oceans. As ✩✓
✌a wave
✎✌✐✡ ✌✙✙✑☛✌☞❤✡✓ ✏❤✡ ✣✡✌☞❤✜
approaches the beach, it slows down. ✒✏ ✓✚☛✎✓ ✔☛✎✍✗
✳❤✒✓ ✒✓is ✔✛✡
This due ✏☛ to ✏❤✡
the ❢✑✒☞✏✒☛✍
friction ☛☞☞✛✑✑✒✍❛
occurring ✣✡✏✎✡✡✍ between
Trough Trough

✏❤✡✔✕✍✌✖✒☞
the dynamic water ✎✌✏✡✑ ✌✍✔ and ✏❤✡ the ✓✡✌
sea ❢✚☛☛✑✗ ✩✍✔✜ when
floor. And, ✎❤✡✍ rising rising

✏❤✡
the ✔✡✙✏❤depth ☛❢ ✎✌✏✡✑ ✒✓is ✚✡✓✓
of water less ✏❤✌✍ than ❤✌✚❢ half ✏❤✡
the ❋✬✭✮✯✰✱✲✴✱
Figure14.1 ✵: ✶✷✸✬✷✹
Motion ✷✺
of ✻✼✽✰✾
waves ✼✹✿✻✼✸✰✯
and water ❀✷❁✰❂✮❁✰✾
molecules
▼ ✁✂▼✂✄☎✆ OF✝ OCEAN
MOVEMENTS ✞✂✟✄ WATER
✠✟☎✂❚ ✶✡✶
121

✇☛☞✌ ✍✎☞✌✏
wave moves ✑✎
to ☛
a ✒✌✇
new ✓✎✏✔✑✔✎✒
position ✕✖✔✗✘✙✌
(Figure ✚✛✜✚✢✜
14.1). ☛✑✑✙☛✥✑✔✎✒
attraction ✎✧ of ✑✤✌
the ✍✎✎✒
moon ✔✏ is ✦✌✏✏
less ☛✏ as ✔✑it ✔✏
is ✧☛✙✑✤✌✙
farther
✣✤✌ ☛✥✑✘☛✦
The actual ✍✎✑✔✎✒
motion ✎✧ of ✑✤✌ ✇☛✑✌✙ beneath
the water ★✌✒✌☛✑✤ ✑✤✌ the ☛✇☛♣❛
away, ✑✤✌the ✥✌✒✑✙✔✧✘✗☛✦
centrifugal ✧✎✙✥✌ force ✥☛✘✏✌✏
causes ✑✔✩☛✦ ★✘✦✗✌
tidal bulge
✇☛☞✌✏ ✔✏
waves circular. ✳✑
is ✥✔✙✥✘✦☛✙✜ It ✔✒✩✔✥☛✑✌✏
indicates ✑✤☛✑
that ✑✤✔✒✗✏
things ☛✙✌
are ✎✒
on ✑✤✌
the ✎✑✤✌✙
other ✏✔✩✌side ✕✖✔✗✘✙✌
(Figure ✚✛✜❷✢✜
14.2).
✥☛✙✙✔✌✩
carried ✘✓ up ☛✒✩
and ✧✎✙✇☛✙✩
forward ☛✏ as ✑✤✌ ✇☛☞✌
the wave ✣✤✌ ❸✑✔✩✌❹✗✌✒✌✙☛✑✔✒✗⑧
The ‘tide-generating’ ✧✎✙✥✌ force ✔✏ the ✩✔✧✧✌✙✌✒✥✌
is ✑✤✌ difference
☛✓✓✙✎☛✥✤✌✏❛
approaches, ☛✒✩and ✩✎✇✒
down ☛✒✩ ★☛✥✪ ☛✏
and back as ✔✑
it ✓☛✏✏✌✏✜
passes. ★✌✑✇✌✌✒ ✑✤✌✏✌
between these ✑✇✎ two ✧✎✙✥✌✏❺
forces; ✔✜✌✜
i.e. ✑✤✌
the ✗✙☛☞✔✑☛✑✔✎✒☛✦
gravitational
☛✑✑✙☛✥✑✔✎✒
attraction ✎✧ of ✑✤✌
the ✍✎✎✒
moon ☛✒✩ and ✑✤✌the ✥✌✒✑✙✔✧✘✗☛✦
centrifugal ✧✎✙✥✌✜ force.
❈✫✬✭✬✮✯✰✭✱✲✯✱✮✲
Characteristics ✴✵ ✷✬✸✰✲
of Waves ❶✒ ✑✤✌ ✏✘✙✧☛✥✌ ✎✧ ✑✤✌ ✌☛✙✑✤❛ ✒✌☛✙✌✏✑
On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon, ✑✤✌ ✍✎✎✒❛
❲✹✺✻
Wave ✼✽✻❡✾
crest ✹✿❀
and ✾✽♦❁❂❃
trough ❄: The ❅❆❇ ❆❉❊❆❇❋●
highest ❍■❏ and ✓✘✦✦
pull ✎✙
or ✑✤✌
the ☛✑✑✙☛✥✑✔☞✌
attractive ✧✎✙✥✌
force ✎✧of ✑✤✌
the ✍✎✎✒
moon ✔✏ is ✗✙✌☛✑✌✙
greater
❧❑▲❇❋●
lowest ◆❑❉■●❋
points ❑❖of ❍ ▲❍P❇ ❍◗❇
a wave are ❘❍❧❧❇❏
called ●❆❇the ❘◗❇❋●
crest ✑✤☛✒
than ✑✤✌
the ✥✌✒✑✙✔✧✘✗☛✦
centrifugal ✧✎✙✥✌❛ force, ☛✒✩
and ✏✎ so ✑✤✌✙✌
there ✔✏ is ☛a ✒✌✑
net
❍■❏ trough ◗❇❋◆❇❘●❉P❇❧❯❱
and ●◗❑❙❊❆ respectively. ✧✎✙✥✌
force ✥☛✘✏✔✒✗
causing ☛ ★✘✦✗✌ ✑✎✇☛✙✩✏
a bulge towards ✑✤✌ the ✍✎✎✒✜
moon. ❶✒ On
❲✹✺✻
Wave ❃✻❳❂❃✾
height ❄: ❨● It ❉❋
is ●❆❇ P❇◗●❉❘❍❧ ❏❉❋●❍■❘❇
the vertical distance ✑✤✌
the ✎✓✓✎✏✔✑✌
opposite ✏✔✩✌ side ✎✧ of ✑✤✌
the ✌☛✙✑✤❛
earth, ✑✤✌ the ☛✑✑✙☛✥✑✔☞✌
attractive
❖◗❑❢ the ❩❑●●❑❢
from ●❆❇ bottom ❑❖ of ❍ a ●◗❑❙❊❆
trough ●❑ to ●❆❇
the ●❑◆top ❑❖of ✧✎✙✥✌
force ✔✏
is ✦✌✏✏❛
less, ☛✏as ✔✑
it ✔✏
is ✧☛✙✑✤✌✙
farther ☛✇☛♣
away ✧✙✎✍ from ✑✤✌the ✍✎✎✒❛
moon,
❍a ❘◗❇❋●
crest ❑❖of ❍ ▲❍P❇❱
a wave. ✑✤✌ ✩✎✍✔✒☛✒✑✜
the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, ✑✤✌✙✌
✥✌✒✑✙✔✧✘✗☛✦ ✧✎✙✥✌ ✔✏ ❻✌✒✥✌❛ there
❲✹✺✻
Wave ✹❬❭❪❳✾❁❀✻
amplitude ❫: ❨● is ❑■❇❴❆❍❧❖
It ❉❋ one-half ❑❖ of ●❆❇ ▲❍P❇
the wave ✔✏
is ☛
a ✒✌✑
net ✧✎✙✥✌
force ☛✇☛♣away ✧✙✎✍from ✑✤✌ moon. ✳✑
the ✍✎✎✒✜ It ✥✙✌☛✑✌✏
creates
❆❇❉❊❆●❱
height. ✑✤✌
the ✏✌✥✎✒✩
second bulge ★✘✦✗✌ ☛✇☛♣away ✧✙✎✍
from ✑✤✌ the ✍✎✎✒✜
moon. ❶✒ On ✑✤✌
the
❲✹✺✻ ❭✻✽❳♦❀: ❄ ❨●
Wave period is ❢❇◗❇❧❯
It ❉❋ merely ●❆❇ the ●❉❢❇
time ❉■●❇◗P❍❧
interval
✏✘✙✧☛✥✌
surface ✎✧ of ✑✤✌
the ✌☛✙✑✤❛
earth, ✑✤✌ the ✤✎✙✔❼✎✒✑☛✦
horizontal ✑✔✩✌ tide
❩❇●▲❇❇■
between ●▲❑ two ❋❙❘❘❇❋❋❉P❇
successive wave ▲❍P❇ ❘◗❇❋●❋
crests ❑◗ or ✗✌✒✌✙☛✑✔✒✗
generating ✧✎✙✥✌✏forces ☛✙✌ are ✍✎✙✌
more ✔✍✓✎✙✑☛✒✑
important ✑✤☛✒ than ✑✤✌the
●◗❑❙❊❆❋
troughs ❍❋ they ◆❍❋❋
as ●❆❇❯ pass ❍ a ❖❉t❇❏
fixed ◆❑❉■●❱
point. ☞✌✙✑✔✥☛✦ ✧✎✙✥✌✏
vertical forces ✔✒ in ✗✌✒✌✙☛✑✔✒✗
generating ✑✤✌ the ✑✔✩☛✦ ★✘✦✗✌✏✜
tidal bulges.
❲✹✺✻❪✻✿❂✾❃
Wavelength ❄: ❨● It ❉❋
is ●❆❇
the ❆❑◗❉❵❑■●❍❧
horizontal ❏❉❋●❍■❘❇
distance
❩❇●▲❇❇■
between ●▲❑ successive ❘◗❇❋●❋❱
two ❋❙❘❘❇❋❋❉P❇ crests. Tidal bulge
❲✹✺✻
Wave ❡❭✻✻❀
speed ❄: ❨● It ❉❋ the ◗❍●❇
is ●❆❇ rate ❍● ▲❆❉❘❆ ●❆❇
at which the

Z2cn
▲❍P❇ ❢❑P❇❋
wave moves ●❆◗❑❙❊❆
through ●❆❇ ▲❍●❇◗❜ ❍■❏
the water, and ❉❋ is
❢❇❍❋❙◗❇❏
measured ❉■ in ♠■❑●❋❱
knots.
❲✹✺✻ ❝✽✻❞❁✻✿✼❣ ❄: ❨●
Wave frequency It ❉❋
is ●❆❇ number ❑❖
the ■❙❢❩❇◗ ▲❍P❇❋
of waves
◆❍❋❋❉■❊
passing ❍ given ◆❑❉■●
a ❊❉P❇■ point ❏❙◗❉■❊
during ❍ a ❑■❇❴
one-
❋❇❘❑■❏
second ●❉❢❇
time ❉■●❇◗P❍❧❱
interval.

Z2cwn
❤✐❥❦♥
TIDES

✣✤✌ ✓✌✙✔✎✩✔✥☛✦
The periodical ✙✔✏✌rise ☛✒✩
and ✧☛✦✦
fall ✎✧
of ✑✤✌
the ✏✌☛
sea ✦✌☞✌✦❛
level, ✎✒✥✌
once CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

✎✙ ✩☛♣❛ ✍☛✔✒✦♣ ✩✘✌

or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction ✎✧
✑✇✔✥✌ ☛ ✑✎ ✑✤✌ ☛✑✑✙☛✥✑✔✎✒ of Two resultant tidal bulges

✑✤✌
the ✏✘✒
sun ☛✒✩and ✑✤✌ the ✍✎✎✒❛
moon, ✔✏ is ✥☛✦✦✌✩
called a ☛ qrs✉✜tide.
✈✎☞✌✍✌✒✑
Movement ✎✧ ✇☛✑✌✙ ✥☛✘✏✌✩
of water caused by ★♣ ✍✌✑✌✎✙✎✦✎✗✔✥☛✦
meteorological

Z2cn
Earth
✌✧✧✌✥✑✏
effects ✕✇✔✒✩✏
(winds ☛✒✩ and ☛✑✍✎✏✓✤✌✙✔✥
atmospheric ✓✙✌✏✏✘✙✌ pressure
✥✤☛✒✗✌✏✢
changes) ☛✙✌ are ✥☛✦✦✌✩
called ①②③④✉①✜
surges. ⑤✘✙✗✌✏Surges ☛✙✌ are ✒✎✑not
✙✌✗✘✦☛✙
regular ✦✔✪✌
like ✑✔✩✌✏✜
tides. The ✣✤✌ ✏✑✘✩♣
study ✎✧ of ✑✔✩✌✏
tides ✔✏ ☞✌✙♣
is very Gravitational and Centrifugal Forces
✥✎✍✓✦✌⑥❛
complex, ✏✓☛✑✔☛✦✦♣
spatially ☛✒✩ and ✑✌✍✓✎✙☛✦✦♣❛
temporally, ☛✏ as ✔✑
it ✤☛✏
has ✗✙✌☛✑
great
☞☛✙✔☛✑✔✎✒✏ ✔✒
variations in ✧✙✌⑦✘✌✒✥♣❛
frequency, ✍☛✗✒✔✑✘✩✌
magnitude ☛✒✩ and ✤✌✔✗✤✑✜
height. ❽❾❿➀➁➂➃➄➅➆
Figure14.2 ➇: ➈➂➉➊➋❾➌➍ ➎➂➋➏➂➂➍ ❿➁➊➐❾➋➊➋❾➌➍➊➉
Relation between gravitational
✣✤✌ ✍✎✎✒⑧✏
The moon’s ✗✙☛☞✔✑☛✑✔✎✒☛✦
gravitational ✓✘✦✦ pull ✑✎to ☛ a ✗✙✌☛✑
great ➑➌➁➒➂➓
forces ➊➍➔
and ➋❾➔➂➓
tides
✌⑥✑✌✒✑
extent ☛✒✩and ✑✎ to ☛ a ✦✌✏✏✌✙
lesser ✌⑥✑✌✒✑extent ✑✤✌ the ✏✘✒⑧✏
sun’s
✗✙☛☞✔✑☛✑✔✎✒☛✦
gravitational ✓✘✦✦❛
pull, ☛✙✌are ✑✤✌
the ✍☛⑨✎✙
major ✥☛✘✏✌✏
causes ✧✎✙ for ✑✤✌
the ✣✤✌ ✑✔✩☛✦
The ★✘✦✗✌✏ ✎✒
tidal bulges ✇✔✩✌ ✥✎✒✑✔✒✌✒✑☛✦
on wide continental
✎✥✥✘✙✙✌✒✥✌
occurrence ✎✧ of ✑✔✩✌✏✜ ⑩✒✎✑✤✌✙ ✧☛✥✑✎✙
tides. Another factor ✔✏is ✥✌✒✑✙✔✧✘✗☛✦
centrifugal ✏✤✌✦☞✌✏❛
shelves, ✤☛☞✌
have ✗✙✌☛✑✌✙
greater ✤✌✔✗✤✑✜ →✤✌✒ ✑✔✩☛✦
height. When ★✘✦✗✌✏
tidal bulges
✧✎✙✥✌❛ ✇✤✔✥✤ ✔✏
force, which is ✑✤✌
the ✧✎✙✥✌
force ✑✤☛✑
that ☛✥✑✏acts ✑✎to ✥✎✘✒✑✌✙
counter ✤✔✑
hit the mid-oceanic islands they become ✦✎✇✜
✑✤✌ ✍✔✩❹✎✥✌☛✒✔✥ ✔✏✦☛✒✩✏ ✑✤✌♣ ★✌✥✎✍✌ low.
✑✤✌
the balance the gravity. Together, ✑✤✌
★☛✦☛✒✥✌ ✑✤✌ ✗✙☛☞✔✑♣✜ ✣✎✗✌✑✤✌✙❛ the The ✏✤☛✓✌
✣✤✌ shape ✎✧ ★☛♣✏ ☛✒✩
of bays and ✌✏✑✘☛✙✔✌✏
estuaries ☛✦✎✒✗
along ☛ a
✗✙☛☞✔✑☛✑✔✎✒☛✦
gravitational ✓✘✦✦pull ☛✒✩and ✑✤✌
the ✥✌✒✑✙✔✧✘✗☛✦
centrifugal ✧✎✙✥✌ force ☛✙✌ are ✥✎☛✏✑✦✔✒✌
coastline ✥☛✒
can ☛✦✏✎
also ✍☛✗✒✔✧♣
magnify ✑✤✌the ✔✒✑✌✒✏✔✑♣
intensity ✎✧
of ✑✔✩✌✏✜
tides.
✙✌✏✓✎✒✏✔★✦✌
responsible ✧✎✙ for ✥✙✌☛✑✔✒✗
creating ✑✤✌ the ✑✇✎two ✍☛⑨✎✙
major ✑✔✩☛✦tidal ✖✘✒✒✌✦❹✏✤☛✓✌✩
Funnel-shaped bays ★☛♣✏ ✗✙✌☛✑✦♣
greatly ✥✤☛✒✗✌
change ✑✔✩☛✦
tidal
★✘✦✗✌✏ ✎✒
bulges on ✑✤✌
the ✌☛✙✑✤✜
earth. ❶✒ On ✑✤✌the ✏✔✩✌
side ✎✧of ✑✤✌
the ✌☛✙✑✤
earth ✍☛✗✒✔✑✘✩✌✏✜
magnitudes. When →✤✌✒ ✑✤✌ the ✑✔✩✌
tide ✔✏
is ✥✤☛✒✒✌✦✦✌✩
channelled
✧☛✥✔✒✗
facing ✑✤✌
the ✍✎✎✒❛
moon, a ☛ ✑✔✩☛✦ ★✘✦✗✌ ✎✥✥✘✙✏
tidal bulge ✇✤✔✦✌ ✎✒
occurs while on ★✌✑✇✌✌✒ ✔✏✦☛✒✩✏
between islands ✎✙ or ✔✒✑✎ ★☛♣✏ ☛✒✩
into bays and ✌✏✑✘☛✙✔✌✏
estuaries
✑✤✌
the ✎✓✓✎✏✔✑✌
opposite ✏✔✩✌ side ✑✤✎✘✗✤
though ✑✤✌ the ✗✙☛☞✔✑☛✑✔✎✒☛✦
gravitational ✑✤✌♣
they ☛✙✌
are ✥☛✦✦✌✩
called qrs➣↔
tidal ↕②③③✉➙q①✜
currents.
✶✑✑
122 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

⑩➏⑤♣③➉ tides ➑: The

Spring ❹♣q✉✈ ❖❩◗ ❜❵❘✐❨✐❵❳
position ❵❬ ❥❵❨❩ ❨❩◗
of both the ❘❪❳
sun ❯❳P
and
❚✒✓✔✕
Tides ✖✗ of ✘✙✚
Bay ✖✗ of ✛✜✢✓✚✣
Fundy, ✤✙✢✙✓✙Canada
the ♠❵❵❳
❨❩◗ moon ✐❳ in ❱◗❝❯❨✐❵❳
relation ❨❵to ❨❩◗
the ◗❯❱❨❩
earth ❩❯❘
has P✐❱◗❫❨
direct
✥✦✧ ✦❤❣✦✧★✩
The highest ✩❤✪✧★
tides ❤✫ in ✩✦✧ ✬✭✮✯✪ ✭✰✰✱✮
the world occur ❤✫ in ❥◗❯❱✐❳❦ ❵❳
bearing on ❨✐P◗
tide ❩◗✐❦❩❨❢ ➒❩◗❳ ❨❩◗
height. When the ❘❪❳❴ the ♠❵❵❳
sun, ❨❩◗ moon
✩✦✧
the t✲✳
Bay ✭✴ of ✵✱✫✪✳
Fundy ❤✫ in ✷✭✸✲
Nova ✹✰✭✩❤✲✺
Scotia, ✻✲✫✲✪✲✼
Canada. ❯❳P
and ❨❩◗
the ◗❯❱❨❩
earth ❯❱◗
are ✐❳
in ❯ straight ❝✐❳◗❴
a ❘❨❱❯✐❦❩❨ line, ❨❩◗
the ❩◗✐❦❩❨
height
✥✦✧ ✩❤✪✲✯
The tidal ✽✱✯❣✧
bulge ❤★ is ✾✿ 15 ❀- ✾❁16 ❂✼m. t✧✰✲✱★✧
Because ❵❬
of ❨❩◗
the ❨✐P◗ ❻✐❝❝ be
tide will ❥◗ ❩✐❦❩◗❱❢ ❖❩◗❘◗ ❯❱◗
higher. These are ❫❯❝❝◗P
called ❘❜❱✐❳❦
spring
✩✦✧✮✧
there ✲✮✧
are ✩✬✭two ✦❤❣✦
high ✩❤✪✧★
tides ✲✫✪and ✩✬✭
two ✯✭✬low ✩❤✪✧★
tides ❨✐P◗❘ ♠❵❳❨❩❴
tides and they occur twice a month, one ❵❳
❯❳P ❨❩◗❲ ❵❫❫❪❱ ❨❻✐❫◗ ❯ ❵❳◗ on
✧✸✧✮✳
every ✪✲✳
day ❡✮✭✱❣✦✯✳
(roughly ✲ a ❃❄
24 ✦✭✱✮
hour ❅✧✮❤✭✪❆❇
period); ✩✦✧✫
then full ♠❵❵❳
❬❪❝❝ moon ❜◗❱✐❵P
period ❯❳P
and ❯❳❵❨❩◗❱
another P❪❱✐❳❦ new ♠❵❵❳
during ❳◗❻ moon
✲a ✩❤✪✧
tide ❂✱★✩
must ✰✭❂✧come ❤✫ ✬❤✩✦❤✫ ✲✽✭✱✩
in within about ✲ a ★❤❛
six ❜◗❱✐❵P❢
period.
✦✭✱✮
hour ❅✧✮❤✭✪✼
period. As ❈★ ✲a ✮✭✱❣✦
rough ✧★✩❤❂✲✩✧✺
estimate, ✩✦✧ the ✩❤✪✧
tide
✮❤★✧★
rises ✲✽✭✱✩
about ❃❄r 240 ✰❂ cm ✲✫ an ✦✭✱✮
hour ❡✾✺❄❄r
(1,440 ✰❂ cm ➓✉①➏ tides ➑: ➁❵❱♠❯❝❝❲❴
Neap ❹♣q✉✈ Normally, ❨❩◗❱◗ there ✐❘ is ❯ a ❘◗❙◗❳
seven P❯❲ day
✪❤✸❤✪✧✪
divided ✽✳ by ❁ 6 ✦✭✱✮★❆✼
hours). ❞✴ ✳✭✱ ✦✲✸✧
If you ✬✲✯❉✧✪
have walked ✐❳❨◗❱❙❯❝ ❥◗❨❻◗◗❳ ❨❩◗
interval between the ❘❜❱✐❳❦
spring ❨✐P◗❘ tides ❯❳P and ❳◗❯❜
neap
✪✭✬✫
down ✲ a ✽✧✲✰✦ ✬❤✩✦a ✲ ★✩✧✧❅
beach with steep ✰✯❤✴✴
cliff ✲✯✭✫❣★❤✪✧
alongside ❨✐P◗❘❢
tides. At➂❨ ❨❩✐❘
this ❨✐♠◗time ❨❩◗the ❘❪❳sun ❯❳P and ♠❵❵❳ moon ❯❱◗ are ❯❨ at
❡✬✦❤✰✦
(which ❤★ is ✰✭❂❂✭✫
common ✩✦✧✮✧❆✺there), ❂✲❉✧
make ★✱✮✧ ✳✭✱
sure you
❱✐❦❩❨
right ❯❳❦❝◗❘
angles ❨❵ to ◗❯❫❩
each ❵❨❩◗❱
other ❯❳P and ❨❩◗the ❬❵❱❫◗❘
forces ❵❬of ❨❩◗
the
✬✲✩✰✦ ✩✦✧
watch the ✩❤✪✧★✼
tides. ❞✴ ✳✭✱ walk
If you ✬✲✯❉ ✴✭✮for ✲✽✭✱✩
about ✲✫ an
❘❪❳ and ♠❵❵❳
sun ❯❳P moon ❨◗❳P tend ❨❵to ❫❵❪❳❨◗❱❯❫❨
counteract ❵❳◗ one ❯❳❵❨❩◗❱❢
another.
✦✭✱✮
hour ✲✫✪ and ✩✦✧✫then ✫✭✩❤✰✧
notice ✩✦✲✩ that ✩✦✧the ✩❤✪✧
tide ❤★is
❖❩◗ ➔❵❵❳→❘
The Moon’s ❯❨❨❱❯❫❨✐❵❳❴
attraction, ❨❩❵❪❦❩though ♠❵❱◗ more ❨❩❯❳than ❨❻✐❫◗
twice
✰✭❂❤✫❣
coming ❤✫✺ in, ✩✦✧ ✬✲✩✧✮ will
the water ✬❤✯✯ ✽✧
be ✭✸✧✮ ✳✭✱✮
over your
✦✧✲✪ ❯❘
as ❘❨❱❵❳❦
strong ❯❘ as ❨❩◗
the ❘❪❳→❘❴
sun’s, ✐❘ is P✐♠✐❳✐❘❩◗P
diminished by ❥❲ ❨❩◗
the
head ✽✧✴✭✮✧
before you✳✭✱ ❣✧✩get ✽✲✰❉
back ✩✭ ✬✦✧✮✧ you
to where ✳✭✱
★✩✲✮✩✧✪s
started!
❫❵❪❳❨◗❱❯❫❨✐❳❦
counteracting ❬❵❱❫◗ force ❵❬of ❨❩◗
the ❘❪❳→❘
sun’s ❦❱❯❙✐❨❯❨✐❵❳❯❝
gravitational
❜❪❝❝❢
pull.
➄❳❫◗
Once ✐❳ in ❯ a ♠❵❳❨❩❴
month, when ❻❩◗❳ ❨❩◗ the ♠❵❵❳→❘
moon’s ❵❱❥✐❨orbit ✐❘is
❊●❍■❏
Types ❑▲ of ❊▼◆■❏
Tides ❫❝❵❘◗❘❨ ❨❵ ❨❩◗ ◗❯❱❨❩ ➌➏✉⑤♣➉✉✉➍❴
closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high ❪❳❪❘❪❯❝❝❲ ❩✐❦❩
❖✐P◗❘ vary
Tides ❙❯❱❲ ✐❳in ❨❩◗✐❱
their ❬❱◗❭❪◗❳❫❲❴
frequency, P✐❱◗❫❨✐❵❳
direction ❯❳P and and ❝❵❻
❯❳P low ❨✐P◗❘
tides ❵❫❫❪❱❢
occur. ➣❪❱✐❳❦
During ❨❩✐❘ this ❨✐♠◗
time ❨❩◗
the ❨✐P❯❝
tidal
♠❵❙◗♠◗❳❨
movement ❬❱❵♠ ❜❝❯❫◗
from place ❨❵ ❜❝❯❫◗
to place ❯❳P
and ❯❝❘❵
also ❬❱❵♠
from ❱❯❳❦◗
range ✐❘is ❦❱◗❯❨◗❱
greater ❨❩❯❳ than ❳❵❱♠❯❝❢
normal. Two ❻◗◗➀❘ ❝❯❨◗❱❴
❖❻❵ weeks later,
❨✐♠◗
time ❨❵
to ❨✐♠◗❢ ❖✐P◗❘ ♠❯❲
time. Tides ❥◗ ❦❱❵❪❜◗P
may be grouped ✐❳❨❵ ❙❯❱✐❵❪❘
into various ❻❩◗❳
when ❨❩◗the ♠❵❵❳
moon ✐❘ is ❬❯❱❨❩◗❘❨
farthest ❬❱❵♠ earth ➌①➏②➉✉✉➍❴
from ◗❯❱❨❩ (apogee},
❨❲❜◗❘ ❥❯❘◗P ❵❳
types based on ❨❩◗✐❱
their ❬❱◗❭❪◗❳❫❲
frequency ❵❬of ❵❫❫❪❱❱◗❳❫◗
occurrence the ♠❵❵❳→❘
❨❩◗ moon’s ❦❱❯❙✐❨❯❨✐❵❳❯❝
gravitational ❬❵❱❫◗ force ✐❘ is ❝✐♠✐❨◗P
limited ❯❳P and
✐❳
in ❵❳◗
one P❯❲
day ❵❱
or ❧♥
24 ❩❵❪❱❘
hours ❵❱ ❥❯❘◗P ❵❳
or based on ❨❩◗✐❱
their ❩◗✐❦❩❨❢
height. ❨❩◗
the ❨✐P❯❝
tidal ❱❯❳❦◗❘
ranges ❯❱◗ are ❝◗❘❘
less ❨❩❯❳than ❨❩◗✐❱their ❯❙◗❱❯❦◗
average
❩◗✐❦❩❨❘❢
heights.
♦♣q✉✈
Tides ✇①✈✉q
based ②③on ④⑤✉⑥⑦✉③⑧⑨
Frequency ➒❩◗❳
When ❨❩◗ the ◗❯❱❨❩
earth ✐❘ is ❫❝❵❘◗❘❨
closest ❨❵ to ❨❩◗
the ❘❪❳ sun
➌➏✉⑤♣➅✉❸♣②③➍❴
(perihelion}, ❯❱❵❪❳P ↔❱P ↕❯❳❪❯❱❲
around 3rd January ◗❯❫❩ each ❲◗❯❱❴
year,
⑩✉❶♣❷q♣⑦⑤③①❸
Semi-diurnal ❹♣q✉ ❖❩◗ ♠❵❘❨
tide ❺: The most ❫❵♠♠❵❳
common ❨✐P❯❝
tidal ❨✐P❯❝
tidal ❱❯❳❦◗❘
ranges ❯❱◗ also ♠❪❫❩
are ❯❝❘❵ greater, ❻✐❨❩
much ❦❱◗❯❨◗❱❴ with
❜❯❨❨◗❱❳❴
pattern, ❬◗❯❨❪❱✐❳❦
featuring ❨❻❵two ❩✐❦❩
high ❨✐P◗❘
tides ❯❳P two ❝❵❻
and ❨❻❵ low ❪❳❪❘❪❯❝❝❲
unusually ❩✐❦❩ high ❯❳P unusually ❝❵❻
and ❪❳❪❘❪❯❝❝❲ tides. ➒❩◗❳
low ❨✐P◗❘❢ When
❨✐P◗❘
tides ◗❯❫❩
each P❯❲❢ ❖❩◗ ❘❪❫❫◗❘❘✐❙◗
day. The successive ❩✐❦❩ or ❝❵❻
high ❵❱ low ❨✐P◗❘
tides ❨❩◗
the ◗❯❱❨❩
earth ✐❘ is ❬❯❱❨❩◗❘❨
farthest ❬❱❵♠ from ❨❩◗ sun ➌①➏➅✉❸♣②③➍❴
the ❘❪❳ (aphelion),
❯❱◗
are ❯❜❜❱❵❼✐♠❯❨◗❝❲
approximately ❵❬ of ❨❩◗
the ❘❯♠◗
same ❩◗✐❦❩❨❢
height. ❯❱❵❪❳P
around ♥❨❩ 4th July↕❪❝❲ ◗❯❫❩each ❲◗❯❱❴
year, ❨✐P❯❝
tidal ❱❯❳❦◗❘
ranges ❯❱◗ are
♠❪❫❩
much ❝◗❘❘less ❨❩❯❳
than ❯❙◗❱❯❦◗❢
average.
❽♣⑦⑤③①❸
Diurnal ❹♣q✉
tide ❺: There
❖❩◗❱◗ ✐❘
is ❵❳❝❲
only ❵❳◗
one ❩✐❦❩
high ❨✐P◗
tide ❯❳P
and ❖❩◗ ❨✐♠◗
The time ❥◗❨❻◗◗❳
between ❨❩◗ the ❩✐❦❩
high ❨✐P◗ and ❝❵❻
tide ❯❳P low ❨✐P◗❴
tide,
❵❳◗ ❝❵❻
one low ❨✐P◗
tide P❪❱✐❳❦
during ◗❯❫❩
each P❯❲❢ ❖❩◗ ❘❪❫❫◗❘❘✐❙◗
day. The successive ❻❩◗❳
when ❨❩◗the ❻❯❨◗❱
water ❝◗❙◗❝ level ✐❘
is ❬❯❝❝✐❳❦❴
falling, ✐❘ is ❫❯❝❝◗P
called ❨❩◗the ✉✇✇❢
ebb.
❩✐❦❩ and ❝❵❻
high ❯❳P low ❨✐P◗❘
tides ❯❱◗
are ❯❜❜❱❵❼✐♠❯❨◗❝❲
approximately ❵❬of ❨❩◗
the ❖❩◗ ❨✐♠◗
The time ❥◗❨❻◗◗❳
between ❨❩◗ the ❝❵❻low ❨✐P◗
tide ❯❳Pand ❩✐❦❩
high ❨✐P◗❴
tide,
❘❯♠◗
same ❩◗✐❦❩❨❢
height. ❻❩◗❳
when ❨❩◗the ❨✐P◗
tide ✐❘ is ❱✐❘✐❳❦❴
rising, ✐❘is ❫❯❝❝◗P
called ❨❩◗ ➊❸②➋ ❵❱
the flow ➊❸②②q❢
or flood.
❾♣❿✉q
Mixed ❹♣q✉
tide ❺: Tides
❖✐P◗❘ ❩❯❙✐❳❦ ❙❯❱✐❯❨✐❵❳❘ ✐❳
having variations in ❩◗✐❦❩❨
height
are ➀❳❵❻❳
❯❱◗ known ❯❘as ♠✐❼◗P
mixed ❨✐P◗❘❢ ❖❩◗❘◗ ❨✐P◗❘
tides. These tides ❦◗❳◗❱❯❝❝❲
generally Importance ❑▲
➙➛❍❑➜➝➞➟➠■ of ❊▼◆■❏
Tides
❵❫❫❪❱
occur ❯❝❵❳❦
along ❨❩◗ ❻◗❘❨ ❫❵❯❘❨
the west coast ❵❬
of ➁❵❱❨❩ ➂♠◗❱✐❫❯
North America ➡✐❳❫◗
Since ❨✐P◗❘
tides ❯❱◗
are ❫❯❪❘◗P
caused ❥❲by ❨❩◗
the ◗❯❱❨❩➢♠❵❵❳➢❘❪❳
earth-moon-sun
❯❳P ❵❳ ♠❯❳❲ ✐❘❝❯❳P❘ ❵❬ ❨❩◗ ➃❯❫✐❬✐❫
and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.➄❫◗❯❳❢ ❜❵❘✐❨✐❵❳❘
positions ❻❩✐❫❩
which ❯❱◗are ➀❳❵❻❳
known ❯❫❫❪❱❯❨◗❝❲❴
accurately, ❨❩◗ the
❨✐P◗❘
tides ❫❯❳
can ❥◗be ❜❱◗P✐❫❨◗P
predicted ❻◗❝❝
well ✐❳in ❯P❙❯❳❫◗❢ ❖❩✐❘
advance. This
♦♣q✉✈
Tides ✇①✈✉q
based ②③on ❹➅✉
the ⑩⑦③➆ Moon ①③q
Sun, ❾②②③ and ❹➅✉
the ➇①⑤❹➅
Earth ❩◗❝❜❘
helps ❨❩◗
the ❳❯❙✐❦❯❨❵❱❘
navigators ❯❳P fishermen ❜❝❯❳
and ❬✐❘❩◗❱♠◗❳ plan ❨❩◗✐❱
their
➈②✈♣❹♣②③✈
Positions ❯❫❨✐❙✐❨✐◗❘❢ ❖✐P❯❝ ❬❝❵❻❘
activities. Tidal flows ❯❱◗
are ❵❬
of ❦❱◗❯❨
great ✐♠❜❵❱❨❯❳❫◗
importance
♦➅✉ height ②➊
The ➅✉♣➉➅❹ of ⑤♣✈♣③➉
rising ➋①❹✉⑤
water ➌➅♣➉➅ tide) ➎①⑤♣✉✈
(high ❹♣q✉➍ varies ✐❳
in ❳❯❙✐❦❯❨✐❵❳❢ ❖✐P❯❝ ❩◗✐❦❩❨❘
navigation. Tidal heights ❯❱◗ ❙◗❱❲ ✐♠❜❵❱❨❯❳❨❴
are very important,
①➏➏⑤✉⑧♣①✇❸⑨
appreciably q✉➏✉③q♣③➉
depending ⑦➏②③ upon ❹➅✉ ➏②✈♣❹♣②③ ②➊
the position of ◗❘❜◗❫✐❯❝❝❲
especially ❩❯❱❥❵❪❱❘
harbours ❳◗❯❱near ❱✐❙◗❱❘ and ❻✐❨❩✐❳
rivers ❯❳P within
✈⑦③
sun ①③q moon ➋♣❹➅
and ❶②②③ with ⑤✉✈➏✉⑧❹
respect ❹② the ✉①⑤❹➅➐
to ❹➅✉ earth. ◗❘❨❪❯❱✐◗❘
estuaries ❩❯❙✐❳❦
having ❘❩❯❝❝❵❻
shallow ➤❥❯❱❘→
‘bars’ ❯❨
at ❨❩◗
the ◗❳❨❱❯❳❫◗❴
entrance,
⑩➏⑤♣③➉ tides ①③q
Spring ❹♣q✉✈ and ③✉①➏ tides ⑧②❶✉
neap ❹♣q✉✈ come ⑦③q✉⑤
under ❹➅♣✈
this ❻❩✐❫❩
which ❜❱◗❙◗❳❨
prevent ❘❩✐❜❘
ships ❯❳P
and ❥❵❯❨❘
boats ❬❱❵♠
from ◗❳❨◗❱✐❳❦
entering
⑧①❹✉➉②⑤⑨➐
category. ✐❳❨❵
into ❨❩◗
the ❩❯❱❥❵❪❱❢ ❖✐P◗❘ ❯❱◗
harbour. Tides are ❯❝❘❵
also ❩◗❝❜❬❪❝
helpful ✐❳ in
▼ ✁✂▼✂✄☎✆ OF✝ OCEAN
MOVEMENTS ✞✂✟✄ WATER
✠✟☎✂❚ ✶✡☛
123

❞❡s☞✌t☞✍✎
desilting t✏❡
the s❡❞☞✑❡✍ts
sediments ✒✍❞ and ☞✍in ✓❡✑✔✕☞✍✎
removing ✩☞✘✘❡✓❡✍✉❡s
Differences ☞✍ ✗✒t❡✓ ❞❡✍s☞t✭
in water density ✒✘✘❡✉t ✕❡✓t☞✉✒✌
affect vertical
♣✔✌✌✖t❡❞ ✗✒t❡✓ ✘✓✔✑
polluted water from ✓☞✕❡✓
river ❡st✖✒✓☞❡s♦ ✙☞❞❡s ✒✓❡
estuaries. Tides are mobility of ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts♦
✑✔✫☞✌☞t✭ ✔✘ ✔✉❡✒✍ ✧✒t❡✓ with
currents. Water ✗☞t✏ ✏☞✎✏
high
✖s❡❞
used t✔
to ✎❡✍❡✓✒t❡ electrical ♣✔✗❡✓
generate ❡✌❡✉t✓☞✉✒✌ power ✚☞✍
(in ✛✒✍✒❞✒✜
Canada, s✒✌☞✍☞t✭
salinity ☞sis ❞❡✍s❡✓
denser t✏✒✍ ✗✒t❡✓ with
than water ✗☞t✏ ✌✔✗low s✒✌☞✍☞t✭
salinity
❋✓✒✍✉❡✜
France, ✢✖ss☞✒✜
Russia, ✒✍❞
and ✛✏☞✍✒✣♦
China). A✤ ✥ 3 ✦✧
MW t☞❞✒✌
tidal ✒✍❞
and ☞✍in t✏❡
the s✒✑❡ ✗✒✭ ✉✔✌❞
same way ✗✒t❡✓ ☞s
cold water is ❞❡✍s❡✓
denser t✏✒✍
than
♣✔✗❡✓
power ♣✓✔★❡✉t
project ✒t
at ✩✖✓✎✒❞✖✒✍☞
Durgaduani ☞✍ in ✪✖✍❞❡✓✫✒✍s
Sunderbans ✗✒✓✑ water.
warm ✗✒t❡✓♦ ✩❡✍s❡✓ ✗✒t❡✓ t❡✍❞s
Denser water tends t✔ to s☞✍✷✜ ✗✏☞✌❡
sink, while
✔✘ ✧❡st ✬❡✍✎✒✌
of West is ✖✍❞❡✓
Bengal ☞s ✗✒✭♦
under way. ✓❡✌✒t☞✕❡✌✭
relatively ✌☞✎✏t❡✓ ✗✒t❡✓ t❡✍❞s
lighter water tends t✔ rise. ✛✔✌❞r✗✒t❡✓
to ✓☞s❡♦ Cold-water
ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
✔✉❡✒✍ currents ✔✉✉✖✓ ✗✏❡✍ t✏❡
occur when the ✉✔✌❞ ✗✒t❡✓ ✒t
cold water at
❖❈✮✯✰
OcEAN ✱❯✲✲✮✰✳✴
CURRENTS the ♣✔✌❡s
t✏❡ poles s☞✍✷s
sinks ✒✍❞
and s✌✔✗✌✭
slowly ✑✔✕❡s
moves t✔✗✒✓❞s
towards t✏❡ the
❡✹✖✒t✔✓♦ ✧✒✓✑r✗✒t❡✓ ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
equator. Warm-water currents t✓✒✕❡✌
travel ✔✖tout ✘✓✔✑
from
Ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
✵✉❡✒✍ currents ✒✓❡ are ✌☞✷❡ river ✘✌✔✗
like ✓☞✕❡✓ flow ☞✍in ✔✉❡✒✍s♦
oceans. t✏❡
the ❡✹✖✒t✔✓
equator ✒✌✔✍✎
along t✏❡ surface, ✘✌✔✗☞✍✎
the s✖✓✘✒✉❡✜ flowing t✔✗✒✓❞s
towards
✙✏❡✭ ✓❡♣✓❡s❡✍t
They represent ✒ a ✓❡✎✖✌✒✓
regular volume ✕✔✌✖✑❡ ✔✘ ✗✒t❡✓ ☞✍
of water ina✒ the ♣✔✌❡s
t✏❡ poles t✔to ✓❡♣✌✒✉❡
replace t✏❡ sinking ✉✔✌❞
the s☞✍✷☞✍✎ ✗✒t❡✓♦
cold water.
definite ♣✒t✏
❞❡✘☞✍☞t❡ path ✒✍❞ and ❞☞✓❡✉t☞✔✍♦
direction. ✵✉❡✒✍ Ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents ✒✓❡ are
☞✍✘✌✖❡✍✉❡❞
influenced by ✫✭ t✗✔two t✭♣❡s types ✔✘ of ✘✔✓✉❡s namely ✐:
forces ✍✒✑❡✌✭
✚☞✣
(i) ♣✓☞✑✒✓✭
primary ✘✔✓✉❡s forces t✏✒t that ☞✍☞t☞✒t❡
initiate t✏❡the ✑✔✕❡✑❡✍t
movement ✔✘ of
❀❁❂❃❄
Types ❅❆ of ❇❉❃❊❍
Ocean ■❏❑❑❃❍▲❄
Currents
water; ✚☞☞✣
✗✒t❡✓✇ secondary ✘✔✓✉❡s
(ii) s❡✉✔✍❞✒✓✭ forces t✏✒tthat ☞✍✘✌✖❡✍✉❡
influence t✏❡ the ✙✏❡ ✔✉❡✒✍
The ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents ✑✒✭ may ✫❡ be ✉✌✒ss☞✘☞❡❞
classified ✫✒s❡❞ based ✔✍ on
✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents t✔ to ✘✌✔✗♦
flow. t✏❡☞✓
their ❞❡♣t✏
depth ✒s surface ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
as s✖✓✘✒✉❡ currents ✒✍❞ and ❞❡❡♣ ✗✒t❡✓
deep water
The primary ✘✔✓✉❡s
✙✏❡ ♣✓☞✑✒✓✭ forces t✏✒t that ☞✍✘✌✖❡✍✉❡
influence t✏❡ the ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents : ✐ ✚☞✣ (i) ✿◆✽P◗❘✾
surface ❘◆✽✽✾❙❱✿
currents ✉✔✍st☞t✖t❡
constitute ✒✫✔✖t about
✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents ✒✓❡✐ are: ✚☞✣ (i) ✏❡✒t☞✍✎
heating by ✫✭ s✔✌✒✓
solar ❡✍❡✓✎✭✇
energy; ❲❳
10 ♣❡✓
per ✉❡✍t
cent ✔✘ of ✒✌✌
all t✏❡ ✗✒t❡✓ ☞✍
the water in t✏❡
the ✔✉❡✒✍✜
ocean, t✏❡s❡these
✚☞☞✣ ✗☞✍❞✇ ✚☞☞☞✣
(ii) wind; gravity; ✚☞✕✣
(iii) ✎✓✒✕☞t✭✇ (iv) ✉✔✓☞✔✌☞s
coriolis ✘✔✓✉❡♦
force. ✸❡✒t☞✍✎
Heating ✗✒t❡✓s ✒✓❡
waters are t✏❡the ✖♣♣❡✓
upper ❨❳❳ 400 ✑ m ✔✘ of t✏❡the ✔✉❡✒✍✇
ocean;
✫✭ s✔✌✒✓
by energy ✉✒✖s❡s
solar ❡✍❡✓✎✭ causes t✏❡ ✗✒t❡✓ t✔
the water to ❡❜♣✒✍❞♦
expand. ✚☞☞✣
(ii) ❩✾✾❬ water ❘◆✽✽✾❙❱✿
deep ❭◗❱✾✽ currents ✑✒✷❡ make ✖♣ up t✏❡the ✔t✏❡✓
other ♠❳ 90
✙✏✒t ☞s
That ✗✏✭✜ ✍❡✒✓
is why, near t✏❡ the ❡✹✖✒t✔✓
equator t✏❡ the ✔✉❡✒✍ ✗✒t❡✓
ocean water ♣❡✓ ✉❡✍t ✗✒t❡✓♦
per cent of the ocean water. These waters ✑✔✕❡
✔✘ t✏❡ ✔✉❡✒✍ ✙✏❡s❡ ✗✒t❡✓s move
☞s
is ✒✫✔✖t
about ✺ 8 ✉✑cm ✏☞✎✏❡✓
higher ☞✍ in ✌❡✕❡✌
level t✏✒✍
than ☞✍in t✏❡
the ✑☞❞❞✌❡
middle ✒✓✔✖✍❞
around t✏❡ the ✔✉❡✒✍
ocean ✫✒s☞✍s basins ❞✖❡ due t✔ to ✕✒✓☞✒t☞✔✍s
variations ☞✍ in
✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s♦
latitudes. This ✙✏☞s ✉✒✖s❡s
causes ✒ ✕❡✓✭ s✌☞✎✏t
a very slight ✎✓✒❞☞❡✍t
gradient t✏❡
the ❞❡✍s☞t✭
density ✒✍❞ and ✎✓✒✕☞t✭♦
gravity. ✩❡❡♣ ✗✒t❡✓s s☞✍✷
Deep waters sink ☞✍t✔
into
✒✍❞ ✗✒t❡✓ t❡✍❞s
and water tends t✔ to ✘✌✔✗
flow ❞✔✗✍down t✏❡the s✌✔♣❡♦ ✧☞✍❞
slope. Wind t✏❡
the ❞❡❡♣
deep ✔✉❡✒✍
ocean ✫✒s☞✍sbasins ✒t at ✏☞✎✏
high ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s✜
latitudes, where ✗✏❡✓❡
✫✌✔✗☞✍✎ ✔✍
blowing on t✏❡the s✖✓✘✒✉❡
surface ✔✘ of t✏❡ ocean ♣✖s✏❡s
the ✔✉❡✒✍ pushes t✏❡ the t✏❡
the t❡✑♣❡✓✒t✖✓❡s
temperatures ✒✓❡ are ✉✔✌❞
cold ❡✍✔✖✎✏
enough t✔ to ✉✒✖s❡
cause t✏❡the
✗✒t❡✓ t✔
water to ✑✔✕❡♦
move. ❋✓☞✉t☞✔✍
Friction between ✫❡t✗❡❡✍ t✏❡ ✗☞✍❞ ✒✍❞
the wind and ❞❡✍s☞t✭
density t✔ to ☞✍✉✓❡✒s❡♦
increase.
t✏❡ ✗✒t❡✓ s✖✓✘✒✉❡
the water surface ✒✘✘❡✉tsaffects t✏❡ the ✑✔✕❡✑❡✍t
movement ✔✘ of t✏❡
the Ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
✵✉❡✒✍ currents ✉✒✍ can ✒✌s✔also ✫❡ be ✉✌✒ss☞✘☞❡❞
classified
✗✒t❡✓ body
water ✫✔❞✭ ☞✍ its ✉✔✖✓s❡♦
in ☞ts course. ✻✓✒✕☞t✭
Gravity t❡✍❞s
tends t✔ to ♣✖✌✌
pull ✫✒s❡❞
based ✔✍ temperature ✐: ✒s
on t❡✑♣❡✓✒t✖✓❡ as ✉✔✌❞
cold ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents ✒✍❞ and
t✏❡ ✗✒t❡✓ ❞✔✗✍
the water down t✔ to ♣☞✌❡
pile ✒✍❞ and ✉✓❡✒t❡
create ✎✓✒❞☞❡✍t
gradient ✗✒✓✑ ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts✐
warm currents: ✚☞✣ (i) ❘❝❪❩
cold ❘◆✽✽✾❙❱✿
currents ✫✓☞✍✎ bring ✉✔✌❞ cold
✙✏❡ ✛✔✓☞✔✌☞s
variation. The Coriolis force ☞✍t❡✓✕❡✍❡s
✕✒✓☞✒t☞✔✍♦ ✘✔✓✉❡ intervenes ✒✍❞ and ✗✒t❡✓ ☞✍t✔
water ✗✒✓✑ water
into warm ✗✒t❡✓ ✒✓❡✒s♦areas. These✙✏❡s❡ ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents
✉✒✖s❡s
causes t✏❡ the water✗✒t❡✓ t✔ to ✑✔✕❡
move t✔ to t✏❡
the ✓☞✎✏t
right ☞✍ in t✏❡
the are ✖s✖✒✌✌✭
✒✓❡ usually ✘✔✖✍❞ found ✔✍ on t✏❡ ✗❡st ✉✔✒st
the west coast ✔✘ of t✏❡
the
✍✔✓t✏❡✓✍
northern ✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡hemisphere ✒✍❞ and t✔ to t✏❡
the ✌❡✘t
left ☞✍
in t✏❡the ✉✔✍t☞✍❡✍ts
continents ☞✍ in t✏❡
the ✌✔✗ low ✒✍❞ and ✑☞❞❞✌❡
middle ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s
latitudes
s✔✖t✏❡✓✍
southern ✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡♦
hemisphere. These ✙✏❡s❡ ✌✒✓✎❡
large ✒✉✉✖✑✖✌✒t☞✔✍s
accumulations ✚t✓✖❡
(true ☞✍ in ✫✔t✏
both ✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡s✣
hemispheres) ✒✍❞ and ✔✍ on t✏❡the ❡✒st
east
✔✘ ✗✒t❡✓ ✒✍❞
of water and t✏❡ the ✘✌✔✗flow ✒✓✔✖✍❞
around t✏❡✑ them ✒✓❡ are ✉✒✌✌❡❞
called ✉✔✒st
coast ☞✍ in t✏❡
the ✏☞✎✏❡✓
higher ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s
latitudes ☞✍ the ❫✔✓t✏❡✓✍
in t✏❡ Northern
●✼✽✾✿♦
Gyres, These ✙✏❡s❡ ♣✓✔❞✖✉❡produce ✌✒✓✎❡ large ✉☞✓✉✖✌✒✓
circular ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
currents Hemisphere; ✚☞☞✣
✸❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡✇ warm ❘◆✽✽✾❙❱✿
(ii) ❭◗✽❴ currents ✫✓☞✍✎ bring warm✗✒✓✑
☞✍
in ✒✌✌
all t✏❡
the ✔✉❡✒✍ ✫✒s☞✍s♦
ocean basins. ✗✒t❡✓ ☞✍t✔
water into ✉✔✌❞
cold water✗✒t❡✓ ✒✓❡✒s areas ✒✍❞ and ✒✓❡ are ✖s✖✒✌✌✭
usually
✔✫s❡✓✕❡❞
observed ✔✍ on t✏❡ east ✉✔✒st
the ❡✒st coast ✔✘ of ✉✔✍t☞✍❡✍ts
continents ☞✍ in t✏❡
the
❦❧♥q♥✈①②q③④①③✈④
Characteristics ⑤⑥
of ⑦✈②♥⑧
Ocean ❦⑨qq②⑧①④
Currents ✌✔✗
low ✒✍❞ and ✑☞❞❞✌❡
middle ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s latitudes ✚t✓✖❡ (true ☞✍ in ✫✔t✏
both
hemispheres). ❤✍
✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡s✣♦ In t✏❡the ✍✔✓t✏❡✓✍
northern ✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡hemisphere
⑩❶❷❷❸❹❺❻
Currents ❼❷❸ are ❷❸❽❸❷❷❸❾
referred ❺❿ to ➀➁
by ❺➂❸➃❷
their ➄❾❷➃❽❺➅➆
“drift”. t✏❡✭
they ✒✓❡ are ✘✔✖✍❞
found ✔✍ on t✏❡ ✗❡st ✉✔✒sts
the west coasts ✔✘ of ✉✔✍t☞✍❡✍ts
continents
➇❻❶❼➈➈➁➉
Usually, ❺➂❸ the ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺❻
currents ❼❷❸ are ❻❺❷❿❹➋❸❻❺
strongest ❹❸❼❷ near ☞✍
in ✏☞✎✏
high ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s♦
latitudes.
❺➂❸
the ❻❶❷❽❼➊❸
surface ❼❹❾and ➌❼➁may ❼❺❺❼➃❹
attain ❻➍❸❸❾❻
speeds ❿➎❸❷ over
❽➃➎❸
five ➏❹❿❺❻➆
knots. At ➐❺ ❾❸➍❺➂❻➉
depths, ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺❻
currents ❼❷❸ are ❵◗❛❝✽
Major ❢❘✾◗❙
Ocean ❣◆✽✽✾❙❱✿
Currents
➋❸❹❸❷❼➈➈➁
generally ❻➈❿➑ ➑➃❺➂ ❻➍❸❸❾❻
slow with speeds ➈❸❻❻ than ➒➆➓
less ❺➂❼❹ 0.5
➏❹❿❺❻➆
knots. We ➔❸ ❷❸❽❸❷
refer ❺❿
to ❺➂❸
the ❻➍❸❸❾
speed ❿❽ of ❼a ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺
current
✦✒★✔✓ ocean ✉✖✓✓❡✍ts
Major ✔✉❡✒✍ currents ✒✓❡
are ✎✓❡✒t✌✭
greatly ☞✍✘✌✖❡✍✉❡❞
influenced ✫✭ by
❼❻
as ➃❺❻
its ➄❾❷➃❽❺➆➅
“drift.” →❷➃❽❺
Drift ➃❻is ➌❸❼❻❶❷❸❾
measured ➃❹ in ❺❸❷➌❻
terms
t✏❡
the st✓❡ss❡s
stresses ❡❜❡✓t❡❞
exerted ✫✭ the ♣✓❡✕✒☞✌☞✍✎
by t✏❡ ✗☞✍❞s ✒✍❞
prevailing winds and
❿❽ knots. ➣➂❸
of ➏❹❿❺❻➆ The ❻❺❷❸❹➋❺➂
strength ❿❽ of ❼
a ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺
current ❷❸❽❸❷❻
refers
✉✔✓☞✔✌☞s
coriolis ✘✔✓✉❡♦ ✙✏❡ ✔✉❡✒✍☞✉
force. The oceanic ✉☞✓✉✖✌✒t☞✔✍
circulation ♣✒tt❡✓✍
pattern
❺❿
to ❺➂❸
the ❻➍❸❸❾
speed ❿❽of ❺➂❸
the ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺➆
current. A➐ ❽❼❻❺ fast ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺
current
roughly ✉✔✓✓❡s♣✔✍❞s
✓✔✖✎✏✌✭ corresponds t✔ to t✏❡
the ❡✒✓t✏❥s
earth’s ✒t✑✔s♣✏❡✓☞✉
atmospheric
➃❻
is ➊❿❹❻➃❾❸❷❸❾
considered ❻❺❷❿❹➋➆
strong. A➐ ➊❶❷❷❸❹❺
current ➃❻ is ❶❻❶❼➈➈➁
usually
✉☞✓✉✖✌✒t☞✔✍
circulation ♣✒tt❡✓✍♦ ✙✏❡ ✒☞✓
pattern. The air ✉☞✓✉✖✌✒t☞✔✍
circulation ✔✕❡✓
over t✏❡
the
❻❺❷❿❹➋❸❻❺
strongest ❼❺ at ❺➂❸
the ❻❶❷❽❼➊❸
surface ❼❹❾ and ❾❸➊❷❸❼❻❸❻
decreases
✔✉❡✒✍s
oceans ☞✍ in t✏❡
the ✑☞❞❞✌❡
middle ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s
latitudes ☞s is ✑✒☞✍✌✭
mainly
➃❹ ➑➃❺➂ ❾❸➍❺➂➆ anticyclonic ✚✑✔✓❡
✒✍t☞✉✭✉✌✔✍☞✉ (more ♣✓✔✍✔✖✍✉❡❞
pronounced ☞✍ in t✏❡
the s✔✖t✏❡✓✍
southern
in ❻❺❷❸❹➋❺➂
strength ↔❻➍❸❸❾↕
(speed) with depth. ➙❿❻❺ Most
➊❶❷❷❸❹❺❻
currents ➂❼➎❸ have ❻➍❸❸❾❻
speeds ➈❸❻❻less ❺➂❼❹
than ❿❷ or ❸➛❶❼➈
equal
✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡
hemisphere t✏✒✍ than ☞✍
in t✏❡
the ✍✔✓t✏❡✓✍
northern ✏❡✑☞s♣✏❡✓❡✣♦
hemisphere).
to ➓
❺❿ 5 ➏❹❿❺❻➆
knots.
✙✏❡ ✔✉❡✒✍☞✉
The oceanic ✉☞✓✉✖✌✒t☞✔✍
circulation ♣✒tt❡✓✍ pattern ✒✌s✔ also
✉✔✓✓❡s♣✔✍❞s ✗☞t✏
corresponds with the same. At higher ✌✒t☞t✖❞❡s✜
t✏❡ s✒✑❡♦ ✤t ✏☞✎✏❡✓ latitudes,
✶✑✒
124 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

I I I I I I I I I I I
ar O° 90° 180°

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—>
N. Pacific Ge, *, ae ™ —”
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| oy ‘f

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N, Equatorial Current
-+6"--> 5 ce se “ eatadaadsis, Lj. —aeneenennen nu
a Eq Gunter Current Eq Counter Curent
—_— es "Ex
cx Comin Curent
Curent

y \ Son
South cant
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:

& Current ‘ Current

2 [Mngd) HOF
l

T
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>

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West Wind Drift”

West Wind Drift :3 SY uote wee > _..- ee oteeeene >

| 60" ond .. " Cold Current --=3e | | necaeeesyp

“""""""" > 7 09 22000 0 K: Kim
6000 i
Tete eee > 7s" Wem Curent ———> ey
eecceee eT. ---- >
Ocean Currents oy? 120
T T T T T T
❝❞❣❤❥❦❤♥
Fig.14.3 q: t✉✈①②
Major ④⑤②②⑥⑦⑧⑨
currents ❞⑦
in ⑧⑩⑥
the ❶✉④❞❷❞④❸ ❹⑧❺✉⑦⑧❞④ ✉⑦❻
Pacific, Atlantic and ❼⑦❻❞✉⑦
Indian ①④⑥✉⑦⑨
oceans

✇✓✔✕✔ ✖✓✔
where ✇✗✘✙ ✚✛✜✇
the wind flow ✗✢ is ✣✜✢✖✛✤
mostly ✥✤✥✛✜✘✗✥✦
cyclonic, ✖✓✔ the ◆◗◗❘❙❯❱
Effects ❲◗of ❳❙❘❨❩
Ocean ❬❭❪❪❘❩❯❱
Currents
✜✥✔♦✘✗✥
oceanic circulation follows this ★♦✖✖✔✕✘✩
✥✗✕✥✧✛♦✖✗✜✘ ✚✜✛✛✜✇✢ ✖✓✗✢ pattern. ✪✘ In
❫✥✔♦✘
Ocean ✥✧✕✕✔✘✖✢
currents ✓♦♠✔ have ♦ a ✘✧✣❢✔✕
number ✜✚ of ✙✗✕✔✥✖
direct ♦✘✙
and
✕✔r✗✜✘✢
regions ✜✚ of ★✕✜✘✜✧✘✥✔✙
pronounced ✣✜✘✢✜✜✘♦✛ monsoonal ✚✛✜✇✦ flow, ✖✓✔the
✗✘✙✗✕✔✥✖
indirect ✗✘✚✛✧✔✘✥✔✢
influences ✜✘ on ✓✧✣♦✘
human ♦✥✖✗♠✗✖✗✔✢✩ ❴✔✢✖
activities. West
✣✜✘✢✜✜✘
monsoon winds ✇✗✘✙✢ ✗✘✚✛✧✔✘✥✔
influence ✖✓✔ the ✥✧✕✕✔✘✖
current
✥✜♦✢✖✢
coasts ✜✚ of ✖✓✔
the ✥✜✘✖✗✘✔✘✖✢
continents ✗✘ in ✖✕✜★✗✥♦✛
tropical ♦✘✙ and
✣✜♠✔✣✔✘✖✢✩
movements. ✫✧✔ Due ✖✜to ✖✓✔
the ✥✜✕✗✜✛✗✢
coriolis ✚✜✕✥✔✦
force, ✖✓✔ ✇♦✕✣
the warm
✢✧❢✖✕✜★✗✥♦✛
subtropical ✛♦✖✗✖✧✙✔✢
latitudes ❵✔❛✥✔★✖(except ✥✛✜✢✔close ✖✜ to ✖✓✔
the
✥✧✕✕✔✘✖✢
currents ✚✕✜✣ from ✛✜✇low ✛♦✖✗✖✧✙✔✢
latitudes ✖✔✘✙
tend ✖✜
to ✣✜♠✔
move ✖✜ to ✖✓✔
the
✔✭✧♦✖✜✕❡
equator) ♦✕✔ are ❢✜✕✙✔✕✔✙
bordered ❢✤ by ✥✜✜✛ ✇♦✖✔✕✢✩ Their
cool waters. ❚✓✔✗✕
✕✗r✓✖
right ✗✘in ✖✓✔
the ✘✜✕✖✓✔✕✘
northern ✓✔✣✗✢★✓✔✕✔
hemisphere ♦✘✙ and ✖✜ to ✖✓✔✗✕
their
♦♠✔✕♦r✔
average ✖✔✣★✔✕♦✖✧✕✔✢
temperatures ♦✕✔ are ✕✔✛♦✖✗♠✔✛✤
relatively ✛✜✇ ✇✗✖✓ ♦
low witha
✛✔✚✖
left ✗✘
in ✖✓✔
the ✢✜✧✖✓✔✕✘
southern ✓✔✣✗✢★✓✔✕✔✩
hemisphere.
✘♦✕✕✜✇
narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There ✗✢
✙✗✧✕✘♦✛ ♦✘✙ ♦✘✘✧♦✛ ✕♦✘r✔✢✩ ❚✓✔✕✔ is
❚✓✔ ✜✥✔♦✘✗✥
The oceanic ✥✗✕✥✧✛♦✖✗✜✘
circulation ✖✕♦✘✢★✜✕✖✢
transports ✓✔♦✖ heat
✚✜r✦ but r✔✘✔✕♦✛✛✤
fog, ❢✧✖ generally ✖✓✔ the ♦✕✔♦✢
areas ♦✕✔
are ♦✕✗✙✩ ❴✔✢✖ ✥✜♦✢✖✢
arid. West coasts
✚✕✜✣
from ✜✘✔one ✛♦✖✗✖✧✙✔
latitude ❢✔✛✖belt ✖✜
to ♦✘✜✖✓✔✕
another ✗✘ in ♦a ✣♦✘✘✔✕
manner
✜✚
of ✖✓✔
the ✥✜✘✖✗✘✔✘✖✢
continents ✗✘ in ✖✓✔
the ✣✗✙✙✛✔
middle ♦✘✙ and ✓✗r✓✔✕
higher
✢✗✣✗✛♦✕
similar ✖✜ to ✖✓✔
the ✓✔♦✖
heat ✖✕♦✘✢★✜✕✖✔✙
transported ❢✤ the r✔✘✔✕♦✛
by ✖✓✔ general
✥✗✕✥✧✛♦✖✗✜✘ ✛♦✖✗✖✧✙✔✢
latitudes ♦✕✔are ❢✜✕✙✔✕✔✙
bordered ❢✤ ✇♦✕✣ waters
by warm ✇♦✖✔✕✢ which
✇✓✗✥✓
circulation ✜✚ of ✖✓✔
the ♦✖✣✜✢★✓✔✕✔✩
atmosphere. The ❚✓✔ ✥✜✛✙ ✇♦✖✔✕✢
cold waters
✜✚ ✥♦✧✢✔
cause ♦ a ✙✗✢✖✗✘✥✖
distinct ✣♦✕✗✘✔marine ✥✛✗✣♦✖✔✩
climate. They ❚✓✔✤ ♦✕✔ are
of ✖✓✔ ✬✕✥✖✗✥ ♦✘✙
the Arctic ✬✘✖♦✕✥✖✗✥ ✥✗✕✥✛✔✢
and Antarctic circles ✣✜♠✔
move ✖✜✇♦✕✙✢
towards
✇♦✕✣✔✕ water ✇♦✖✔✕ ✗✘ ✥✓♦✕♦✥✖✔✕✗✢✔✙
characterised ❢✤ by ✥✜✜✛
cool ✢✧✣✣✔✕✢
summers ♦✘✙ and ✕✔✛♦✖✗♠✔✛✤
relatively
warmer in ✖✕✜★✗✥♦✛
tropical ♦✘✙ and ✔✭✧♦✖✜✕✗♦✛
equatorial
✕✔r✗✜✘✢✦ ✣✗✛✙ ✇✗✘✖✔✕✢ with
mild winters ✇✗✖✓ ♦a ✘♦✕✕✜✇
narrow ♦✘✘✧♦✛
annual ✕♦✘r✔
range ✜✚ of
regions, while the warm waters ✜✚
✇✓✗✛✔ ✖✓✔ ✇♦✕✣ ✇♦✖✔✕✢ of ✖✓✔
the ✛✜✇✔✕
lower
✛♦✖✗✖✧✙✔✢ ✖✔✣★✔✕♦✖✧✕✔✢✩
temperatures. Warm ❴♦✕✣ ✥✧✕✕✔✘✖✢
currents ✚✛✜✇ flow ★♦✕♦✛✛✔✛
parallel ✖✜ to
latitudes move polewards. The major ✥✧✕✕✔✘✖✢
✣✜♠✔ ★✜✛✔✇♦✕✙✢✩ ❚✓✔ ✣♦❧✜✕ currents
✗✘ ✖✓✔
the ✔♦✢✖
east ✥✜♦✢✖✢
coasts ✜✚ of ✖✓✔
the ✥✜✘✖✗✘✔✘✖✢
continents ✗✘ in ✖✕✜★✗✥♦✛
tropical ♦✘✙
and
in ✖✓✔
the ✙✗✚✚✔✕✔✘✖
different ✜✥✔♦✘✢
oceans ♦✕✔are ✢✓✜✇✘
shown ✗✘in ✐✗r✧✕✔✮✯✩✰✩
Figure 14.3.
✢✧❢✖✕✜★✗✥♦✛
subtropical ✛♦✖✗✖✧✙✔✢✩
latitudes. This❚✓✗✢ ✕✔✢✧✛✖✢
results ✗✘ ✇♦✕✣ ♦✘✙
in warm and
✕♦✗✘✤
rainy ✥✛✗✣♦✖✔✢✩
climates. These❚✓✔✢✔ ♦✕✔♦✢
areas ✛✗✔lie ✗✘
in ✖✓✔ ✇✔✢✖✔✕✘
the western
P✱✲✳✴✱✲
Prepare ✴ a ✵✷✸✹
list ✺✻
of ✼✽✱✱✲✾✹✸ ✿❀✷✼❀ ✴✱✲
currents which are ✣♦✕r✗✘✢
margins ✜✚ of ✖✓✔
the ✢✧❢✖✕✜★✗✥♦✛
subtropical ♦✘✖✗❜✥✤✥✛✜✘✔✢✩
anti-cyclones. The ❚✓✔
✻✺✽✾❁
found ✷✾in P✴✼✷✻✷✼❂ ❃✹✵✴✾✹✷✼ ✴✾❁
Pacific, Atlantic and ❄✾❁✷✴✾
Indian
✣✗❛✗✘r
mixing ✜✚ ✇♦✕✣ ♦✘✙
of warm and ✥✜✛✙
cold ✥✧✕✕✔✘✖✢
currents ✓✔✛★ help ✖✜ to
❖✼✲✴✾✸❅
Oceans.
✕✔★✛✔✘✗✢✓
replenish ✖✓✔ the ✜❛✤r✔✘
oxygen ♦✘✙ and ✚♦♠✜✧✕
favour ✖✓✔ the r✕✜✇✖✓
growth ✜✚ of
❍✺✿
How ✷✸is ✹❀✲
the ❆✺❇✲❆✲✾✹
movement ✺✻ of ✼✽✱✱✲✾✹✸
currents ✷✸is
★✛♦✘♣✖✜✘✢✦
planktons, ✖✓✔ the ★✕✗✣♦✕✤
primary ✚✜✜✙ food ✚✜✕
for ✚✗✢✓
fish ★✜★✧✛♦✖✗✜✘✩
population.
✷✾✻✵✽✲✾✼✲❁
influenced by ❈❉ ✳✱✲❇✴✷✵✷✾❊ ✿✷✾❁✸● ■✷❇✲
prevailing winds? Give
❚✓✔ ❢✔✢✖
The fishing r✕✜✧✘✙✢
best ✚✗✢✓✗✘r grounds ✜✚ of ✖✓✔ ✇✜✕✛✙ ✔❛✗✢✖
the world exist
✸✺❆✲
some ✲s✴❆✳✵✲✸ from ❏✷❊✽✱✲❑▲❅▼❅
examples ✻✱✺❆ Figure14.3.
✣♦✗✘✛✤ ✗✘ ✖✓✔✢✔ ✣✗❛✗✘r
mainly in these mixing zones. ③✜✘✔✢✩
▼ ✁✂▼✂✄☎✆ OF✝ OCEAN
MOVEMENTS ✞✂✟✄ WATER
✠✟☎✂❚ ✶✡☛
125

—___._ ❊☞❊✌✍✎✏❊✏
EXERCISES ___

✑✒
1. ✓✔✕✖✗✘✕✙
Multiple ✚✛✜✗✚✙ choice ✢✔✙✣✖✗✜✤✣✒
questions.
✭✗✥
(i) ❯✘✦✧★✩
Upward ✧✤✩ and ✩✜✦✤✦✧★✩
downward ✪✜✫✙✪✙✤✖ movement ✜✬ of ✜✚✙✧✤ ✦✧✖✙★ ✗✣
ocean water is ✮✤✜✦✤
known ✧✣ as ✖✛✙
the ✯:
(a) ✖✗✩✙
✭✧✥ tide ✭✚✥ ✦✧✫✙
(c) wave
(b) ✚✔★★✙✤✖
✭✰✥ current (d) ✤✜✤✙
✭✩✥ none ✜✬ of ✖✛✙
the ✧✰✜✫✙
above
✭✗✗✥ Spring ✖✗✩✙✣
(ii) ❙✘★✗✤✱ are ✚✧✔✣✙✩
tides ✧★✙ caused ✯:
✭✧✥
(a) result ✜✬
❆✣ ★✙✣✔✕✖
As of ✖✛✙
the ✪✜✜✤
moon ✧✤✩ and ✖✛✙ the ✣✔✤sun ✘✔✕✕✗✤✱
pulling ✖✛✙
the ✙✧★✖✛
earth ✱★✧✫✗✖✧✖✗✜✤✧✕✕✲
gravitationally
✗✤
in ✖✛✙
the ✣✧✪✙
same ✩✗★✙✚✖✗✜✤✒
direction.
✭✰✥
(b) result ✜✬
❆✣ ★✙✣✔✕✖
As of ✖✛✙
the ✪✜✜✤
moon ✧✤✩ and ✖✛✙ the ✣✔✤sun ✘✔✕✕✗✤✱
pulling ✖✛✙
the ✙✧★✖✛
earth ✱★✧✫✗✖✧✖✗✜✤✧✕✕✲
gravitationally
✗✤ ✖✛✙ ✜✘✘✜✣✗✖✙ ✩✗★✙✚✖✗✜✤✒
in the opposite direction.
✭✚✥
(c) ■✤✩✙✤✖✗✜✤
Indention ✗✤ in ✖✛✙
the ✚✜✧✣✖
coast ✕✗✤✙✒
line.
✭✩✥
(d) None ✜✬
◆✜✤✙ of ✖✛✙
the ✧✰✜✫✙✒
above.
✭✗✗✗✥ ✳✛✙ ✩✗✣✖✧✤✚✙
(iii) The ✰✙✖✦✙✙✤ ✖✛✙
distance between the ✙✧★✖✛
earth ✧✤✩ and ✖✛✙ moon ✗✣
the ✪✜✜✤ is ✪✗✤✗✪✔✪
minimum when ✦✛✙✤ ✖✛✙
the ✪✜✜✤
moon
✗✣ ✗✤ ✯
isin:
✭✧✥ ❆✘✛✙✕✗✜✤
(a) Aphelion ✭✚✥
(c) ✴✙★✗✛✙✕✗✜✤
Perihelion
✭✰✥
(b) ✴✙★✗✱✙✙
Perigee ✭✩✥ ❆✘✜✱✙✙
(d) Apogee
✭✗✫✥
(iv) ✳✛✙The ✙✧★✖✛ reaches ✗✖✣
earth ★✙✧✚✛✙✣ its ✘✙★✗✛✙✕✗✜✤
perihelion ✗✤✯ in:
(a) ✵✚✖✜✰✙★
✭✧✥ October ✭✚✥ ❏✔✕✲
(c) July
✭✰✥
(b) ❙✙✘✖✙✪✰✙★
September (d) ❏✧✤✔✧★✲
✭✩✥ January
✷✒
2. Answer ✖✛✙
❆✤✣✦✙★ following ✢✔✙✣✖✗✜✤✣
the ✬✜✕✕✜✦✗✤✱ questions ✗✤ in ✧✰✜✔✖
about ✸✹ ✦✜★✩✣✒
30 words.
✭✗✥
(i ) ❲✛✧✖
What ✧★✙ ✦✧✫✙✣✺
are waves?
✭✗✗✥
(ii ) ❲✛✙★✙
Where ✩✜ ✦✧✫✙✣ ✗✤
do waves in ✖✛✙
the ✜✚✙✧✤
ocean ✱✙✖ get ✖✛✙✗★
their ✙✤✙★✱✲
energy ✬★✜✪✺
from?
✭✗✗✗✥
(iii) ❲✛✧✖
What ✧★✙ are ✖✗✩✙✣✺
tides?
✭✗✫✥
iv) ❍✜✦
(iv How ✧★✙ are ✖✗✩✙✣
tides ✚✧✔✣✙✩✺
caused?
✭✫✥
(v ) ❍✜✦
How ✧★✙ are ✖✗✩✙✣ related ✖✜
tides ★✙✕✧✖✙✩ to ✤✧✫✗✱✧✖✗✜✤✺
navigation?
✸✒
3. Answer ✖✛✙
❆✤✣✦✙★ following ✢✔✙✣✖✗✜✤✣
the ✬✜✕✕✜✦✗✤✱ questions ✗✤ about ✑✻✹
in ✧✰✜✔✖ ✦✜★✩✣✒
150 words.
✭✗✥
(i) ❍✜✦
How ✩✜ do ✚✔★★✙✤✖✣ affect ✖✛✙
currents ✧✬✬✙✚✖ the ✖✙✪✘✙★✧✖✔★✙✺
temperature? ❍✜✦ does ✗✖
How ✩✜✙✣ affect ✖✛✙
it ✧✬✬✙✚✖ the ✖✙✪✘✙★✧✖✔★✙
temperature
✜✬
of ✚✜✧✣✖✧✕
coastal ✧★✙✧✣areas ✗✤ in ✖✛✙
the ◆✒N. ❲✒
W. ✼✔★✜✘✙✺
Europe?
(ii) ❲✛✧✖
✭✗✗✥ What ✧★✙ are ✖✛✙
the ✚✧✔✣✙✣
causes ✜✬ of ✚✔★★✙✤✖✣✺
currents?

P✽♦✾✿❀❁
Project ❂♦✽r
Work
(i) ❱✗✣✗✖
✭✗✥ a ✕✧✮✙
Visit ✧ lake ✜★or ✧a ✘✜✤✩
pond ✧✤✩and ✜✰✣✙★✫✙
observe ✖✛✙ movement ✜✬
the ✪✜✫✙✪✙✤✖ ✦✧✫✙✣✒ ✳✛★✜✦
of waves. Throw ✧ a ✣✖✜✤✙
stone
and ✤✜✖✗✚✙
✧✤✩ notice ✛✜✦ ✦✧✫✙✣ ✧★✙
how waves are ✱✙✤✙★✧✖✙✩✒ Draw ✖✛✙
generated. ❛★✧✦ diagram ✜✬
the ✩✗✧✱★✧✪ of ✧ ✦✧✫✙ ✧✤✩
a wave and
measure ✗✖✣
✪✙✧✣✔★✙ its ✕✙✤✱✖✛♠
length, ✩✗✣✖✧✤✚✙
distance ✧✤✩
and ✧✪✘✕✗✖✔✩✙
amplitude ✧✤✩ record ✖✛✙✪
and ★✙✚✜★✩ them ✗✤ ✲✜✔★ ✤✜✖✙✒
in your note.
✭✗✗✥
(ii) ✳✧✮✙
Take ✧ a ✱✕✜✰✙
globe ✧✤✩and ✧ map ✣✛✜✦✗✤✱
a ✪✧✘ showing ✖✛✙the ✚✔★★✙✤✖✣
currents ✜✬
of ✖✛✙
the ✜✚✙✧✤✣✒
oceans. ❛✗✣✚✔✣✣ ✦✛✲
Discuss why
✚✙★✖✧✗✤
certain ✚✔★★✙✤✖✣
currents ✧★✙ ✦✧★✪ ✜★
are warm or ✚✜✕✩
cold ✧✤✩ ✦✛✲ ✖✛✙✲
and why deflect ✗✤
they ✩✙✬✕✙✚✖ in ✚✙★✖✧✗✤
certain ✘✕✧✚✙✣
places
and ✙❃✧✪✗✤✙
✧✤✩ examine ✖✛✙ the ★✙✧✣✜✤✣✒
reasons.
 ❯◆✢✣

a
❱✤
A
<

~A

▲■
LIFE✁ ❖✂
ON ❚✄✁
THE ✥❆☎❚✄
EARTH

✆✝✞✟
This ✠✡✞☛
unit ☞✌✍✎✟
deals ✏✞☛✝
with
➄« ❇✞✑✟✒✝✌✓✌
Biosphere ✔ — ✞✕✒✑✓☛✍✡✖✌
importance ✑✗ ✒✎✍✡☛✟ ✍✡☞
of plants and ✑☛✝✌✓
other ✑✓✘✍✡✞✟✕✟✙
organisms;
ecosystems, ✛✞✑✜✘✌✑
✌✖✑✟❡✟☛✌✕✟✚ bio-geo ✖✝✌✕✞✖✍✎
chemical ✖❡✖✎✌
cycle ✍✡☞ ecological ✛✍✎✍✡✖✌✙
and ✌✖✑✎✑✘✞✖✍✎ balance;
✛✞✑☞✞❜✌✓✟✞☛❡
biodiversity ✍✡☞
and ✖✑✡✟✌✓❜✍☛✞✑✡
conservation
 ✷CHAPTER
✸✹✺✻✼✽

▲■
LIFE✁ ❖✂
ON ❚✄✁
THE ✥❆☎❚✄
EARTH
NS
② ✆✝✞ ②✝✟ ✠✡☛☞✌ ☞✍✎✏ ✑✏✍✒✡✓✏✔ ✌☞✍✌ ✍✒✒
y now you might have realised that all ❊❈✪✫✪✬✭
EcoLoGy
B ✟✆✡✌✓ ✝✉ ✌☞✡✓ ✕✝✝✖ ☞✍✎✏ ✍✗✘✟✍✡✆✌✏✔ ②✝✟
units of this book have acquainted you
✛✝✟ ☞✍✎✏
have ✕✏✏✆ been ✑✏✍✔✡✆☛
reading ✍✕✝✟✌about ✏✗✝✒✝☛✡✗✍✒
ecological ✍✆✔
❇✞✡✌☞ ✌☞✏ ✌☞✑✏✏ ✠✍✇✝✑ ✑✏✍✒✠✓ ✝✉ ✌☞✏
with the three major realms of the
You
✏✆✎✡✑✝✆✠✏✆✌✍✒
environmental ✙✑✝✕✒✏✠✓problems ✡✆ in ✆✏✞✓✙✍✙✏✑✓
newspapers ✍✆✔
and
✏✆✎✡✑✝✆✠✏✆✌❡ ✌☞✍✌ ✡✓❡ ✌☞✏ ✒✡✌☞✝✓✙☞✏✑✏❡ ✌☞✏
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
✠✍☛✍♠✡✆✏✓✚
magazines. ✮✍✎✏ ②✝✟ ✏✎✏✑ ever ✌☞✝✟☛☞✌
and
✞☞✍✌
✍✌✠✝✓✙☞✏✑✏ ✍✆✔ ✌☞✏ ☞②✔✑✝✓✙☞✏✑✏✚ ✛✝✟ ✖✆✝✞
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
✏✗✝✒✝☛②
ecology ✡✓✯
Have you
r☞✏ ✏✆✎✡✑✝✆✠✏✆✌
environment ✍✓
thought what
②✝✟ ✖✆✝✞❡
know, ✡✓
✌☞✍✌ ✒✡✎✡✆☛ ✝✑☛✍✆✡✓✠✓ ✝✉ ✌☞✏ ✏✍✑✌☞❡ ✗✝✆✓✌✡✌✟✌✡✆☛
that living organisms of the earth, constituting
✠✍✔✏
made ✟✙
is’? The
up ✝✉ of ✍✕✡✝✌✡✗
abiotic ✍✆✔
and ✕✡✝✌✡✗
as you
biotic ✗✝✠✙✝✆✏✆✌✓✚
components. ❝✌
is
✌☞✏ ❜✜✢✣✤✦✧★✧✩ ✡✆✌✏✑✍✗✌ ✞✡✌☞ ✝✌☞✏✑ ✏✆✎✡✑✝✆✠✏✆✌✍✒
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
✞✝✟✒✔ ✕✏ be ✡✆✌✏✑✏✓✌✡✆☛
interesting ✌✝ to ✟✆✔✏✑✓✌✍✆✔
understand ☞✝✞ how ✌☞✏
It
✑✏✍✒✠✓✚ r☞✏ ✕✡✝✓✙☞✏✑✏ ✡✆✗✒✟✔✏✓ ✍✒✒ ✌☞✏ ✒✡✎✡✆☛
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
would
✔✡✎✏✑✓✡✌②
diversity ✝✉ of ✒✡✉✏❛✉✝✑✠✓
life-forms ✡✓ is ✠✍✡✆✌✍✡✆✏✔
maintained ✌✝ to ✕✑✡✆☛
the
bring ✍
✗✝✠✙✝✆✏✆✌✓ ✝✉ ✌☞✏ ✏✍✑✌☞✚❝✌ ✗✝✆✓✡✓✌✓ ✝✉ ✍✒✒ ✙✒✍✆✌✓
components of the earth. It consists of all plants
✖✡✆✔ ✝✉ ✕✍✒✍✆✗✏✚ r☞✡✓ ✕✍✒✍✆✗✏ ✡✓ ✠✍✡✆✌✍✡✆✏✔ ✡✆
a
✍✆✔ ✍✆✡✠✍✒✓❡ ✡✆✗✒✟✔✡✆☛ ✍✒✒ ✌☞✏ ✠✡✗✑✝❛
and animals, including all the micro-
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
✍a ✙✍✑✌✡✗✟✒✍✑
particular ✙✑✝✙✝✑✌✡✝✆
proportion ✓✝ so ✌☞✍✌
that ✍ a ☞✏✍✒✌☞②
healthy
✡✆✌✏✑✍✗✌✡✝✆
interaction ✕✏✌✞✏✏✆
between ✌☞✏ the ✕✡✝✌✡✗
biotic ✍✆✔and ✌☞✏
the ✍✕✡✝✌✡✗
abiotic
✾✿❀❁
Life ❂❃on ❄❅❁
the ❁❉❋❄❅
earth ✿● is ❀❂❍❃❏
found ❉❑▼❂●❄
almost ✗✝✠✙✝✆✏✆✌✓
components ☛✝✏✓ goes ✝✆✚
on.
❁◆❁❋P◗❅❁❋❁❘
everywhere. ✾✿◆✿❃❙
Living ❂❋❙❉❃✿●▼●
organisms ❉❋❁are ❀❂❍❃❏
found r☞✏ ✡✆✌✏✑✍✗✌✡✝✆✓
The interactions ✝✉ of ✍a ✙✍✑✌✡✗✟✒✍✑
particular ☛✑✝✟✙
group ✝✉ of
❀❋❂▼
from ❄❅❁
the ♦❂❑❁●
poles ❄❂to ❄❅❁
the ❁❯❍❉❄❂❋❱
equator, ❀❋❂▼
from ❄❅❁
the ✝✑☛✍✆✡✓✠✓
organisms with abiotic factors within ✍
✞✡✌☞ ✍✕✡✝✌✡✗ ✉✍✗✌✝✑✓ ✞✡✌☞✡✆ a
❲❂❄❄❂▼
bottom ❂❀ of ❄❅❁
the ●❁❉
sea ❄❂to ●❁◆❁❋❉❑
several ❳▼km ✿❃in ❄❅❁
the ✙✍✑✌✡✗✟✒✍✑
particular ☞✍✕✡✌✍✌
habitat ✑✏✓✟✒✌✡✆☛
resulting ✡✆ in ✗✒✏✍✑✒②
clearly ✔✏✉✡✆✏✔
defined
❉✿❋❱
air, ❀❋❂▼
from ❀❋❁❁❨✿❃❙ ◗❉❄❁❋● ❄❂to ❏❋P
freezing waters ◆❉❑❑❁P●❱
dry valleys, ✏✆✏✑☛②
energy ✉✒✝✞✓
flows ✍✆✔and ✠✍✌✏✑✡✍✒
material ✗②✗✒✏✓
cycles ✝✆ on ✒✍✆✔❡ ✞✍✌✏✑
land, water
❀❋❂▼
from ❍❃❏❁❋
under ❄❅❁
the ●❁❉
sea ❄❂to ❍❃❏❁❋❙❋❂❍❃❏
underground water◗❉❄❁❋ ✍✆✔
and ✍✡✑❡
air, ✍✑✏ are ✗✍✒✒✏✔
called ✧✰✢✱✢✲✜✰✳✱
ecological ✣✴✣✵✧✶✣✚
❑P✿❃❙
lying ❲❁❑❂◗
below ❄❅❁
the ❁❉❋❄❅❧●
earth’s ●❍❋❀❉❩❁❘
surface.
systems.

❫❅❁ ❄❁❋▼ ❴❵❞❢❞❣❤ ✿● ❏❁❋✿◆❁❏ ❀❋❂▼ ❄❅❁ ✐❋❁❁❳

The term ecology is derived from the Greek
✝✑☛✍✆✡✓✠✓
organisms ✌☞✍✌
that ✒✡✎✏
live ✝✆✌☞✏
on the ✙✒✍✆✏✌
planet ✏✍✑✌☞
earth ✍✆✔
and ✌☞✏✡✑
their ◗❂❋❏ ➅❞❥❦❞♥♣ ▼❁❉❃✿❃❙ q❅❂❍●❁❧❱ ❩❂▼❲✿❃❁❏
word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined
✡✆✌✏✑✍✗✌✡✝✆✓ ✞✡✌☞✌☞✏
interactions with the ✓✟✑✑✝✟✆✔✡✆☛
surrounding ✏✆✎✡✑✝✆✠✏✆✌✚
environment. ◗✿❄❅ ❄❅❁ ◗❂❋❏ ➅❢❞❣❤♣ ▼❁❉❃✿❃❙ ❄❅❁ q●❩✿❁❃❩❁
with the word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science
❬✝✓✌
Most ✝✉
of ✌☞✏
the ✝✑☛✍✆✡✓✠✓
organisms ✏❭✡✓✌ exist ✝✆ on ✌☞✏
the ✒✡✌☞✝✓✙☞✏✑✏
lithosphere ❂❀❧ ❂❋ q❄❅❁ ●❄❍❏P ❂❀ ❧❘ ✾✿❄❁❋❉❑❑P❱ ❁❩❂❑❂❙P ✿●
of or ‘the study of’. Literally, ecology is
✍✆✔❪✝✑
and/or the hydrosphere as well ✍✓
✌☞✏ ☞②✔✑✝✓✙☞✏✑✏ ✍✓ ✞✏✒✒ as ✡✆in ✌☞✏
the ❄❅❁ ●❄❍❏P ❂❀ ❄❅❁ ❁❉❋❄❅ ❉● ❉ q❅❂❍●❁❅❂❑❏❧❱
the study of the earth as a ‘household’,
✍✌✠✝✓✙☞✏✑✏✚ r☞✏✑✏ ✍✑✏ are ✍✒✓✝
also ✠✍✆②
many ✝✑☛✍✆✡✓✠✓
❂❀ ♦❑❉❃❄●❱ ❅❍▼❉❃ ❲❁✿❃❙●❱ ❉❃✿▼❉❑● ❉❃❏
of plants, human beings, animals and
atmosphere. There
✌☞✍✌
that ✠✝✎✏
move ✉✑✏✏✒②
freely ✉✑✝✠
from ✝✆✏
one ✑✏✍✒✠
realm ✌✝
organisms
to ✌☞✏
the ✝✌☞✏✑✚
▼✿❩❋❂s❂❋❙❉❃✿●▼●❘ ❫❅❁P ❉❑❑ ❑✿◆❁ ❄❂❙❁❄❅❁❋
micro-organisms. They all live together

r☞✏ ✕✡✝✓✙☞✏✑✏
biosphere ✍✆✔ and ✡✌✓
its ✗✝✠✙✝✆✏✆✌✓
components ✍✑✏
other.
✎✏✑② ❉● ✿❃❄❁❋❏❁♦❁❃❏❁❃❄ ❩❂▼♦❂❃❁❃❄●❘ t
as interdependent components. A
The are very ✐❁❋▼❉❃ ❨❂❂❑❂❙✿●❄ ✈①③♥④ ⑤⑥❴❵❦❴❢❱ ◗❅❂
German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who
✓✡☛✆✡✉✡✗✍✆✌ ✏✒✏✠✏✆✌✓ ✝✉ ✌☞✏ ✏✆✎✡✑✝✆✠✏✆✌✚
significant elements of the environment. These r☞✏✓✏ ❍●❁❏ ❄❅❁ ❄❁❋▼ ❉● q❞❴❦❞❢❞❣❥❴❧ ✿❃ ➆⑦⑧⑨❱
used the term as ‘oekologie’ in 1869,
✏✒✏✠✏✆✌✓
elements ✡✆✌✏✑✍✗✌ ✞✡✌☞ ✝✌☞✏✑
interact with other ✗✝✠✙✝✆✏✆✌✓
components ✝✉ of ✌☞✏
the ❲❁❩❉▼❁ ❄❅❁ ❀✿❋●❄ ♦❁❋●❂❃ ❄❂ ❍●❁ ❄❅❁ ❄❁❋▼
became the first person to use the term
✆✍✌✟✑✍✒
natural ✒✍✆✔✓✗✍✙✏
landscape ✓✟✗☞ such ✍✓ as ✒✍✆✔❡ ✞✍✌✏✑ ✍✆✔
land, water and q❁❩❂❑❂❙P❧❘ ❫❅❁ ●❄❍❏P ❂❀ ✿❃❄❁❋❉❩❄✿❂❃●
‘ecology’. The study of interactions
✓✝✡✒✚ r☞✏② ✍✑✏
soil. They are ✍✒✓✝also ✡✆✉✒✟✏✆✗✏✔
influenced ✕② by ✌☞✏ the ❲❁❄◗❁❁❃
between ❑✿❀❁life ❀❂❋▼●
forms ⑩❲✿❂❄✿❩❶
(biotic) ❉❃❏
and ❄❅❁ the
✍✌✠✝✓✙☞✏✑✡✗ ✏✒✏✠✏✆✌✓ ✓✟✗☞ ✍✓✌☞✏
atmospheric elements such as the temperature, ✌✏✠✙✏✑✍✌✟✑✏❡ ♦❅P●✿❩❉❑
physical ❁❃◆✿❋❂❃▼❁❃❄
environment ⑩❉❲✿❂❄✿❩❶
(abiotic) ✿●is ❄❅❁
the
✑✍✡✆✉✍✒✒❡
rainfall, ✠✝✡✓✌✟✑✏
moisture ✍✆✔ and ✓✟✆✒✡☛☞✌✚ r☞✏ ●❩✿❁❃❩❁
science ❂❀
of ❁❩❂❑❂❙P❘ Hence, ❴❵❞❢❞❣❤
ecology. ❷❁❃❩❁❱ ecology ❵⑥③
can ❸❴ be
✡✆✌✏✑✍✗✌✡✝✆✓
interactions ✝✉ of ✕✡✝✓✙☞✏✑✏
sunlight. The
✞✡✌☞ ✒✍✆✔❡
land, ✍✡✑
air ✍✆✔
❹❴❺❥③❴❹
defined ⑥♥ as ⑥ a ♥❵❥❴③④❥❺❥❵
scientific ♥④❻❹❤
study ❞❺of ④❼❴the

✞✍✌✏✑ ✍✑✏
biosphere with and ❥③④❴①⑥❵④❥❞③♥
interactions ❞❺ of ❞①❣⑥③❥♥❽♥
organisms ❾❥④❼with ④❼❴❥①
are ✡✠✙✝✑✌✍✆✌ ✌✝
to ✌☞✏the ☛✑✝✞✌☞❡
their
water important growth, ❿❼❤♥❥❵⑥❢ ❴③➀❥①❞③❽❴③④
physical environment ⑥③❹ with ❴⑥❵❼
and ❾❥④❼ each ❞④❼❴①❘
other.
✔✏✎✏✒✝✙✠✏✆✌
development ✍✆✔ and ✏✎✝✒✟✌✡✝✆
evolution ✝✉ of ✌☞✏
the ✝✑☛✍✆✡✓✠✚
organism.
✶✑✒
128 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

A❆ ❤✓✔✕✖✓✖
habitat ✥✗in ✘✙✚
the ✚✛✜✢✜✣✥✛✤✢
ecological ✦✚✗✦✚
sense ✥✦
is ✘✙✚
the ✘✜✘✤✢✥✘✧
totality ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪
ecosystem ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚✦ lakes, ★✜✗✩✦❜
includes ✢✤❦✚✦❜ ponds, ✦✘✫✚✤✪✦❜
streams,
✜♦ the ★✙✧✦✥✛✤✢
of ✘✙✚ physical ✤✗✩ chemical ♦✤✛✘✜✫✦
and ✛✙✚✪✥✛✤✢ factors ✘✙✤✘
that ✪✤✫✦✙✚✦
marshes ✤✗✩ ✮✜✣✦✭
and bogs.
✛✜✗✦✘✥✘❝✘✚
constitute ✘✙✚ the ✣✚✗✚✫✤✢
general ✚✗✬✥✫✜✗✪✚✗✘✭
environment. A❆ ✦✧✦✘✚✪
system
✛✜✗✦✥✦✘✥✗✣
consisting ✜♦ ✮✥✜✘✥✛ ✤✗✩
of biotic and ✤✮✥✜✘✥✛
abiotic ✛✜✪★✜✗✚✗✘✦
components ✥✦ is
❧❂♠♥❁❂♥♠✼
Structure ♣qr and s♥q❁❂✉✾q✽
Functions ✾✿ of ❀❁✾✽✺✽❂✼❃✽
Ecosystems
❦✗✜✯✗
known ✤✦ as ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪✭
ecosystem. All ❆✢✢ ✘✙✚✦✚
these ✛✜✪★✜✗✚✗✘✦
components ✥✗ in ❚✙✚ ✦✘✫❝✛✘❝✫✚
The structure ✜♦ of ✤✗an ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪
ecosystem ✥✗✬✜✢✬✚✦ involves ✤ a
✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪
ecosystem ✤✫✚ inter ✫✚✢✤✘✚✩
are ✥✗✘✚✫ related ✤✗✩ and ✥✗✘✚✫✤✛✘ ✯✥✘✙
interact with ✩✚✦✛✫✥★✘✥✜✗
description ✜♦ of ✘✙✚ available ★✢✤✗✘
the ✤✬✤✥✢✤✮✢✚ plant ✤✗✩ and ✤✗✥✪✤✢
animal
✚✤✛✙
each ✜✘✙✚✫✭
other. ✳✥♦♦✚✫✚✗✘
Different ✘✧★✚✦
types ✜♦ of ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪✦
ecosystems ✚❡✥✦✘
exist species. ◆✫✜✪
✦★✚✛✥✚✦✭ From ✤ structural ★✜✥✗✘
a ✦✘✫❝✛✘❝✫✤✢ point ✜♦ ✬✥✚✯❜ ✤✢✢
of view, all
with ✬✤✫✧✥✗✣ ✫✤✗✣✚✦
✯✥✘✙ varying ranges ✜♦ of ✚✗✬✥✫✜✗✪✚✗✘✤✢
environmental ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪✦
ecosystems ✛✜✗✦✥✦✘
consist ✜♦ of ✤✮✥✜✘✥✛
abiotic ✤✗✩ ✮✥✜✘✥✛ ♦✤✛✘✜✫✦✭
and biotic factors.
✛✜✗✩✥✘✥✜✗✦
conditions where ✬✤✫✥✜❝✦ ★✢✤✗✘✦
✯✙✚✫✚ various plants ✤✗✩
and ✤✗✥✪✤✢
animal ■✔✕✲✖✕✱ factors
Abiotic ❢✓✱✖✲t❇ ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚
include ✫✤✥✗♦✤✢✢❜
rainfall, ✘✚✪★✚✫✤✘❝✫✚❜
temperature,
✦★✚✛✥✚✦
species ✙✤✬✚
have ✣✜✘got ✤✩✤★✘✚✩
adapted ✘✙✫✜❝✣✙
through ✚✬✜✢❝✘✥✜✗✭
evolution. ✦❝✗✢✥✣✙✘❜
sunlight, ✤✘✪✜✦★✙✚✫✥✛
atmospheric ✙❝✪✥✩✥✘✧❜
humidity, ✦✜✥✢
soil
❚✙✥✦ ★✙✚✗✜✪✚✗✜✗
This phenomenon ✥✦ is ❦✗✜✯✗
known ✤✦ as ✰✱✲✴✲✵✕✱✓✴
ecological ✛✜✗✩✥✘✥✜✗✦❜ ✥✗✜✫✣✤✗✥✛ ✦❝✮✦✘✤✗✛✚✦
conditions, inorganic substances (carbon ✈✛✤✫✮✜✗
✓❛✓✷✖✓✖✕✲✸✭
adaptation. ✩✥✜❡✥✩✚❜ ✯✤✘✚✫❜ ✗✥✘✫✜✣✚✗❜
dioxide, water, calcium, ★✙✜✦★✙✜✫❝✦❜
nitrogen, ✛✤✢✛✥❝✪❜ phosphorus,
★✜✘✤✦✦✥❝✪❜
potassium, ✚✘✛✭✇✭etc.). ①✕✲✖✕✱ ❢✓✱✖✲t❇ ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚
Biotic factors include ✘✙✚ the
✹✺✻✼✽
Types ✾✿ of ❀❁✾✽✺✽❂✼❃✽
Ecosystems ★✫✜✩❝✛✚✫✦❜
producers, ✈★✫✥✪✤✫✧❜
(primary, ✦✚✛✜✗✩✤✫✧❜
secondary, ✘✚✫✘✥✤✫✧✇
tertiary) ✘✙✚the
❊✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪✦
Ecosystems ✤✫✚ are ✜♦ two ✪✤❄✜✫
of ✘✯✜ major ✘✧★✚✦❅
types: ✖✰tt✰❇✖t✕✓✴
terrestrial ✛✜✗✦❝✪✚✫✦
consumers ✤✗✩ and ✘✙✚ the ✩✚✛✜✪★✜✦✚✫✦✭
decomposers. The ❚✙✚
✤✗✩
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem ✛✤✗
✓❈❉✓✖✕✱✭ ❚✚✫✫✚✦✘✫✥✤✢ ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪ ✮✚
can be ✷t✲❛❉✱✰t❇ ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚
producers include ✤✢✢ all ✘✙✚ green ★✢✤✗✘✦❜
the ✣✫✚✚✗ ✯✙✥✛✙
plants, which
♦❝✫✘✙✚✫ ✮✚ ✛✢✤✦✦✥♦✥✚✩ ✥✗✘✜ ➅✔✕✲●✰❇❍✭ ■
further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is ✤ ✔✕✲●✰ ✥✦ a ✪✤✗❝♦✤✛✘❝✫✚
manufacture ✘✙✚✥✫ their ✜✯✗ own ♦✜✜✩ food ✘✙✫✜❝✣✙
through
★✢✤✗✘
plant ✤✗✩and ✤✗✥✪✤✢
animal ✛✜✪✪❝✗✥✘✧
community ✘✙✤✘ that ✛✜✬✚✫✦
covers ✤ a ★✙✜✘✜✦✧✗✘✙✚✦✥✦✭
photosynthesis. The ✷t✕●✓t② ✱✲✸❇❉●✰t❇
❚✙✚ primary consumers
✢✤✫✣✚
large ✣✚✜✣✫✤★✙✥✛✤✢
geographical ✤✫✚✤✭ area. The ✮✜❝✗✩✤✫✥✚✦ ✜♦
❚✙✚ boundaries of ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚
include ✙✚✫✮✥✬✜✫✜❝✦
herbivorous ✤✗✥✪✤✢✦ animals ✢✥❦✚ like ✩✚✚✫❜
deer, ✣✜✤✘✦❜
goats,
✩✥♦♦✚✫✚✗✘ ✮✥✜✪✚✦ ✜✗
different biomes on ✢✤✗✩ are ✩✚✘✚✫✪✥✗✚✩
land ✤✫✚ determined ✪✤✥✗✢✧mainly ✪✥✛✚
mice ✤✗✩and ✤✢✢ all ★✢✤✗✘③✚✤✘✥✗✣
plant-eating ✤✗✥✪✤✢✦✭ animals. The ❚✙✚
✮✧ ✛✢✥✪✤✘✚✭
by climate. Therefore, ✮✥✜✪✚ ✛✤✗
❚✙✚✫✚♦✜✫✚❜ ✤a biome can be✮✚ ✩✚♦✥✗✚✩
defined ✱✓t✸✕④✲t✰❇
carnivores ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚
include ✤✢✢ the ♦✢✚✦✙③✚✤✘✥✗✣
all ✘✙✚ flesh-eating ✤✗✥✪✤✢✦
animals
✤✦
as ✘✙✚
the ✘✜✘✤✢
total ✤✦✦✚✪✮✢✤✣✚
assemblage ✜♦ of ★✢✤✗✘
plant ✤✗✩
and ✤✗✥✪✤✢
animal ✢✥❦✚
like ✦✗✤❦✚✦❜
snakes, ✘✥✣✚✫✦
tigers ✤✗✩ lions. ⑤✚✫✘✤✥✗
and ✢✥✜✗✦✭ Certain ✛✤✫✗✥✬✜✫✚✦
carnivores
✦★✚✛✥✚✦ ✥✗✘✚✫✤✛✘✥✗✣ ✯✥✘✙✥✗ ✦★✚✛✥♦✥✛
species interacting within specific conditions. ✛✜✗✩✥✘✥✜✗✦✭ that ♦✚✚✩
✘✙✤✘ feed ✤✢✦✜
also ✜✗on ✛✤✫✗✥✬✜✫✚✦
carnivores ✤✫✚ are ❦✗✜✯✗
known ✤✦ as ✘✜★
top
include ✫✤✥✗♦✤✢✢❜
❚✙✚✦✚ ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚
These rainfall, ✘✚✪★✚✫✤✘❝✫✚❜
temperature, ✙❝✪✥✩✥✘✧
humidity ✛✤✫✗✥✬✜✫✚✦ ✢✥❦✚ ✙✤✯❦✦
carnivores like hawks and mongooses. ✤✗✩ ✪✜✗✣✜✜✦✚✦✭
✤✗✩
and ✦✜✥✢ conditions. ❏✜✪✚
soil ✛✜✗✩✥✘✥✜✗✦✭ Some ✜♦ the ✪✤❄✜✫
of ✘✙✚ ✮✥✜✪✚✦
major biomes ⑥✰✱✲●✷✲❇✰t❇
Decomposers ✤✫✚ are ✘✙✜✦✚
those ✘✙✤✘ that ♦✚✚✩feed ✜✗ on ✩✚✤✩
dead
✜♦
of ✘✙✚ ✯✜✫✢✩ ✤✫✚❅
the world ❢✲t✰❇✖❑ ✵t✓❇❇✴✓✸❛❑
are: forest, grassland, ❛✰❇✰t✖
desert ✓✸❛
and organisms ✈♦✜✫
✜✫✣✤✗✥✦✪✦ (for ✚❡✤✪★✢✚❜
example, ✦✛✤✬✚✗✣✚✫✦
scavengers ✢✥❦✚ like
✖❉✸❛t✓
tundra ✔✕✲●✰❇✭ ❆▲❝✤✘✥✛ ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪✦
biomes. Aquatic ecosystems ✛✤✗ ✮✚
can be ✬❝✢✘❝✫✚✦
vultures ✤✗✩ and ✛✫✜✯✦✇❜
crows), ✤✗✩ and ♦❝✫✘✙✚✫
further ✮✫✚✤❦✥✗✣
breaking
✛✢✤✦✦✚✩
classed ✤✦ as ✪✤✫✥✗✚
marine ✤✗✩ and ♦✫✚✦✙✯✤✘✚✫
freshwater ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪✦✭
ecosystems. ✩✜✯✗
down ✜♦ the ✩✚✤✩
of ✘✙✚ dead ✪✤✘✘✚✫
matter ✮✧ other ✩✚✛✜✪★✜✦✥✗✣
by ✜✘✙✚✫ decomposing
▼✤✫✥✗✚
Marine ✚✛✜✦✧✦✘✚✪
ecosystem ✥✗✛✢❝✩✚✦
includes ✘✙✚the ✜✛✚✤✗✦❜
oceans, ✛✜✤✦✘✤✢
coastal ✤✣✚✗✘✦
agents ✢✥❦✚like ✮✤✛✘✚✫✥✤
bacteria ✤✗✩ various ✪✥✛✫✜③
and ✬✤✫✥✜❝✦ micro-
✚✦✘❝✤✫✥✚✦ ✤✗✩ ✛✜✫✤✢ ✫✚✚♦✦✭
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater ◆✫✚✦✙✯✤✘✚✫ ✜✫✣✤✗✥✦✪✦✭
organisms.

Sun

3 q
8
v

;
Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary
CB id Consumers id Consumers —> Consumers
Herbivores | Carnivores 1 Top Carnivores |

Dead Remains

v yy

Soil Nutrients Decomposers

❖P◗❘❙❯
Figure ❱❲❳❱
15.1 ❨: ❩❬❙❘❭❬❘❙❯
Structure ❪❫❴
and ❵❘❫❭❬P❞❫❣
functions ❞❵
of ❯❭❞❣✐❣❬❯❥❣
ecosystems
LIFE
▲ ON THE
✁✂ ✄☎ EARTH
✆✝✂ ✂✞✟✆✝ 129
✶✠✡

The
❚☛☞ ✌producers
✍✎ ✏✑✒☞ ✍✓ ✔ are consumed
✍☞ ✒✎ ✕✓✑✖☞ ✏ ✗✘ by ✙the☛☞ aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
✔★✑✔✙♣✒ ✔✕✏ ✔✣✙♣✙✑✏♣✕✔✣ ✗♣✎✖☞✓s ❙✎✖☞ ✢☞✔✙✑✍☞✓

primary consumers whereas

✌✍♣✖ ✔✍✘ ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞ ✍✓ ✚☛☞ ✍☞✔✓ the primary
✙☛☞ ✌ ✍♣✖✔✍✘ of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
✎✢ ✙☛☞✓☞ ✗♣✎✖☞✓ ✔✍☞ ✛♣❛☞✕ ♣✕ ❚✔✗✣☞ ✥✦s✥s

consumers ✔✍☞❝
✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓ are, ♣✕in ✙✑✍✕❝
turn, ✗☞♣✕✛
being ☞✔✙☞✕
eaten ✗✘ by ✙☛☞
the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary
✓☞✒✎✕✏✔✍✘ ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓s ✜✑✍✙☛☞✍❝ ✙☛☞ ✓☞✒✎✕✏✔✍✘ Biogeochemical
❆❇❄❋❂❄●❍❂❈❇●■❏ ❑❀●❏❂❃ Cycles
consumers ✔✍☞
✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓ are ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✏
consumed ✗✘ by ✙☛☞
the ✙☞✍✙♣
tertiary
✔✍✘
The sun ♣✓
❚☛☞ ✓✑✕ is ✙☛☞
the ✗✔✓♣✒
basic ✓✎✑✍✒☞
source ✎✢ of ☞✕☞✍✛✘
energy ✎✕on ✚☛♣✒☛
which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead
✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓s ❚☛☞ ✏☞✒✎✖✌✎✓☞✍✓ ✢☞☞✏ ✎✕ ✙☛☞ ✏☞✔✏
all ✣♣✢☞
✔✣✣ life ✏☞✌☞✕✏✓s
depends. This energy ♣✕♣✙♣✔✙☞✓
❚☛♣✓ ☞✕☞✍✛✘ initiates ✣♣ life
✢☞
at ☞✔✒☛
✔✙ each ✔✕✏
and ☞❛☞✍✘
every ✣☞❛☞✣s
level. They change ✙☛☞✖
❚☛☞✘ ✒☛✔✕✛☞ them ♣✕✙✎
into processes
✌ ✍✎✒☞✓✓ ☞✓ ♣in
✕ the
✙ ☛☞ biosphere
✗ ♣ ✎✓✌ ☛☞ ✍☞ through
✙ ☛ ✍✎✑✛ ☛
various substances such as nutrients, ✎✍✛✔✕♣✒
❛✔✍♣✎✑✓ ✓✑✗✓✙✔✕✒☞✓ ✓✑✒☛ ✔✓ ✕✑✙✍♣☞✕✙✓❝ organic photosynthesis, ✙☛☞
✌☛✎✙✎✓✘✕✙☛☞✓♣✓❝ the ✖✔♣✕
main ✓✎✑✍✒☞
source ✎✢ of ✢✎✎✏
food ✔✕✏
and
and ♣✕✎✍✛✔✕♣✒
✔✕✏ inorganic ✓✔✣✙✓
salts ☞✓✓☞✕✙♣✔✣
essential ✢✎✍
for ✓✎♣✣
soil ✢☞✍✙♣✣♣✙✘s
fertility. energy ✢✎✍
☞✕☞✍✛✘ for ✛✍☞☞✕
green ✌✣✔✕✙✓s
plants. ▼✑✍♣✕✛
During ✌☛✎✙✎✓✘✕✙☛☞✓♣✓❝
photosynthesis,
Organisms ✎✢
❖✍✛✔✕♣✓✖✓ of ✔✕
an ☞✒✎✓✘✓✙☞✖
ecosystem ✔✍☞ are ✣♣✕✤☞✏
linked ✙✎✛☞✙☛☞✍
together carbon
✒ ✔✍✗✎✕ ✏♣✎ dioxide
❡♣✏☞ ♣✓ is ✒✎✕❛☞✍✙☞✏
converted ♣✕✙✎ into ✎ organic
✍✛ ✔✕♣✒
through
✙ ☛ ✍✎ ✑✛ ☛ ✔a foodchain
✢✎ ✎ ✏✒ ☛ ✔♣ ✕ (Figure
t ✜♣ ✛ ✑ ✍☞ 15.1).
✥✦ s ✥✧ s For
✜✎ ✍
compounds ✔✕✏
✒✎✖✌✎✑✕✏✓ and ✎❡✘✛☞✕s
oxygen. ❖✑✙ Out ✎✢ of ✙☛☞
the ✙✎✙✔✣
total ✓✎✣✔✍
solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a
☞❡✔✖✌✣☞❝ ✔ ✌✣✔✕✙ ☞✔✙♣✕✛ ✗☞☞✙✣☞ ✢☞☞✏♣✕✛ ✎✕ ✔
insolation ✙☛✔✙
♣✕✓✎✣✔✙♣✎✕ that ✍☞✔✒☛☞✓
reaches ✙☛☞the ☞✔✍✙☛❉✓
earth’s ✓✑✍✢✔✒☞❝
surface, ✎✕✣✘
only
paddy ✓✙✔✣✤
✌✔✏✏✘ stalk ♣✓is ☞✔✙☞✕
eaten ✗✘
by ✔a ✢✍✎✛❝
frog, which
✚☛♣✒☛ ♣✓❝is, ♣✕
in ✙✑✍✕❝
turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
✔ ❛☞✍✘ ✓✖✔✣✣ ✢✍✔✒✙♣✎✕ t◆s✥ ✌☞✍ ✒☞✕✙✧ ♣✓ ✢♣❡☞✏ ♣✕
eaten ✗✘
☞✔✙☞✕ by ✔a ✓✕✔✤☞❝
snake, which
✚☛♣✒☛ ♣✓ is ✙☛☞✕
then ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✏
consumed ✗✘ by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
✌☛✎✙✎✓✘✕✙☛☞✓♣✓s P✎✍☞ ✙☛✔✕ ☛✔✣✢ ♣✓ ✑✓☞✏ ✢✎✍ ✌✣✔✕✙
a ☛✔✚✤s
✔ hawk. This sequence ✎✢
❚☛♣✓ ✓☞★✑☞✕✒☞ of ☞✔✙♣✕✛
eating ✔✕✏ and ✗☞♣✕✛
being respiration
✍ ☞✓✌ ♣ ✍ ✔✙ ♣✎ ✕ ✔ and
✕✏ ✙ the
☛ ☞ ✍☞remaining
✖ ✔♣✕ ♣✕✛ ✌ part
✔ ✍ ✙ ♣is✓
eaten ✔✕✏
☞✔✙☞✕ and ✙☛☞
the ✍☞✓✑✣✙✔✕✙
resultant ✙✍✔✕✓✢☞✍
transfer ✎✢ of ☞✕☞✍✛✘
energy ✢✍✎✖from temporarily
✙ ☞✖✌✎ ✍✔✍♣ ✣✘ ✓✙✎ stored✍☞ ✏ ✎ or✍ ♣✓is ✓☛♣shifted
✢✙ ☞✏ ✙✎ to ✎✙☛☞✍
other
one ✣☞❛☞✣
✎✕☞ level ✙✎
to ✔✕✎✙☛☞✍
another ♣✓ is ✤✕✎✚✕
known ✔✓ as ✙☛☞
the food-chain.
❢✩✩✪✫✬✭✮✯✰s
portions ✎✢
✌✎✍✙♣✎✕✓ of ✙☛☞
the ✌✣✔✕✙s
plant.
Transfer
❚ ✍✔✕✓✢☞✍ ✎✢ of ☞✕☞✍✛✘
energy ✙☛✔✙that ✎✒✒✑✍✓
occurs ✏✑✍♣✕✛
during ✙☛☞ the Life ✎✕
❊♣✢☞ on ☞✔✍✙☛
earth ✒✎✕✓♣✓✙✓
consists ✎✢ of ✔ a ✛✍☞✔✙
great variety
❛✔✍♣☞✙✘ ✎✢ of
process ✎
✌✍✎✒☞✓✓ of✢ ✔a ✢✎✎
foodchain
✏✒☛✔♣✕ ✢✍✎✖ from ✎✕☞ one ✣☞❛☞✣
level ✙✎ to living ✎✍✛✔✕♣✓✖✓s
✣♣❛♣✕✛ organisms. These living ✎✍✛✔✕♣✓✖✓
❚☛☞✓☞ ✣♣❛♣✕✛ organisms ☞❡♣✓✙ exist
another ♣✓
✔✕✎✙☛☞✍ is ✤✕✎✚✕
known ✔✓ as flow
❢✱✩✲ ✩❢ of ✳✰✳✴❣②s
energy. ✵✎✚☞❛☞✍❝
However, and ✓✑✍❛♣❛☞
✔✕✏ survive ♣✕ in ✔ a ✏♣❛☞✍✓♣✙✘
diversity ✎✢ of ✔✓✓✎✒♣✔✙♣✎✕✓s
associations. ❙✑✒☛ Such
food-chains ✔✍☞
✢✎✎✏✷✒☛✔♣✕✓ are ✕✎✙
not ♣✓✎✣✔✙☞✏
isolated ✢✍✎✖from ✎✕☞one ✔✕✎✙☛☞✍s
another. survival ♣✕❛✎✣❛☞✓
✓✑✍❛♣❛✔✣ involves ✙☛☞ the ✌✍☞✓☞✕✒☞
presence ✎✢ of ✓✘✓✙☞✖♣✒
systemic ✢✣✎✚✓ flows
For ☞❡✔✖✌✣☞❝
✜✎✍ example, ✔ a ✖✎✑✓☞
mouse ✢☞☞✏♣✕✛
feeding ✎✕ on ✛✍✔♣✕
grain ✖✔✘ may such ✔✓
✓✑✒☛ as ✢✣✎✚✓
flows ✎✢ of ☞✕☞✍✛✘❝
energy, ✚✔✙☞✍water ✔✕✏ and ✕✑✙✍♣☞✕✙✓s
nutrients.
be ☞✔✙☞✕
✗☞ eaten ✗✘ by ✏♣✢✢☞✍☞✕✙
different ✓☞✒✎✕✏✔✍✘
secondary ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓
consumers These flows ✓☛✎✚
❚☛☞✓☞ ✢✣✎✚✓ show variations
❛✔✍♣✔✙♣✎✕✓ ♣✕ in ✏♣✢✢☞✍☞✕✙
different ✌✔✍✙✓ parts
(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten
t✒✔✍✕♣❛✎✍☞✓✧ ✔✕✏ ✙☛☞✓☞ ✒✔✍✕♣❛✎✍☞✓ ✖✔✘ ✗☞ ☞✔✙☞✕
of ✙☛☞
✎✢ the ✚✎✍✣✏❝
world, ♣✕ in ✏♣✢✢☞✍☞✕✙
different ✓☞✔✓✎✕✓
seasons ✎✢ of ✙☛☞
the ✘☞✔✍year
by
✗✘ other
✎✙☛☞✍ different tertiary
✏♣✢✢☞✍☞✕✙ ✙☞✍✙♣✔✍✘ consumers
✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓ (top
t✙✎✌
and ✑✕✏☞✍
✔✕✏ under varying
❛✔✍✘♣✕✛ ✣✎✒✔✣ local ✒♣✍✒✑✖✓✙✔✕✒☞✓s
circumstances. ❙✙✑✏♣☞✓ Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the
✒✔✍✕♣❛✎✍☞✓✧s ✸✕ ✓✑✒☛ ✓♣✙✑✔✙♣✎✕✓❝ ☞✔✒☛ ✎✢ ✙☛☞
have ✓☛✎✚✕
☛✔❛☞ shown ✙☛✔✙ that ✢✎✍ for ✙☛☞
the ✣✔✓✙
last ✎✕☞ one ✗♣✣✣♣✎✕
billion ✘☞✔✍✓❝
years,
carnivores ✖✔✘
✒✔✍✕♣❛✎✍☞✓ may ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞
consume ✖✎✍☞
more ✙☛✔✕
than ✎✕☞
one ✙✘✌☞
type the ✔✙✖✎✓✌☛☞✍☞
✙☛☞ atmosphere ✔✕✏ and ☛✘✏✍✎✓✌☛☞✍☞
hydrosphere ☛✔❛☞ have ✗☞☞✕ been
of prey. As ✔
✎✢ ✌✍☞✘ s ♦✓ a ✍☞✓✑✣✙❝
result, ✙☛☞ the ✢✎✎✏✷
food- ✒☛✔♣✕✓
chains ✛☞✙ get composed ✎✢
✒✎✖✌✎✓☞✏ of ✔✌✌✍✎❡♣✖✔✙☞✣✘
approximately ✙☛☞ the ✓✔✖☞
same ✗✔✣✔✕✒☞
balance
interlocked with
♣✕✙☞✍✣✎✒✤☞✏ ✚♣✙☛ ✎✕☞ one ✔✕✎✙☛☞✍s
another. This inter- ✷
❚☛♣✓ ♣✕✙☞✍
of ✒☛☞✖♣✒✔✣
✎✢ chemical ✒✎✖✌✎✕☞✕✙✓s
components. This balance ✎✢
❚☛♣✓ ✗✔✣✔✕✒☞ of ✙☛☞
the
connecting ✕☞✙✚✎✍✤
✒✎✕✕☞✒✙♣✕✛ network ✎✢ of ✓✌☞✒♣☞✓
species ♣✓ is ✤✕✎✚✕
known ✔✓ as food
❢✩✩✪
chemical ☞✣☞✖☞✕✙✓
✒☛☞✖♣✒✔✣ elements ♣✓ is ✖✔♣✕✙✔♣✕☞✏
maintained ✗✘ by ✔ a ✒✘✒✣♣✒
cyclic
web. ✺☞✕☞✍✔✣✣✘❝
✲✳✇✹ Generally, ✙✚✎ two ✙✘✌☞✓
types ✎✢ of ✢✎✎✏✷✒☛✔♣✕✓
food-chains ✔✍☞ are passage ✙☛✍✎✑✛☛
✌✔✓✓✔✛☞ through ✙☛☞ the ✙♣✓✓✑☞✓
tissues ✎✢ of ✌✣✔✕✙✓
plants ✔✕✏ and
recognised: ❣✴✮✻✯✰❣
✍☞✒✎✛✕♣✓☞✏r grazing food-chain
❢✩✩✪✫✬✭✮✯✰ ✔✕✏ and ✪✳❞✴✯❞✼✽
detritus animals. The
✔✕♣✖✔✣✓s ❚☛☞ ✒✘✒✣☞ cycle ✓✙✔✍✙✓
starts ✗✘ by ✔✗✓✎✍✗♣✕✛
absorbing ✙☛☞ the
jfood-chain.
❢✩✩✪✫✬✭✮✯✰s ✸✕ In ✔ a ✛✍✔✾♣✕✛
grazing ✢✎✎✏✷✒☛✔♣✕❝
food-chain, ✙☛☞ the ✢♣✍✓✙
first chemical ☞✣☞✖☞✕✙✓
✒☛☞✖♣✒✔✣ elements ✗✘ by ✙☛☞the ✎✍✛✔✕♣✓✖
organism ✔✕✏ and ♣✓ is
level ✓✙✔✍✙✓
✣☞❛☞✣ starts ✚♣✙☛
with ✌✣✔✕✙✓
plants ✔✓ as ✌✍✎✏✑✒☞✍✓
producers ✔✕✏ and ☞✕✏✓
ends returned ✙✎
✍☞✙✑✍✕☞✏ to ✙☛☞the ✔♣✍❝air, ✚✔✙☞✍
water ✔✕✏ and ✓✎♣✣ soil ✙☛✍✎✑✛☛
through
with ✒✔✍✕♣❛✎✍☞✓
✚♣✙☛ carnivores ✔✓ as ✒✎✕✓✑✖☞✍✓
consumers ✔✓ as ✙☛☞
the ✣✔✓✙
last ✣☞❛☞✣❝
level, decomposition.
✏☞✒✎✖ ✌✎ ✓♣✙ ♣✎ ✕ s These ❚☛☞✓☞ ✒✘ cycles
✒ ✣☞✓ ✔ are
✍☞ ✣ largely
✔✍✛ ☞✣✘
with ✙☛☞
✚♣✙☛ the ☛☞✍✗♣❛✎✍☞✓
herbivores ✗☞♣✕✛ being ✔✙ at ✙☛☞
the ♣✕✙☞✍✖☞✏♣✔✙☞
intermediate energised by solar insolation. These ✒✘✒✣♣✒
☞✕☞✍✛♣✓☞✏ ✗✘ ✓✎✣✔✍ ♣✕✓✎✣✔✙♣✎✕s ❚☛☞✓☞ cyclic
level. There
✣☞❛☞✣s ❚☛☞✍☞ ♣✓ is ✔a ✣✎✓✓
loss ✎✢of ☞✕☞✍✛✘
energy ✔✙ at ☞✔✒☛
each ✣☞❛☞✣
level movements
✖ ✎ ❛☞✖☞✕✙ ✓ ✎ of✢ ✒☛☞✖
chemical ♣✒ ✔✣ ☞ elements
✣☞✖ ☞✕✙ ✓ ✎ of✢ ✙the☛☞
which ✖✔✘
✚☛♣✒☛ may ✗☞ be ✙☛✍✎✑✛☛
through ✍☞✓✌♣✍✔✙♣✎✕❝
respiration, ☞❡✒✍☞✙♣✎✕
excretion biosphere between the organism and the
✗♣✎✓✌☛☞✍☞ ✗☞✙✚☞☞✕ ✙☛☞ ✎ ✍✛ ✔✕♣✓✖ ✔✕✏ ✙☛☞
or ✏☞✒✎✖✌✎✓♣✙♣✎✕s
✎✍ decomposition. The levels ♣✕❛✎✣❛☞✏
❚☛☞ ✣☞❛☞✣✓ involved ♣✕ in ✔a ✢✎✎✏✷
food- environment ✔✍☞
☞✕❛♣✍✎✕✖☞✕✙ are ✍☞✢☞✍✍☞✏
referred ✙✎ to ✔✓
as ✇✯✩❣✳✩✬✭✳❜✯✬✮✱
biogeochemical
chain ✍✔✕✛☞
✒☛✔♣✕ range ✗☞✙✚☞☞✕
between ✙☛✍☞☞ three ✙✎ to ✢♣❛☞
five ✔✕✏
and ☞✕☞✍✛✘
energy cycles. Bio refers to living organisms ✔✕✏
✬②✬✱✳✽s ◗✯✩ ✍☞✢☞✍✓ ✙✎ ✣♣❛♣✕✛ ✎✍✛✔✕♣✓✖✓ and ❣✳✩ geo
is ✣✎✓✙
♣✓ lost ✔✙
at ☞✔✒☛
each ✣☞❛☞✣s
level. A♦ ✏☞✙✍♣✙✑✓
detritus ✢✎✎✏✷✒☛✔♣✕
food-chain ♣✓ is to ✍✎✒✤✓❝
✙✎ rocks, ✓✎♣✣❝
soil, ✔♣✍ air ✔✕✏
and ✚✔✙☞✍
water ✎✢ of ✙☛☞
the ☞✔✍✙☛s
earth.
based on autotrophs ☞✕☞✍✛✘
✗✔✓☞✏ ✎✕ ✔✑✙✎✙✍✎✌☛✓ energy ✒✔✌✙✑✍☞
capture ♣✕♣✙♣✔✙☞✏
initiated There
❚☛☞✍☞ ✔✍☞ are ✙✚✎ two ✙✘✌☞✓
types ✎ of✢ ✗♣✎✛☞✎✒☛☞✖♣✒✔✣
biogeochemical
by✘ ✛
✗ grazing
✍ ✔ ✾♣ ✕ ✛ animals
✔ ✕♣ ✖ ✔✣✓ and✏ ♣involves
✔✕ ✕ ❛✎ ✣ ❛☞ ✓ the
✙ ☛☞
cycles r: ✙☛☞
✒✘✒✣☞✓ the ❣✮✽✳✩✼✽
gaseous ✔✕✏ and ✙☛☞the ✽✳✪✯❜✳✰❞✮✴②
sedimentary ✒✘✒✣☞s cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic
✏☞✒✎✖✌✎✓♣✙♣✎✕ ✎✍ ✗✍☞✔✤♣✕✛ ✏✎✚✕ ✎✢ ✎✍✛✔✕♣✒
In ✙☛☞
✸✕ the ✛✔✓☞✎✑✓
gaseous ✒✘✒✣☞❝ cycle, ✙☛☞ the ✖✔♣✕main ✍☞✓☞✍❛✎♣✍
reservoir ✎✢ of
wastes ✔✕✏
✚✔✓✙☞✓ and ✏☞✔✏dead ✖✔✙✙☞✍
matter ✏☞✍♣❛☞✏
derived ✢✍✎✖ from ✙☛☞ the nutrients ♣✓
✕✑✙✍♣☞✕✙✓ is ✙☛☞
the ✔✙✖✎✓✌☛☞✍☞
atmosphere ✔✕✏ and ✙☛☞ the ✎✒☞✔✕s
ocean. ✸✕ In
grazing food-chain.
✛✍✔✾♣✕✛ ✢✎✎✏✷✒☛✔♣✕s
the ✓☞✏♣✖☞✕✙✔✍✘
✙☛☞ sedimentary ✒✘✒✣☞❝ cycle, ✙☛☞the ✖✔♣✕
main ✍☞✓☞✍❛✎♣✍
reservoir ♣✓ is ✙☛☞
the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks ✎✢
✓✎♣✣ ✔✕✏ ✙☛☞ ✓☞✏♣✖☞✕✙✔✍✘ ✔✕✏ ✎✙☛☞✍ ✍✎✒✤✓ of
Types of Biomes
✿❀❁❂❃ ❄❅ ❆❇❄❈❂❃ the ☞✔✍✙☛❉✓
✙☛☞ earth’s ✒✍✑✓✙s
crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the
✸✕ ✙☛☞ ☞✔✍✣♣☞✍ ✌✔✍✔✛✍✔✌☛✓❝ ✘✎✑ ☛✔❛☞ ✣☞✔✍✕✙ ✙☛☞
The Water Cycle
❘✭✳ ❯✮❞✳✴ ❱②✬✱✳
meaning of the term ‘biome’. Let us now try to
✖☞✔✕♣✕✛ ✎✢ ✙☛☞ ✙☞✍✖ ♠✗♣✎✖☞❉s ❊☞✙ ✑✓ ✕✎✚ ✙✍✘ ✙✎

identify ✙☛☞
♣✏☞✕✙♣✢✘ the ✖✔✐✎✍
major ✗♣✎✖☞✓
biomes ✎✢of ✙☛☞
the ✚✎✍✣✏s
world. There
❚☛☞✍☞ All living ✎✍✛✔✕♣✓✖✓❝
♦✣✣ ✣♣❛♣✕✛ organisms, ✙☛☞ the ✔✙✖✎✓✌☛☞✍☞
atmosphere ✔✕✏ and ✙☛☞
the
are ✢♣❛☞
✔✍☞ five major biomes —➋forest,
✖✔✐✎✍ ✗♣✎✖☞✓ ✢✎✍☞✓✙❝ desert, ✛✍✔✓✓✣✔✕✏❝
✏☞✓☞✍✙❝ grassland, lithosphere maintain between them ✔
✣ ♣ ✙ ☛ ✎ ✓ ✌ ☛ ☞ ✍☞ ✖ ✔ ♣ ✕ ✙ ✔ ♣ ✕ ✗ ☞ ✙ ✚ ☞ ☞ ✕ ✙ ☛ ☞ ✖ a
✶✑✒
130 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❚❛✓✔✕
Table ✖✗✘✖
15.1 ✙: World
✚♦✛✔✜ ✢✣♦✤✕✥
Biomes

❇✦✧★✩✪ ❈✸✦★✹✳✦✺
Climatic
Biomes ❙✱✲✳✴✵✩✪
Subtypes ❘✩❡✦✧✷✪
Regions ❈✻✹✼✹✺✳✩✼✦✪✳✦✺✪
Characteristics ❙✧✦✸
Soil Flora ✹✷✾
✽✸✧✼✹ and ✽✹✱✷✹
Fauna

✫✬✭✮✯✰
Forest | ❆✿ Tropical
A. ❀✭✬❁❂❃❄❅ ❆❉✿ ❉❨❩
Al. ❬❭❯
10°N-S ❆❉✿ Temp.
Al. ❀✮▼❁✿ ■❨❭■❪❩◆❫
20-25°C, ❆❉✿ Acidic,
Al. ❆❃❂❑❂❃❫ ❆❉✿ ❢❍❅
Al. ✰❂ ❭❅ ❄◗✮✭✮❑
Multi-layered
❉✿
1. ❊●❍❂✰✬✭❂❄❅ ❆■✿ ❉❨❩❭■❪❩
Equitorial | A2. 10°-25°N-S❬❭❯ ✮❲✮P❅◗
evenly ❑❂✯✰✭❂❵❍✰✮❑
distributed ❁✬✬✭
poor ❂P
in ❃❄P✬❁◗
canopy ✰❄❅❅tall ❄P❑
and
■✿
2. ❏✮❃❂❑❍✬❍✯
Deciduous ▲✿
|B. ❊❄✯✰✮✭P
Eastern ❬✬✭✰❳ ❆■✿ Temp.
North | A2. ❀✮▼❁✿ ■❪❭❧❨❩◆❫
25-30°C, P❍✰✭❂✮P✰✯
nutrients ❅❄✭❤✮
large ✰✭✮✮✯
trees
▲✿
B. ❀✮▼❁✮✭❄✰✮
Temperate ❆▼✮✭❂❃❄❫ ❬✿❊✿
America, N.E. ❣❄❂P❜❄❅❅❫
Rainfall, ❄❲✮✿ ❄PP✿ |
ave.ann. ❆■✿ ❣❂❃❳
A2. Richin❂P ❆■✿ ✐✮✯✯
A2. Less ❑✮P✯✮❫
dense, ✰✭✮✮✯
trees
◆✿
C. ▲✬✭✮❄❅
Boreal ❆✯❂❄❫ Western
Asia, ❴✮✯✰✮✭P ❉❫❨❨❨▼▼❫
1,000mm, ✯✮❄✯✬P❄❅
seasonal P❍✰✭❂✮P✰✯
nutrients ✬❜▼✮❑❂❍▼
of medium ❳✮❂❤❳✰♣ height;
❄P❑
and ◆✮P✰✭❄❅
Central ▲✿
B. ❀✮▼❁✿ ■❨❭❧❨❩
Temp. 20-30° ◆❫C, ▲✿
B. ✫✮✭✰❂❅✮❫
Fertile, ▼❄P◗varieties
many ❲❄✭❂✮✰❂✮✯❃✬❭ co-
❊❍✭✬❁✮
Europe ❣❄❂P❜❄❅❅
Rainfall ✮❲✮P❅◗
evenly ✮P❭✭❂❃❳✮❑
en-riched ✮t❂✯✰✿
exist. ❥P✯✮❃✰✯❫
Insects,
◆✿
C. ▲✭✬❄❑ ❵✮❅✰ ✬❜
Broad belt of distributed ♠❪❨❭
❑❂✯✰✭❂❵❍✰✮❑ 750- ♥❂✰❳
with ❵❄✰✯❫ birds
bats, ❵❂✭❑✯ ❄P❑ and
❊❍✭❄✯❂❄
Eurasia ❄P❑
and ❉❫❪❨❨▼▼❫ ❴✮❅❅❭
1,500mm, Well- ❑✮❃❄◗❂P❤
decaying ▼❄▼▼❄❅✯
mammals ❄✭✮
are
❬✬✭✰❳ ❆▼✮✭❂❃❄❫
North America, ❑✮❜❂P✮❑
defined ✯✮❄✯✬P✯
seasons ❅❂✰✰✮✭
litter ❃✬▼▼✬P
common ✯❁✮❃❂✮✯ species
❁❄✭✰✯
parts ✬❜
of ❄P❑
and ❑❂✯✰❂P❃✰ ♥❂P✰✮✭✿ |
distinct winter. ◆✿
C. ❆❃❂❑❂❃ ❄P❑
Acidic and ❂P ❵✬✰❳
in both
❯❂❵✮✭❂❄❫
Siberia, ◆✿
C. ❯❳✬✭✰
Short ▼✬❂✯✰
moist ▼✬❑✮✭❭
moder- ❁✬✬✭
poor ❂P in ▲✿
B. ❢✬❑✮✭❄✰✮❅◗
Moderately ❑✮P✯✮ dense
❆❅❄✯❝❄❫
Alaska, ❄✰✮❅◗ ♥❄✭▼
ately warm P❍✰✭❂✮P✰✯❫
nutrients, ❵✭✬❄❑❅✮❄❲✮❑✰✭✮✮✯✿
broad leaved trees.
◆❄P❄❑❄
Canada ❄P❑and ✯❍▼▼✮✭✯
summers ❄P❑ and ❅✬P❤
long ✰❳❂P
thin ✯✬❂❅
soil ❴❂✰❳ ❅✮✯✯
With less ❑❂❲✮✭✯❂✰◗
diversity
❯❃❄P❑❂P❄❲❂❄
Scandinavia ❃✬❅❑
cold ❑✭◗ ♥❂P✰✮✭♣
dry winter; ❃✬❲✮✭
cover ✬❜
of ❁❅❄P✰
plant ✯❁✮❃❂✮✯✿
species.
❲✮✭◗ ❅✬♥
very low ✉❄❃❝❫
Oack, ▲✮❄❃❳❫
Beach,
✰✮▼❁✮✭❄✰❍✭✮✯✿
temperatures. ❢❄❁❅✮
Maple ✮✰❃✿ etc. ❄✭✮ are
❦✭✮❃❂❁❂✰❄✰❂✬P
Precipitation ▼✬✯✰❅◗
mostly ✯✬▼✮
some ❃✬▼▼✬P
common
✯P✬♥❜❄❅❅
snowfall ✯❁✮❃❂✮✯✿❯●❍❂✭✭✮❅✯❫
species. Squirrels,
q❨❨
400 ❭❉❫❨❨❨▼▼
-1,000mm. ✭❄❵❵❂✰✯❫
rabbits, ✯❝❍P❝✯❫
skunks,
❵❂✭❑✯❫ black
birds, ❵❅❄❃❝ bears,
❵✮❄✭✯❫
▼✬❍P✰❄❂P❅❂✬P✯✮✰❃✿
mountain lions ete.
◆✿
C. ❊❲✮✭❤✭✮✮P❃✬P❂❜✮✭✯
Evergreen conifers
❅❂❝✮
like ❁❂P✮❫
pine, ❜❍✭fur ❄P❑and
✯❁✭❍❃✮
spruce ✮✰❃✿ ❴✬✬❑
etc. Wood
❁✮❃❝✮✭✯❫
peckers, ❳❄♥❝✯❫ hawks,
❵✮❄✭✯❫ wolves,
bears, ♥✬❅❲✮✯❫
❑✮✮✭❫
deer, ❳❄✭✮✯
hares ❄P❑ and
❵❄✰✯ ❄✭✮
bats are ❃✬▼▼✬P
common
❄P❂▼❄❅✯
animals

❏✮✯✮✭✰
Desert ❆✿ ❖✬✰
|A. ❄P❑ ❏✭◗ ❆✿
HotandDry}A. ❯Sahara,|/sA.
❄ ❳ ❄ ✭ ❄ ❫ ❆✿ Temp. ❀✮▼❁✿ ■❨ 20 ❭- q❪❩◆✿
45°C. ❣❂❃❳
Rich ❂P in ❆❭◆✿ ❯❃❄P✰◗
A-C. Scanty vege- ❲✮❤✮❭
❑✮✯✮✭✰
desert ❄ ❅ ❄ ❳ ❄ ✭ ❂ ❫ ▲✿
❞Kalahari, |B. 21 - ❭ ❧r❩◆✿
■❉ 38°C. P❍✰✭❂✮P✰✯
nutrients with ♥❂✰❳ ✰❄✰❂✬P♣
tation; ❜✮♥
few ❅❄✭❤✮
large
▲✿
B. ❯✮▼❂ ❄✭❂❑
Semiarid ❢❄✭❍✯✰❳❄❅❂❫
Marusthali, ◆✿
|C. 15- ❭ ❧❪❩◆✿
❉❪ 35°C. ❅❂✰✰❅✮ or P✬
little ✬✭ no ▼ ❄▼▼❄❅✯❫
mammals,
❑✮✯✮✭✰
desert ❣❍❵❭✮❅❭❞❳❄❅❂
Rub-el-Khali ❏✿
D. ■2-25°C
❭ ■❪❩◆ ✬✭❤❄P❂❃
organic ▼❄✰✰✮✭
matter ❂P✯✮❃✰✯❫
insects, ✭✮❁✰❂❅✮✯
reptiles
◆✿
C. ◆✬❄✯✰❄❅
Coastal ▲✿
B. ❢❄✭❤❂P❄❅
Marginalareas ❆❭❏ ❣❄❂P❜❄❅❅
❄✭✮❄✯ | A-D Rainfall ❂✯ is ❅✮✯✯
less ✰❳❄P
than ❄P❑ ❵❂✭❑✯
and birds
❑✮✯✮✭✰
desert ✬❜
of ❳✬✰
hot ❑✮✯✮✭✰✯
deserts ❪❨
50 ▼▼mm ❏✿
D. ❣❄❵❵❂✰✯❫
Rabbits, ✭❄✰✯❫ rats,
❏✿
D. ◆✬❅❑ ❑✮✯✮✭✰ | ◆✿
Colddesert C. ❆✰❄❃❄▼❄
Atacama ❄P✰✮❅✬❁✮✯
antelopes
❏✿
D. ❀❍P❑✭❄❃❅❂▼❄✰❂❃
Tundraclimatic ❄P❑
and ❤✭✬❍P❑
ground
✭✮❤❂✬P✯
regions ✯●❍❂✭✭✮❅✯
squirrels
❱✭❄✯✯❅❄P❑ ❆✿ Tropical
Grassland| A. ❀✭✬❁❂❃❄❅ ❆✿
A. ✐❄✭❤✮
Large ❄✭✮❄✯
areas ❆✿ Warm
A. ❴❄✭▼ ❳✬✰ hot ❆✿ ❦✬✭✬❍✯
A. Porouswith ♥❂✰❳ | A.❆✿ ❱✭❄✯✯✮✯♣
Grasses; ✰✭✮✮✯ trees
❯❄❲❄PP❄❳
Savannah ✬❜ ❆ ❜ ✭❂ ❃ ❄❫
of Africa, ❃❅❂▼❄✰✮✯❫
climates, ❣❄❂P❜❄❅❅
Rainfall ✰❳❂P
thin ❅❄◗✮✭
layer ✬❜ of ❄P❑❅❄✭❤✮✯❳✭❍❵✯
and large shrubs
▲✿
B. ❀✮▼❁✮✭❄✰✮
Temperate ❆❍✯✰✭❄❅❂❄❫
Australia, ❪❨❨❭❉❫■❪❨
500-1,250 ▼▼ mm ❳❍▼❍✯✿
humus. ❄❵✯✮P✰♣
absent; ❤❂✭❄❜❜✮✯
giraffes
❯✰✮❁❁✮
Steppe ❯✬❍✰❳
South B. ❖✬✰
▲✿ ✯❍▼▼✮✭✯ ❄P❑ ▲✿
Hotsummersand ❀❳❂P ❜❅✬❃❃❍❭
|B. Thin floccu- ③✮❵✭❄✯❫ ❵❍❜❜❄❅✬✯❫
zebras, buffalos,
❆▼✮✭❂❃❄ ❄P❑
America and ❃✬❅❑ ♥❂P✰✮✭✿
cold winter. ❅❄✰✮❑
lated ✯✬❂❅❫
soil, ❅✮✬❁❄✭❑✯❫
leopards, ❳◗✮P❄✯❫
hyenas,
❥P❑❂❄
India ❣❄❂P❜❄❅❅
Rainfall ❪❨❨ 500 ❭- ✭❂❃❳
rich ❂P ❵❄✯✮✯
in bases ✮❅✮❁❳❄P✰✯❫
elephants, ▼❂❃✮❫ mice,
▲✿
B. ❦Parts
❄✭ ✰ ✯ ✬❜
of s❨❨
900 ▼▼ mm ▼✬❅✮✯❫
moles, ✯P❄❝✮✯
snakes
❊❍✭❄✯❂❄
Eurasia ❄P❑ and ❄P❑ ♥✬✭▼✯ ✮✰❃✿❫
and worms etc.,
❬✬✭✰❳ ❆▼✮✭❂❃❄
North America ❄✭✮
are ❃✬▼▼✬P
common
❄P❂▼❄❅✯
animals
▲✿
B. ❱✭❄✯✯✮✯♣
Grasses; ✬❃❃❭ occ-
❄✯❂✬P❄❅
asional ✰✭✮✮✯ trees
✯❍❃❳
such ❄✯ as ❃✬✰✰✬P❭
cotton-
♥✬✬❑✯❫✬❄❝✯
woods, oaks ❄P❑ and
♥❂❅❅✬♥✯♣ ❤❄③✮❅❅✮✯❫
willows; gazelles,
③✮❵✭❄✯❫
zebras, ✭❳❂P❭
rhin-
LIFE
▲ ON THE
✁✂ ✄☎ EARTH
✆✝✂ ✂✞✟✆✝ 131
✶✠✶

oceros,
♠❱ ❩❨ ♠❬❥ wild
❪❯ ❞❡

horses,
❭♠❨ ❬ ❩❬❥ ❞lions,
❯♠❵ ❬❥

varieties of birds,
r◗❨❯❩❘❯❩❬ ♠♥ ⑤❯❨❡❬❥

worms, snakes
❪♠❨❦❬❥ ❬❵◗❤❩❬

etc., ◗❨❩
❩❘❱❲❥ are ❱♠❦❦♠❵
common
animals
◗❵❯❦◗❞❬

Aquatic
◆❖P◗❘❯❱ | A.
◆❲ Freshwater |A.
❳❨❩❬❭❪◗❘❩❨ ◆❲ Lakes, ❬❘❨❩◗❦❬❥
❣◗❤❩❬❥ streams,| A-B
◆②❫ Temperatures
③❩❦✉❩❨◗❘P❨❩❬ vary]
r◗❨✇ A.
◆❲ Water, swamps] Algal
④◗❘❩❨❥ ❬❪◗❦✉❬ ◆❞q◗❞and other ◗❖P◗❘❯❱
◗❵❡ ♠❘❭❩❨ aquatic
B.
❫❲ Marine
❴◗❨❯❵❩ rivers
❨ ❯r❩❨ ❬ and❡
◗❵ widely
❪❯❡❩❞✇with cooler ◗❯❨
❪❯❘❭ ❱♠♠❞❩❨ air and ❦◗❨❬❭❩❬
◗❵❡ marshes |and
◗ ❵❡ ❦ marine plant
◗ ❨ ❯❵ ❩ ✉ ❞◗❵ ❘

wetlands
❪❩❘❞◗❵❡❬ temperatures
❘ and
❩❦✉ ❩❨ ◗❘P❨ ❩❬ ◗❵❡ communities
❱ ♠❦ ❦P ❵ ❯ ❘ ❯ ❩ ❬ with
❪❯ ❘❭

B.
❫❲ Oceans,
❧ coral
❱❩◗❵ ❬❥ ❱♠❨ ◗❞ high ❭P❦❯❡❯❘✇
❭❯q❭ humidity B.Water,
❫ ❲ ④◗ ❘ ❩❨❥ ❘tidal|varieties of water
❯ ❡◗ ❞ r ◗❨ ❯ ❩ ❘ ❯ ❩ ❬ ♠♥ ❪ ◗ ❘ ❩❨
reefs, lagoons
❨ ❩❩♥ ❬❥ ❞◗q♠♠❵ ❬ swamps and| dwelling animals
❬ ❪ ◗ ❦✉ ❬ ◗❵ ❡ ❡❪❩❞❞❯❵q ◗❵❯❦◗❞❬
and ❩❬❘P◗❨❯❩❬
◗❵❡ estuaries marshes
❦◗❨❬❭❩❬

Altitudinal
◆❞❘❯❘P❡❯❵◗❞ —
➋➋➋ Slopes
t ❞ ♠✉ ❩ ❬ of♥
♠ high
❭ ❯q ❭ Temperature
③❩❦✉❩❨◗❘P❨❩ ◗❵❡and Regolith
①❩q over
♠❞❯ ❘ ❭ ♠r❩❨ | ⑦❩❱❯❡P♠P❬
Deciduous ❘♠ to ❘P❵❡❨◗
tundra
mountain ❨◗❵q
❦♠P❵❘◗❯❵ ranges
❩❬ precipitation
✉❨❩❱❯✉❯❘◗❘❯♠❵ vary
r◗❨✇ slopes
❬❞♠✉❩❬ vegetation
r❩q❩❘◗ ❘❯♠❵ varying
r◗❨✇ ❯❵q

like ❘❭❩
❞❯❤❩ the ✈❯❦◗❞◗✇◗❬❥
Himalayas, depending P✉♠❵
❡❩✉❩❵❡❯❵q upon according ❘♠
◗❱❱♠❨❡❯❵q to ◗❞❘❯❘P❡❩
altitude
the Andes
❘❭❩ and ❘❭❩
◆❵❡❩❬ ◗❵❡ the latitudinal ⑥♠❵❩
❞◗❘❯❘P❡❯❵◗❞ zone
Rockies
①♠❱❤❯❩❬

circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous

❝✜✢❝✣✤✥✦✜✧★ ✧✩ ✪✥✦✫✢ ✜★ ✬✧✤✜✭✮ ✤✜✯✣✜✭ ✧✢ ✰✥✬✫✧✣✬ dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
✭✜✧❉✜✭✫ ✥★✭ ✥✢✫ ✢✫✦✣✢★✫✭ ✦✧ ✦✱✫ ✥✦❢✧✬✵✱✫✢✫

form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle

✩✧✢❢ ✢✫✩✫✢✢✫✭ ✦✧ ✥✬ ✦✱✫ ✪✥✦✫✢ ✧✢ ✱✲✭✢✧✤✧✰✜❝ ❝✲❝✤✫ (Figure
✳❏✜✰✣✢✫ ✷❑✼▼✻✼ 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
✳✴✱✥✵✦✫✢ ✷✸ ✧✩ ✦✱✜✬ ✹✧✧✺✻✼

Atmospheric CO, ‘
Assimilation by Plants

The Carbon Cycle

❚✽✾ ✿❀❁❂❃❄ ✿❅❆❇✾
Plants Respiratio: mn

Animal Respiratio mn
Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
✴✥✢✹✧★ ✜✬ ✧★✫ ✧✩ ✦✱✫ ✹✥✬✜❝ ✫✤✫❢✫★✦✬ ✧✩ ✥✤✤ ✤✜❈✜★✰

organisms. ♦✦ It ✩✧✢❢✬
forms ✦✱✫ the basic constituent ✧✩ of

Soil Respiration
✧✢✰✥★✜✬❢✬✼ ✹✥✬✜❝ ❝✧★✬✦✜✦✣✫★✦

all ✦✱✫
✥✤✤ the ✧✢✰✥★✜❝
organic ❝✧❢✵✧✣★✭✬✼
compounds. The ❛✱✫ biosphere
✹✜✧✬✵✱✫✢✫

contains ✧❈✫✢
❝✧★✦✥✜★✬ over ✱✥✤✩
half a✥ ❢✜✤✤✜✧★
million ❝✥✢✹✧★
carbon ❝✧❢✵✧✣★✭✬
compounds
in ✦✱✫❢✼
them. The carbon cycle is ❢✥mainly the✫ Animals |
<4

✜★ ❛✱✫ ❝✥ ✢✹✧ ★ ❝✲ ❝✤✫ ✜✬ ✜★✤✲ ✦✱

3=.

conversion ✧✩ of ❝✥✢✹✧★
carbon ✭✜✧❉✜✭✫✼
dioxide. This conversion
u
©

❝✧★❈✫✢✬✜✧★ ❛✱✜✬ ❝✧★❈✫✢✬✜✧★

Dead remains
is ✜★✜✦✜✥✦✫✭
✜✬ initiated by the ✩✜❉✥✦✜✧★
✹✲ ✦✱✫ fixation ✧✩ of ❝✥✢✹✧★
carbon ✭✜✧❉✜✭✫
dioxide y
from ✦✱✫
✩✢✧❢ the ✥✦❢✧✬✵✱✫✢✫
atmosphere ✦✱✢✧✣✰✱ through photosynthesis.
♣✽❃❊❃●❅❄❊✽✾●❍●✼ Decomposition tk
Such ❝✧★❈✫✢✬✜✧★
❙✣❝✱ conversion ✢✫✬✣✤✦✬results ✜★ in ✦✱✫
the ✵✢✧✭✣❝✦✜✧★
production ✧✩ of
carbohydrate, ✰✤✣❝✧✬✫
❝✥✢✹✧✱✲✭✢✥✦✫✮ glucose ✦✱✥✦ that ❢✥✲
may be converted
✹✫ ❝✧★❈✫✢✦✫✭
Root Respiration
to ✧✦✱✫✢
✦✧ other ✧✢✰✥★✜❝
organic ❝✧❢✵✧✣★✭✬
compounds ✬✣❝✱ such ✥✬ as ✬✣❝✢✧✬✫✮
sucrose,
starch,
✬✦✥ cellulose,
✢❝✱✮ ❝✫✤✤ ✣✤✧ ✬✫✮ ✫✦❝✼ etc. s✫✢✫✮
Here, ✬✧ some ❢✫ ✧✩ of ✦✱the✫
carbohydrates are utilised directly by the plant
❝✥✢✹✧✱✲✭✢✥✦✫✬ ✥✢✫ ✣✦✜✤✜✬✫✭ ✭✜✢✫❝✦✤✲ ✹✲ ✦✱✫ ✵✤✥★✦ Figure ✎✏✑✒
❋✡☛☞✌✍ 15.2 ✓: ✔✕✌✖✗✘
Carbon ✔✙✚✛✍
Cycle
itself. ✐✣✢✜★✰
✜✦✬✫✤✩✼ During ✦✱✜✬
this ✵✢✧❝✫✬✬✮
process, ❢✧✢✫more ❝✥✢✹✧★
carbon ✭✜✧❉✜✭✫
dioxide
The Oxygen Cycle
❚✽✾ ⑧⑨❅⑩✾❄ ✿❅❆❇✾
is ✰✫★✫✢✥✦✫✭
✜✬ generated ✥★✭ and ✜✬ is ✢✫✤✫✥✬✫✭
released ✦✱✢✧✣✰✱
through ✜✦✬ its ✤✫✥❈✫✬
leaves
or✢ ✢✧✧
✧ roots during ✦✱
✦ ✬ ✭✣✢✜★✰ the✫ ✭✥✲
day. ✼ The
❛✱✫ ✢ remaining
✫❢✥ ✜ ★✜★✰ Oxygen
❶ ❉✲ ✰ ✫★ is✬ ✦the
✜ ✱✫ main
❢✥ ✜★ by-product
✹ ✲ ■ ✵ ✢ ✧ ✭ ✣❝ ✦ of✩
✧

carbohydrates ★✧✦
❝✥✢✹✧✱✲✭✢✥✦✫✬ not being utilised by
✹✫✜★✰ ✣✦✜✤✜✬✫✭ the ✵✤✥★✦
✹✲ ✦✱✫ plant photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation
✵✱✧✦✧✬✲★✦✱✫✬✜✬✼ ♦✦ ✜✬ ✜★❈✧✤❈✫✭ ✜★ ✦✱✫ ✧❉✜✭✥✦✜✧★

become
✹✫❝✧❢✫ ✵✥✢✦ part ✧✩of ✦✱✫
the ✵✤✥★✦
plant ✦✜✬✬✣✫✼
tissue. ❜✤✥★✦
Plant ✦✜✬✬✣✫✬
tissues of ❝✥✢✹✧✱✲✭✢✥✦✫✬
✧✩ carbohydrates with the ✢✫✤✫✥✬✫
✪✜✦✱ ✦✱✫ release ✧✩ of ✫★✫✢✰✲✮
energy,
are ✫✜✦✱✫✢
✥✢✫ either being
✹✫✜★✰ ✫✥✦✫★ eaten by the ✱✫✢✹✜❈✧✢✧✣✬
✹✲ ✦✱✫ herbivorous carbon
❝✥ dioxide
✢✹✧★ ✭✜✧ ❉✜✭✫ ✥★✭and water.
✪✥✦✫✢✼ The❛✱✫ ❝✲❝✤cycling✜★✰ ✧✩of
animals or get decomposed by ✦✱✫
✥★✜❢✥✤✬ ✧✢ ✰✫✦ ✭✫❝✧❢✵✧✬✫✭ ✹✲ the ❢✜❝✢✧■
micro- oxygen ✜✬
✧❉✲✰✫★ is ✥a ✱✜✰✱✤✲
highly ❝✧❢✵✤✫❉
complex ✵✢✧❝✫✬✬✼
process. ❶❉✲✰✫★
Oxygen
organisms. The herbivores convert ✬✧❢✫
✧✢✰✥★✜✬❢✬✼ ❛✱✫ ✱✫✢✹✜❈✧✢✫✬ ❝✧★❈✫✢✦ some ✧✩ of ✦✱✫
the occurs ✜★
✧❝❝✣✢✬ in ✥ a ★✣❢✹✫✢
number ✧✩ of ❝✱✫❢✜❝✥✤
chemical ✩✧✢❢✬ forms ✥★✭ and
consumed ❝✥✢✹✧✱✲✭✢✥✦✫✬
❝✧★✬✣❢✫✭ carbohydrates ✜★✦✧ into ❝✥✢✹✧★
carbon ✭✜✧❉✜✭✫
dioxide combinations. ♦✦
❝✧❢✹✜★✥✦✜✧★✬✼ It ❝✧❢✹✜★✫✬
combines with nitrogen ✦✧
✪✜✦✱ ★✜✦✢✧✰✫★ to
for ✢✫✤✫✥✬✫
✩✧✢ release ✜★✦✧
into ✦✱✫
the ✥✜✢
air ✦✱✢✧✣✰✱
through ✢✫✬✵✜✢✥✦✜✧★✼
respiration. The ❛✱✫ form ★✜✦✢✥✦✫✬
✩✧✢❢ nitrates ✥★✭and with many ✧✦✱✫✢
✪✜✦✱ ❢✥★✲ other ❢✜★✫✢✥✤✬
minerals
micro-organisms ✭✫❝✧❢✵✧✬✫
❢✜❝✢✧■✧✢✰✥★✜✬❢✬ decompose ✦✱✫ the ✢✫❢✥✜★✜★✰
remaining and ✫✤✫❢✫★✦✬
✥★✭ elements ✦✧ to ✩✧✢❢
form various oxides ✬✣❝✱
❈✥✢✜✧✣✬ ✧❉✜✭✫✬ such ✥✬as
carbohydrates
❝✥ ✢✹✧✱✲ ✭✢✥ ✦✫✬ ✥✩✦✫✢ after ✦✱✫the ✥★✜❢✥✤
animal ✭✜✫✬✼ dies. The❛✱✫ the ✜✢✧★
✦✱✫ iron ✧❉✜✭✫✮
oxide, ✥✤✣❢✜★✜✣❢
aluminium ✧❉✜✭✫ oxide ✥★✭and ✧✦✱✫✢✬✼
others.
carbohydrates ✦✱✥✦
❝✥✢✹✧✱✲✭✢✥✦✫✬ that ✥✢✫are ✭✫❝✧❢✵✧✬✫✭
decomposed by the
✹✲ ✦✱✫ Much
❷ ✣❝ ✱ ✧of✩ ✧oxygen
❉✲✰ ✫ ★ ✜ is✬ ✵produced
✢ ✧ ✭ ✣❝ ✫ ✭ ✩ from
✢✧❢ ✦ the
✱✫

micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon

❢✜❝✢✧■✧✢✰✥★✜✬❢✬ ✦✱✫★ ✰✫✦ ✧❉✜✭✜✬✫✭ ✜★✦✧ ❝✥✢✹✧★ decomposition of water molecules by sunlight
✭✫❝✧❢✵✧✬✜✦✜✧★ ✧✩ ✪✥✦✫✢ ❢✧✤✫❝✣✤✫✬ ✹✲ ✬✣★✤✜✰✱✦
✶✑✒
1382 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❞✓✔✕✖✗
during ✘✙✚✛✚✜✢✖✛✙✣✜✕✜
photosynthesis ✤✖❞
and ✕✜is ✔✣✥✣✤✜✣❞
released ✕✖
in ✛✙✣
the ❖✬★✩✭
Other ❈✫✰✩✭❁✴
Mineral ✱✲✳✴✩❊
Cycles
✤✛❛✚✜✘✙✣✔✣
atmosphere through transpiration ✤✖❞
✛✙✔✚✓✗✙ ✛✔✤✖✜✘✕✔✤✛✕✚✖ and
Other ✛✙✤✖
✺✛✙✣✔ carbon, ✚❢✢✗✣✖❝
than r✤✔✷✚✖❝ oxygen, ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖
nitrogen ✤✖❞ and
✔✣✜✘✕✔✤✛✕✚✖
respiration ✘✔✚r✣✜✜✣✜
processes ✚✦
of ✘✥✤✖✛✜✧
plants.
✙✢❞✔✚✗✣✖ ✷✣✕✖✗ ✛✙✣
hydrogen being the ✘✔✕✖r✕✘✤✥
principal ✗✣✚r✙✣❛✕r✤✥
geochemical
components ✚✦
r✚❛✘✚✖✣✖✛✜ of ✛✙✣ ✷✕✚✜✘✙✣✔✣❝ ❛✤✖✢
the biosphere, many ✚✛✙✣✔ other
❚★✩
The ✪✫✬✭✮✯✩✰
Nitrogen ✱✲✳✴✩ Cycle
minerals ✤✥✜✚
❛✕✖✣✔✤✥✜ also ✚rr✓✔
occur ✤✜ critical ✖✓✛✔✕✣✖✛✜
as r✔✕✛✕r✤✥ nutrients ✦✚✔ for
Nitrogen ✕✜
◆✕✛✔✚✗✣✖ is ✤ a ❛✤✵✚✔ constituent ✚✦
major r✚✖✜✛✕✛✓✣✖✛ of ✛✙✣
the ✘✥✤✖✛
plant ✤✖❞
and ✤✖✕❛✤✥
animal ✥✕✦✣✧ mineral ✣✥✣❛✣✖✛✜
❜✙✣✜✣ ❛✕✖✣✔✤✥
life. These elements
✤✛❛✚✜✘✙✣✔✣ comprising ✤✷✚✓✛
atmosphere r✚❛✘✔✕✜✕✖✗ about ✜✣✸✣✖✛✢✹✖✕✖✣
seventy-nine ✔✣❍✓✕✔✣❞
required by ✷✢ ✥✕✸✕✖✗
living ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜
organisms ✤✔✣ are ✚✷✛✤✕✖✣❞
obtained
✘✣✔ cent ✚✦
per r✣✖✛ of ✛✙✣
the ✤✛❛✚✜✘✙✣✔✕r
atmospheric ✗✤✜✣✜✧ gases. ♣✛ It ✕✜
is ✤✥✜✚
also ✤✖ an ✕✖✕✛✕✤✥✥✢ from ✕✖✚✔✗✤✖✕r
initially ✦✔✚❛ inorganic ✜✚✓✔r✣✜
sources ✜✓r✙ such ✤✜ as
✣✜✜✣✖✛✕✤✥ constituent ✚✦
essential r✚✖✜✛✕✛✓✣✖✛ of ❞✕✦✦✣✔✣✖✛
different ✚✔✗✤✖✕rorganic ✘✙✚✜✘✙✚✔✓✜❝
phosphorus, ✜✓✥✘✙✓✔❝ calcium ✤✖❞
sulphur, r✤✥r✕✓❛ and ✘✚✛✤✜✜✕✓❛✧
potassium.
compounds ✜✓r✙
r✚❛✘✚✓✖❞✜ such ✤✜ as ✛✙✣
the ✤❛✕✖✚
amino ✤r✕❞✜❝
acids, ✖✓r✥✣✕r
nucleic ❜✙✣✢ ✓✜✓✤✥✥✢
They usually ✚rr✓✔
occur ✤✜ as ✜✤✥✛✜
salts ❞✕✜✜✚✥✸✣❞
dissolved ✕✖ in ✜✚✕✥
soil
✤r✕❞✜❝
acids, ✘✔✚✛✣✕✖✜❝ ✸✕✛✤❛✕✖✜ ✤✖❞
proteins, vitamins and ✘✕✗❛✣✖✛✜✧
pigments. ✺✖✥✢ Only ✻✤✛✣✔ ✚✔
water or ✥✤✼✣✜❝
lakes, ✜✛✔✣✤❛✜
streams ✤✖❞ and ✜✣✤✜✧ Mineral ✜✤✥✛✜
seas. ✇✕✖✣✔✤✥ salts
✤a ✦✣✻
few ✛✢✘✣✜
types ✚✦ of ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜
organisms ✥✕✼✣ certain ✜✘✣r✕✣✜
like r✣✔✛✤✕✖ species ✚✦ of come ❞✕✔✣r✛✥✢
r✚❛✣ directly ✦✔✚❛ from ✛✙✣ the ✣✤✔✛✙■✜
earth’s r✔✓✜✛crust by ✷✢
✜✚✕✥ ✷✤r✛✣✔✕✤ ✤✖❞
soil bacteria and blue✷✥✓✣ ✗✔✣✣✖
green ✤✥✗✤✣algae ✤✔✣are r✤✘✤✷✥✣
capable ✻✣✤✛✙✣✔✕✖✗ where
weathering ✻✙✣✔✣ ✛✙✣ the ✜✚✥✓✷✥✣
soluble ✜✤✥✛✜
salts ✣✖✛✣✔
enter ✛✙✣the
✚✦
of ✓✛✕✥✕✜✕✖✗
utilising ✕✛ it ❞✕✔✣r✛✥✢
directly ✕✖ in ✕✛✜
its ✗✤✜✣✚✓✜
gaseous ✦✚✔❛✧ form. cycle, ✣✸✣✖✛✓✤✥✥✢
✻✤✛✣✔ r✢r✥✣❝
water eventually ✔✣✤r✙✕✖✗
reaching ✛✙✣ the ✜✣✤✧
sea. ✺✛✙✣✔
Other
Generally, ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖
●✣✖✣✔✤✥✥✢❝ nitrogen ✕✜ is ✓✜✤✷✥✣
usable ✚✖✥✢ only ✤✦✛✣✔
after ✕✛ it ✕✜is ✜✤✥✛✜
salts ✤✔✣
are ✔✣✛✓✔✖✣❞
returned ✛✚ to ✛✙✣
the ✣✤✔✛✙■✜
earth’s ✜✓✔✦✤r✣
surface ✛✙✔✚✓✗✙
through
✦✕❢✣❞✧ Ninety ✘✣✔
fixed. ◆✕✖✣✛✢ per r✣✖✛cent ✚✦ fixed ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖
of ✦✕❢✣❞ nitrogen ✕✜ is ✜✣❞✕❛✣✖✛✤✛✕✚✖❝
sedimentation, ✤✖❞ and ✤✦✛✣✔ ✻✣✤✛✙✣✔✕✖✗❝ ✛✙✣✢
after weathering, they ✤✗✤✕✖
again
✷✕✚✥✚✗✕r✤✥✧ The
biological. ❜✙✣ ✘✔✕✖r✕✘✤✥
principal ✜✚✓✔r✣ source ✚✦ free ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖
of ✦✔✣✣ nitrogen ✣✖✛✣✔
enter ✛✙✣
the r✢r✥✣✧ ✽✥✥ ✥✕✸✕✖✗
cycle. All living ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜ fulfill ✛✙✣✕✔
organisms ✦✓✥✦✕✥✥ their
✕✜
is ✛✙✣
the ✤r✛✕✚✖
action ✚✦ of ✜✚✕✥ micro-organisms ✤✖❞
soil ❛✕r✔✚✹✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜ and mineral ✔✣❍✓✕✔✣❛✣✖✛✜
❛✕✖✣✔✤✥ requirements ✦✔✚❛ mineral ✜✚✥✓✛✕✚✖✜
from ❛✕✖✣✔✤✥ solutions
✤✜✜✚r✕✤✛✣❞
associated ✘✥✤✖✛
plant ✔✚✚✛✜roots ✚✖ on ✤✛❛✚✜✘✙✣✔✕r
atmospheric ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖ nitrogen ✕✖
in ✛✙✣✕✔
their ✣✖✸✕✔✚✖❛✣✖✛✜✧
environments. ✺✛✙✣✔ Other ✤✖✕❛✤✥✜
animals ✔✣r✣✕✸✣
receive
found ✕✖
✦✚✓✖❞ in ✘✚✔✣
pore ✜✘✤r✣✜
spaces ✚✦ of ✛✙✣
the ✜✚✕✥✧
soil. ◆✕✛✔✚✗✣✖
Nitrogen r✤✖ can ✛✙✣✕✔ mineral ✖✣✣❞✜
their ❛✕✖✣✔✤✥ from ✛✙✣
needs ✦✔✚❛ the ✘✥✤✖✛✜
plants ✤✖❞and ✤✖✕❛✤✥✜
animals
✤✥✜✚ fixed ✕✖
✷✣ ✦✕❢✣❞
also be in ✛✙✣
the ✤✛❛✚✜✘✙✣✔✣
atmosphere by ✷✢ ✥✕✗✙✛✖✕✖✗
lightning ✤✖❞ and ✛✙✣✢
they r✚✖✜✓❛✣✧
consume. After ✽✦✛✣✔ ✛✙✣ the ❞✣✤✛✙
death ✚✦ of ✥✕✸✕✖✗
living
cosmic ✔✤❞✕✤✛✕✚✖✧
r✚✜❛✕r radiation. ♣✖ In ✛✙✣
the ✚r✣✤✖✜❝
oceans, ✜✚❛✣ some ❛✤✔✕✖✣marine ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜❝
organisms, ✛✙✣ minerals ✤✔✣
the ❛✕✖✣✔✤✥✜ are ✔✣✛✓✔✖✣❞
returned ✛✚ to ✛✙✣
the ✜✚✕✥
soil
✤✖✕❛✤✥✜
animals r✤✖ can ✦✕❢fix ✕✛✧ ✽✦✛✣✔ ✤✛❛✚✜✘✙✣✔✕r
it. After atmospheric ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖ nitrogen ✤✖❞ ✻✤✛✣✔ ✛✙✔✚✓✗✙
and water through ❞✣r✚❛✘✚✜✕✛✕✚✖
decomposition ✤✖❞ and ✦✥✚✻✧
flow.
✙✤✜ fixed ✕✖✛✚
✷✣✣✖ ✦✕❢✣❞
has been into ✤✖ an ✤✸✤✕✥✤✷✥✣
available ✦✚✔❛❝ form, ✗✔✣✣✖green
✘✥✤✖✛✜
plants r✤✖can ✤✜✜✕❛✕✥✤✛✣
assimilate ✕✛✧ Herbivorous ✤✖✕❛✤✥✜
it. ✾✣✔✷✕✸✚✔✚✓✜ animals ❏❑▲▼▲P◗❑❘▼
Ecological ❯❘▼❘❱❑❲
Balance
feeding ✚✖
✦✣✣❞✕✖✗ on ✘✥✤✖✛✜❝
plants, ✕✖ in ✛✓✔✖❝ consume ✜✚❛✣
turn, r✚✖✜✓❛✣ some ✚✦ of ✕✛✧
it.
❳r✚✥✚✗✕r✤✥ balance ✕✜
Ecological ✷✤✥✤✖r✣ is ✤ a ✜✛✤✛✣
state ✚✦ of ❞✢✖✤❛✕r
dynamic
Dead ✘✥✤✖✛✜
❉✣✤❞ plants ✤✖❞ and ✤✖✕❛✤✥✜❝
animals, ✣❢r✔✣✛✕✚✖ excretion ✚✦ of
✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖✚✓✜ ✣❍✓✕✥✕✷✔✕✓❛ ✤ community of ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜
✻✕✛✙✕✖ a r✚❛❛✓✖✕✛✢
equilibrium within ✚✦ organisms
nitrogenous wastes ✻✤✜✛✣✜ ✤✔✣ converted ✕✖✛✚
are r✚✖✸✣✔✛✣❞ into ✖✕✛✔✕✛✣✜
nitrites
✕✖
in ✤
a ✙✤✷✕✛✤✛
habitat ✚✔ or ✣r✚✜✢✜✛✣❛✧
ecosystem. ♣✛ can ✙✤✘✘✣✖
It r✤✖ happen when ✻✙✣✖
✷✢ ✛✙✣
by the ✤r✛✕✚✖
action ✚✦ ✷✤r✛✣✔✕✤ ✘✔✣✜✣✖✛
of bacteria present ✕✖ in ✛✙✣
the ✜✚✕✥✧
soil.
✛✙✣
the diversity of the living organisms ✔✣❛✤✕✖✜
❞✕✸✣✔✜✕✛✢ ✚✦ ✛✙✣ ✥✕✸✕✖✗ ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜ remains
❙✚❛✣ ✷✤r✛✣✔✕✤ r✤✖
Some bacteria can ✣✸✣✖ convert ✖✕✛✔✕✛✣✜
even r✚✖✸✣✔✛ nitrites ✕✖✛✚ into
✖✕✛✔✤✛✣✜ ✔✣✥✤✛✕✸✣✥✢
relatively ✜✛✤✷✥✣✧
stable. ●✔✤❞✓✤✥
Gradual r✙✤✖✗✣✜ changes ❞✚ do ✛✤✼✣
take
nitrates ✛✙✤✛
that r✤✖
can be ✷✣ ✓✜✣❞
used ✤✗✤✕✖
again by ✷✢ ✗✔✣✣✖
green ✘✥✤✖✛✜✧
plants.
✘✥✤r✣ but that happens only through ✖✤✛✓✔✤✥
place ✷✓✛ ✛✙✤✛ ✙✤✘✘✣✖✜ ✚✖✥✢ ✛✙✔✚✓✗✙ natural
❜✙✣✔✣ ✤✔✣
There are ✜✛✕✥✥
still ✚✛✙✣✔
other ✛✢✘✣✜types ✚✦ ✷✤r✛✣✔✕✤ r✤✘✤✷✥✣
of bacteria capable
✜✓rr✣✜✜✕✚✖✧
succession. ♣✛ can ✤✥✜✚
It r✤✖ also ✷✣ be ✣❢✘✥✤✕✖✣❞
explained ✤✜ as ✤a ✜✛✤✷✥✣
stable
✚✦ converting ✖✕✛✔✤✛✣✜
of r✚✖✸✣✔✛✕✖✗ nitrates ✕✖✛✚ into ✦✔✣✣free ✖✕✛✔✚✗✣✖❝
nitrogen, ✤ a
balance in the numbers of each species ✕✖
✷✤✥✤✖r✣ ✕✖ ✛✙✣ ✖✓❛✷✣✔✜ ✚✦ ✣✤r✙ ✜✘✣r✕✣✜ in ✤✖
an
✘✔✚r✣✜✜ known ✤✜
process ✼✖✚✻✖ as ✿✩✰✫✬✭✫❀✫✳❁✬✫✮✰
denitrification ❂❃✕✗✓✔✣ (Figure ❄❅✧❆❇✧15.3).
✣r✚✜✢✜✛✣❛✧ ✚rr✓✔✜ ✛✙✔✚✓✗✙
ecosystem. This ❜✙✕✜ occurs through r✚❛✘✣✛✕✛✕✚✖ competition
✤✖❞
and r✚✚✘✣✔✤✛✕✚✖ between ❞✕✦✦✣✔✣✖✛
cooperation ✷✣✛✻✣✣✖ different ✚✔✗✤✖✕✜❛✜
organisms
v
✻✙✣✔✣ population remains ✜✛✤✷✥✣✧
where ✘✚✘✓✥✤✛✕✚✖ ✔✣❛✤✕✖✜ ❜✙✕✜ ✷✤✥✤✖r✣
stable. This balance
✕✜ brought ✤✷✚✓✛
is ✷✔✚✓✗✙✛ about ✷✢ by ✛✙✣ fact ✛✙✤✛
the ✦✤r✛ certain ✜✘✣r✕✣✜
that r✣✔✛✤✕✖ species
Atmospheric !
Nitrogen
r✚❛✘✣✛✣
compete with✻✕✛✙ ✚✖✣one ✤✖✚✛✙✣✔
another ❞✣✛✣✔❛✕✖✣❞
determined ✷✢ by ✛✙✣
the
✣✖✸✕✔✚✖❛✣✖✛ ✕✖
environment in which ✛✙✣✢ ✗✔✚✻✧
✻✙✕r✙ they grow. This ❜✙✕✜ ✷✤✥✤✖r✣
balance
✕✜
is ✤✥✜✚
also ✤✛✛✤✕✖✣❞
attained ✷✢ by ✛✙✣ fact ✛✙✤✛
the ✦✤r✛ that ✜✚❛✣
some ✜✘✣r✕✣✜
species
❞✣✘✣✖❞ ✚✖
depend on others ✦✚✔✚✛✙✣✔✜ ✛✙✣✕✔
for their ✦✚✚❞ food ✤✖❞ and
Atmospheric Biological Industrial ✜✓✜✛✣✖✤✖r✣✧
sustenance. ❙✓r✙ Such ✤rr✚✓✖✛✜
accounts ✤✔✣ are ✣✖r✚✓✖✛✣✔✣❞
encountered
Fixation | Fixation Fixation ✕✖ vast ✗✔✤✜✜✥✤✖❞✜
in ✸✤✜✛ grasslands where ✻✙✣✔✣ ✛✙✣ the ✙✣✔✷✕✸✚✔✚✓✜
herbivorous
✤✖✕❛✤✥✜
animals ❂❞✣✣✔❝
(deer, ❨✣✷✔✤✜❝ buffaloes, ✣✛r✧❇
zebras, ✷✓✦✦✤✥✚✣✜❝ etc.) ✤✔✣
are ✦✚✓✖❞
found
y ✕✖
in ✘✥✣✖✛✢✧
plenty. ✺✖On ✛✙✣the ✚✛✙✣✔
other ✙✤✖❞❝hand, ✛✙✣ the r✤✔✖✕✸✚✔✚✓✜
carnivorous
Nitrate L
✤✖✕❛✤✥✜ (tigers, ✥✕✚✖✜❝
animals ❂✛✕✗✣✔✜❝ lions, ✣✛r✧❇
etc.) ✛✙✤✛
that ✤✔✣
are ✖✚✛not ✓✜✓✤✥✥✢
usually
Compounds | ✕✖ ✥✤✔✗✣ ✖✓❛✷✣✔✜❝
in large numbers, hunt and ✦✣✣❞✙✓✖✛ ✤✖❞ feed ✚✖ on ✛✙✣
the
✙✣✔✷✕✸✚✔✣✜❝
herbivores, ✛✙✣✔✣✷✢ controlling ✛✙✣✕✔
thereby r✚✖✛✔✚✥✥✕✖✗ their
Dentrification ✘✚✘✓✥✤✛✕✚✖✧
population. ♣✖ In ✛✙✣
the ✘✥✤✖✛✜❝
plants, ✤✖✢ any ❞✕✜✛✓✔✷✤✖r✣
disturbance ✕✖ in
✛✙✣ ✖✤✛✕✸✣
the native ✦✚✔✣✜✛✜ ✜✓r✙ ✤✜
forests such as r✥✣✤✔✕✖✗ clearing ✛✙✣ the ✦✚✔✣✜✛
forest
❩❬❭❪❫❴
Figure ❵❡❣❤
15.3 ✐: ❥❬❦❫❧❭❴♠
Nitrogen ♥♦qs❴
Cycle for ✜✙✕✦✛✕✖✗
✦✚✔ cultivation ✓✜✓✤✥✥✢
shifting r✓✥✛✕✸✤✛✕✚✖ brings ✤✷✚✓✛
usually ✷✔✕✖✗✜ about ✤ a
LIFE
▲ ON THE
✁✂ ✄☎ EARTH
✆✝✂ ✂✞✟✆✝ 133
✶✠✠

change in the species distribution. This change

❝✡☛☞✌✍ ✎☞ ✏✡✍ ✑✒✍❝✎✍✑ ✓✎✑✏✔✎✕✖✏✎✗☞✘ ✙✡✎✑ ❝✡☛☞✌✍ the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
✏✡✍ ✍❝✗✑✛✑✏✍✐✘ ✙✡✎✑ ✡☛✑ ✓✍✑✏✔✗✛✍✓ ✎✏✑ ✗✔✎✌✎☞☛♦✎✏✛

is due to competition where the secondary

✎✑ ✓✖✍ ✏✗ ❝✗✐✒✍✏✎✏✎✗☞ ✚✡✍✔✍ ✏✡✍ ✑✍❝✗☞✓☛✔✛ and has caused adverse effects to the general
☛☞✓ ✡☛✑ ❝☛✖✑✍✓ ☛✓♣✍✔✑✍ ✍❢❢✍❝✏✑ ✏✗ ✏✡✍ ✌✍☞✍✔☛♦

forest ✑✒✍❝✎✍✑
❢✗✔✍✑✏ species ✑✖❝✡
such ☛✑as ✌✔☛✑✑✍✑✜
grasses, ✕☛✐✕✗✗✑
bamboos ✗✔ or environment. ❊❝✗♦✗✌
✍☞♣✎✔✗☞✐✍☞✏✘ Ecological imbalances ✡☛♣✍
✎❝☛♦ ✎✐✕☛♦☛☞❝✍✑ have
pines overtakes the native species ❝✡☛☞✌✎☞✌
✒✎☞✍✑ ✗♣✍✔✏☛✢✍✑ ✏✡✍ ☞☛✏✎♣✍ ✑✒✍❝✎✍✑ changing brought
✕ ✔✗✖✌ ✡✏ ✐ many☛☞✛ ☞ natural
☛ ✏ ✖✔ ☛♦ ❝ calamities
☛ ♦ ☛ ✐ ✎ ✏ ✎ ✍ ✑ ♦like
✎✢ ✍

the ✗✔✎✌✎☞☛♦
✏✡✍ original ❢✗✔✍✑✏
forest ✑✏✔✖❝✏✖✔✍✘
structure. This is ❝☛♦♦✍✓
✙✡✎✑ ✎✑ called floods,
❢♦ landslides, ✓✎✑✍☛✑✍✑✜
✗✗✓✑✜ ♦☛☞✓✑♦✎✓✍✑✜ diseases, ✍✔✔☛✏✎❝
erratic ❝♦✎✐☛✏✎❝
climatic
succession.
s✣✤✤✥ss✦✧★✘ occurrences, ✍✏❝✘
✗❝❝✖✔✔✍☞❝✍✑✜ etc.
Ecological ✕☛♦☛☞❝✍
❊❝✗♦✗✌✎❝☛♦ balance ✐☛✛
may ✕✍ be ✓✎✑✏✖✔✕✍✓
disturbed ✓✖✍due There
✙✡✍✔✍ ✎✑ is ☛a very close ✔✍♦☛✏✎✗☞✑✡✎✒
♣✍✔✛ ❝♦✗✑✍ relationship ✕✍✏✚✍✍☞
between
to the introduction of new species, ☞☛✏✖✔☛♦
✏✗ ✏✡✍ ✎☞✏✔✗✓✖❝✏✎✗☞ ✗❢ ☞✍✚ ✑✒✍❝✎✍✑✜ natural the ✒♦☛☞✏
✏✡✍ plant ☛☞✓ and ☛☞✎✐☛♦
animal ❝✗✐✐✖☞✎✏✎✍✑
communities within ✚✎✏✡✎☞

hazards ✗✔
✡☛❤☛✔✓✑ or ✡✖✐☛☞
human ❝☛✖✑✍✑✘
causes. ✩✖✐☛☞
Human ✎☞✏✍✔❢✍✔✍☞❝✍
interference particular
✒☛✔✏✎❝✖♦ habitats. ❪✎♣✍✔✑✎✏✛
☛✔ ✡☛✕✎✏☛✏✑✘ Diversity ✗❢ of ♦life
✎❢✍ ✎☞ in ☛ a
has affected the balance of ✒♦☛☞✏
✡☛✑ ☛❢❢✍❝✏✍✓ ✏✡✍ ✕☛♦☛☞❝✍ ✗❢ plant ❝✗✐✐✖☞✎✏✎✍✑
communities particular
✒☛ ✔ ✏ ✎❝ ✖♦ ☛ ✔ ☛ area
✔✍ ☛ ❝can
☛☞ ✕ be✍ ✍employed
✐ ✒♦ ✗✛ ✍ ✓ ☛✑ as ☛☞ an
leading ✏✗
♦✍☛✓✎☞✌ to ✓✎✑✏✖✔✕☛☞❝✍✑
disturbances ✎☞ in ✏✡✍
the ✍❝✗✑✛✑✏✍✐✑✘
ecosystems. indicator
✎☞ ✓ ✎❝ ☛ ✏ ✗ ✔ ✗ of❢ ✏the
✡✍ ✡ habitat factor.
☛✕ ✎ ✏ ☛ ✏ ❢ ☛ ❝ ✏ ✗ ✔✘ ❫Proper
✔ ✗ ✒✍ ✔

Such disturbances bring about ☞✖✐✍✔✗✖✑

❙✖❝✡ ✓✎✑✏✖✔✕☛☞❝✍✑ ✕✔✎☞✌ ☛✕✗✖✏ numerous knowledge ☛☞✓
✢☞✗✚♦✍✓✌✍ and ✖☞✓✍✔✑✏☛☞✓✎☞✌
understanding ✗❢ of ✑✖❝✡
such ❢☛❝✏✗✔✑
factors
secondary ✑✖❝❝✍✑✑✎✗☞✑✘
✑✍❝✗☞✓☛✔✛ successions. ✩✖✐☛☞
Human ✒✔✍✑✑✖✔✍
pressure ✗☞ on provide ☛
✒✔✗♣✎✓✍ a ✑strong base ❢✗✔
✏✔✗☞✌ ✕☛✑✍ for ✒✔✗✏✍❝✏✎☞✌
protecting ☛☞✓ and
the ✍☛✔✏✡t✑
✏✡✍ earth’s ✔✍✑✗✖✔❝✍✑
resources ✡☛✑has ✒✖✏
put ☛a ✡✍☛♣✛
heavy ✏✗♦♦
toll ✗☞
on conserving ✏✡✍
❝✗☞✑✍✔♣✎☞✌ the ✍❝✗✑✛✑✏✍✐✑✘
ecosystems.

—___._ ✪✫✪✬✭✮✯✪✯
EXERCISES __

1.
✰✳ Multiple choice questions.
▼✱✲✴✵✷✲✸ ✹✺✻✵✹✸ ✼✱✸✽✴✵✻✾✽✳

(i)
✿✵❀ Which one ✻❁
❲✺✵✹✺ ✻✾✸ of ✴✺✸
the ❁✻✲✲✻❂✵✾❃
following ✵✽
is ✵✾✹✲✱❄✸❄
included ✵✾
in ❅✵✻✽✷✺✸❆✸❇
biosphere?

(a) only plants

✿❈❀ ✻✾✲❉ ✷✲❈✾✴✽ (c) ✻✾✲❉
✿✹❀ only ❈✾✵❋❈✲✽
animals

(b) all living and

✿❅❀ ❈✲✲ ✲✵●✵✾❃ ❈✾❄ non-living organisms
✾✻✾❍✲✵●✵✾❃ ✻❆❃❈✾✵✽❋✽ (d) all living organisms
✿❄❀ ❈✲✲ ✲✵●✵✾❃ ✻❆❃❈✾✵✽❋✽

(ii)
✿✵✵❀ Tropical grasslands ❈❆✸
❚❆✻✷✵✹❈✲ ❃❆❈✽✽✲❈✾❄✽ are ❈✲✽✻
also ■✾✻❂✾
known ❈✽
as : ❏

(a) ✴✺✸
✿❈❀ the ✷❆❈✵❆✵✸✽
prairies (c) the steppes
✿✹❀ ✴✺✸ ✽✴✸✷✷✸✽

(b) ✴✺✸
✿❅❀ the ✽❈●❈✾✾❈✽
savannas (d) ✾✻✾✸
✿❄❀ none ✻❁
of ✴✺✸
the ❈❅✻●✸
above

(iii)
✿✵✵✵❀ Oxygen ✹✻❋❅✵✾✸✽
❖❑❉❃✸✾ combines with iron ❁✻✱✾❄
❂✵✴✺ ✵❆✻✾ found ✵✾
in ✴✺✸
the ❆✻✹■✽
rocks ✴✻
to ❁✻❆❋
form ❏:

(a) ✵❆✻✾
✿❈❀ iron ✹❈❆❅✻✾❈✴✸
carbonate (c) ✵❆✻✾
✿✹❀ iron ✻❑✵❄✸✽
oxides

(b) ✵❆✻✾
✿❅❀ iron ✾✵✴❆✵✴✸✽
nitrites (d) ✵❆✻✾
✿❄❀ iron ✽✱✲✷✺❈✴✸
sulphate

(iv)
✿✵●❀ During ✷✺✻✴
◆ ✱❆✵✾❃ photosynthesis, carbon
✻✽❉ ✾✴✺✸ ✽ ✵✽✉ ✹ dioxide
❈❆❅ ✻✾ ❄ combines
✵✻❑✵❄✸ ✹ ✻❋❅ ✵✾✸ ✽ with
❂✵✴✺ water in ✴✺✸
❂❈✴✸ ❆ ✵✾ the
presence ✻❁
✷❆✸✽✸✾✹✸ of ✽✱✾✲✵❃✺✴
sunlight ✴✻
to ❁✻❆❋
form ❏:
(a) ✷❆✻✴✸✵✾✽
✿❈❀ proteins (c) ✹❈❆❅
✿✹❀ carbohydrates
✻✺❉❄❆❈✴✸✽

(b) ❈❋✵✾✻
✿❅❀ amino ❈✹✵❄✽
acids (d) vitamins
✿❄❀ ●✵✴❈❋✵✾✽

2.
P✳ Answer the ❁✻✲✲✻❂✵✾❃
◗✾✽❂✸❆ ✴✺✸ following ✼✱✸✽✴✵✻✾✽
questions ✵✾
in ❈❅✻✱✴
about ❘❯
30 words.
❂✻❆❄✽✳

(i)
✿✵❀ What do you
❲✺❈✴ ❄✻ understand ❅❉
❉✻✱ ✱✾❄✸❆✽✴❈✾❄ by ✴✺✸
the ✴✸❆❋
term ❱✸✹✻✲✻❃❉❳❇
‘ecology’?
(ii)
✿✵✵❀ What is ❈✾
❲✺❈✴ ✵✽ an ✸✹✻✲✻❃✵✹❈✲
ecological ✽❉✽✴✸❋❇
system? ❨❄✸✾✴✵❁❉
Identify ✴✺✸
the ❋❈❩✻❆
major ✴❉✷✸✽
types ✻❁
of ✸✹✻✽❉✽✴✸❋✽
ecosystems ✵✾
in
the world.
✴✺✸ ❂✻❆✲❄✳

(iii)
✿✵✵✵❀ What is ❈
❲✺❈✴ ✵✽ a ❁✻✻❄❍✹✺❈✵✾❇
food-chain? ❬✵●✸
Give ✻✾✸
one ✸❑❈❋✷✲✸
example ✻❁
of ❈
a ❃❆❈❭✵✾❃
grazing ❁✻✻❄❍✹✺❈✵✾
food-chain ✵❄✸✾✴✵❁❉✵✾❃
identifying
the various
✴✺✸ levels.
●❈❆✵✻✱✽ ✲✸●✸✲✽✳

(iv)
✿✵●❀ What do you
❲✺❈✴ ❄✻ understand ❅❉
❉✻✱ ✱✾❄✸❆✽✴❈✾❄ by ✴✺✸
the ✴✸❆❋
term ❱❁✻✻❄
‘food web’? Give ✸❑❈❋✷✲✸✽✳
❂✸❅❳❇ ❬✵●✸ examples.
(v)
✿●❀ What is ❈
❲✺❈✴ ✵✽ a ❅✵✻❋✸❇
biome?
✶✑✒
134 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✸✓
3. ❆✔✕✖✗✘ ✙✚✗
Answer the ✛✜✢✢✜✖✣✔✤
following ✥✦✗✕✙✣✜✔✕
questions ✣✔
in ✧★✜✦✙
about ✩✪✫ ✖✜✘✬✕✓
150 words.
✭✣✮ ❲✚✧✙ ✧✘✗
(i) What are ★✣✜✯✤✗✜✰✚✗✱✣✰✧✢
bio-geochemical ✰✲✰✢✗✕✳ Explain ✚✜✖
cycles? ✴✵✷✢✧✣✔ how ✔✣✙✘✜✤✗✔
nitrogen ✣✕
is ✛✣✵✗✬
fixed ✣✔
in ✙✚✗
the
✧✙✱✜✕✷✚✗✘✗✓
atmosphere.
✭✣✣✮ ❲✚✧✙ ✣✕
(ii) What is ✧✔
an ✗✰✜✢✜✤✣✰✧✢
ecological ★✧✢✧✔✰✗✳ Discuss ✙✚✗
balance? ✹✣✕✰✦✕✕ the ✣✱✷✜✘✙✧✔✙ measures ✔✗✗✬✗✬
important ✱✗✧✕✦✘✗✕ needed
✙✜ prevent ✗✰✜✢✜✤✣✰✧✢
to ✷✘✗t✗✔✙ ecological ✣✱★✧✢✧✔✰✗✕✓
imbalances.

Pr♦✺✻✼✽ ✾♦r✿
Project Work
✭✣✮ Show ✙✚✗
(i) ❙✚✜✖ the ✬✣✕✙✘✣★✦✙✣✜✔
distribution ✜✛of ✙✚✗
the ✬✣✛✛✗✘✗✔✙
different ★✣✜✱✗✕
biomes ✜✔on ✙✚✗
the ✜✦✙✢✣✔✗ map ✜✛
outline ✱✧✷ of ✙✚✗
the
✖✜✘✢✬ with
world ✖✣✙✚ ✧a ✔✜✙✗
note ✚✣✤✚✢✣✤✚✙✣✔✤
highlighting ✙✚✗
the ✣✱✷✜✘✙✧✔✙ characteristics ✜✛
important ✰✚✧✘✧✰✙✗✘✣✕✙✣✰✕ of ✗✧✰✚
each ★✣✜✱✗✓
biome.
✭✣✣✮ Make ✧
(ii) ▼✧❀✗ a ✔✜✙✗
note ✜✛
of ✙✘✗✗✕❁
trees, ✕✚✘✦★✕
shrubs ✧✔✬
and ✷✗✘✗✔✔✣✧✢ plants ✣✔
perennial ✷✢✧✔✙✕ ✲✜✦✘ ✕✰✚✜✜✢
in your school ✰✧✱✷✦✕
campus
✧✔✬
and ✬✗t✜✙✗
devote ✚✧✢✛
half ✧a ✬✧✲
day ✙✜
to ✜★✕✗✘t✗
observe ✙✚✗
the ✙✲✷✗✕
types ✜✛
of ★✣✘✬✕ ✖✚✣✰✚ ✰✜✱✗
birds which come ✙✜
to ✙✚✗
the
✤✧✘✬✗✔✓
garden. ❣✧✔ ✲✜✦ ✬✗✕✰✘✣★✗
Can you describe ✙✚✗
the ✬✣t✗✘✕✣✙✲
diversity ✜✛
of ★✣✘✬✕✳
birds?
 ⑥CHAPTER
⑦⑧⑨⑩❶❷

❇■ ✁■✂✄☎✆■✝✞ AND
BIODIVERSITY ❆✟✁ ✥ ✟✆✄☎✂❆✝■ ✟
CONSERVATION
16}
\ ♦✠ ✡☛☞✌ ☛✍✎✌☛❡✏ ✍✌☛✎♥✑ ☛✒♦✠✑ ✑✡✌
VY ou have already learnt about the ✑✡✌
the ✌☛✎✑✡
earth ☛✎✌ are ✑♦❡☛✏ extinct. ❊✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏
today ✌❍✑✕♥✖✑✙ Biodiversity ✕✗ is ♥♦✑
not
❣✌♦✓♦✎✔✡✕✖ ✔✎♦✖✌✗✗✌✗ ✔☛✎✑✕✖✠✍☛✎✍✏
geomorphic processes particularly ✘♦✠♥❡
found ✌☞✌♥✍✏
evenly ♦♥ on ✑✡✌ earth. ❏✑
the ✌☛✎✑✡✙ It ✕✗is ✖♦♥✗✕✗✑✌♥✑✍✏
consistently
❨ ✇✌☛✑✡✌✎✕♥❣ ☛♥❡ ❡✌✔✑✡ ♦✘ ✇✌☛✑✡✌✎✕♥❣
weathering and depth of weathering ✎✕✖✡✌✎
richer ✕♥ in ✑✡✌the ✑✎♦✔✕✖✗✙
tropics. As r✗ ♦♥✌one ☛✔✔✎♦☛✖✡✌✗
approaches ✑✡✌ the
✓☛♥✑✍✌ ✕♥ ❡✕✘✘✌✎✌♥✑ ✖✍✕✓☛✑✕✖ ♠♦♥✌✗✙ ✚✌✌ ✑✡✌
mantle in different climatic zones. See the ✔♦✍☛✎ ✎✌❣✕♦♥✗❤ ♦♥✌ ✘✕♥❡✗
polar regions, one finds larger and larger ✍☛✎❣✌✎ ☛♥❡ ✍☛✎❣✌✎
❋✕❣✠✎✌ ✛✙✜ ✕♥✢✡☛✔✑✌✎ ✛ ✕♥♦✎❡✌✎ ✑♦ ✎✌✖☛✔✕✑✠✍☛✑✌✙
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. ✔♦✔✠✍☛✑✕♦♥✗
populations ♦✘ of ✘✌✇✌✎
fewer ☛♥❡ and ✘✌✇✌✎
fewer ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗✙
species.
✣♦✠ ✗✡♦✠✍❡ ✤♥♦✇ ✑✡☛✑ ✑✡✕✗ ✇✌☛✑✡✌✎✕♥❣ ✓☛♥✑✍✌
You should know that this weathering mantle ❊✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏
Biodiversity ✕✑✗✌✍✘ itself ✕✗ is ☛
a ✖♦✓✒✕♥☛✑✕♦♥
combination ♦✘ of ✑✇♦
two
✕✗ ✑✡✌ ✒☛✗✕✗ ✘♦✎ ✑✡✌ ❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏ ♦✘ ☞✌❣✌✑☛✑✕♦♥ ☛♥❡
is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and ✇♦✎❡✗❤ ❑▲▼
words, Bio ❖✍✕✘✌P
(life) ☛♥❡and ◗▲❘❙❯❱▲❲❳
diversity ❖☞☛✎✕✌✑✏P✙
(variety). ❏♥ In
✡✌♥✖✌❤ ✑✡✌ ✒✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏✙ ✦✡✌ ✒☛✗✕✖ ✖☛✠✗✌ ✘♦✎
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for ✗✕✓✔✍✌
simple ✑✌✎✓✗❤ ✒✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏ ✕✗is ✑✡✌
terms, biodiversity the ♥✠✓✒✌✎
number ☛♥❡ and
✗✠✖✡ ✇✌☛✑✡✌✎✕♥❣ ☞☛✎✕☛✑✕♦♥✗ ☛♥❡ ✎✌✗✠✍✑☛♥✑
such weathering variations and resultant ☞☛✎✕✌✑✏ ♦✘of ♦✎❣☛♥✕✗✓✗
variety organisms ✘♦✠♥❡ ✇✕✑✡✕♥ ☛a ✗✔✌✖✕✘✕✌❡
found within specified
✒✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏ ✕✗ ✑✡✌ ✕♥✔✠✑ ♦✘ ✗♦✍☛✎ ✌♥✌✎❣✏ ☛♥❡
biodiversity is the input of solar energy and ❣✌♦❣✎☛✔✡✕✖
geographic ✎✌❣✕♦♥✙ region. ❏✑ It ✎✌✘✌✎✗
refers ✑♦ to ✑✡✌ ☞☛✎✕✌✑✕✌✗ ♦✘of
the varieties
✇☛✑✌✎✙ ✳♦ ✇♦♥❡✌✎ ✑✡☛✑ ✑✡✌ ☛✎✌☛✗ ✑✡☛✑ ☛✎✌ ✎✕✖✡
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich ✔✍☛♥✑✗❤
plants, ☛♥✕✓☛✍✗
animals ☛♥❡ and ✓✕✖✎♦❚♦✎❣☛♥✕✗✓✗❤
micro-organisms, ✑✡✌ the
✕♥ ✑✡✌✗✌ ✕♥✔✠✑✗ ☛✎✌ ✑✡✌ ☛✎✌☛✗ ♦✘✇✕❡✌ ✗✔✌✖✑✎✠✓
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum ❣✌♥✌✗
genes ✑✡✌✏they ✖♦♥✑☛✕♥
contain ☛♥❡ and ✑✡✌ the ✌✖♦✗✏✗✑✌✓✗
ecosystems ✑✡✌✏ they
♦✘ ✒✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏✙
of biodiversity. form. ❏✑
✘♦✎✓✙ It ✎✌✍☛✑✌✗
relates ✑♦ to ✑✡✌ ☞☛✎✕☛✒✕✍✕✑✏ ☛✓♦♥❣
the variability among ✍✕☞✕♥❣
living
♦✎❣☛♥✕✗✓✗
organisms ♦♥ on ✑✡✌the ✌☛✎✑✡❤
earth, ✕♥✖✍✠❡✕♥❣
including ✑✡✌ the
✧★✩✪★✫✬✭✮★✯✰
Biodiversity ✱✮ ✲✬ ✴✱✫✬
as we have ✯✩✪✱✰
today ★✮ is ✯✴✬
the ✭✬✮✵✶✯
result ☞☛✎✕☛✒✕✍✕✑✏ within
variability ✇✕✑✡✕♥ ☛♥❡ ✒✌✑✇✌✌♥ ✑✡✌
and between the ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗
species ☛♥❡ and
✩✷of ✸✹✺✻✼✹✺ ✽★✶✶★✩✾ years
2.5-3.5 billion ✰✬✱✭✮ ✩✷of ✬✫✩✶✵✯★✩✾✹✧✬✷✩✭✬
evolution. Before ✑✡☛✑ ✇✕✑✡✕♥ ☛♥❡ ✒✌✑✇✌✌♥ ✑✡✌ the ✌✖♦✗✏✗✑✌✓✗✙
✯✴✬
the ✱✪✫✬✾✯
advent ✩✷ of ✴✵t✱✾✮✿
humans, ✩✵✭
our ✬✱✭✯✴
earth
that within
❊✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏
and between
Biodiversity is our living wealth. ❏✑
✕✗ ♦✠✎ ✍✕☞✕♥❣ ✇✌☛✍✑✡✙
ecosystems.
It ✕✗
is ☛a ✎✌✗✠✍✑
supported t✩✭✬
✮✵ss✩✭✯✬✪ ✽★✩✪★✫✬✭✮★✯✰ ✯✴✱✾ than ★✾ in ✱✾✰
result
✩✯✴✬✭
more biodiversity
period. ❀★✾❁✬✿
other s✬✭★✩✪✹ Since, ✯✴✬ the ✬t✬✭❂✬✾❁✬
emergence ✩✷
any ♦✘of ✡✠♥❡✎✌❡✗♦✘ ✓✕✍✍✕♦♥✗ ♦✘ ✏✌☛✎✗
hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary ♦✘✌☞♦✍✠✑✕♦♥☛✎✏
✴✵t✱✾✮✿
humans, ✴✩✲✬✫✬✭✿ ✽★✩✪★✫✬✭✮★✯✰ ✴✱✮ ✽✬❂✵✾
of
✡✕✗✑♦✎✏✙
history.
✱a ✭✱s★✪
however, biodiversity
rapid ✪✬❁✶★✾✬✿ ✲★✯✴ ✩✾✬ one ✮s✬❁★✬✮
has begun
species ✱✷✯✬✭
❊✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏
Biodiversity ✖☛♥ can be ✒✌ ❡✕✗✖✠✗✗✌❡
discussed ☛✑ at ✑✡✎✌✌
three
levels ❧: ❖✕P
✍✌☞✌✍✗ (i) ❩✌♥✌✑✕✖❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏❬
Genetic diversity; ❖✕✕P (ii) ✚✔✌✖✕✌✗❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏❬
decline, with after
✱✾✩✯✴✬✭ ✽✬✱✭★✾❂ ✯✴✬ ✽✭✵✾✯ ✩✷of ✬❛✯★✾❁✯★✩✾ ❖✕✕✕P
Species diversity;
(iii) ❭✖♦✗✏✗✑✌✓
Ecosystem ❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏✙
another bearing the brunt extinction
✪✵✬
due ✯✩ to ✩✫✬✭✵✮✬✹
overuse. The ❞✴✬ ✾✵t✽✬✭
number ✩✷ of ✮s✬❁★✬✮
species diversity.
❂✶✩✽✱✶✶✰
globally vary from 2 million to 100 t★✶✶★✩✾✿
✫✱✭✰ ✷✭✩t ✸ t★✶✶★✩✾ ✯✩ ❃❄❄ million,
✲★✯✴ ❃❄
with 10 t★✶✶★✩✾ ✽✬★✾❂ ✯✴✬
million being ✽✬✮✯ ✬✮✯★t✱✯✬✹
the best estimate. ❪❫❴❫❵❜❝
Genetic ✐❜❥❫❦♣❜❵q
Diversity
◆✬✲
New ✮s✬❁★✬✮
species ✱✭✬ are ✭✬❂✵✶✱✭✶✰
regularly ✪★✮❁✩✫✬✭✬✪
discovered
❩✌♥✌✗
Genes ☛✎✌ are ✑✡✌ ✒☛✗✕✖ building
✒✠✕✍❡✕♥❣ blocks ✒✍♦✖✤✗ ♦✘of various
☞☛✎✕♦✠✗
t✩✮✯
most ✩✷ ✲✴★❁✴ ✱✭✬
of which ✰✬✯ ✯✩to be✽✬ ❁✶✱✮✮★✷★✬✪
are yet classified ❅✱✾ (an
✍✕✘✌
life ✘♦✎✓✗✙
the basic
forms. ❩✌♥✌✑✕✖ ✒✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏ ✎✌✘✌✎✗ refers ✑♦ to ✑✡✌
✬✮✯★t✱✯✬
estimate ✮✯✱✯✬✮states ✯✴✱✯
that ✱✽✩✵✯
about ❈❄ 40 s✬✭per ❁✬✾✯
cent ✩✷ Genetic biodiversity the
☞☛✎✕☛✑✕♦♥ ♦✘of ❣✌♥✌✗ species. ❩✎♦✠✔✗
✇✕✑✡✕♥ ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗✙ Groups ♦✘
of
✷✭✬✮✴ ✲✱✯✬✭ ✷★✮✴✬✮
fresh water fishes ✷✭✩tfrom ❀✩✵✯✴ ❢t✬✭★❁✱
South America variation genes within of
✱✭✬ not ❁✶✱✮✮★✷★✬✪
are ✾✩✯ ❞✭✩s★❁✱✶ ✷✩✭✬✮✯✮
✰✬✯❉✹ Tropical
classified yet). forests ✱✭✬are ✕♥❡✕☞✕❡✠☛✍
individual ♦✎❣☛♥✕✗✓✗
organisms ✡☛☞✕♥❣
having ✖✌✎✑☛✕♥
certain
✫✬✭✰ ✭★❁✴
very rich ★✾ ✽★✩✻✪★✫✬✭✮★✯✰✹
in bio-diversity. ✗✕✓✕✍☛✎✕✑✕✌✗
similarities ✕♥ in ✑✡✌✕✎
their ✔✡✏✗✕✖☛✍
physical ✖✡☛✎☛✖✑✌✎✕✗✑✕✖✗
characteristics ☛✎✌ are
called ❱✉❙✈▲❙❱✙
✖☛✍✍✌❡ species. ①✠✓☛♥ Human beings ✒✌✕♥❣✗ ❣✌♥✌✑✕✖☛✍✍✏
genetically
❊✕♦❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏
Biodiversity ✕✗ is ☛ a ✗✏✗✑✌✓
system ✕♥ in ✖♦♥✗✑☛♥✑
constant ✒✌✍♦♥❣ ✑♦to ✑✡✌
belong the ②▼③▼homo ❱④✉▲❙⑤❱
sapiens ❣✎♦✠✔ group ☛♥❡ and ☛✍✗♦
also
✌☞♦✍✠✑✕♦♥❤
evolution, ✘✎♦✓ from ☛ ☞✕✌✇ ✔♦✕♥✑
a view point ♦✘ of ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗❤
species, ☛✗ ✇✌✍✍
as well ❡✕✘✘✌✎
differ ✕♥in ✑✡✌✕✎
their ✖✡☛✎☛✖✑✌✎✕✗✑✕✖✗
characteristics ✗✠✖✡ such ☛✗ as ✡✌✕❣✡✑❤
height,
☛✗ ✘✎♦✓ ☞✕✌✇ ✔♦✕♥✑ ♦✘ ☛♥ ✕♥❡✕☞✕❡✠☛✍
as from view point of an individual organism. ♦✎❣☛♥✕✗✓✙ ✖♦✍♦✠✎❤✔✡✏✗✕✖☛✍
colour, physical ☛✔✔✌☛✎☛♥✖✌❤✌✑✖✙❤
appearance, etc., ✖♦♥✗✕❡✌✎☛✒✍✏✙considerably.
✦✡✌ ☛☞✌✎☛❣✌
The average ✡☛✍✘❚✍✕✘✌
half-life ♦✘ of ☛a ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗
species ✕✗ is ✌✗✑✕✓☛✑✌❡
estimated ✦✡✕✗ ✕✗is ❡✠✌
This due ✑♦ to ❣✌♥✌✑✕✖
genetic ❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏✙
diversity. This ✦✡✕✗ ❣✌♥✌✑✕✖
genetic
☛✑at between
✒✌✑✇✌✌♥ ♦♥✌ one ☛♥❡and ✘♦✠✎
four ✓✕✍✍✕♦♥
million years, ✏✌☛✎✗❤ ☛♥❡and ●● 99 ❡✕☞✌✎✗✕✑✏
diversity ✕✗ is ✌✗✗✌♥✑✕☛✍
essential ✘♦✎ for ☛ a ✡✌☛✍✑✡✏
healthy breeding✒✎✌✌❡✕♥❣ ♦✘of
✔✌✎
per ✖✌♥✑cent ♦✘ of ✑✡✌
the ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗
species ✑✡☛✑ that ✡☛☞✌have ✌☞✌✎ ever ✍✕☞✌❡
lived ♦♥on ✔♦✔✠✍☛✑✕♦♥
population ♦✘ of ✗✔✌✖✕✌✗✙
species.
✶✑✒
136 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❙♣✓✔✕✓✖
Species ✗✕✘✓✙✖✕✚✛
Diversity ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✥✩★✰✩✥✣
evolves ✪t✴and ✣✱✣✧✪✢t✣ ❡✢✧✜★✱✧ ✪t✫
sustains without any
✤✥✪✣★t✮ ❚✜✪✧ ✲✥✪t✣✐
reason. That means, ✥✩✥✤✫
every ★✤❞✪t✢✣✲✐ ✳✥✣✢✴✥✣
organism, besides
❚✜✢✣ ✤✥✦✥✤✣
This refers ✧★
to ✧✜✥ ✩✪✤✢✥✧✫ ★✦
the variety of ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣✮
species. ✯✧It ✤✥✰✪✧✥✣
relates ✧★to ✥❅✧✤✪✭✧✢t❞
extracting ✢✧✣
its t✥✥✴✣✐
needs, ✪✰✣★
also ✭★t✧✤✢✳✱✧✥✣
contributes ✣★✲✥✧✜✢t❞
something
✧✜✥
the t✱✲✳✥✤
number ★✦ of ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✢t
in ✪ a ✴✥✦✢t✥✴
defined ✪✤✥✪✮ ❚✜✥
area. The ★✦
of ✱✣✥✦✱✰
useful ✧★
to ★✧✜✥✤
other ★✤❞✪t✢✣✲✣✮
organisms. ♦✪t ✫★✱ ✧✜✢t❆
Can you think ★✦of
✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
diversity ★✦ of ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✭✪t ✳✥ ✲✥✪✣✱✤✥✴
can be measured ✧✜✤★✱❞✜through ✧✜✥ ❡✪✫ we,
the way ❡✥✐ ✜✱✲✪t✣
humans ✭★t✧✤✢✳✱✧✥
contribute ✧★ to ✧✜✥
the
✢✧✣
its ✤✢✭✜t✥✣✣✐
richness, ✪✳✱t✴✪t✭✥
abundance ✪t✴ and ✧✫✬✥✣✮
types. ✵★✲✥
Some ✪✤✥✪✣areas ✣✱✣✧✥t✪t✭✥
sustenance ★✦ of ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲✣✮
ecosystems. ✵✬✥✭✢✥✣
Species ✭✪✬✧✱✤✥
capture
✪✤✥
are ✲★✤✥
more ✤✢✭✜
rich ✢tin ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✧✜✪t
than ★✧✜✥✤✣✮ ❛✤✥✪✣ ✤✢✭✜
others. Areas rich ✪t✴ ✣✧★✤✥ ✥t✥✤❞✫✐ ✬✤★✴✱✭✥
and store energy, produce and decompose ✪t✴ ✴✥✭★✲✬★✣✥
✢t
in ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
diversity ✪✤✥are ✭✪✰✰✥✴
called ❤✷✸✹✺✷✸✹
hotspots ★✦ of ★✤❞✪t✢✭
organic ✲✪✧✥✤✢✪✰✣✐
materials, ✜✥✰✬ help ✧★ to ✭✫✭✰✥ ❡✪✧✥✤ ✪t✴
cycle water and
✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
diversity ✻✼✢❞✱✤✥
(Figure ✽✾✮✿❀✮
16.5).
t✱✧✤✢✥t✧✣
nutrients ✧✜✤★✱❞✜★✱✧
throughout ✧✜✥ the ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲✐
ecosystem, ✦✢❅ fix
✪✧✲★✣✬✜✥✤✢✭
atmospheric ❞✪✣✥✣ gases ✪t✴ and ✜✥✰✬
help ✤✥❞✱✰✪✧✥
regulate ✧✜✥ the
❊✔❁✖✛✖✚✓❂
Ecosystem ✗✕✘✓✙✖✕✚✛
Diversity
✭✰✢✲✪✧✥✮ ❚✜✥✣✥ ✦✱t✭✧✢★t✣
climate. These functions ✪✤✥ are ✢✲✬★✤✧✪t✧
important ✦★✤ for
❨★✱ ✜✪✩✥
You have ✣✧✱✴✢✥✴
studied ✪✳★✱✧
about ✧✜✥
the ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✢tin ✧✜✥
the ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✦✱t✭✧✢★t
function ✪t✴ and ✜✱✲✪t
human ✣✱✤✩✢✩✪✰✮ ❚✜✥
survival. The
✥✪✤✰✢✥✤ ✭✜✪✬✧✥✤✮ ❚✜✥ ✳✤★✪✴ ✴✢✦✦✥✤✥t✭✥✣ ✳✥✧❡✥✥t
earlier chapter. The broad differences between ✲★✤✥
more ✴✢✩✥✤✣✥
diverse ✪t an ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲✐
ecosystem, better ✳✥✧✧✥✤ ✪✤✥are ✧✜✥
the
✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✧✫✬✥✣
types ✪t✴
and ✧✜✥
the ✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
diversity ★✦
of ✜✪✳✢✧✪✧✣
habitats ✭✜✪t✭✥✣
chances ✦★✤ for ✧✜✥
the ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✧★ to ✣✱✤✩✢✩✥
survive ✧✜✤★✱❞✜
through
✪t✴
and ✥✭★✰★❞✢✭✪✰
ecological ✬✤★✭✥✣✣✥✣
processes ★✭✭✱✤✤✢t❞ ❡✢✧✜✢t ✥✪✭✜
occurring within each ✪✴✩✥✤✣✢✧✢✥✣
adversities ✪t✴ and ✪✧✧✪✭❆✣✐
attacks, ✪t✴and ✭★t✣✥❇✱✥t✧✰✫✐
consequently, ✢✣ is
✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✧✫✬✥ type ✭★t✣✧✢✧✱✧✥
constitute ✧✜✥ the ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✲★✤✥
more ✬✤★✴✱✭✧✢✩✥✮
productive. ♠✥t✭✥✐ Hence, ✧✜✥ the ✰★✣✣
loss ★✦of ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species
✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫✮ ❚✜✥ ❃✳★✱t✴✪✤✢✥✣❄
diversity. The ‘boundaries’ ★✦ of ✭★✲✲✱t✢✧✢✥✣
communities ❡★✱✰✴ ✴✥✭✤✥✪✣✥
would decrease ✧✜✥ the ✪✳✢✰✢✧✫
ability ★✦ of ✧✜✥
the ✣✫✣✧✥✲
system ✧★ to
✻✪✣✣★✭✢✪✧✢★t✣
(associations ★✦of ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣❀
species) ✪t✴
and ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲✣
ecosystems ✪✤✥
are t★✧
not ✲✪✢t✧✪✢t
maintain ✢✧✣✥✰✦✮ ❈✱✣✧ ✰✢❆✥
itself. Just like ✪a ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣ ❡✢✧✜ ✪a ✜✢❞✜
species with high
✩✥✤✫ ✤✢❞✢✴✰✫
very rigidly ✴✥✦✢t✥✴✮ ❚✜✱✣✐ ✧✜✥
defined. Thus, the ✴✥✲✪✤✭✪✧✢★t
demarcation ★✦of ❞✥t✥✧✢✭
genetic ✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫✐
diversity, ✪t an ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem with ❡✢✧✜ ✜✢❞✜
high
✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲ ✳★✱t✴✪✤✢✥✣ ✢✣ ✴✢✦✦✢✭✱✰✧ ✪t✴ ✭★✲✬✰✥❅✮
ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex. biodiversity may have a greater chance ★✦
✳✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫ ✲✪✫ ✜✪✩✥ ✪ ❞✤✥✪✧✥✤ ✭✜✪t✭✥ of
✪✴✪✬✧✢t❞
adapting ✧★ to ✥t✩✢✤★t✲✥t✧✪✰
environmental ✭✜✪t❞✥✮ change. ✯t In ★✧✜✥✤
other
❡★✤✴✣✐ ✧✜✥
words, the ✲★✤✥
more ✧✜✥ ✩✪✤✢✥✧✫ ★✦
the variety of ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✢t in ✪t
an
✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲✐
ecosystem, ✧✜✥ the ✲★✤✥
more ✣✧✪✳✰✥
stable ✧✜✥the ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲
ecosystem ✢✣ is
✰✢❆✥✰✫
likely ✧★ ✳✥✮
to be.

❊✔❁❉❁❂✕✔
Economic ●❁❍✓
Role ❁■
of ❏✕❁❑✕✘✓✙✖✕✚✛
Biodiversity
✼★✤
For ✪✰✰
all ✜✱✲✪t✣✐ ✳✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫ ✢✣
humans, biodiversity is ✪t
an ✢✲✬★✤✧✪t✧
important
✤✥✣★✱✤✭✥
resource ✢t in ✧✜✥✢✤
their ✴✪✫r✧★r✴✪✫
day-to-day ✰✢✦✥✮
life. ▲t✥
One ✢✲✬★✤✧✪t✧
important
✬✪✤✧
part ★✦ ✳✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫ ✢✣
of biodiversity is ❃✭✤★✬
‘crop ✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫❄✐ ❡✜✢✭✜ ✢✣
diversity’, which is
✪✰✣★
also ✭✪✰✰✥✴
called ✪❞✤★r✳✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫✮
agro-biodiversity. ▼✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
Biodiversity ✢✣ is
✣✥✥t ✪✣ ✪ ✤✥✣✥✤✩★✢✤ ★✦ ✤✥✣★✱✤✭✥✣
seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn ✧★ ✳✥ ✴✤✪❡t
✱✬★t
upon ✦★✤
for ✧✜✥ the ✲✪t✱✦✪✭✧✱✤✥
manufacture ★✦
of ✦★★✴✐
food,
❯❱❲❳❩❬
Figure ❭❪❫❭
16.1 ❴: ❵❩❜❝❝❢❜❣❥❝
Grasslands ❜❣❥
and ❝❦❧❢❜❝
sholas ❱❣
in ♥❣❥❱❩❜
Indira ❵❜❣❥❦❱
Gandhi
✬✜✪✤✲✪✭✥✱✧✢✭✪✰✐
pharmaceutical, ✪t✴ and ✭★✣✲✥✧✢✭
cosmetic ✬✤★✴✱✭✧✣✮
products. This ❚✜✢✣
q❜✉❱❧❣❜❢
National ✈❜❩✇① ②❣❣❜③❜❢❜❱① Western
Park, Annamalai, ④❬❝✉❬❩❣ ❵❦❜✉❝
Ghats ⑤— ❜❣
an ✭★t✭✥✬✧
concept ★✦ ✳✢★✰★❞✢✭✪✰ ✤✥✣★✱✤✭✥✣
of biological resources ✢✣ is ✤✥✣✬★t✣✢✳✰✥
responsible
❬⑥❜③⑦❢❬
example ❧⑧of ❬⑨❧❝⑩❝✉❬③
ecosystem ❥❱❶❬❩❝❱✉⑩
diversity ✦★✤
for ✧✜✥
the ✴✥✧✥✤✢★✤✪✧✢★t
deterioration ★✦ ✳✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫✮ At
of biodiversity. ❛✧ ✧✜✥
the ✣✪✲✥
same
✧✢✲✥✐
time, ✢✧it ✢✣
is ✪✰✣★
also ✧✜✥
the ★✤✢❞✢t
origin ★✦of t✥❡
new ✭★t✦✰✢✭✧✣
conflicts ✴✥✪✰✢t❞
dealing
◆❂♣❁✙✚❖❉✔✓
Importance ❁■
of ❏✕❁❑✕✘✓✙✖✕✚✛
Biodiversity ❡✢✧✜ ✤✱✰✥✣
with rules ★✦ of ✴✢✩✢✣✢★t
division ✪t✴ and ✪✬✬✤★✬✤✢✪✧✢★t
appropriation ★✦ of
t✪✧✱✤✪✰ ✤✥✣★✱✤✭✥✣✮ ✵★✲✥
natural resources. Some of the important ★✦ ✧✜✥ ✢✲✬★✤✧✪t✧
▼✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
Biodiversity ✜✪✣
has ✭★t✧✤✢✳✱✧✥✴
contributed ✢t in ✲✪t✫ ❡✪✫✣ ✧★
many ways to ✥✭★t★✲✢✭
economic ✭★✲✲★✴✢✧✢✥✣
commodities ✧✜✪✧ ✳✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
that biodiversity
✧✜✥
the ✴✥✩✥✰★✬✲✥t✧
development ★✦ of ✜✱✲✪t
human ✭✱✰✧✱✤✥
culture ✪t✴✐
and, ✢tin ✣✱✬✬✰✢✥✣
supplies ✧★ to ✜✱✲✪t❆✢t✴
humankind ✪✤✥s are: ✦★★✴
food ✭✤★✬✣✐
crops,
✧✱✤t✐
turn, ✜✱✲✪t
human ✭★✲✲✱t✢✧✢✥✣
communities ✜✪✩✥
have ✬✰✪✫✥✴
played ✪
a ✲✪P★✤
major ✰✢✩✥✣✧★✭❆✐
livestock, ✦★✤✥✣✧✤✫✐
forestry, ✦✢✣✜✐
fish, ✲✥✴✢✭✢t✪✰
medicinal ✤✥✣★✱✤✭✥✣✐
resources,
✤★✰✥
role ✢t
in ✣✜✪✬✢t❞
shaping ✧✜✥
the ✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
diversity ★✦of t✪✧✱✤✥
nature ✪✧
at ✧✜✥
the ✥✧✭✮
etc.
❞✥t✥✧✢✭✐
genetic, ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species ✪t✴ and ✥✭★✰★❞✢✭✪✰
ecological ✰✥✩✥✰✣✮
levels.
▼✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
Biodiversity ✬✰✪✫✣plays ✧✜✥the ✦★✰✰★❡✢t❞
following ✤★✰✥✣s
roles: Scientific ●❁❍✓
❙✔✕✓❉✚✕■✕✔ Role ❁■
of ❏✕❁❑✕✘✓✙✖✕✚✛
Biodiversity
✥✭★✰★❞✢✭✪✰✐
ecological, ✥✭★t★✲✢✭
economic ✪t✴ and ✣✭✢✥t✧✢✦✢✭✮
scientific.
▼✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
Biodiversity ✢✣is ✢✲✬★✤✧✪t✧ ✳✥✭✪✱✣✥ ✥✪✭✜
important because each ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣
species
❊✔❁❍❁◗✕✔❖❍
Ecological ●❁❍✓
Role ❁■
of ❏✕❁❑✕✘✓✙✖✕✚✛
Biodiversity ✭✪t
can ❞✢✩✥
give ✱✣
us ✣★✲✥
some ✭✰✱✥
clue ✪✣
as ✧★
to ✜★❡
how ✰✢✦✥
life ✥✩★✰✩✥✴
evolved
✪t✴ ❡✢✰✰ ✭★t✧✢t✱✥
and will continue ✧★ to ✥✩★✰✩✥✮
evolve. ▼✢★✴✢✩✥✤✣✢✧✫
Biodiversity ✪✰✣★
also
✵✬✥✭✢✥✣
Species ★✦
of ✲✪t✫
many ❆✢t✴✣
kinds ✬✥✤✦★✤✲
perform ✣★✲✥
some ✦✱t✭✧✢★t
function ✜✥✰✬✣
helps ✢t
in ✱t✴✥✤✣✧✪t✴✢t❞
understanding ✜★❡ how ✰✢✦✥
life ✦✱t✭✧✢★t✣
functions ✪t✴
and
★✤
or ✧✜✥
the ★✧✜✥✤
other ✢t
in ✪t ecosystem. ❘★✧✜✢t❞
an ✥✭★✣✫✣✧✥✲✮ Nothing ✢t
in ✪t
an ✧✜✥ ✤★✰✥ ★✦ ✥✪✭✜ ✣✬✥✭✢✥✣ ✢t
the role of each species in sustaining ✣✱✣✧✪✢t✢t❞
BIODIVERSITY
❇ ✁✂ ✄☎✆✝ ✞✟ AND CONSERVATION
✠✡✂ ☛✁✡✝☎✆✄✠✞ ✁✡ 137
✶☞✌

ecosystems of which we are also a species. This

❡✍✎✏✑✏✒❡✓✏ ✎✔ ✕✖✗✍✖ ✕❡ ✘✙❡ ✘✚✏✎ ✘ ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏✜ ✢✖✗✏ The International ❚✥✗✎✥
✢✖❡ ■✥✒❡✙✥✘✒✗✎✥✘✚ Union ✎✔
of ❀✎✥✏❡✙✦✘✒✗✎✥
Conservation ✎✔
of
fact must be drawn upon every one of us so
✔✘✍✒ ✓❢✏✒ ✣❡ ✤✙✘✕✥ ❢✛✎✥ ❡✦❡✙✑ ✎✥❡ ✎✔ ❢✏ ✏✎ Nature and ◆✘✒❢✙✘✚
◆✘✒❢✙❡ ✘✥✤ Natural ❁❡✏✎❢✙✍❡✏
Resources ❂■❚❀◆❃
(IUCN) ✖✘✏
has
that we
✒✖✘✒ live ✘✥✤
✕❡ ✚✗✦❡ and ✚❡✒
let ✎✒✖❡✙
other ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏
species ✘✚✏✎
also ✚✗✦❡
live ✒✖❡✗✙
their classified the threatened species of plants and
✍✚✘✏✏✗✔✗❡✤ ✒✖❡ ✒✖✙❡✘✒❡✥❡✤ ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏ ✎✔ ✛✚✘✥✒✏ ✘✥✤

lives.
✚✗✦❡✏✜ animals into three categories for the purpose
✘✥✗✓✘✚✏ ✗✥✒✎ ✒✖✙❡❡ ✍✘✒❡t✎✙✗❡✏ ✔✎✙ ✒✖❡ ✛❢✙✛✎✏❡

It ✗✏
■✒ is ✎❢✙
our ❡✒✖✗✍✘✚
ethical ✙❡✏✛✎✥✏✗✣✗✚✗✒✑
responsibility ✒✎ to ✍✎✥✏✗✤❡✙
consider of their conservation.
✎✔ ✒✖❡✗✙ ✍✎✥✏❡✙✦✘✒✗✎✥✜

that each and every species along with ❢✏

✒✖✘✒ ❡✘✍✖ ✘✥✤ ❡✦❡✙✑ ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏ ✘✚✎✥t ✕✗✒✖ us ✖✘✦❡
have
an ✗✥✒✙✗✥✏✗✍
✘✥ intrinsic ✙✗t✖✒
right ✒✎ to ❡❛✗✏✒✜
exist. ✧❡✥✍❡★
Hence, ✗✒ it ✗✏
is ✓✎✙✘✚✚✑
morally Endangered Species
❊❄❅❆❄❈❋●❋❅ ❍❏❋❑▼❋◗

wrong
✕✙✎✥t ✒✎ to voluntarily cause ✒✖❡
✦✎✚❢✥✒✘✙✗✚✑ ✍✘❢✏❡ the ❡❛✒✗✥✍✒✗✎✥
extinction ✎✔ of ✘✥✑
any
It includes those species which are in danger
■✒ ✗✥✍✚❢✤❡✏ ✒✖✎✏❡ ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏ ✕✖✗✍✖ ✘✙❡ ✗✥ ✤✘✥t❡✙
species. The
✏✛❡✍✗❡✏✜ level ✎✔
✢✖❡ ✚❡✦❡✚ of ✣✗✎✤✗✦❡✙✏✗✒✑
biodiversity ✗✏ is ✘ a t✎✎✤
good
of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
✎✔ ❡❛✒✗✥✍✒✗✎✥✜ ✢✖❡ ■❚❀◆ ✛❢✣✚✗✏✖❡✏ ✗✥✔✎✙✓✘✒✗✎✥
indicator ✎✔
✗✥✤✗✍✘✒✎✙ of ✒✖❡
the ✏✒✘✒❡
state ✎✔ of ✎❢✙
our ✙❡✚✘✒✗✎✥✏✖✗✛✏
relationships with ✕✗✒✖
about ❡✥✤✘✥t❡✙❡✤
✘✣✎❢✒ endangered ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏
species ✕✎✙✚✤✇✕✗✤❡
world-wide ✘✏
as ✒✖❡
the
other ✚✗✦✗✥t
✎✒✖❡✙ living ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏✜
species. ■✥ In ✔✘✍✒★
fact, ✒✖❡
the ✍✎✥✍❡✛✒
concept ✎✔ of
Red ❱✼✾✻
❘✸❯ List ✎✔
of ✒✖✙❡✘✒❡✥❡✤
threatened ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏✜
species.
biodiversity is an integral part of many human
✣✗✎✤✗✦❡✙✏✗✒✑ ✗✏ ✘✥ ✗✥✒❡t✙✘✚ ✛✘✙✒ ✎✔ ✓✘✥✑ ✖❢✓✘✥

cultures.
✍❢✚✒❢✙❡✏✜

Loss or BIODIVERSITY
▲❖✩✩ ❖✪ ✫✬❖✭✬✮✯✰✩✬✱✲

Since the last few decades, growth in human

❙✗✥✍❡ ✒✖❡ ✚✘✏✒ ✔❡✕ ✤❡✍✘✤❡✏★ t✙✎✕✒✖ ✗✥ ✖❢✓✘✥

population ✖
✛✎ ✛ ❢ ✚ ✘ ✒ ✗ ✎ ✥ has✘ ✏ ✗increased
✥ ✍ ✙ ❡ ✘ ✏❡ ✤ ✒ the
✖❡ ✙ rate
✘ ✒❡ ✎ of✔
consumption ✎
✍✎✥✏❢✓✛✒✗✎✥ of✔ ✥✘natural resources. ■✒
✒❢✙✘✚ ✙❡✏✎❢✙✍❡✏✜ It ✖✘
has✏
accelerated ✒✖❡
✘✍✍❡✚❡✙✘✒❡✤ the ✚✎✏✏
loss ✎✔of ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏
species ✘✥✤ and ✖✘✣✗✒✘✒✗✎✥
habitation
in ✤✗✔✔❡✙❡✥✒
✗✥ different ✛✘✙✒✏
parts ✎✔ of ✒✖❡
the world.
✕✎✙✚✤✜ Tropical regions
✢ ✙✎✛✗✍✘✚ ✙❡t✗✎✥✏

which
✕✖✗✍✖ ✎✍✍❢✛✑occupy ✎✥✚✑ only ✘✣✎❢✒
about ✎✥❡✇✔✎❢✙✒✖
one-fourth ✎✔ of ✒✖❡
the
total ✘✙❡✘
✒✎✒✘✚ area ✎✔ of ✒✖❡
the world, contain ✘✣✎❢✒
✕✎✙✚✤★ ✍✎✥✒✘✗✥ about ✒✖✙❡❡✇
three-
fourth ✎✔
✔✎❢✙✒✖ of ✒✖❡
the world
✕✎✙✚✤ ✖❢✓✘✥human ✛✎✛❢✚✘✒✗✎✥✜
population. ✳✦❡✙✇ Over-
exploitation ✎✔
❡❛✛✚✎✗✒✘✒✗✎✥ of ✙❡✏✎❢✙✍❡✏
resources ✘✥✤ and ✤❡✔✎✙❡✏✒✘✒✗✎✥
deforestation
have ✣❡✍✎✓❡
✖✘✦❡ become ✙✘✓✛✘✥✒
rampant ✒✎ to ✔❢✚✔✗✚
fulfil ✒✖❡
the ✥❡❡✤✏
needs ✎✔ of ✚✘✙t❡
large
population.
✛✎✛❢✚✘ ✒✗✎✥✜ As these ✒✙✎✛✗✍✘✚
♣✏ ✒✖❡✏❡ tropical ✙✘✗✥ rain ✔✎✙❡✏✒✏
forests
contain ❝✴
✍✎✥✒✘✗✥ 50 ✛❡✙
per ✍❡✥✒
cent ✎✔ of ✒✖❡
the ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏
species ✎✥ on ✒✖❡
the ❡✘✙✒✖★
earth, Figure ❜❞❣⑩
❬❭❪❫❴❵ 16.2 ✐: ❶❵②
Red ❷♠❦②♠
Panda — an ❵❦②♠❦❪❵❴❵②
s ♠❦ endangered q⑥❵✉❭❵q
species
destruction ✎✔
✤❡✏✒✙❢✍✒✗✎✥ of ✥✘✒❢✙✘✚
natural ✖✘✣✗✒✘✒✏
habitats ✖✘✦❡ have ✛✙✎✦❡✤
proved
disastrous ✔✎✙
✤✗✏✘✏✒✙✎❢✏ for ✒✖❡
the ❡✥✒✗✙❡
entire ✣✗✎✏✛✖❡✙❡✜
biosphere.
Natural calamities such ✘✏
◆✘✒❢✙✘✚ ✍✘✚✘✓✗✒✗❡✏ ✏❢✍✖ as ❡✘✙✒✖✵❢✘✷❡✏★
earthquakes,
floods,
✔✚ ✎ ✎ ✤ ✏ ★ volcanic
✦✎ ✚ ✍✘ ✥✗ ✍ ❡ eruptions,
✙❢ ✛ ✒✗ ✎ ✥ ✏★ ✔✎ forest
✙❡ ✏✒ ✔✗ fires,
✙❡ ✏★

droughts, ❡✒✍✜
✤✙✎❢t✖✒✏★ etc. ✍✘❢✏❡
cause ✤✘✓✘t❡
damage ✒✎ to ✒✖❡
the ✔✚✎✙✘
flora ✘✥✤
and
fauna ✎
✔✘❢✥✘ of✔ ✒✖❡
the ❡✘ earth,
✙✒✖ ★ ✣ bringing
✙✗✥t✗✥t ✍✖✘✥t❡ change ✒✖❡ the
biodiversity ✎✔
✣✗✎✤✗✦❡✙✏✗✒✑ of ✙❡✏✛❡✍✒✗✦❡
respective ✘✔✔❡✍✒❡✤ affected ✙❡t✗✎✥✏✜
regions.
Pesticides
P❡ ✏✒✗ ✍✗✤❡✏ ✘✥✤ and ✎ other
✒✖❡✙ ✛✎ pollutants
✚✚❢ ✒✘ ✥✒ ✏ ✏❢✍✖such ✘ as✏
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy
✖✑✤✙✎✍✘✙✣✎✥✏ ✘✥✤ ✒✎❛✗✍ ✖❡✘✦✑ ✓❡✒✘✚✏ ✤❡✏✒✙✎✑

the weak
✒✖❡ ✕❡✘✷ ✘✥✤ and ✏❡✥✏✗✒✗✦❡
sensitive ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏✜
species. ❙✛❡✍✗❡✏
Species which✕✖✗✍✖

are ✥✎✒
✘✙❡ not ✒✖❡
the ✥✘✒❢✙✘✚
natural ✗✥✖✘✣✗✒✘✥✒✏
inhabitants ✎✔ of ✒✖❡
the ✚✎✍✘✚
local
habitat ✣❢✒
✖✘✣✗✒✘✒ but ✘✙❡are ✗✥✒✙✎✤❢✍❡✤
introduced ✗✥✒✎ into ✒✖❡
the ✏✑✏✒❡✓★
system, ✘✙❡ are
called
✍✘ ✚✚ ❡✤ ✸ exotic
✹✺✻✼✽ ✾ species.
✿ ✸ ✽ ✼ ✸ ✾ ✜ There
✢✖ ❡ ✙❡ ✘ are
✙❡ ✓ many✘✥✑

examples ✕✖❡✥
❡❛✘✓✛✚❡✏ when ✘ a ✥✘✒❢✙✘✚
natural ✣✗✎✒✗✍
biotic ✍✎✓✓❢✥✗✒✑
community ✎✔ of Figure ❜❞❣❤
❬❭❪❫❴❵ 16.3 ✐: Zenkeria Sebastinei —
❥❵❦❧❵❴❭♠ ♥❵♦♠qr❭❦❵❭ s♠a ✉❴❭r❭✉♠✈✈①
critically
endangered grass in Agasthiyamalai peak (India)
❵❦②♠❦❪❵❴❵② ❪❴♠qq ❭❦ ③❪♠qr④❭①♠⑤♠✈♠❭ ⑥❵♠❧ ⑦⑧❦②❭♠⑨
the ❡✍✎
✒✖❡ ecosystem
✏✑✏✒❡✓ ✏❢✔✔❡✙❡✤suffered ❡❛ extensive
✒❡✥✏✗✦❡ ✤✘✓✘t❡damage
because ✎✔
✣❡✍✘❢✏❡ of ✒✖❡
the ✗✥✒✙✎✤❢✍✒✗✎✥
introduction ✎✔ of ❡❛✎✒✗✍
exotic ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏✜
species.
Vulnerable Species
❲❳❨❄❋●❆❩❨❋ ❍❏❋❑▼❋◗
During ✒✖❡
❉❢✙✗✥t the ✚✘✏✒
last ✔❡✕
few ✤❡✍✘✤❡✏★
decades, ✏✎✓❡ some ✘✥✗✓✘✚✏
animals ✚✗✷❡ like
tigers, ❡✚❡✛✖✘✥✒✏★
✒✗t❡✙✏★ elephants, ✙✖✗✥✎✍❡✙✎✏★
rhinoceros, ✍✙✎✍✎✤✗✚❡✏★
crocodiles, ✓✗✥✷✏ minks This includes ✒✖❡
✢✖✗✏ ✗✥✍✚❢✤❡✏ the ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏
species ✕✖✗✍✖
which ✘✙❡
are ✚✗✷❡✚✑
likely ✒✎to
and ✣✗✙✤✏
✘✥✤ birds ✕❡✙❡
were ✖❢✥✒❡✤
hunted ✓❡✙✍✗✚❡✏✏✚✑
mercilessly ✣✑ by ✛✎✘✍✖❡✙✏
poachers be ✗✥
✣❡ in ✤✘✥t❡✙
danger ✎✔ of ❡❛✒✗✥✍✒✗✎✥
extinction ✗✥ in ✥❡✘✙
near ✔❢✒❢✙❡
future ✗✔
if ✒✖❡
the
for ✒✖❡✗✙
✔✎✙ their ✖✎✙✥★
horn, ✒❢✏✷✏★
tusks, ✖✗✤❡✏★
hides, ❡✒✍✜ etc. ■✒
It ✖✘✏
has ✙❡✏❢✚✒❡✤
resulted factors ✒✖✙❡✘✒❡✥✗✥t
✔✘✍✒✎✙✏ threatening ✒✎ to ✒✖❡✗✙
their ❡❛✒✗✥✍✒✗✎✥
extinction ✍✎✥✒✗✥❢❡✜
continue.
in ✒✖❡
✗✥ the ✙❡✥✤❡✙✗✥t
rendering ✎✔ of ✍❡✙✒✘✗✥
certain ✒✑✛❡✏
types ✎✔ of ✎✙t✘✥✗✏✓✏
organisms Survival ✎✔
❙❢✙✦✗✦✘✚ of ✒✖❡✏❡
these ✏✛❡✍✗❡✏
species ✗✏is ✥✎✒
not ✘✏✏❢✙❡✤
assured ✘✏
as ✒✖❡✗✙
their
as ❡✥✤✘✥t❡✙❡✤
✘✏ endangered ✍✘✒❡t✎✙✑✜category. population ✖✘✏
✛✎✛❢✚✘✒✗✎✥ has ✙❡✤❢✍❡✤
reduced t✙❡✘✒✚✑✜
greatly.
✶✑✒
138 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

❘✓✔✕
Rare ✖✗✕✘✙✕✚
Species ✳✦✴
(i) ❊★★✛✮✥✫
Efforts ✫✩✛✢✣✱
should be ✵✪ ✰✤✱✪
made ✥✛ to ✜✮✪✫✪✮✭✪
preserve ✥✩✪ the
✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
species ✥✩✤✥ that ✤✮✪ are ✪✧✱✤✧s✪✮✪✱t
endangered.
P✛✜✢✣✤✥✦✛✧
Population ✛★
of ✥✩✪✫✪
these ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
species ✦✫ ✭✪✮✯ ✫✰✤✣✣
is very small ✦✧
in ✥✩✪
the
✳✦✦✴
(ii) P✮✪✭✪✧✥✦✛✧
Prevention ✛★ of ✪✷✥✦✧✬✥✦✛✧
extinction ✮✪✸✢✦✮✪✫
requires ✜✮✛✜✪✮
proper
✇✛✮✣✱✲ ✥✩✪✯
world; they ✤✮✪
are ✬✛✧★✦✧✪✱
confined ✥✛ to ✣✦✰✦✥✪✱
limited ✤✮✪✤✫
areas ✛✮or
✜✣✤✧✧✦✧s
planning ✤✧✱ and ✰✤✧✤s✪✰✪✧✥t
management.
✥✩✦✧✣✯
thinly ✫✬✤✥✥✪✮✪✱
scattered ✛✭✪✮
over ✤ ✇✦✱✪✮ ✤✮✪✤t
a wider area.
✳✦✦✦✴ ❱✤✮✦✪✥✦✪✫ ✛★
(iii) Varieties of ★✛✛✱
food ✬✮✛✜✫❛
crops, ★✛✮✤s✪
forage ✜✣✤✧✥✫❛
plants,
✥✦✰✵✪✮
timber ✥✮✪✪✫❛trees, ✣✦✭✪✫✥✛✬✹❛
livestock, ✤✧✦✰✤✣✫
animals ✤✧✱ and
✥✩✪✦✮ ✇✦✣✱ ✮✪✣✤✥✦✭✪✫
their wild relatives ✫✩✛✢✣✱should be ✵✪ ✜✮✪✫✪✮✭✪✱✲
preserved;
✳✦✭✴
(iv) ❊✤✬✩Each ✬✛✢✧✥✮✯
country ✫✩✛✢✣✱ should ✦✱✪✧✥✦★✯
identify ✩✤✵✦✥✤✥✫
habitats
✛★ ✇✦✣✱ ✮✪✣✤✥✦✭✪✫
of wild relatives ✤✧✱ and ✪✧✫✢✮✪
ensure ✥✩✪✦✮ their
✜✮✛✥✪✬✥✦✛✧t
protection.
✳✭✴
(v) ❍✤✵✦✥✤✥✫
Habitats where ✇✩✪✮✪ ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
species ★✪✪✱❛ ✵✮✪✪✱❛ ✮✪✫✥
feed, breed, rest
✤✧✱
and ✧✢✮✫✪nurse ✥✩✪✦✮ their young✯✛✢✧s ✫✩✛✢✣✱ should be ✵✪
✫✤★✪s✢✤✮✱✪✱
safeguarded ✤✧✱ and ✜✮✛✥✪✬✥✪✱t
protected.
✳✭✦✴
(vi) ■✧✥✪✮✧✤✥✦✛✧✤✣
International ✥✮✤✱✪ trade ✦✧ ✇✦✣✱ ✜✣✤✧✥✫
in wild plants ✤✧✱ and
✤✧✦✰✤✣✫ ✵✪ ✮✪s✢✣✤✥✪✱t
animals be regulated.
❚✛ ✜✮✛✥✪✬✥❛
To protect, ✜✮✪✫✪✮✭✪
preserve ✤✧✱ and ✜✮✛✜✤s✤✥✪
propagate ✥✩✪ the
✭✤✮✦✪✥✯ ✛★
variety of ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
species within✇✦✥✩✦✧ ✧✤✥✢✮✤✣ ✵✛✢✧✱✤✮✦✪✫❛
natural boundaries,
the ✺✛✭✪✮✧✰✪✧✥
✥✩✪ Government ✛★ of ■✧✱✦✤
India ✜✤✫✫✪✱
passed ✥✩✪ the ❲✻✼✽
Wild ✾✻✿❀
Life
❁❂❃❄❅❀❆❅✻❄❇❈
(Protection) Act, ❉❆❅● ❏❑▲▼❛
1972, ✢✧✱✪✮ under which ✇✩✦✬✩ ✧✤✥✦✛✧✤✣
national
❻❼❽❾❿➀
Figure ➁➂➃➄
16.4 ➅: ➆❾➇➈➉➊➋❼➌
Humbodtia ➊➀➍❾❿❿➀➎➏
decurrens ➐➀➊➊
Bedd —➑highly
➒❼❽➒➓➔ ❿➌❿➀
rare ✜✤✮✹✫
parks ✤✧✱ and ✫✤✧✬✥✢✤✮✦✪✫
sanctuaries were ✇✪✮✪ ✪✫✥✤✵✣✦✫✩✪✱
established ✤✧✱ and
➀➎➊➀➇❼➍
endemic ➋❿➀➀
tree ➉→
of ➣➉❾➋➒➀❿➎ ↔➀➏➋➀❿➎ ↕➒➌➋➏
Southern Western Ghats ➙➛➎➊❼➌➜
(India) ✵✦✛✫✜✩✪✮✪ ✮✪✫✪✮✭✪✫
biosphere reserves ✱✪✬✣✤✮✪✱t
declared. ❜✪✥✤✦✣✫ Details ✛★ of ✥✩✪✫✪
these
✵✦✛✫✜✩✪✮✪ ✮✪✫✪✮✭✪✫
biosphere reserves ✤✮✪ are s✦✭✪✧
given ✦✧ in ✥✩✪ ✵✛✛✹ ◆❇✽✻❖◗
the book India:
r✉✈①②③④⑤⑥⑦✉✈
CONSERVATION ✉⑧ OF ⑨⑦✉⑩⑦④②③①⑦⑥❶
BIODIVERSITY ❂❙❯❳✻❆❖✼
Physical ❨❇❩✻❃❄❇❬❀❇❅
Environment ✳❭❪❊❫❚❛ (NCERT, ❴❵❵❝✴t 2006).
❢✦✛✱✦✭✪✮✫✦✥✯
Biodiversity ✦✫ is ✦✰✜✛✮✥✤✧✥
important ★✛✮ for ✩✢✰✤✧
human ✪✷✦✫✥✪✧✬✪t
existence. ❚✩✪✮✪ ✤✮✪
There are ✫✛✰✪some ✬✛✢✧✥✮✦✪✫
countries which ✇✩✦✬✩ ✤✮✪ are
✐✣✣ ★✛✮✰✫
All forms ✛★ of ✣✦★✪
life ✤✮✪
are ✫✛so ✬✣✛✫✪✣✯
closely ✦✧✥✪✮✣✦✧✹✪✱
interlinked ✥✩✤✥ that ✫✦✥✢✤✥✪✱
situated ✦✧ in ✥✩✪
the ✥✮✛✜✦✬✤✣
tropical ✮✪s✦✛✧✲
region; ✥✩✪✯ they ✜✛✫✫✪✫✫
possess ✤ a
✱✦✫✥✢✮✵✤✧✬✪
disturbance ✦✧ one s✦✭✪✫
in ✛✧✪ gives ✮✦✫✪ rise ✥✛to ✦✰✵✤✣✤✧✬✪
imbalance ✦✧ in ✣✤✮s✪
large ✧✢✰✵✪✮
number ✛★ of ✥✩✪ ✇✛✮✣✱❧✫ ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
the world’s species ✱✦✭✪✮✫✦✥✯t
diversity.
✥✩✪ others. ■★
the ✛✥✩✪✮✫t If ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
species ✛★ of ✜✣✤✧✥✫
plants ✤✧✱ and ✤✧✦✰✤✣✫
animals ❚✩✪✯ ✤✮✪
They called ❬❀♠❖
are ✬✤✣✣✪✱ mega ✽✻❩❀❃❳✻❅❯
diversity ❆❀❇❅❃❀❳t
centres. There❚✩✪✮✪
✵✪✬✛✰✪
become ✪✧✱✤✧s✪✮✪✱❛
endangered, ✥✩✪✯ cause ✱✪s✮✤✱✤✥✦✛✧
they ✬✤✢✫✪ degradation are ❞❴
✤✮✪ 12 ✫✢✬✩
such ✬✛✢✧✥✮✦✪✫❛
countries, ✧✤✰✪✣✯ namely ❡✪✷✦✬✛❛Mexico,
✦✧
in ✥✩✪ environment, ✇✩✦✬✩
the ✪✧✭✦✮✛✧✰✪✧✥❛ which ✰✤✯ may ✥✩✮✪✤✥✪✧
threaten ❪✛✣✢✰✵✦✤❛
Columbia, ❊✬✢✤✱✛✮❛ Ecuador, P✪✮✢❛ Peru, ❢✮✤❣✦✣❛
Brazil, ❤✤✦✮✪❛
Zaire,
human ✵✪✦✧s❧✫
✩✢✰✤✧ being’s ✛✇✧ own ✪✷✦✫✥✪✧✬✪t
existence. ❡✤✱✤s✤✫✬✤✮❛
Madagascar, ❪✩✦✧✤❛ ■✧✱✦✤❛
China, India, Malaysia, ❡✤ ✣✤✯✫✦✤❛
❚✩✪✮✪ ✦✫
There is ✤✧
an ✢✮s✪✧✥
urgent ✧✪✪✱ need ✥✛ to ✪✱✢✬✤✥✪
educate ✜✪✛✜✣✪
people ✥✛ to ■✧✱✛✧✪✫✦✤
Indonesia ✤✧✱ ✐✢✫✥✮✤✣✦✤ ✦✧
and Australia ✇✩✦✬✩ ✥✩✪✫✪
in which these ✬✪✧✥✮✪✫
centres
✤✱✛✜✥
adopt ✪✧✭✦✮✛✧✰✪✧✥♦★✮✦✪✧✱✣✯
environment-friendly ✜✮✤✬✥✦✬✪✫ practices ✤✧✱ and ✤✮✪ located✱ ✳❥✦s✢✮✪
are ✣✛✬✤✥✪ (Figure ❞❝t❦✴t 16.5). ■✧ In ✛✮✱✪✮
order ✥✛ to
✮✪✛✮✦✪✧✥
reorient ✥✩✪✦✮
their ✤✬✥✦✭✦✥✦✪✫
activities ✦✧ in ✫✢✬✩
such ✤ a ✇✤✯
way ✥✩✤✥
that ✛✢✮our ✬✛✧✬✪✧✥✮✤✥✪
concentrate ✮✪✫✛✢✮✬✪✫resources ✛✧ on ✥✩✛✫✪
those ✤✮✪✤✫
areas ✥✩✤✥
that ✤✮✪are
✱✪✭✪✣✛✜✰✪✧✥
development ✦✫ harmonious ✇✦✥✩
is ✩✤✮✰✛✧✦✛✢✫ with ✛✥✩✪✮
other ✣✦★✪
life ★✛✮✰✫
forms ✰✛✫✥
most ✭✢✣✧✪✮✤✵✣✪❛
vulnerable, ✥✩✪ the ■✧✥✪✮✧✤✥✦✛✧✤✣
International ♥✧✦✛✧ Union ★✛✮ for
✤✧✱
and ✦✫ is ✫✢✫✥✤✦✧✤✵✣✪t
sustainable. There ❚✩✪✮✪ ✦✫ is ✤✧an ✦✧✬✮✪✤✫✦✧s
increasing ✥✩✪ ❪✛✧✫✪✮✭✤✥✦✛✧ ✛★
the Conservation of Nature and Natural ❭✤✥✢✮✪ ✤✧✱ ❭✤✥✢✮✤✣
✬✛✧✫✬✦✛✢✫✧✪✫✫
consciousness ✛★ of ✥✩✪
the ★✤✬✥
fact ✥✩✤✥
that ✫✢✬✩
such ✬✛✧✫✪✮✭✤✥✦✛✧
conservation ❫✪✫✛✢✮✬✪✫
Resources ✳■♥❪❭✴ (IUCN) ✩✤✫ has ✦✱✪✧✥✦★✦✪✱
identified ✬✪✮✥✤✦✧
certain ✤✮✪✤✫areas
✇✦✥✩
with ✫✢✫✥✤✦✧✤✵✣✪
sustainable ✢✫✪ use ✦✫ is ✜✛✫✫✦✵✣✪
possible ✛✧✣✯ only ✇✦✥✩
with ✥✩✪the as ✵✦✛✱✦✭✪✮✫✦✥✯
✤✫ biodiversity ✩✛✥✫✜✛✥✫thotspots. ❍✛✥✫✜✛✥✫Hotspots ✤✮✪ are ✱✪★✦✧✪✱
defined
✦✧✭✛✣✭✪✰✪✧✥
involvement ✤✧✱ ✬✛✛✜✪✮✤✥✦✛✧
and cooperation of local ✛★ ✣✛✬✤✣ ✤✬✬✛✮✱✦✧s
according ✥✛ to ✥✩✪✦✮
their ✭✪s✪✥✤✥✦✛✧t
vegetation. P✣✤✧✥✫
Plants ✤✮✪ are
✬✛✰✰✢✧✦✥✦✪✫
communities ✤✧✱ and ✦✧✱✦✭✦✱✢✤✣✫t
individuals. ❥✛✮ For ✥✩✦✫❛
this, ✥✩✪the important ✵✪✬✤✢✫✪
✦✰✜✛✮✥✤✧✥ because ✥✩✪✫✪ these ✱✪✥✪✮✰✦✧✪
determine ✥✩✪ the
✱✪✭✪✣✛✜✰✪✧✥
development ✛★ of ✦✧✫✥✦✥✢✥✦✛✧✤✣
institutional ✫✥✮✢✬✥✢✮✪✫
structures ✤✥ at ✣✛✬✤✣
local ✜✮✦✰✤✮✯
primary ✜✮✛✱✢✬✥✦✭✦✥✯
productivity ✛★ of ✤✧ ecosystem. ❡✛✫✥❛
an ✪✬✛✫✯✫✥✪✰t Most,
✣✪✭✪✣✫
levels ✦✫is ✧✪✬✪✫✫✤✮✯t
necessary. The ❚✩✪ ✬✮✦✥✦✬✤✣
critical ✜✮✛✵✣✪✰
problem ✦✫ is ✧✛✥
not ✵✢✥
but ✧✛✥not ✤✣✣❛all, ✛★
of ✥✩✪
the ✩✛✥✫✜✛✥✫
hotspots ✮✪✣✯ rely ✛✧ on ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫♦
species-
✰✪✮✪✣✯
merely ✥✩✪the ✬✛✧✫✪✮✭✤✥✦✛✧
conservation ✛★ of ✫✜✪✬✦✪✫
species ✧✛✮ nor ✥✩✪
the ✩✤✵✦✥✤✥
habitat ✮✦✬✩
rich ✪✬✛✫✯✫✥✪✰✫
ecosystems ★✛✮ for ★✛✛✱❛
food, ★✦✮✪✇✛✛✱❛
firewood, ✬✮✛✜✣✤✧✱❛
cropland,
✵✢✥
but ✥✩✪
the ✬✛✧✥✦✧✢✤✥✦✛✧
continuation ✛★ of ✜✮✛✬✪✫✫
process ✛★ of ✬✛✧✫✪✮✭✤✥✦✛✧t
conservation. ✤✧✱
and ✦✧✬✛✰✪
income ★✮✛✰ timber. ■✧
from ✥✦✰✵✪✮t In ❡✤✱✤s✤✫✬✤✮❛
Madagascar, ★✛✮ for
❚✩✪ ✺✛✭✪✮✧✰✪✧✥
The Government ✛★ of ■✧✱✦✤ along ✇✦✥✩
India ✤✣✛✧s with ❞❦❦ 155 ✪✷✤✰✜✣✪❛
example, ✤✵✛✢✥ about ♣❦ 85 ✜✪✮per ✬✪✧✥
cent ✛★ of ✥✩✪
the ✜✣✤✧✥✫
plants ✤✧✱ and
✛✥✩✪✮
other ✧✤✥✦✛✧✫
nations ✩✤✭✪ have ✫✦s✧✪✱
signed ✥✩✪ the ❪✛✧✭✪✧✥✦✛✧
Convention ✛★ of ✤✧✦✰✤✣✫
animals ✤✮✪ are ✧✛✥
not ✛✧✣✯only ★✛✢✧✱
found ✧✛✇✩✪✮✪
nowhere ✪✣✫✪ else ✦✧in
❢✦✛✱✦✭✪✮✫✦✥✯
Biodiversity ✤✥ the ❊✤✮✥✩
at ✥✩✪ Earth ❷✢✰✰✦✥Summit ✩✪✣✱ held ✤✥at ❫✦✛✱✪
Riode the ✇✛✮✣✱❛
✥✩✪ world, ✵✢✥ but ✦✥✫its ✜✪✛✜✣✪
people ✤✮✪ are ✤✣✫✛
also ✤✰✛✧s
among ✥✩✪ the
❸✤✧✪✦✮✛❛
Janeiro, ❢✮✤❣✦✣ Brazil ✦✧ in ❸✢✧✪
June ❞❹❹❴t 1992. The ❚✩✪ ✇✛✮✣✱world ✇✛✮✣✱❧✫
world’s ✜✛✛✮✪✫✥
poorest ✤✧✱ and ✮✪✣✯ rely ✛✧ on ✫✣✤✫✩
slash ✤✧✱ and ✵✢✮✧
burn
✬✛✧✫✪✮✭✤✥✦✛✧
conservation strategy has suggested ✥✩✪
✫✥✮✤✥✪s✯ ✩✤✫ ✫✢ss✪✫✥✪✱ the ✤s✮✦✬✢✣✥✢✮✪
agriculture ★✛✮ for ✫✢✵✫✦✫✥✪✧✬✪
subsistence ★✤✮✰✦✧st farming. q✥✩✪✮ Other
★✛✣✣✛✇✦✧s
following ✫✥✪✜✫steps ★✛✮ for ✵✦✛✱✦✭✪✮✫✦✥✯
biodiversity ✬✛✧✫✪✮✭✤✥✦✛✧❺
conservation: ✩✛✥✫✜✛✥✫
hotspots ✦✧ in ✇✪✤✣✥✩✯
wealthy ✬✛✢✧✥✮✦✪✫countries ✤✮✪ are ★✤✬✦✧s
facing
BIODIVERSITY AND
❇ ✁✂ ✄☎✆✝ ✞✟ ✠✡✂ ☛✁✡✝☎✆✄✠✞ ✁✡ CONSERVATION 139
✶☞✌

I I I I I I I I I I I I
RY ' or oF 180")

4 eure 6" }-

Eastem Himalaya

dis,
. Penngulsr Malgysia
peal
as = oe Bomea.gel
* sear poms, fs
s
SS .
| a0" Queensland xP L
Eastern Madagascar TA

Melanesia
» (New Caledonia}

| 6" ® 2000 600 Km OF |.

our o or 1g
T T T T T T T T T T T
Figure ❀❁❂❃
❋✻✼✽✾✿ 16.5 ❄: ❅❆❉●❉✼✻❆❍●
Ecological ■❏❉❑▲❖❉❑▲P
‘hotspots’ ✻◗
in ❑❏✿
the ❘❉✾●❙
world

different types of pressures. The islands of

❞❯❱❱❲❳❲❨❩ ❩❬❭❲❪ ❫❱ ❭❳❲❪❪❴❳❲❪❵ ❛❜❲ ❯❪❝❡❨❞❪ ❫❱ that are threatened by introduced species and
❩❜❡❩ ❡❳❲ ❩❜❳❲❡❩❲❨❲❞ t❬ ❯❨❩❳❫❞❴❦❲❞ ❪❭❲❦❯❲❪ ❡❨❞

Hawaii have many unique plants and animals

❢❡❣❡❯❯ ❜❡❤❲ ✐❡❨❬ ❴❨❯❥❴❲ ❭❝❡❨❩❪ ❡❨❞ ❡❨❯✐❡❝❪ land development.
❝❡❨❞ ❞❲❤❲❝❫❭✐❲❨❩❵

—— EXERCISES
❊✍❊✎✏✑✒❊✒ ___

1.
✓✳ Multiple choice
▼✔✕✖✗✘✕✙ ✚✛✜✗✚✙ ✢✔✙✣✖✗✜✤✣✳questions.
(i)
✭✗✥ Conservation of biodiversity is important for :
❈✜✤✣✙✦✧★✖✗✜✤ ✜✩ ✪✗✜✫✗✧✙✦✣✗✖✬ ✗✣ ✗✮✘✜✦✖★✤✖ ✩✜✦ ✯

(a) Animals
✭★✥ ✰✤✗✮★✕✣ (c) ✱✕★✤✖✣
✭✚✥ Plants

(b) Animals
✭✪✥ and ✘✕★✤✖✣
✰✤✗✮★✕✣ ★✤✫ plants (d) All
✭✫✥ organisms
✰✕✕ ✜✦✲★✤✗✣✮✣

(ii)
✭✗✗✥ Threatened species ★✦✙
❚✛✦✙★✖✙✤✙✫ ✣✘✙✚✗✙✣ are ✖✛✜✣✙
those which
✴✛✗✚✛ ✯:

(a) ✖✛✦✙★✖✙✤
✭★✥ threaten ✜✖✛✙✦✣
others

(b) ✵✗✜✤
✭✪✥ Lion ★✤✫
and ✖✗✲✙✦
tiger

(c) ★✦✙
✭✚✥ are ★✪✔✤✫★✤✖
abundant ✗✤
in ✤✔✮✪✙✦
number

(d) are suffering from the danger of extinction

✭✫✥ ★✦✙ ✣✔✩✩✙✦✗✤✲ ✩✦✜✮ ✖✛✙ ✫★✤✲✙✦ ✜✩ ✙✷✖✗✤✚✖✗✜✤

(iii)
✭✗✗✗✥ National parks and sanctuaries are established
◆★✖✗✜✤★✕ ✘★✦✸✣ ★✤✫ ✣★✤✚✖✔★✦✗✙✣ ★✦✙ ✙✣✖★✪✕✗✣✛✙✫ ✩✜✦ ✖✛✙ ✘✔✦✘✜✣✙ ✜✩ ✯ for the purpose of :
(a) ✹✙✚✦✙★✖✗✜✤
✭★✥ Recreation (c) ✱✙✖✣
✭✚✥ Pets

(b) ✺✔✤✖✗✤✲
✭✪✥ Hunting (d) ❈✜✤✣✙✦✧★✖✗✜✤
✭✫✥ Conservation
✶✑✒
140 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

✭✓✔✕
(iv) ❇✓✖✗✓✔✘✙✚✓✛✜
Biodiversity ✓✚ is ✙✓✢✣✘✙
richer ✓✤in ✥:

✭✦✕ ✧✙✖★✓✢✦✩ ✪✘✫✓✖✤✚

(a) Tropical Regions ✭✢✕ ✧✘✬★✘✙✦✛✘ ✪✘✫✓✖✤✚
(c) Temperate Regions

✭✮✕
(b) ✯✖✩✦✙
Polar ✪✘✫✓✖✤✚
Regions ✭✗✕
(d) ❖✢✘✦✤✚
Oceans

✭✔✕
(v) ■✤ ✰✣✓✢✣ ✖✤✘
In which one ✖✱ of ✛✣✘ following ✢✖✲✤✛✙✓✘✚✳
the ✱✖✩✩✖✰✓✤✫ countries, ✛✣✘ the ✴✵✦✙✛✣
‘Earth ✷✲✬✬✓✛✸
Summit’ was✰✦✚ ✣✘✩✗✹
held?

✭✦✕
(a) ✛✣✘
the ✺✻
UK ✭✢✕
(c) ❇✙✦✼✓✩
Brazil

✭✮✕
(b) ✽✘✾✓✢✖
Mexico ✭✗✕
(d) ✿✣✓✤✦
China

❀❁
2. ❆✤✚✰✘✙ ✛✣✘
Answer the ✱✖✩✩✖✰✓✤✫ questions ✓✤
following ❂✲✘✚✛✓✖✤✚ in ✦✮✖✲✛
about ❃❄ ✰✖✙✗✚❁
30 words.
✭✓✕ ❲✣✦✛ ✓✚
(i) ) What ✮✓✖✗✓✔✘✙✚✓✛✜✹
is biodiversity?
✭✓✓✕ are ✛✣✘
❲✣✦✛ ✦✙✘
(ii) ) What the ✗✓✱✱✘✙✘✤✛ levels ✖✱
different ✩✘✔✘✩✚ ✮✓✖✗✓✔✘✙✚✓✛✜✹
of biodiversity?
✭✓✓✓✕
(iii) ❲✣✦✛ ✗✖
What ✜✖✲ ✲✤✗✘✙✚✛✦✤✗
do you understand by ✮✜ ✴✣✖✛✚★✖✛✚✸✹
‘hotspots’?
✭✓✔✕
(iv ) ❉✓✚✢✲✚✚ ✮✙✓✘✱✩✜ ✛✣✘
Discuss briefly the ✓✬★✖✙✛✦✤✢✘
importance ✖✱ animals ✛✖
of ✦✤✓✬✦✩✚ to ✣✲✬✦✤
human s✓✤✗❁
kind.
✭✔✕ ❲✣✦✛ ✗✖
(v) ) What do ✜✖✲
you ✲✤✗✘✙✚✛✦✤✗
understand ✮✜ ‘exotic ✚★✘✢✓✘✚✸✹
by ✴✘✾✖✛✓✢ species’?
❃❁
3. Answer ✛✣✘
❆✤✚✰✘✙ the ✱✖✩✩✖✰✓✤✫ questions ✓✤
following ❂✲✘✚✛✓✖✤✚ in ✦✮✖✲✛
about ❅❈❄ ✰✖✙✗✚❁
150 words.
✭✓✕
(i) are ✛✣✘
❲✣✦✛ ✦✙✘
What the ✙✖✩✘✚
roles ★✩✦✜✘✗
played ✮✜ biodiversity ✓✤
by ✮✓✖✗✓✔✘✙✚✓✛✜ in ✛✣✘
the ✚✣✦★✓✤✫
shaping ✖✱of ✤✦✛✲✙✘✹
nature?
✭✓✓✕
(ii) What are ✛✣✘
❲✣✦✛ ✦✙✘ the ✬✦❊✖✙ factors ✛✣✦✛
major ✱✦✢✛✖✙✚ are ✙✘✚★✖✤✚✓✮✩✘
that ✦✙✘ responsible ✱✖✙ for ✛✣✘ loss ✖✱
the ✩✖✚✚ of ✮✓✖✗✓✔✘✙✚✓✛✜✹
biodiversity?
❲✣✦✛ ✚✛✘★✚
What steps ✦✙✘are ✤✘✘✗✘✗
needed ✛✖ prevent ✛✣✘✬✹
to ★✙✘✔✘✤✛ them?

Pr♦●❍❏❑
Project ▲♦r▼
Work
Collect ✛✣✘
✿✖✩✩✘✢✛ the ✤✦✬✘✚
names ✖✱
of ✤✦✛✓✖✤✦✩ parks, ✚✦✤✢✛✲✦✙✓✘✚
national ★✦✙s✚✳ sanctuaries ✦✤✗ biosphere ✙✘✚✘✙✔✘✚
and ✮✓✖✚★✣✘✙✘ reserves ✖✱
of ✛✣✘
the
✚✛✦✛✘ ✰✣✘✙✘ ✜✖✲✙
state where your ✚✢✣✖✖✩
school ✓✚
is ✩✖✢✦✛✘✗ and ✚✣✖✰
located ✦✤✗ show ✛✣✘✓✙ location ✖✤
their ✩✖✢✦✛✓✖✤ on ✛✣✘ map ✖✱
the ✬✦★ of ■✤✗✓✦❁
India.
 GLOSSARY
❤❥❦♥♥♣qr

❆ ✁✂✄✁☎ ✆: ◆✝✞✟✠✡☛✡✞☞
Abiotic Non-living ✌✍✡✞☞✎
thing. ✏✑✒✓✠✠✔
Usually ✕✖✗✖✕✑
refers ✌✝
to ✌✍✖
the ✘✍✔✑✡✙✓✠
physical ✓✞✚
and ✙✍✖✛✡✙✓✠
chemical ✙✝✛✘✝✞✖✞✌✑
components
✝✗
of ✓✞
an ✝✕☞✓✞✡✑✛♦✑
organism’s ❡✜✢✣✤✥✜✦❡✜✧✎
environment.
❆★✁✩ ✩✄✁☎ ✪✩✫✬✭
Adiabatic Rate ✆: The
Lapse ✮✩✄✭ ❚✍✖ ✕✓✌✖
rate ✝✗
of ✙✍✓✞☞✖
change ✝✗ of ✌✖✛✘✖✕✓✌✒✕✖
temperature by ✯✔ ✓✞
an ✓✑✙✖✞✚✡✞☞
ascending ✝✕ or
✚✖✑✙✖✞✚✡✞☞
descending airmass. If no other non-adiabatic processes (i.e. no heat ✖✞✌✖✕✑
✓✡✕✛✓✑✑✎ ■✗ ✞✝ ✝✌✍✖✕ ✞✝✞✟✓✚✡✓✯✓✌✡✙ ✘✕✝✙✖✑✑✖✑ ✰✡✎✖✎ ✞✝ ✍✖✓✌ enters ✝✕or
✠✖✓☛✖✑
leaves ✌✍✖
the ✑✔✑✌✖✛❧
system) ✝✙✙✒✕ (like ✙✝✞✚✖✞✑✓✌✡✝✞✲
occur ✰✠✡✱✖ condensation, ✖☛✓✘✝✕✓✌✡✝✞
evaporation ✓✞✚and ✕✓✚✡✓✌✡✝✞❧✲
radiation), ✖✳✘✓✞✑✡✝✞
expansion
✙✓✒✑✖✑
causes ✌✍✖
the ✘✓✕✙✖✠
parcel ✝✗
of ✓✡✕
air ✌✝
to ✙✝✝✠
cool ✓✌
at ✓a ✑✖✌
set ✕✓✌✖
rate ✝✗ 0.98° ✘✖✕
of ❝✎✴✵✶ 100 ✛✎
per ✷❝❝ ❚✍✖ ✝✘✘✝✑✡✌✖
m. The opposite ✝✙✙✒✕✑
occurs
✇✍✖✞ ✓a ✘✓✕✙✖✠
when parcel ✝✗of ✓✡✕
air ✚✖✑✙✖✞✚✑
descends ✡✞ in ✌✍✖
the ✓✌✛✝✑✘✍✖✕✖✎
atmosphere. The❚✍✖ ✓✡✕
air ✡✞
in ✓a ✚✖✑✙✖✞✚✡✞☞
descending ✘✓✕✙✖✠
parcel
✯✖✙✝✛✖✑ ✙✝✛✘✕✖✑✑✖✚✎
becomes Compression ✙✓✒✑✖✑
compressed. ❜✝✛✘✕✖✑✑✡✝✞ causes ✌✍✖
the ✌✖✛✘✖✕✓✌✒✕✖ ✇✡✌✍✡✞ ✌✍✖
temperature within the ✘✓✕✙✖✠
parcel ✌✝to
✡✞✙✕✖✓✑✖
increase ✓✌at ✓a ✕✓✌✖
rate ✝✗ 0.98° ✘✖✕
of ❝✎✴✵✶ 100 ✛✎
per ✷❝❝ m.
❆✁✸ ✹✩✬✬
Air Mass ✆: A✺ body
✯✝✚✔ ✝✗of ✓✡✕ ✇✍✝✑✖ ✌✖✛✘✖✕✓✌✒✕✖
air whose temperature ✓✞✚and ✍✒✛✡✚✡✌✔
humidity ✙✍✓✕✓✙✌✖✕✡✑✌✡✙✑✲
characteristics, ✓✙✻✒✡✕✖✚
acquired
✡✞
in ✑✝✒✕✙✖
source ✕✖☞✡✝✞✲
region, ✕✖✛✓✡✞
remain ✕✖✠✓✌✡☛✖✠✔
relatively ✙✝✞✑✌✓✞✌
constant ✝☛✖✕
over ✓ a ✍✝✕✡✐✝✞✌✓✠
horizontal ✚✡✑✌✓✞✙✖
distance ✝✗of ✍✒✞✚✕✖✚✑
hundreds
✌✝
to ✌✍✝✒✑✓✞✚✑
thousands ✝✗ of ✱✛✎ ✺✡✕ ✛✓✑✑✖✑
km. Air masses ✚✖☛✖✠✝✘
develop ✌✍✖✡✕
their ✙✠✡✛✓✌✡✙
climatic ✙✍✓✕✓✙✌✖✕✡✑✌✡✙✑ ✯✔ ✕✖✛✓✡✞✡✞☞
characteristics by remaining
✑✌✓✌✡✝✞✓✕✔
stationary ✝☛✖✕
over ✓ a ✑✝✒✕✙✖
source ✕✖☞✡✝✞
region ✗✝✕
for ✓
a ✞✒✛✯✖✕
number ✝✗ of ✚✓✔✑✎ ✺✡✕ ✛✓✑✑✖✑
days. Air masses ✓✕✖are ✙✠✓✑✑✡✗✡✖✚
classified
✓✙✙✝✕✚✡✞☞
according ✌✝ to ✌✍✖✡✕
their ✌✖✛✘✖✕✓✌✒✕✖
temperature ✓✞✚ and ✍✒✛✡✚✡✌✔
humidity ✙✍✓✕✓✙✌✖✕✡✑✌✡✙✑✎
characteristics.
❆✫✼✭✽✁✂✾ ✆: ■✌
Aphelion It ✡✑
is ✌✍✖
the ✘✝✡✞✌
point ✡✞
in ✌✍✖ Earth’s ✝✕✯✡✌
the ✿✓✕✌✍♦✑ ✇✍✖✞ ✡✌
orbit when it ✡✑
is ✗✓✕✌✍✖✑✌
farthest ✗✕✝✛
from ✌✍✖
the s❀✜
sun ✰✷❁❂✎❁
(152.5
✛✡✠✠✡✝✞
million ✱✛❧✎ ✺✘✍✖✠✡✝✞ ✝✙✙✒✕✑
km). Aphelion occurs ✝✞
on ✌✍✖ 3rd ✝✕
the ♠✕✚ 4th ✝✗
or ❃✌✍ ❄✒✠✔✎
of July.
❆✬✄✼✭✾✂✬✫✼✭✸✭ ✆: ❅✝✞✖
Asthenosphere Zone ✡✞
in ✌✍✖
the ✿✓✕✌✍♦✑ mantle ✌✍✓✌
Earth’s ✦❇✜✧❈❡ that ✖✳✍✡✯✡✌✑
exhibits ✘✠✓✑✌✡✙
plastic ✘✕✝✘✖✕✌✡✖✑✎
properties. ❉✝✙✓✌✖✚
Located
✯✖✠✝✇ ✌✍✖
below lithosphere ✓✌
the ❈✣✧❊✥s❋❊❡✤❡ at between 100 ✓✞✚
✯✖✌✇✖✖✞ ✷❝❝ and ❂❝❝
200 ✱✛✎
km.
❆✄●✂✬✫✼✭✸✁☎ Pressure ✆: Weight
Atmospheric ❍✸✭✬✬❏✸✭ ❲✖✡☞✍✌ ✝✗ of ✌✍✖ atmosphere ✝✞
the ❇✧✦✥s❋❊❡✤❡ on ✓a ✑✒✕✗✓✙✖✎ sea-level, ✌✍✖
✺✌ s❡❇❑❈❡✢❡❈✲
surface. At the
✓☛✖✕✓☞✖
average ✓✌✛✝✑✘✍✖✕✡✙
atmospheric ✘✕✖✑✑✒✕✖
pressure ✡✑ 1013.25 ✛✯✎
is ✷❝✷♠✎❂❁ Pressure ✡✑
mb. ❛✕✖✑✑✒✕✖ is ✛✖✓✑✒✕✖✚
measured by✯✔ ✓a ✚✖☛✡✙✖
device
✙✓✠✠✖✚
called ✓
a ▲❇✤✥✦❡✧❡✤✎
barometer.
❆❏✸✂✸✩
Aurora ✆: ▼✒✠✌✡✙✝✠✝✒✕✖✚
Multicoloured ✠✡☞✍✌✑lights ✌✍✓✌
that ✓✘✘✖✓✕
appear ✡✞ in ✌✍✖
the ✒✘✘✖✕
upper ❇✧✦✥s❋❊❡✤❡
atmosphere ❖✣✥✜✥s❋❊❡✤❡P
(ionosphere)
✝☛✖✕
over ✌✍✖
the ✘✝✠✓✕
polar ✕✖☞✡✝✞✑
regions ✓✞✚ ☛✡✑✡✯✠✖ ✗✕✝✛
and visible from ✠✝✙✓✌✡✝✞✑
locations ✡✞ in ✌✍✖
the ✛✡✚✚✠✖
middle ✓✞✚and ✍✡☞✍
high ✠✓✌✡✌✒✚✖✑✎
latitudes.
❜✓✒✑✖✚
Caused ✯✔ by ✌✍✖
the ✡✞✌✖✕✓✙✌✡✝✞
interaction ✝✗ of s✥❈❇✤
solar ◗✣✜❘ with ✝✳✔☞✖✞
wind ✇✡✌✍ oxygen ✓✞✚ and ✞✡✌✕✝☞✖✞
nitrogen ☞✓✑gas ✡✞in ✌✍✖
the
✓✌✛✝✑✘✍✖✕✖✎
atmosphere. Aurora✺✒✕✝✕✓ ✡✞ in ✌✍✖
the ◆✝✕✌✍✖✕✞ Hemisphere ✓✕✖
Northern ❙✖✛✡✑✘✍✖✕✖ are ✙✓✠✠✖✚
called ❇❀✤✥✤❇ borealis ✓✞✚
aurora ▲✥✤❡❇❈✣s and
❇❀✤✥✤❇ australis ✡✞
aurora ❇❀s✧✤❇❈✣s in ✌✍✖
the ❯✝✒✌✍✖✕✞
Southern ❙✖✛✡✑✘✍✖✕✖✎
Hemisphere.
Bajada ✆: ❜✝✞✑✖✙✒✌✡☛✖
❱✩❳✩★✩ Consecutive ✑✖✕✡✖✑
series ✝✗of ❇❈❈❀✢✣❇❈ ❨❇✜s ✗✝✕✛✡✞☞
alluvial fans forming ✓✠✝✞☞
along ✌✍✖
the ✖✚☞✖
edge ✝✗
of ✓
a ✠✡✞✖✓✕
linear ✛✝✒✞✌✓✡✞
mountain
✕✓✞☞✖✎ Surface ✝✗
range. ❯✒✕✗✓✙✖ of ✌✍✡✑
this ✗✖✓✌✒✕✖
feature ✒✞✚✒✠✓✌✖✑
undulates ✡✞ in ✓
a ✕✝✠✠✡✞☞
rolling ✗✓✑✍✡✝✞
fashion ✓✑ as ✝✞✖
one ✛✝☛✖✑
moves ✗✕✝✛
from ✌✍✖
the
✙✖✞✌✕✖
centre ✝✗of ✝✞✖
one ✓✠✠✒☛✡✓✠
alluvial ✗✓✞
fan ✌✝to ✓✞✝✌✍✖✕✎
another. ◆✝✕✛✓✠✠✔
Normally ✝✙✙✒✕
occur ✡✞ in ✓✕✡✚
arid ✙✠✡✛✓✌✖✑✎
climates.
Batholith ✆: A✺ ✠✓✕☞✖
❱✩✄✼✂✽✁✄✼ large ✛✓✑✑
mass ✝✗
of ✑✒✯✑✒✕✗✓✙✖
subsurface ✣✜✧✤❀s✣✢❡
intrusive ✣❩✜❡✥❀s rock ✌✍✓✌
igneous ✤✥❬❭ that ✍✓✑
has ✡✌✑
its ✝✕✡☞✡✞✑
origins
✗✕✝✛
from ✦❇✜✧❈❡
mantle ✦❇❩✦❇✎
magma.
❱✁❪ Bang ✆: ❚✍✖✝✕✔
Big ❱✩✾❪ Theory ✓✯✝✒✌
about ✌✍✖the ✝✕✡☞✡✞
origin ✝✗of ✒✞✡☛✖✕✑✖✎
universe. ■✌ It ✑✒☞☞✖✑✌✑
suggests ✌✍✓✌
that ✓✯✝✒✌
about ✷❁15 ✯✡✠✠✡✝✞
billion
✔✖✓✕✑
years ✓☞✝
ago ✓✠✠
all ✝✗
of ✌✍✖
the ✛✓✌✌✖✕
matter ✓✞✚ and ✖✞✖✕☞✔
energy ✡✞ in ✌✍✖
the ❫✜✣✢❡✤s❡ was ✙✝✞✙✖✞✌✕✓✌✖✚
Universe ✇✓✑ concentrated ✡✞✌✝ into ✓✞
an
✓✕✖✓
area ✑✛✓✠✠✖✕
smaller ✌✍✓✞
than ✓✞an ✓✌✝✛✎
atom. At ✺✌ ✌✍✡✑
this ✡✞✑✌✓✞✌✲
instant, ✛✓✌✌✖✕✲
matter, ✖✞✖✕☞✔✲
energy, ✑✘✓✙✖
space ✓✞✚and ✌✡✛✖
time ✇✖✕✖
were
✞✝✌
not ✖✳✡✑✌✓✞✌✎ Then ✑✒✚✚✖✞✠✔
existant. ❚✍✖✞ suddenly ✇✡✌✍ with ✓ bang, ✌✍✖
a ✯✓✞☞✲ the ✏✞✡☛✖✕✑✖ began ✌✝
Universe ✯✖☞✓✞ to ✖✳✘✓✞✚
expand ✓✌ at ✓✞
an
✡✞✙✕✖✚✡✯✠✖
incredible ✕✓✌✖
rate ✓✞✚
and ✛✓✌✌✖✕✲
matter, ✖✞✖✕☞✔✲
energy, ✑✘✓✙✖
space ✓✞✚and ✌✡✛✖
time ✙✓✛✖
came ✡✞✌✝
into ✯✖✡✞☞✎
being. As✺✑ ✌✍✖
the ✏✞✡☛✖✕✑✖
Universe
✖✳✘✓✞✚✖✚✲
expanded, ✛✓✌✌✖✕ began ✌✝
matter ✯✖☞✓✞ to ✙✝✓✠✖✑✙✖
coalesce ✡✞✌✝into ☞✓✑
gas ✙✠✝✒✚✑✲
clouds, ✓✞✚
and ✌✍✖✞
then ✑✌✓✕✑
stars ✓✞✚
and ✘✠✓✞✖✌✑✎
planets.
Some ✑✙✡✖✞✌✡✑✌✑
❯✝✛✖ believe ✌✍✓✌
scientists ✯✖✠✡✖☛✖ that ✌✍✡✑
this ✖✳✘✓✞✑✡✝✞
expansion ✡✑ is ✗✡✞✡✌✖
finite ✓✞✚ will ✝✞✖
and ✇✡✠✠ one ✚✓✔
day ✙✖✓✑✖✎ ✺✗✌✖✕
cease. After
✌✍✡✑
this ✘✝✡✞✌
point ✡✞
in ✌✡✛✖✲
time, ✌✍✖
the ✏✞✡☛✖✕✑✖
Universe ✇✡✠✠ begin ✌✝
will ✯✖☞✡✞ to ✙✝✠✠✓✘✑✖
collapse ✒✞✌✡✠
until ✓ a ❴✣❩
Big ❵✤❀✜❬❊
Crunch ✝✙✙✒✕✑✎
occurs.
Biodiversity ✆: ❚✍✖
❱✁✂★✁❞✭✸✬✁✄❢ diversity ✝✗
The ❘✣✢❡✤s✣✧❣ of ✚✡✗✗✖✕✖✞✌
different ✑✘✖✙✡✖✑
species ✰s❋❡❬✣❡s diversity), ☞✖✞✖✌✡✙
(species ❘✣✢❡✤s✣✧❣❧✲ ☛✓✕✡✓✯✡✠✡✌✔
genetic variability
✓✛✝✞☞ ✡✞✚✡☛✡✚✒✓✠✑ ✇✡✌✍✡✞ ✖✓✙✍ ✑✘✖✙✡✖✑ ✰❩❡✜❡✧✣❬ ❘✣✢❡✤s✣✧❣❧✲ ✓✞✚ ☛✓✕✡✖✌✔ ✝✗
among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), and variety of ecosystems✖✙✝✑✔✑✌✖✛✑
✰❡❬✥s❣s✧❡✦
(ecosystem ❘✣✢❡✤s✣✧❣❧✎
diversity).
Biomass ✆: ❚✍✖
❱✁✂●✩✬✬ weight ✝✗
The ✇✖✡☞✍✌ of ✠✡☛✡✞☞
living ✌✡✑✑✒✖✑
tissues ✒✑✒✓✠✠✔
usually ✛✖✓✑✒✕✖✚
measured ✘✖✕ per ✒✞✡✌
unit ✓✕✖✓
area ✝☛✖✕
over ✓ a
✶✑✒
142 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

♣✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✓✔
particular ✕✖✚✛ time ✖✜✕✛✔✢✓✙✣
interval. ✥✓✜ Can ✖✜✗✙✘✤✛
include ✕✦✛ the ✤✛✓✤
dead ♣✓✔✕✧parts ★✩ of ★✔❣✓✜✖✧✚✧
organisms ✙✖✪✛ like ✫✓✔✪✬
bark, ✦✓✖✔✬hair,
✓✜✤ ✜✓✖✙✧✣
and nails.
❇✭✮✯✰
Biome ✱: ▲✓✔❣✛✧✕
Largest ✔✛✗★❣✜✖✧✓✫✙✛
recognisable ✓✧✧✛✚✫✙✓❣✛assemblage ★✩ of ❛✲✳✴❛✵✷
animals ✓✜✤ ✸✵❛✲✹✷ ★✜
and plants on ✕✦✛the ✺✓✔✕✦✣
Earth. The ✻✦✛
✤✖✧✕✔✖✫✘✕✖★✜
distribution ★✩ of ✕✦✛
the ✫✖★✚✛✧
biomes ✖✧ is ✗★✜✕✔★✙✙✛✤
controlled ✚✓✖✜✙❞ mainly ✫❞ by ✗✙✖✚✓✕✛✣
climate.
❈✼✽✾✭✿✭✾✼❀✭✮❁
Calcification ✱: A❂ ✤✔❞ dry ✛✜✢✖✔★✜✚✛✜✕
environment ✧★✖✙❃✩★✔✚✖✜❣ soil-forming ♣✔★✗✛✧✧ process ✕✦✓✕ that ✔✛✧✘✙✕✧
results ✖✜ in ✕✦✛
the
✓✗✗✘✚✘✙✓✕✖★✜
accumulation ★✩ of ❝❛✵❝✳❄✴
calcium ❝❛❅❆❉✲❛✹❊
carbonate ✖✜ in ✧✘✔✩✓✗✛
surface ✷❉✳✵ soil ✙✓❞✛✔✧✣
layers.
❈✼✽●✰❍✼ ■✮✽✾✼❁✮ ✱: ✺①♣✙★✧✖✢✛
Caldera Volcano Explosive ✕❞♣✛ type ★✩ of ✈❉✵❝❛✲❉
volcano ✕✦✓✕ that ✙✛✓✢✛✧
leaves ✓ a ✙✓✔❣✛
large ✗✖✔✗✘✙✓✔
circular ✤✛♣✔✛✧✧✖★✜✣
depression.
❙★✚✛ ★✩ ✕✦✛✧✛ ✤✛♣✔✛✧✧✖★✜✧ ✗✓✜ ✫✛ ✓✧ ✙✓✔❣✛
Some of these depressions can be as large as 40 km in diameter. These ✓✧ ❏❑ ✪✚ ✖✜ ✤✖✓✚✛✕✛✔✣ ✻✦✛✧✛ volcanoes
✢★✙✗✓✜★✛✧
✩★✔✚ ❢✦✛✜ ❢✛✕ ▼❅❛✲✳✹✳❝ ✴❛▼✴❛ q✘✖✗✪✙❞ ✔✖✧✛✧
form when wet granitic magma quickly rises to the surface of the Earth. ✕★ ✕✦✛ ✧✘✔✩✓✗✛ ★✩ ✕✦✛ ✺✓✔✕✦✣
❈◆✽✮❍✮✿✽❖✮❍✮✾✼❍P✮❁◗
Chlorofluorocarbons ❘❈❚❈◗❯ (CFCs) ✱: ❱✧ Is ✓✜ an ✓✔✕✖✩✖✗✖✓✙✙❞
artificially ✗✔✛✓✕✛✤ created ❣✓✧ gas ✕✦✓✕
that ✦✓✧ has ✫✛✗★✚✛
become
✗★✜✗✛✜✕✔✓✕✛✤
concentrated ✖✜ in ✕✦✛the ✺✓✔✕✦❲✧
Earth’s ❛✹✴❉✷✸❳❊❅❊✣
atmosphere. This ✻✦✖✧ very
✢✛✔❞ ✧✕✔★✜❣ ▼❅❊❊✲❳❉❄✷❊ ❣✓✧
strong greenhouse gas ✖✧ is ✔✛✙✛✓✧✛✤
released
✩✔★✚
from ✓✛✔★✧★✙
aerosol ✧♣✔✓❞✧✬
sprays, ✔✛✩✔✖❣✛✔✓✜✕✧✬
refrigerants, ✓✜✤ and ✕✦✛ the ♣✔★✤✘✗✕✖★✜
production ★✩ of ✩✘✚✛✧✣
fumes.
❈✭❍❍✮✾❖✯❖✽❖◗
Cirrocumulus ❈✽✮❖●◗ Clouds ✱: ❨✓✕✗✦❞ Patchy white ❢✦✖✕✛ ✦✖❣✦ high ✓✙✕✖✕✘✤✛
altitude ❝✵❉❄❩ cloud ✗★✚♣★✧✛✤
composed ★✩ of ✖✗✛
ice ✗✔❞✧✕✓✙✧✣
crystals.
❬★✘✜✤
Found ✖✜ in ✓✜an ✓✙✕✖✕✘✤✛
altitude ✔✓✜❣✛ range ✩✔★✚ from ❭✬❑❑❑5,000 - ❃ ❪❫✬❑❑❑
18,000 ✚✣ m.
❈✭❍❍✮◗❀❍✼❀❖◗
Cirrostratus ❈✽✮❖●◗ Clouds ✱: ❴✖❣✦ High ✓✙✕✖✕✘✤✛
altitude ✧✦✛✛✕ sheet ✙✖✪✛ like ❝✵❉❄❩✷
clouds ✗★✚♣★✧✛✤
composed ★✩ of ✖✗✛
ice ✗✔❞✧✕✓✙✧✣
crystals.
These thin clouds often cover the entire sky. Found in an altitude ✔✓✜❣✛
✻✦✛✧✛ ✕✦✖✜ ✗✙★✘✤✧ ★✩✕✛✜ ✗★✢✛✔ ✕✦✛ ✛✜✕✖✔✛ ✧✪❞✣ ❬★✘✜✤ ✖✜ ✓✜ ✓✙✕✖✕✘✤✛ range ✩✔★✚ from
❭✬❑❑❑
5,000 ❃- ❪❫✬❑❑❑
18,000 ✚✣ m.
❈✮✽●
Cold ❚❍✮❁❀
Front ✱: A❂ ✕✔✓✜✧✖✕✖★✜
transition ❵★✜✛ zone ✖✜ in ✕✦✛
the ❛✹✴❉✷✸❳❊❅❊
atmosphere where ❢✦✛✔✛ ✓✜ an ✓✤✢✓✜✗✖✜❣
advancing ✗★✙✤ cold ❛✳❅ air ✴❛✷✷
mass
✤✖✧♣✙✓✗✛✧
displaces ✓ ❢✓✔✚ ✓✖✔
a warm air ✚✓✧✧✣
mass.
❈✮❁❀✭❁✰❁❀✼✽
Continental ❈❍❖◗❀ Crust ✱: ❜❅❛✲✳✹✳❝
Granitic ♣★✔✕✖★✜portion ★✩ of ✕✦✛
the ✺✓✔✕✦❲✧
Earth’s ❝❅❄✷✹ crust ✕✦✓✕that ✚✓✪✛✧makes ✘♣ up ✕✦✛the
✗★✜✕✖✜✛✜✕✧✣ ✻✦✖✗✪✜✛✧✧ ★✩
continents. Thickness of ✕✦✛
the ✗★✜✕✖✜✛✜✕✓✙
continental ✗✔✘✧✕ ✢✓✔✖✛✧ ✫✛✕❢✛✛✜
crust varies between ❡❑ 20 ❃- ❤❭
75 ✪✚✣km. ❙✛✛ See ✷✳❛✵sial
✵❛❧❊❅✣
layer.
❈✮❍✭✮✽✭◗
Coriolis ❚✮❍✾✰ Force ✱: An ❂✜ ✓♣♣✓✔✛✜✕
apparent ✩★✔✗✛ force ✤✘✛ due ✕★ to ✕✦✛
the ✐❛❅✹❳❥✷
Earth’s ❅❉✹❛✹✳❉✲✣
rotation. ✥✓✘✧✛✧
Causes ✚★✢✖✜❣ moving
★✫♦✛✗✕✧
objects ✕★ to ✫✛be ✤✛✩✙✛✗✕✛✤
deflected ✕★ to ✕✦✛
the ✔✖❣✦✕
right ✖✜ in ✕✦✛
the ❦★✔✕✦✛✔✜
Northern ❴✛✚✖✧♣✦✛✔✛Hemisphere ✓✜✤ and ✕★ to ✕✦✛the ✙✛✩✕
left ✖✜
in
✕✦✛
the ❙★✘✕✦✛✔✜
Southern ✦✛✚✖✧♣✦✛✔✛✣
hemisphere. ✥★✔✖★✙✖✧ Coriolis ✩★✔✗✛ force ✤★✛✧
does ✜★✕ not ✛①✖✧✕
exist ★✜ on ✕✦✛the ✛q✘✓✕★✔✣
equator. This ✻✦✖✧ ✩★✔✗✛
force ✖✧ is
✔✛✧♣★✜✧✖✫✙✛
responsible ✩★✔ for ✕✦✛the ✤✖✔✛✗✕✖★✜
direction ★✩ of ✩✙★❢
flow ✖✜ in ✚✛✕✛★✔★✙★❣✖✗✓✙
meteorological ♣✦✛✜★✚✛✜✓ phenomena ✙✖✪✛ like ✴✳❩♠✵❛✹✳✹❄❩❊
mid-latitude
❝❧❝✵❉✲❊✷✬
cyclones, ❳❄❅❅✳❝❛✲❊✷✬
hurricanes, ✓✜✤ and ❛✲✹✳❝❧❝✵❉✲❊✷♥
anticyclones.
❈❖✯❖✽❖◗
Cumulus ❈✽✮❖● Cloud ✱: ▲✓✔❣✛ Large ❝✵❉❄❩✷
clouds with ❢✖✕✦ ✔✛✙✓✕✖✢✛✙❞
relatively ✩✙✓✕ flat ✫✓✧✛✧✣
bases. These ✻✦✛✧✛ ✓✔✛ are ✩★✘✜✤
found ✖✜ in ✓✜
an
✓✙✕✖✕✘✤✛ ✔✓✜❣✛ ✩✔★✚
altitude range from 300 - 2,000 m.r❑❑ ❃ ❡✬❑❑❑ ✚✣
❈❖✯❖✽✮❁✭✯P❖◗
Cumulonimbus ❈✽✮❖● Cloud ✱: A❂ well ❢✛✙✙ ✤✛✢✛✙★♣✛✤
developed vertical ✢✛✔✕✖✗✓✙ ❝✵❉❄❩ cloud ✕✦✓✕ that ★✩✕✛✜
often ✦✓✧ has ✕★♣ top ✧✦✓♣✛✤
shaped
✙✖✪✛
like ✓✜an ✓✜✢✖✙✣ ✻✦✛✧✛ ✗✙★✘✤✧
anvil. These clouds ✗✓✜ can ✛①✕✛✜✤
extend ✖✜ in ✓✙✕✖✕✘✤✛
altitude ✩✔★✚ from ✓ a ✩✛❢
few ✦✘✜✤✔✛✤
hundred ✚ m ✓✫★✢✛
above
✕✦✛
the ✧✘✔✩✓✗✛
surface ✕★ to ✚★✔✛
more ✕✦✓✜ than ❪❡✬❑❑❑
12,000 ✚✣ m.

s✰◗✰❍❀
Desert t✼✉✰✯✰❁❀
Pavement ✱: A❂ veneer ✢✛✜✛✛✔ ★✩ of ✗★✓✔✧✛
coarse ♣✓✔✕✖✗✙✛✧
particles ✙✛✩✕ left ★✜on ✕✦✛the ❣✔★✘✜✤
ground ✓✩✕✛✔ after ✕✦✛ the ❊❅❉✷✳❉✲
erosion
★✩
of ✩✖✜✛✔
finer ♣✓✔✕✖✗✙✛✧
particles ✫❞ by ✇✳✲❩✣
wind.
②✼❍❀◆③❖✼④✰
Earthquake ✱: A❂ ✧✘✤✤✛✜ sudden ✚★✕✖★✜motion ★✔ or ✧✦✓✪✖✜❣
shaking ✖✜ in ✕✦✛
the ✺✓✔✕✦✣
Earth. The ✻✦✛ ✚★✕✖★✜
motion ✖✧ is ✗✓✘✧✛✤
caused ✫❞ by
✕✦✛ q✘✖✗✪ ✔✛✙✛✓✧✛ ★✩ ✧✙★❢✙❞ ✓✗✗✘✚✘✙✓✕✛✤ ✛✜✛✔❣❞
the quick release of slowly accumulated energy in the form of seismic waves. ✖✜ ✕✦✛ ✩★✔✚ ★✩ ✷❊✳✷✴✳❝ ✇❛✈❊✷✣
②✼❍❀◆③❖✼④✰
Earthquake ❚✮✾❖◗ Focus ✱: ❨★✖✜✕ Point ★✩ of ✧✕✔✛✧✧
stress ✔✛✙✛✓✧✛
release ✖✜ in ✓✜ an ❊❛❅✹❳⑤❄❛⑥❊
earthquake ⑦✓✙✧★ (also ✪✜★❢✜ known ✓✧ as
✦❞♣★✗✛✜✕✔✛⑧✣
hypocentre).
②PP ⑨✭●✰ ✱: Time
Ebb Tide ✻✖✚✛ ✤✘✔✖✜❣during ✕✦✛ the ✹✳❩❛✵ ✸❊❅✳❉❩ when
tidal period ❢✦✛✜ ✕✦✛ the ✇❛✹❊❅
water ✙✛✢✛✙ level ✖✜in ✕✦✛
the ✧✛✓sea ✖✧ is ✩✓✙✙✖✜❣✣
falling.
②✾✮◗⑩◗❀✰✯
Ecosystem ✱: A❂ ✧❞✧✕✛✚ system ✗★✜✧✖✧✕✖✜❣
consisting ★✩ of ✫✖★✕✖✗
biotic ✓✜✤ and ✓✫✖★✕✖✗
abiotic ✗★✚♣★✜✛✜✕✧✣
components. ❶★✕✦ Both ✕✦✛✧✛ these
❣✔★✘♣✧
groups ✓✔✛ are ✖✜✕✛✔✔✛✙✓✕✛✤
interrelated ✓✜✤ and ✖✜✕✛✔✓✗✕✖✜❣✣
interacting.
②✽
El ❷✭❁✮
Nino ✱: The✻✦✛ ✜✓✚✛
name ❣✖✢✛✜ given ✕★ to ✕✦✛
the ★✗✗✓✧✖★✜✓✙
occasional ✤✛✢✛✙★♣✚✛✜✕
development ★✩ ❢✓✔✚ ★✗✛✓✜
of warm ocean ✧✘✔✩✓✗✛
surface waters❢✓✕✛✔✧
✓✙★✜❣
along ✕✦✛the ✗★✓✧✕
coast ★✩ of ✺✗✘✓✤★✔
Ecuador ✓✜✤ and ❨✛✔✘✣
Peru. ❸✛✗✛✜✕✙❞
Recently ✕✦✖✧ this ♣✦✛✜★✚✛✜★✜
phenomenon ✦✓✧ has ✫✛✛✜been ✘✧✛✤ used ✩★✔ for
✩★✔✛✗✓✧✕✖✜❣
forecasting ★✩ of ✗✙✖✚✓✕✖✗
climatic ✗★✜✤✖✕✖★✜✧
conditions ✖✜ in ✤✖✩✩✛✔✛✜✕
different ♣✓✔✕✧
parts ★✩ of ✕✦✛ ❢★✔✙✤✣ The
the world. ✻✦✛ ✺✙ El ❦✖✜★
Nino ✜★✔✚✓✙✙❞
normally
★✗✗✘✔✧
occurs ✓✔★✘✜✤
around ✥✦✔✖✧✕✚✓✧
Christmas ✓✜✤ and ✙✓✧✕✧
lasts ✘✧✘✓✙✙❞
usually ✩★✔ for ✓ a ✩✛❢ ❢✛✛✪✧ ✕★
few weeks to ✓a ✩✛❢
few ✚★✜✕✦✧✣
months.
● ✁✂✂✄☎✆
GLOSSARY ✶✝✞
143

❊✟✠✡☛☞✌✍☛
Epicentre ✎: A❆ ✏✑✒✓✔
place ✕✖
on ✗✘✔
the ✙✚✛✜✒✓✔
surface ✕✜
of ✗✘✔
the ✔✒✛✗✘
earth ✑✕✓✒✗✔✢
located ✒✗
at ✗✘✔
the ✙✘✕✛✗✔✙✗
shortest ✢✣✙✗✒✖✓✔
distance
✜✛✕❢ ✗✘✔ ✜✕✓✚✙ ✕✜ ✗✘✔ ✔✒✛✗✘✤✚✒✥✔✦
from the focus of the earthquake, ✗✘✔
the ✏✕✣✖✗
point ✒✗
at which the seismic ✔✖✔✛★✩
✧✘✣✓✘ ✗✘✔ ✙✔✣✙❢✣✓ energy ★✔✗✙
gets
✛✔✑✔✒✙✔✢r
released.
✪✫✬✭✮✫ ✯✮✍♠✠☞✐ ✎: Warming
Global Warming ❲✒✛❢✣✖★ ✕✜
of ✗✘✔
the ✰✒✛✗✘✱✙
Earth’s ❛✲❡✳❛✴❡ ✴✵✷✸❛✵ ✹❡✺✻❡✳❛✹✼✳❡
average global ✽✔✓✒✚✙✔ ✕✜
temperature because of ✒✖
an
✣✖✓✛✔✒✙✔
increase ✣✖
in ✗✘✔
the ✓✕✖✓✔✖✗✛✒✗✣✕✖
concentration ✕✜ ✴✳❡❡❣✾✷✼✿❡ gases.
of greenhouse ✴❛✿❡✿r
✪☛✬♠✮✐☞☛✌✠❀♠
Geomagnetism ✎: A❆ ✏✛✕✏✔✛✗✩
property ✕✜ magnetically ✙✚✙✓✔✏✗✣✽✑✔
of ❢✒★✖✔✗✣✓✒✑✑✩ minerals ✗✕
susceptible ❢✣✖✔✛✒✑✙ get ✒✑✣★✖✔✢
to ★✔✗ aligned ✗✕
to
✗✘✔
the ✔✒✛✗✘✱✙ magnetic ✜✣✔✑✢
earth’s ❢✒★✖✔✗✣✓ field ✢✚✛✣✖★
during ✗✘✔
the ✏✔✛✣✕✢
period ✕✜
of ✛✕✓✥
rock ✜✕✛❢✒✗✣✕✖r
formation.
✪☛✬❀✌✍✬✟❁✠✡ ✯✠☞❂ ✎: ❍✕✛✣❃✕✖✗✒✑
Geostrophic Wind ✧✣✖✢ ✣✖
Horizontal wind in ✗✘✔
the ✚✏✏✔✛
upper ✒✗❢✕✙✏✘✔✛✔
atmosphere ✗✘✒✗
that ❢✕❄✔✙
moves ✏✒✛✒✑✑✔✑
parallel
✗✕ ❅✿✷✸❛✳✿r ❇✔✙✚✑✗✙ ✜✛✕❢ ✒ ✽✒✑✒✖✓✔ ✽✔✗✧✔✔✖ ✻✳❡✿✿✼✳❡ ✴✳❛♣❅❡❣✹ force
to isobars. Results from a balance between pressure gradient ❈✷✳❉❡ ✒✖✢
and ❋✷✳❅✷✵❅✿
Coriolis
❈✷✳❉❡■
force.
✪✍☛☛☞❁✬❏❀☛
Greenhouse ❊❑❑☛✡✌
Effect ✎: The
▲✘✔ ★✛✔✔✖✘✕✚✙✔
greenhouse ✔✜✜✔✓✗
effect ✓✒✚✙✔✙
causes ✗✘✔
the ❛✹✺✷✿✻✾❡✳❡
atmosphere ✗✕
to ✗✛✒✏
trap ❢✕✛✔
more
✘✔✒✗
heat ✔✖✔✛★✩
energy ✒✗
at ✗✘✔
the ✰✒✛✗✘✱✙
Earth’s ✙✚✛✜✒✓✔
surface ✒✖✢ ✧✣✗✘✣✖ ✗✘✔
and within the ✒✗❢✕✙✏✘✔✛✔ ✽✩ ✒✽✙✕✛✽✣✖★
atmosphere by absorbing ✒✖✢
and
✛✔▼✔❢✣✗✗✣✖★
re-emitting ✑✕✖★✧✒❄✔
longwave ✔✖✔✛★✩r
energy.
✪✍☛☛☞❁✬❏❀☛
Greenhouse ✪✮❀☛❀Gases ✎: ◆✒✙✔✙
Gases ✛✔✙✏✕✖✙✣✽✑✔
responsible ✜✕✛for ✗✘✔ ✴✳❡❡❣✾✷✼✿❡ ❡❈❈❡❉✹r
the greenhouse ▲✘✔✙✔ ★✒✙✔✙
effect. These gases
✣✖✓✑✚✢✔❖
include: ❉❛✳✸✷❣
carbon ♣❅✷❝❅♣❡
dioxide P◗❘
(CO,);
❙ ❚❯ ✺❡✹✾❛❣❡
methane P◗❍
(CH,);
❱ ❚❯ ❣❅✹✳✷✼✿
nitrous ✷❝❅♣❡
oxide P❳ ❘❚❯
(N,O);
❙ ❉✾✵✷✳✷❈✵✼✷✳✷❉❛✳✸✷❣✿
chlorofluorocarbons
P◗❨◗❚❯
(CFC); ✒✖✢
and ✹✳✷✻✷✿✻✾❡✳❅❉
tropospheric ✷t✷❣❡
ozone P❘ ❩❚r
(O,).

❬✮✭✠✌✮✌
Habitat ✎: ❭✕✓✒✗✣✕✖ ✧✘✔✛✔ ✒
Location where ✻✵❛❣✹ ✕✛
a plant or ❛❣❅✺❛✵
animal ✑✣❄✔✙r
lives.
❬✮✠✫
Hail ✎: ❪✗
It ✣✙
is ✒
a ✗✩✏✔
type ✕✜
of ✏✛✔✓✣✏✣✗✒✗✣✕✖
precipitation ✛✔✓✔✣❄✔✢
received ✣✖
in ✗✘✔
the ✜✕✛❢
form ✕✜
of ✣✓✔
ice ✏✔✑✑✔✗✙
pellets ✕✛
or ✘✒✣✑
hail ✙✗✕✖✔✙r
stones.
▲✘✔ ✙✣❃✔
The size ✕✜
of ✘✒✣✑✙✗✕✖✔✙
hailstones ✓✒✖ ✽✔ between
can be ✽✔✗✧✔✔✖ ❫5 ✒✖✢
and ❴❵❜ mm ✣✖
190 ❢❢ in ✢✣✒❢✔✗✔✛r
diameter.
❬✮✫✬✡✫✠☞☛
Halocline ✎: The
▲✘✔ ✢✣✖✙✗✣✖✓✗
dinstinct ❃✕✖✔
zone ✣✖
in ✗✘✔
the ✕✓✔✒✖ ✽✔✑✕✧ which
ocean below ✧✘✣✓✘ ✗✘✔
the ✙✒✑✣✖✣✗✩
salinity ✣✖✓✛✔✒✙✔✙
increases
✙✘✒✛✏✑✩r
sharply.
❬❞❂✍✮✌✠✬☞
Hydration ✎: A❆ ✜✕✛❢
form ✕✜
of ❉✾❡✺❅❉❛✵
chemical ❤❡❛✹✾❡✳❅❣✴
weathering ✗✘✒✗
that ✣✖❄✕✑❄✔✙
involves ✗✘✔
the ✛✣★✣✢
rigid ✒✗✗✒✓✘❢✔✖✗
attachment ✕✜
of ❍❥
H+
✒✖✢ ❘❍❦ ❅✷❣✿ ✗✕ ✗✘✔ ❛✹✷✺✿ ✒✖✢ ✺✷✵❡❉✼✵❡✿ ✕✜ ✒ ✺❅❣❡✳❛✵r
and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.
❬❞❂✍✬✫❞❀✠❀
Hydrolysis ✎: ❋✾❡✺❅❉❛✵
Chemical ❤❡❛✹✾❡✳❅❣✴
weathering ✏✛✕✓✔✙✙
process ✗✘✒✗
that ✣✖❄✕✑❄✔✙
involves ✗✘✔
the ✛✔✒✓✗✣✕✖ ✽✔✗✧✔✔✖ ✺❅❣❡✳❛✵
reaction between mineral
✣✕✖✙
ions ✒✖✢
and ✗✘✔
the ✣✕✖✙
ions ✕✜ ✧✒✗✔✛ P❘❍▼
of water (OH- ✒✖✢
and ❍❥❚✦
H+), ✒✖✢
and ✛✔✙✚✑✗✙
results ✣✖
in ✗✘✔
the ✢✔✓✕❢✏✕✙✣✗✣✕✖
decomposition ✕✜
of ✗✘✔
the
✳✷❉❧
rock ✙✚✛✜✒✓✔
surface ✽✩
by ✜✕✛❢✣✖★
forming ✖✔✧
new ✓✕❢✏✕✚✖✢✙r
compounds.
♥☞❑✠✫✌✍✮✌✠✬☞
Infiltration ✎: A❆ ✏✕✛✗✣✕✖
portion ✕✜
of ✗✘✔
the ✏✛✔✓✣✏✣✗✒✗✣✕✖ ✧✘✣✓✘ ✛✔✒✓✘✔✙
precipitation which reaches ✗✘✔
the ✔✒✛✗✘
earth ✙✚✛✜✒✓✔
surface ✙✔✔✏✙
seeps
✣✖✗✕
into ✗✘✔ ground ✣✖
the ★✛✕✚✖✢ in ✗✘✔
the ✏✔✛❢✔✒✽✑✔
permeable ✙✗✛✒✗✒r ▲✘✣✙ ✏✛✕✓✔✙✙
strata. This process ✣✙ known ✒✙
is ✥✖✕✧✖ as ✣✖✜✣✑✗✛✒✗✣✕✖r
infiltration.
♥☞❀✬✫✮✌✠✬☞
Insolation ✎: ❪✖✓✕❢✣✖★
Incoming ✙✕✑✒✛
solar ✛✒✢✣✒✗✣✕✖
radiation ✣✖
in ✙✘✕✛✗ ✧✒❄✔ ✜✕✛❢r
short wave form.
♥☞✌☛✍ ♦✍✬✟✠✡✮✫ q✬☞s☛✍✐☛☞✡☛
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone ✉✬☞☛ ✈♥♦q✉✇
(ITCZ) ✎: ①✕✖✔
Zone ✕✜
of ✵✷❤
low ❛✹✺✷✿✻✾❡✳❅❉ ✻✳❡✿✿✼✳❡ ✒✖✢
atmospheric pressure and
✒✙✓✔✖✢✣✖★
ascending ✒✣✛
air ✑✕✓✒✗✔✢
located ✒✗
at ✕✛
or ✖✔✒✛
near ✗✘✔
the ✔✤✚✒✗✕✛r
equator. ❇✣✙✣✖★
Rising ✒✣✛
air ✓✚✛✛✔✖✗✙
currents ✒✛✔
are ✢✚✔
due ✗✕
to ★✑✕✽✒✑
global
✧✣✖✢ ❉✷❣✲❡✳✴❡❣❉❡
wind convergence ✒✖✢
and ❉✷❣✲❡❉✹❅✷❣
convection ✜✛✕❢
from ✗✘✔✛❢✒✑
thermal ✘✔✒✗✣✖★r
heating.
②✮✌✮✭✮✌✠✡ ✯✠☞❂ ✎: Any
Katabatic Wind ❆✖✩ ❤❅❣♣ ✽✑✕✧✣✖★ ✢✕✧✖
wind blowing down ✗✘✔
the ✙✑✕✏✔
slope ✕✜
of ✒
a ❢✕✚✖✗✒✣✖r
mountain.
③✮☞❂
Land ④✍☛☛⑤☛
Breeze ✎: ❭✕✓✒✑
Local ✹✾❡✳✺❛✵
thermal ❉❅✳❉✼✵❛✹❅✷❣
circulation ✏✒✗✗✔✛✖
pattern ✜✕✚✖✢
found ✒✗
at ✗✘✔
the ✣✖✗✔✛✜✒✓✔ ✽✔✗✧✔✔✖ ✑✒✖✢
interface between land
✒✖✢ ✧✒✗✔✛r ❪✖
and water. In ✗✘✣✙
this ✓✣✛✓✚✑✒✗✣✕✖
circulation ✙✩✙✗✔❢✦
system, ✙✚✛✜✒✓✔ ✽✑✕✧ ✜✛✕❢
✧✣✖✢✙ blow
surface winds from ✑✒✖✢
land ✗✕ ✧✒✗✔✛ ✢✚✛✣✖★
to water during
✗✘✔
the ✖✣★✘✗r
night.
③✮
La ⑥✠☞✮
Nina ✎: ◗✕✖✢✣✗✣✕✖
Condition ✕✏✏✕✙✣✗✔
opposite ✕✜of ✒✖
an ⑦✵
El ⑧❅❣✷r
Nino. ❪✖
In ✒a ❭✒
La ❳✣✖✒✦
Nina, ✗✘✔
the ✗✛✕✏✣✓✒✑
tropical ⑨✒✓✣✜✣✓
Pacific ✹✳❛♣❡
trade
❤❅❣♣✿ ✽✔✓✕❢✔ very
winds become ❄✔✛✩ ✙✗✛✕✖★
strong ✒✖✢
and ✒✖
an ✒✽✖✕✛❢✒✑
abnormal ✒✓✓✚❢✚✑✒✗✣✕✖
accumulation ✕✜of ✓✕✑✢ ✧✒✗✔✛ ✕✓✓✚✛✙
cold water occurs ✣✖in
✗✘✔
the ✓✔✖✗✛✒✑
central ✒✖✢
and ✔✒✙✗✔✛✖
eastern ⑨✒✓✣✜✣✓
Pacific ❘✓✔✒✖r
Ocean.
③✮✌☛☞✌
Latent ❬☛✮✌
Heat ✎: ❪✗
It ✣✙
is ✗✘✔
the ✔✖✔✛★✩
energy ✛✔✤✚✣✛✔✢
required ✗✕to ✓✘✒✖★✔
change ✒ a ✙✚✽✙✗✒✖✓✔
substance ✗✕
to ✒
a ✘✣★✘✔✛
higher ✙✗✒✗✔
state ✕✜
of
matter P✙✕✑✣✢
❢✒✗✗✔✛ (solid ⑩
> ✑✣✤✚✣✢
liquid ⑩> ★✒✙❚r ▲✘✣✙ ✙✒❢✔
gas). This same ✔✖✔✛★✩
energy ✣✙is ✛✔✑✔✒✙✔✢
released ✜✛✕❢
from ✗✘✔
the ✙✚✽✙✗✒✖✓✔
substance
✧✘✔✖ ✗✘✔
when the ✓✘✒✖★✔
change ✕✜of ✙✗✒✗✔
state ✣✙
is ✛✔❄✔✛✙✔✢
reversed P★✒✙
(gas ⑩
> ✑✣✤✚✣✢
liquid ⑩ > ✙✕✑✣✢❚r
solid).
⑥☛✮✟
Neap ♦✠❂☛
Tide ✎: ❶❅♣❡
Tide ✗✘✒✗
that ✕✓✓✚✛✙
occurs ✔❄✔✛✩
every ❴❷14 ▼- ❴❫
15 ✢✒✩✙
days ✒✖✢
and ✓✕✣✖✓✣✢✔✙ ✧✣✗✘ ✗✘✔
coincides with the ✜✣✛✙✗
first ✒✖✢
and
✑✒✙✗ quarter ✕✜
last ✤✚✒✛✗✔✛ of ✗✘✔ moon. ▲✘✣✙
the ❢✕✕✖r This ✗✣✢✔
tide ✘✒✙
has ✒a ✙❢✒✑✑
small ✗✣✢✒✑
tidal ✛✒✖★✔
range ✽✔✓✒✚✙✔
because ✗✘✔ ✴✳❛✲❅✹❛✹❅✷❣❛✵
the gravitational
✜✕✛✓✔✙
forces ✕✜
of ✗✘✔ moon ✒✖✢
the ❢✕✕✖ and ✙✚✖
sun ✒✛✔
are ✏✔✛✏✔✖✢✣✓✚✑✒✛
perpendicular ✗✕ to ✔✒✓✘
each ✕✗✘✔✛r
other.
✶✑✑
144 ❋FUNDAMENTALS
✁✂✄☎✆✁✝✄✞✟ ✠❋
OF ✡☛☞✟✌✍✄✞
PHYSICAL ✎✆✠✎✏✄✡☛☞
GEOGRAPHY

◆✒✓✔✕✖✗✘✙✗✚✖
Nimbostratus ✛✜✕✚✢✖
Clouds ✣: ✥✤✦✧★
Dark, ✩✦✤✪
gray ✫✬✭
low ✤✫✮✯✮✰✱✲
altitude ❝✳✴✵✷
cloud ✮✸✤✮
that ✹✦✬✱✰✺✲✻
produces ✺✬✼✮✯✼✰✬✰✻
continuous
♣✽✾❝✿♣✿❀❁❀✿✴❂ ✯✼
precipitation in ✮✸✲
the ❃✬✦❄
form ✬❃
of ✦✤✯✼
rain ✬✦
or ✻✼✬✭❅
snow. ❆✬✰✼✱
Found ✯✼in ✤✼
an ✤✫✮✯✮✰✱✲
altitude ✦✤✼✩✲
range ❃✦✬❄
from ✮✸✲
the ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
surface
✮✬
to t★❇❇❇
3,000 ❄❅
m.
❖❈❈✜✚✢❉✢
Occluded ❊✘✕●✗ Front ✣: A❍ ✮✦✤✼✻✯✮✯✬✼
transition zone ■✬✼✲ ✯✼ in ✮✸✲the ❁❀❛✴❏♣❑✾✽✾
atmosphere where ✭✸✲✦✲ ✤✼ an ✤✱▲✤✼✺✯✼✩
advancing ✺✬✫✱ cold ❁✿✽air
❛❁❏❏
mass ✻✤✼✱✭✯✺✸✲✻
sandwiches ✤ ✭✤✦❄ ✤✯✦
a warm air ❄✤✻✻
mass between▼✲✮✭✲✲✼ ✤✼✬✮✸✲✦another ✺✬✫✱ cold ✤✯✦air ❄✤✻✻mass ✹✰✻✸✯✼✩
pushing ✮✸✲ the
✭✤✦❄ ✤✯✦
warm air ✯✼✮✬into ✮✸✲ the ✰✹✹✲✦
upper ✤✮❄✬✻✹✸✲✦✲❅
atmosphere.
❖P✕●❉
Ozone ✣: Tri-atomic
❚✦✯◗✤✮✬❄✯✺ ✬❘✪✩✲✼ oxygen ✮✸✤✮ that ✲❘✯✻✮✻
exists ✯✼ in ✮✸✲
the ✲✤✦✮✸❙✻
earth’s ❁❀❛✴❏♣❑✾✽✾
atmosphere ✤✻ as ✤ a ✩✤✻❅
gas. ❯■✬✼✲
Ozone ✯✻ is
✸✯✩✸✲✻✮
highest ✯✼ in ✺✬✼✺✲✼✮✦✤✮✯✬✼
concentration ✯✼ in ✮✸✲the ❏❀✽❁❀✴❏♣❑✾✽✾
stratosphere ❱❲❇◗❳❇ (10-50 ✧❄ km ✤▼✬▲✲
above ✮✸✲ the ✲✤✦✮✸❙✻
earth’s ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲❨
surface)
✭✸✲✦✲ ✯✮
where it ✤▼✻✬✦▼✻
absorbs ✮✸✲ the ✻✰✼❙✻
sun’s ✰✫✮✦✤▲✯✬✫✲✮
ultraviolet ✦✤✱✯✤✮✯✬✼❅
radiation. ✇✮✦✤✮✬✻✹✸✲✦✯✺
Stratospheric ✬■✬✼✲ ozone ✯✻ is ✹✦✬✱✰✺✲✱
produced
✼✤✮✰✦✤✫✫✪
naturally ✤✼✱ and ✸✲✫✹✻ helps ✮✬ to ✹✦✬✮✲✺✮
protect ✫✯❃✲ life ❃✦✬❄
from ✮✸✲ the ✸✤✦❄❃✰✫
harmful ✲❃❃✲✺✮✻
effects ✬❃ of ✻✬✫✤✦
solar ✰✫✮✦✤▲✯✬✫✲✮
ultraviolet
✦✤✱✯✤✮✯✬✼❅
radiation.
❖P✕●❉
Ozone ❩✕✜❉Hole ✣: ❬✮ It ✯✻
is ✤ a ✻✸✤✦✹
sharp ✻✲✤✻✬✼✤✫
seasonal ✱✲✺✦✲✤✻✲decrease ✯✼ in ✻✮✦✤✮✬✻✹✸✲✦✯✺
stratospheric ✬■✬✼✲ ozone ✺✬✼✺✲✼✮✦✤✮✯✬✼
concentration
✮✸✤✮
that ✬✺✺✰✦✻
occurs ✬▲✲✦ ❍✼✮✤✦✺✮✯✺✤ ✯✼
over Antarctica in ✮✸✲the ✻✹✦✯✼✩❅
spring. ❆✯✦✻✮ First ✱✲✮✲✺✮✲✱
detected ✯✼ in ✮✸✲the ✫✤✮✲late ❲❭❪❇✻★
1970s, ✮✸✲ the
✬■✬✼✲
ozone hole continues to appear as a result of complex chemical reaction ✯✼
✸✬✫✲ ✺✬✼✮✯✼✰✲✻ ✮✬ ✤✹✹✲✤✦ ✤✻ ✤ ✦✲✻✰✫✮ ✬❃ ✺✬❄✹✫✲❘ ✺✸✲❄✯✺✤✫ ✦✲✤✺✮✯✬✼ in ✮✸✲
the
✤✮❄✬✻✹✸✲✦✲
atmosphere ✮✸✤✮ that ✯✼▲✬✫▲✲✻
involves ❫❴❫❏❵ CFCs.
❜✙✜✙❉✕✓✙❞●❉✗✒✖✓
Palaeomagnetism ✣: The ❚✸✲ ✤✫✯✩✼❄✲✼✮
alignment ✯✼ in ✮✲✦❄✻
terms ✬❃ of ✯✼✺✫✯✼✤✮✯✬✼
inclination ❃✦✬❄ from ✸✬✦✯■✬✼
horizon ✤✺❡✰✯✦✲✱
acquired
▼✪ ❄✤✩✼✲✮✯✺✤✫✫✪
by magnetically ✻✰✻✺✲✹✮✯▼✫✲
susceptible ❄✯✼✲✦✤✫✻minerals ✯✼ in ✮✸✲
the ✦✬✺✧
rock ✱✰✦✯✼✩
during ✮✸✲ the ✹✲✦✯✬✱
period ✬❃ of ✮✸✲✯✦
their ❃✬✦❄✤✮✯✬✼❅
formation.
❜❢✕✗✕✖❣●✗❢❉✖✒✖
Photosynthesis ✣: ❬✮ It ✯✻
is ✮✸✲
the ✺✸✲❄✯✺✤✫
chemical ✹✦✬✺✲✻✻ process where ✭✸✲✦✲ plants
♣✳❁❂❀❏ ✤✼✱ and ✻✬❄✲ some ❤❁❝❀✾✽✿❁
bacteria ✺✤✼ can
✺✤✹✮✰✦✲
capture ✤✼✱and ✬✦✩✤✼✯✺✤✫✫✪
organically ❃✯❘ fix ✮✸✲
the ✲✼✲✦✩✪
energy ✬❃ of ✮✸✲
the ❏✵❂❅
sun.
❜✜✙✗❉
Plate ✐❉❈✗✕●✒❈✖
Tectonics ✣: Theory ❚✸✲✬✦✪ ✻✰✩✩✲✻✮✯✼✩
suggesting ✮✸✤✮ that ✮✸✲the ✲✤✦✮✸❙✻
earth’s ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
surface ✯✻ is ✺✬❄✹✬✻✲✱
composed ✬❃ of ✤ a
✼✰❄▼✲✦
number ✬❃ of ✴❝✾❁❂✿❝
oceanic ✤✼✱ and ❝✴❂❀✿❂✾❂❀❁✳
continental plates. ♣✳❁❀✾❏❅ ✥✦✯▲✲✼Driven by ▼✪ ✺✬✼▲✲✺✮✯✬✼
convection ✺✰✦✦✲✼✮✻ currents ✯✼ in ✮✸✲
the
❛❁❂❀✳✾★
mantle, ✮✸✲✻✲
these ✹✫✤✮✲✻ plates ✸✤▲✲ have ✮✸✲ the ✤▼✯✫✯✮✪
ability ✮✬ to ✻✫✬✭✫✪
slowly ❄✬▲✲move ✤✺✦✬✻✻
across ✮✸✲ the ✲✤✦✮✸❙✻
earth’s ✹✫✤✻✮✯✺
plastic
❁❏❀❑✾❂✴❏♣❑✾✽✾❅
asthenosphere.
❜✘❉❈✒❥✒✗✙✗✒✕●
Precipitation ✣: ✇✸✬✭✲✦✯✼✩ Showering ✬❃ of ✮✸✲
the ✦✤✯✼✱✦✬✹✻★
raindrops, ✻✼✬✭ snow ✬✦ or ✸✤✯✫✻✮✬✼✲✻
hailstones ❃✦✬❄ from ✮✸✲ the ✺✫✬✰✱✻
clouds
✬✼✮✬
onto ✮✸✲
the ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
surface ✬❃ of ✮✸✲
the ✲✤✦✮✸❅
earth. ♦✤✯✼❃✤✫✫★
Rainfall, ✻✼✬✭❃✤✫✫★
snowfall, ✺✫✬✰✱ ▼✰✦✻✮ ✤✼✱
cloud burst and ✸✤✯✫✻✮✬✼✲✻
hailstones ✤✦✲ are
❃✬✦❄✻
forms ✬❃ of ✹✦✲✺✯✹✯✮✤✮✯✬✼❅
precipitation.
❦✚●✕❧❧
Runoff ✣: ❬✮ It ✯✻is ✮✸✲
the ❃✫✬✭flow ✬❃ ✭✤✮✲✦ ✬▲✲✦
of water over ✫✤✼✱land ✮✸✦✬✰✩✸
through ✱✯❃❃✲✦✲✼✮
different ✺✸✤✼✼✲✫✻❅
channels.
♠✕✜✙✘ ♥✒●✢ ✣: q✤✻✻
Solar Wind Mass ✬❃ of ✯✬✼✯✻✲✱
ionised ✩✤✻ gas ✲❄✯✮✮✲✱
emitted ✮✬ to ✻✹✤✺✲
space by ▼✪ ✮✸✲
the ❏✵❂❅
sun. r✫✤✪✻Plays ✤ a ✦✬✫✲
role ✯✼ in ✮✸✲
the
❃✬✦❄✤✮✯✬✼
formation ✬❃ of ❁✵✽✴✽❁❏❅
auroras.
♠✚✔✖✚✘❧✙❈❉
Subsurface ❧✜✕s flow ✉: ❬✮ It ✯✻
is ✮✸✲
the ❄✬▲✲❄✲✼✮
movement ✬❃ ✭✤✮✲✦ below
of water ▼✲✫✬✭ ✮✸✲ the ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
surface ✬❃ of ✮✸✲
the ✲✤✦✮✸❅ ❍❃✮✲✦
earth. After
✯✼❃✯✫✮✦✤✮✯✬✼★
infiltration, ✮✸✲ the ✻✰▼✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
subsurface water ✭✤✮✲✦ ✦✲✮✰✦✼✻
returns ✮✬ to ✮✸✲
the ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
surface ✮✸✦✬✰✩✸
through ✻✲✲✹✤✩✲ seepage ✯✼✮✬ into ✮✸✲the
✻✮✦✲✤❄✻
streams ✬✦ or ✲▲✲✼✮✰✤✫✫✪
eventually ✩✬✲✻ goes ✯✼✮✬into ✮✸✲ the ✬✺✲✤✼❅
ocean. The ❚✸✲ ✻✰▼✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
subsurface water ✭✤✮✲✦ ❃✫✬✭ flow ✯✻ is ✯✼❃✫✰✲✼✺✲✱
influenced
▼✪ ✫✤✼✱
by land ✻✫✬✹✲★
slope, ✦✤✯✼❃✤✫✫★
rainfall, ✯✼✮✲✼✻✯✮✪
intensity ✬❃ of ✩✦✬✰✼✱✭✤✮✲✦
groundwater ✲❘✮✦✤✺✮✯✬✼★
extraction, ✲✮✺❅ etc.
✐❢❉✘✓✕❈✜✒●❉
Thermocline ✣: ✈✬✰✼✱✤✦✪ Boundary ✯✼ in ✤ ▼✬✱✪ ✬❃
a body ✭✤✮✲✦ where
of water ✭✸✲✦✲ ✮✸✲ the ✩✦✲✤✮✲✻✮ ▲✲✦✮✯✺✤✫ ✺✸✤✼✩✲
greatest vertical change ✯✼ in
❀✾❛♣✾✽❁❀✵✽✾
temperature ✬✺✺✰✦✻❅ occurs. This ❚✸✯✻ boundary
▼✬✰✼✱✤✦✪ ✯✻ is ✰✻✰✤✫✫✪
usually ✮✸✲ the ✮✦✤✼✻✯✮✯✬✼
transition zone ■✬✼✲ between
▼✲✮✭✲✲✼ ✮✸✲ the ✫✤✪✲✦
layer
✬❃ ✭✤✦❄ water
of warm ✭✤✮✲✦ ✼✲✤✦ near ✮✸✲ the ✻✰✦❃✤✺✲
surface ✮✸✤✮ that ✯✻ is ❄✯❘✲✱
mixed ✤✼✱ and ✮✸✲the ✺✬✫✱
cold ✱✲✲✹
deep water✭✤✮✲✦ ✫✤✪✲✦❅
layer.