Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

An energy dissipation tribometer to evaluate friction in boundary

lubrication regime
Pranay Vinayak Likhar *, Adarsh Divakaran, Satish V. Kailas
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A "parallel pendulum tribometer" is designed and developed to conduct experiments at lower sliding speeds
Tribometer (boundary lubrication regime). At such low speeds, the stiffness of the actuators and load cells in tribometers
Boundary lubrication influence the contact stiffness. As a result, the experimental conditions at the contact get altered. The present
Energy dissipation
tribometer overcomes these stiffness related issues. The tribometer is a highly underdamped system which results
Friction measurement
in a high resolution in the boundary lubrication regime. The energy dissipated at the contact is used to determine
the frictional force. Experiments were conducted using two model lubricants, Hexadecane (HD) and
Hexadecane+1%Stearic Acid (HDSA). HDSA was found to be more effective in reducing friction at lower sliding
velocities when compared to HD.

1. Introduction to have high stiffness.

There are several methods to evaluate the performance of a lubricant
under given operating conditions. Despite this, lubricants do not
perform up to the mark when put in actual use. This leads to lower
component life and higher maintenance/replacement costs. This is pri­
marily due to the failure of liquid lubricants in the boundary lubrication
regime of the Stribeck curve [1,2]. Several mechanisms operate simul­
taneously in the boundary lubrication regime, contributing to the
resulting frictional force [3–6]. For a lubricant of a given viscosity, the
boundary lubrication regime of the Stribeck curve exists at higher con­
tact pressures and lower sliding velocities. In this regime, the liquid film
breaks down, and the asperities of the two surfaces start contacting each
other, resulting in a higher value of the friction force.
In tribological studies at low sliding velocities, replicating the exact
contact conditions is a major challenge. The friction behaviour of tribo-
systems depends on the contact configuration and interfacial conditions
[7,8]. Contact stiffness is critical at lower sliding velocities and dictates
the frictional response [9–11]. In many spring-loaded contacts, it is seen
that there exists an optimum stiffness at which minimum wear happens
[12]. Additionally, the overall stiffness of the machine influences
deformation at the interface before actual sliding starts at the interface
[13]. In this regard, the positioning of the sensor becomes extremely
important as the elastic deformation at the interface can easily be
mistaken as relative motion [14,15]. Thus machine should be designed
Additionally, the contact stiffness is altered when load cell/actuators
are integrated into the system. Load cell/actuator changes the system’s
characteristics (stiffness, damping) and influences contact stiffness of
the tribo-system. This changes the nature of the asperity interactions,
resulting in a different frictional response. Therefore, the change in
contact stiffness due to the addition of load cells affects the frictional
response and should be considered during the design stage of the tribo-
system. Especially at low sliding velocities, the stick-slip phenomenon
can be highly predominant, and it is greatly influenced by the system’s
deformation behaviour and tribological parameters [16–18]. The con­
ditions of low sliding velocity are common in many contacts. Some
familiar examples are the contacts with intermittent start and stop and
the contacts with direction reversal [19]. In both cases, the velocity at
the interface goes through a zero value.
Various researchers have used the Spring-mass system (Harmonic
oscillator) to study friction at low sliding velocities. For example, a
spring-mass system has been used to determine the Coulomb and viscous
components of friction [20]. Several other configurations of harmonic
oscillators are used to study friction under dry and lubricated conditions.
E.g. Friction Measuring Machine (FMM) was designed to conduct ex­
periments at lower sliding velocities. The coefficient of friction is
calculated by measuring the energy lost during the sliding [21]. If there
is considerable damping present in the system, it poses difficulty to
differentiate between the dissipation due to the frictional force and the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pranaylikhar@iisc.ac.in (P.V. Likhar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2022.107548
Received 13 December 2021; Received in revised form 21 March 2022; Accepted 22 March 2022
Available online 26 March 2022
0301-679X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.V. Likhar et al. Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of a force-controlled tribo-system (a) Constant normal load, (b) Normal load can be varied by adding mass M (changes the inertial
force) and (c) Normal load can be varied by compressing the springs (inertial force of the system remains constant).

viscous forces present in the system. Moreover, a higher system damping

reduces the number of oscillations, reducing the resolution in terms of
the number of cycles.
Similar energy-based tribometers have been used for various tribo­
logical studies. E.g., a simple pendulum setup has been used to study the
friction in articular cartilages and rat knee joints [22,23]. A relaxation
tribometer has been used to derive friction laws in boundary lubricated
contacts [22,24,25]. A hip joint simulator has been used to determine
friction in orthopaedic implant interfaces [26]. In such tribo-systems,
the frictional damping influences the motion of the mass and the num­
ber of oscillations taken to reach the equilibrium position reduces.
Therefore, observing this motion of the mass gives us an indication of the
nature of friction. The frictional force is determined by applying laws of
mechanics to this moving mass. Hence the frictional force is determined
indirectly without the use of load cells. In such cases, the measurement
Fig. 2. Parallel pendulum setup schematic (a) Equilibrium configuration, (b)
error is minimised for accurate friction estimation using non-contact displaced configuration.
sensors [27].
Such tribo-systems can be schematically represented by a simple
2. Design of parallel pendulum setup
spring-mass-damper system, as shown in Fig. 1.
A look at the configuration of different elements in tribo-systems,
2.1. Overall view of machine and tribo-system
Fig. 1(a) and (b), draws the following conclusions:
The test setup consists of two parallel pendulums mounted on two
• Increasing the system’s mass increases the contact pressures at the
different shafts. Both the pendulums are free to swing independently
interface. This leads to a higher frictional force and hence higher
about these two parallel axes (Fig. 2). The contact configuration in the
energy dissipation in each cycle. This higher energy dissipation re­
experiment is a ball-on-flat contact. A flat is mounted on pendulum 1,
sults in fewer oscillations and fewer peaks, leading to a lower number
and a ball is mounted on pendulum 2. The normal load is applied at the
of data points in an experiment.
contact with the help of extension springs. When pendulums are
• The initial energy stored in the system depends on the spring’s
released from a certain angle, there is a relative motion between the ball
extension/compression, which is a drawback while experimenting at
and the flat interface. This motion is a combined rolling and sliding
lower amplitudes. As the oscillation amplitude is reduced, the energy
motion between the ball and the flat. The amplitude of sliding and
stored in the system decreases. This reduced initial energy leads to
rolling at the interface is dictated by the pendulum offset and angle of
fewer cycles for lower sliding amplitudes.
release.
When pendulums are released from an angle, the potential energy in
The dependence of normal load on the mass is resolved by making
the system is converted into kinetic energy. Energy is dissipated due to
several design changes in the existing systems and developing new
the air drag and the friction at the rolling and the sliding interfaces. The
tribometers [28]. In such a tribo-system, the load can be varied inde­
average frictional force and the coefficient of friction are calculated by
pendent of the mass by having high stiffness in the vertical direction and
measuring the reduction in angle/energy in each cycle. The angular
allowing for the vertical adjustment of the base. This vertical positioning
position measurement is done with the help of a non-contact rotary
of the base allows us to control the normal load at the contact. This kind
encoder. The encoder is mounted on the shaft of one of the pendulums. It
of tribo-systems can be represented schematically, as shown in Fig. 1(c).
measures the angular position of the pendulum as a function of time.
In these tribometers, the initial energy stored in the system depends on
Fig. 3 shows the schematic of the configuration of various elements
the deflection of the flexural member, and we cannot have a higher
in the designed tribo-system.
energy input for small amplitude.
Here, two masses are shown to be connected with the help of a spring
In the present work, a lateral force-controlled parallel pendulum
having a spring constant k1 (Fig. 3(a)). Initially, spring (k) is fully
tribometer has been designed and developed to determine the frictional
compressed, and the system is at rest. In the case of finite stiffness k1
behaviour of lubricated contacts at very low sliding velocities. The
between the blocks, the mass M will move and compresses the spring k1.
designed system also overcomes the actuator and sensor stiffness related
The mass m will start when the spring force due to k1 exceeds the
issues. The innovation of the tribometer lies in its design and instru­
friction force = µ2mg. Higher the value of stiffness k1, lower the dif­
mentation, which allows us to capture displacement with very high
ference in actual displacements of masses M and m. Therefore making
resolution and at a very high data acquisition rate. Moreover, the
the connections rigid gives accurate displacements at the interface
designed system is highly underdamped, resulting in many data points
(Fig. 3(b)). The stick-slip at the interface will depend upon the stiffness
in the boundary lubrication regime of the Stribeck curve.
k1. In this system, increasing mass M does not increase the normal load
at the sliding interface. Therefore increasing the mass increases the
potential energy without influencing the normal load.

2
P.V. Likhar et al. Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the designed force-controlled tribo-system.

2.3. Variable parameters

Various parameters that can be adjusted to conduct experiments are

as follows:
Sliding distance: The sliding distance at the interface is varied by
changing the pendulum offset and the release angle. The sliding distance
is zero at zero pendulum offset. Therefore having a smaller pendulum
offset for the same angle of release will give us a large number of os­
cillations at small sliding amplitudes.
Initial energy stored in the system: Initial energy stored in the
system can be varied by changing the pendulum’s mass or by changing
the initial release angle.
Normal load: Normal load at the contact is independent of the
system’s mass. The normal load is applied at the contact with the help of
extension springs and is varied by changing the spring stiffness and
spring extensions.
Frequency: The frequency of oscillations depends upon the location
centre of mass of the system relative to the axis of rotation. Frequency
can be changed by changing the lengths of the pendulums.

2.4. Structural details and instrumentation

Fig. 4. Parallel pendulum tribometer.

Fig. 4 shows the designed parallel pendulum tribometer. The ball-on-
flat contact and the normal load assembly are mounted on the lower
ends of the pendulums. The upper ends of pendulums are mounted on
2.2. Machine specifications
two different housings then mounted on the top plate of the machine. An
encoder is mounted on the shaft (axis of rotation) of one of the pendu­
In the parallel pendulum tribometer, the angular position of one of
lums, which measures the pendulum’s angular displacement as a func­
the pendulums is recorded with the help of a rotary encoder which has a
tion of time.
resolution of 0.79′′ (0.000219 degrees). The data is recorded at the data
acquisition rate of 100 kHz. Experiments are conducted under ambient
2.4.1. Contact configuration and sample mounting
conditions.
The ball is attached to one pendulum, and the flat is mounted on the
other pendulum. Fig. 4(d) shows the contact between the ball and the
flat samples mounted on the ball holder and flat holder. The normal load

Fig. 5. Ball on flat contact with normal load applied at contact.

3
P.V. Likhar et al.
Fig. 6. Schematic view of the machine for velocity calculation.
is applied once the contact is established between the ball and the flat.
2.4.2. Normal load assembly
The normal load is applied at the contact with the help of springs
(Fig. 4(d)). The spring-loading mechanism primarily consists of the
extension springs and the spring holders mounted on the horizontal rods
that hold the ball and flat samples. Extension springs are attached to the
spring slider mounted on the spring holder. The movement of the spring
slider is controlled using a lead screw. All the parts are mounted sym­
metrically in the normal load assembly.
Fig. 5 shows the schematic diagram of the normal load assembly. The
normal load at the contact is applied by stretching the springs (indicated
by numbers 4 and 5). These springs are attached to the spring sliders (3
and 10) mounted on the lead screws 1 and 12. As the lead screws are
rotated, the spring sliders translate and stretch the springs. This applies
the normal load at the ball-flat interface.
The horizontal rods holding the ball and flat holders and the normal
loading assembly are mounted on two pendulums with the help of
adaptors. Pendulum rods are connected to the pendulum shaft using
connectors. The pendulum shaft is then mounted on the housing with
the help of two ball bearings (Fig. 4(c)). Housings are mounted on the
top plate. The top plate has horizontal slots, which are used to change
the separation between two pendulums (Fig. 4(b)).
Similar to linear displacement, the relative rotation between the ball
and flat depends on the pendulum offset. Since both the pendulums are
constrained to move together, displacing one pendulum by an angle
θ1 (from vertical) results in a displacement of the second pendulum by a
different angle θ2 . The difference in the angular positions of the two
pendulums gives us the relative rotation between ball and flat.
2.4.3. Angular measurements and encoder mounting
Angular measurements are made with the help of a non-contact type
optical encoder. A rotary encoder, having a resolution of 0.79′′
(0.000219 degrees), is mounted on the pendulum shaft. Since the scale
at which the measurements are done is very small, the alignment of the
Fig. 7. Interpretation of Stribeck curve with the number of cycles.
4
Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548
read head relative to the scale becomes extremely important. The rotary
encoder records the angular position of one pendulum as a function of
time. By knowing the pendulum separation and other geometrical pa­
rameters, we can determine the angle of rotation of pendulum two and
sliding velocity at the ball-flat interface.
2.5. Determination of sliding velocity and friction from data
A schematic view of the mechanism is shown in Fig. 6. Points o and o′
are the respective points about which pendulum one and pendulum two
rotates. A flat sample is attached to one pendulum, and a ball is attached
to the second. Point P represents the point of contact between the ball
and flat in the stable or mean position of the pendulum setup (Fig. 6(a)).
The relationship of sliding distance and sliding velocity as a function of
angular position θ1 is determined by considering the vector diagram
shown in Fig. 6(b).
Displacing pendulum 1 by an angle θ1 creates relative sliding at the
ball-flat interface, and the point of contact P move to a different position
on the flat. In this configuration, the point of contact P is identified at the
coincident points p1 and p2, where p1 lies on the flat and p2 lies on the
ball. The position vector of the point of contact on the flat from point O is
̅̅→
OP1 . Similarly, the position vector of point of contact on ball from the
̅̅→
axis of rotation O′ is given by to O′ P2 . The velocity of point p1 is
̅̅→
̅̅→
perpendicular to OP1 and velocity of p2 is perpendicular to O′ P2 which
are indicated by Vp1 and Vp2, respectively. These velocities are calcu­
lated as
̅→ ̅̅→
VP1 = ̅→
ω1 × OP1
̅̅→
̅̅→
VP2 = ̅→
ω2 × O′ P2 (2.1)
Here, ̅→
ω1 = ω1 ̂k and ̅→
ω2 = ω2 ̂ k are the respective angular velocities
of pendulum one and pendulum two. The sliding velocity at the ball-flat
interface is the difference in the tangential components of these sliding
velocities.ω1 is obtained from the angular displacement vs time response
received from the rotary encoder. However ω2 is not known to us. To
maintain contact between the ball and flat, the components of Vp1 and
Vp2 must be the same in the direction normal to contact. Thus the value
of ω2 can be determined using this condition.
In Fig. 6(b), the direction of sliding and the direction perpendicular
to it are indicated by the unit vectors ̂t and ̂n respectively. Thus sliding
velocity along the tangential direction is written as
→ ( ̅→ ̅→ )
Vs = VP1 .̂t − VP2 .̂t ̂t (2.2)
Sliding displacement is obtained by calculating the change in the
̅→
length of the vector Q′ T
̅̅̅→
x = |Q′ T| − Q′ T 0 (2.3)
̅→
Where Q′ To is the magnitude of the vector Q′ T at θ = 0.
Energy dissipation in the system: Initially, a certain amount of
energy is stored as potential energy. When the pendulum is released, this
P.V. Likhar et al. Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the variation in normal load spring extension with angular position.

potential energy is converted into kinetic energy resulting in relative

motion between ball and flat. During the pendulum motion, the energy
gets dissipated due to friction. This frictional energy dissipation leads to
a continuous reduction in the maximum oscillation amplitude with cy­
cles. Since the work done by the frictional force is equal to the change in
the system’s mechanical energy, we can calculate the frictional force by
finding out the change in the system’s energy.
As the amplitude reduces with the number of cycles, the maximum
sliding velocity in a cycle also reduces. Thus if we interpret the Stribeck
curve with the number of oscillations, the maximum velocity keeps on
reducing, and the contact moves towards the boundary lubrication
(Fig. 7).
Before finding out sliding friction between two surfaces, it is neces­
sary to know the bearing friction. Bearing friction is determined by a
calibration experiment with no sliding at the ball and the flat interface.
The calibration experiment is done by making pendulum shafts co-axial.
In the calibration experiment, the reduction in the maximum amplitude
is entirely due to the frictional energy loss in the bearings and viscous Fig. 9. Variation in normal load with angular position θ1 .
damping due to air. To further reduce the energy loss in bearings, grease
is removed by cleaning the bearings using ultrasonic vibrations. The oil
the spring e can be written as
is removed by cleaning the bearings using Hexane.
̅→
e = eo + |r→
4 − r3 |

2.6. Variation of normal load with the angular position of the pendulum
Fig. 8(a) shows the configurations of the two pendulums in which
pendulum 1 is displaced by an angle θ1 . This results in the rotation of
pendulum 2 by an angle θ2 which depends on the offset between two
pendulum axes. The normal load at the ball and flat contact are applied
by the springs S1 and S2 which are mounted on the pendulums at vertical
distances L1 and L2 respectively.
In order to find the extension of the springs in this configuration, let
us consider the case of one spring S1 . Fig. 8(b) shows the position of the
spring S1 in the initial configuration. The initial extension in the spring is
denoted by e0 . The vectors → r1 and →r2 represent the endpoints of the
spring attached to both pendulums. Both the vectors have the same
magnitude (L1 ). When pendulum 1 is displaced by an angle θ1 , the angle
of rotation of pendulum 2 is represented as θ2 . Suppose these two
rotation angles are the same. In that case, there will be no additional
spring extension during the pendulum motion, and the spring extension
remains the same as the initial extension. This is the case only when the
two pendulums are co-axial. In the case of a non-zero offset between the
two pendulums, there will be a difference in the rotation angle of the two
pendulums. As a result of this, the spring S1 extends. The extension in the
springs is dictated by pendulum separation, angle of rotation of
pendulum 1 and the position of spring mounting from the axis of
rotation.
Fig. 8(c) shows the extension e in the spring when pendulum 1 is
rotated by an angle θ1 . In this configuration, the position vector →r1 of one
end of the spring rotates by an angle θ1 and this rotated vector is rep­
resented by → r3 . Similarly, the position vector →r2 rotates by an angle θ2
and this rotated vector is represented by → r4 . Therefore, the extension in
̅→
where the magnitude |r→ 4 − r3 | is the additional extension in the spring.
Therefore, the spring force for spring S1 at any instant of time during the
pendulum motion is
Fs1 = k ∗ e
Where k is the spring stiffness. Since the extension in the spring changes
as a function of θ1 , spring force also changes during the pendulum
motion.
Similarly, both the ends of spring 2 will also be rotated by the same
angles θ1 and θ2 . However, the extension in the spring S2 will be larger
than spring S1 because of the larger magnitude of the vector (L2 >L1 ).
Since there are two springs both above and below the ball-flat con­
tact, the total spring force is given as
Fs = 2 ∗ (Fs1 + Fs2 )
The normal load at the contact is then given by the normal compo­
nents of these spring forces.
In addition to spring forces, there is an additional force of contact
between the ball and the flat due to the difference in the angular ac­
celerations of the two pendulums. This component of the contact force is
given by
Fi = mg(sinθ2 − sinθ1 )
Therefore, the normal load at the ball-flat contact is given by
N = 2 ∗ (Fs1n + Fs2n ) + mg(sinθ2 − sinθ1 )
The normal load varies from 10 N at zero degrees to 10.26 N at
15 degrees in the given experiments (Fig. 9). This variation in normal

5
P.V. Likhar et al. Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Fig. 10. (a) Unidirectional surface texture and UPD sliding; Optical profilometer images showing Ra values for (b) flat and (c) ball.

load is very small (2.6%), and the normal load can be assumed to be
constant during the experiment.
3. Experimental details
Sliding experiments are conducted using two model lubricants
Hexadecane (HD) and Hexadecane+ 1% Stearic Acid (HDSA), for a
15 deg initial release angle. In these experiments, the separation be­
tween the axes of the two pendulums is 15 mm. Three trials are con­
ducted for each of the lubricants to ensure the repeatability of the data.
The contact configuration is Ball-Flat contact. The ball is made up of
hardened steel and has a diameter of 6.35 mm. The flat sample is made
up of SS316L. A unidirectional surface texture is generated on the flat
sample by polishing it using 600 grit emery paper. The surface rough­
ness of the ball and flat samples are determined using an optical pro­
filometer. The average surface roughness values of the ball and flat
samples are in the range of 75 nm and 250 nm, respectively.
Before applying the lubricant at contact, the ball and the flat samples
are cleaned using Hexane to remove any pre-existing layer of oil on the
samples. Liquid lubricant is then applied at the contact at a rate of 3 µL/

Fig. 11. (a) Angular position vs Time plot for Calibration experiment with zero offset, (b) amplitude reduction (Δa) vs number of cycles.

6
P.V. Likhar et al. Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Fig. 12. Angular position (θ1) vs Time response for (a) HD, (b) HDSA for running-in, (c) HD (10th cycle) and (d) HDSA (10th cycle).

s. The normal load is applied at contact with the help of four springs,
each having a stiffness of 0.5 N/mm. This results in total stiffness of 2 N/
mm. Thus a total of 10 N normal load is applied at the contact by
providing an extension of 5 mm using the normal load assembly.
Experiments are conducted for unidirectional perpendicular sliding
in which the direction of sliding is perpendicular to the direction of
surface texture, as shown in Fig. 10 (a). Experiments for 10 N normal
load corresponds to the Hertzian contact pressures of 1387 MPa.
An initial running-in is done for HD and HDSA lubricants to achieve
steady-state surface conditions in the presence of the given lubricant. In
order to conduct the running-in experiment, the pendulum is released
from an initial angle of 30 degrees and oscillations are continued until
the maximum amplitude reaches 15 degrees. Once the maximum
amplitude reaches 15 degrees, the pendulum is returned back to 30
degrees and released again. This process is repeated till we achieve a
constant number of cycles in each release from 30 degrees to 15 degrees.
In the last release (10th release) of the pendulum from 30 degrees,
the pendulum is allowed to oscillate continuously until the stop of the
pendulum motion. The data from 15 degrees to zero degrees in the last Fig. 13. Number of cycles vs Pendulum release number for running in
release cycle is taken as the experimental data and is compared with experiments.
calibration data for a 15-degree angle of release. The data is recorded at
a 100 kHz sampling frequency for all experiments. Here, the time taken to stop the motion entirely is much higher (~
the 2800 s), and we get a large number of cycles (~1600). The envelope
4. Results and discussions of the slope of response provides essential information about the nature
of damping. Viscous damping in the system results in an exponential
In calibration experiments, there is no sliding at the ball-flat inter­ decay in the amplitude, observed in the calibration curve. Fig. 11(b)
face, and the energy dissipation is due to the bearing friction and the shows the change in maximum amplitude with the number of cycles for
damping due to air drag. Fig. 11(a) shows the variation of angular po­ the calibration experiment. The maximum reduction in amplitude for
sition θ vs time for the calibration experiment. calibration is 0.045 degrees. Since we know the amplitude reduction as a

7
P.V. Likhar et al. Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548

Fig. 14. (a) Sliding distance and (b) Relative rotation for HDSA 10 N.

Fig. 15. Variation of (a) Maximum angle θmax vs time, (b) maximum sliding velocity vs time and (c) reduction in maximum amplitude (Δa) vs number of cycles.

function of the time/number of cycles, we can calculate the energy lost
in the calibration experiment as a function of the number of cycles.
4.1. Hexadecane results
Fig. 12 (a) and (b) show the θ vs time response for one trial of HD and
HDSA. Fig. 12 (c) and (d) shows the variation of angular position with
time for Hexadecane (HD) and Hexadecane+ 1%Stearic Acid (HDSA) for

8
P.V. Likhar et al.
Fig. 16. (a) Energy dissipation in each cycle vs θmax (HDSA), (b) Energy dissipated per unit sliding vs θmax (HDSA), (c) Energy dissipated per unit sliding vs θmax , (d)
Energy dissipated per unit sliding vs number of cycles.
10 N normal load from 15 degrees in the last (tenth) release.
It can be observed that the total time taken (including running-in) is
more for HDSA when compared to HD. The plot of the number of cycles
in each pendulum release is shown in Fig. 13.
It can be observed that the number of cycles for HDSA is higher and
almost constant when compared to HD. Whereas, for HD (all trials),
there are different initial cycles, and the number of cycles reaches a
constant value from the sixth release onwards. Getting constant cycles at
the end of running-in indicates that the steady-state surface conditions
are reached.
It can be observed from Fig. 12 (c) that for HD, the pendulum
oscillation continues for 240 s. For HDSA (Fig. 12 (d)), the total time for
completing the experiment is 280 s. This time taken is significantly
higher compared to the existing force-controlled tribometers response
time, which ranges from 4 s to 100 s [13,26,29]. Also, the maximum
number of cycles obtained in the previous studies were less than 50,
while with this setup, we obtained a large number of cycles, ~140 for
HD and ~170 for HDSA. This is attributed to lower damping in the
tribometer, observed from the calibration and the sliding experiments.
Fig. 14 shows the sliding distance and relative rotation variation
between the ball and flat for HDSA (trial 1).
The maximum amplitude of the sliding distance in the first cycle is
3.83 mm. The relative rotation between the ball and flat is negligible for
15 degrees angle, further reducing to a lower value with time/ number
of cycles. Thus the contact is predominantly a sliding contact. Fig. 15 (a)
shows the variation of maximum amplitude in a cycle as a function of
time for different trials of HD and HDSA. Fig. 15 (b) shows the variation
of maximum sliding velocity in a cycle with the number of cycles. The
9
Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548
maximum sliding velocity at the interface is 13.8 mm/s in the first cycle.
The nature of the response of HD and HDSA is different from that of
the calibration experiment. Unlike the exponential decay in calibration,
these lubricants show two distinct regions of different slopes. We call
these regions region1 and region 2. The maximum amplitude in each
cycle reduces faster for HD than HDSA in region 1. In region 2, the
amplitude reduction is minimal compared to region 1 for both the
lubricants.
It can be seen that for HD (all trials), the transition from region 1 to
region 2 takes place close to 100 s, whereas, for HDSA, this transition
happens close to 175 s. A larger time of transition from region 1 to re­
gion 2 indicates a lower reduction in maximum amplitude for HDSA in
region 1. Once we obtain the amplitude vs time response data, we can
calculate the sliding distance, relative rotation and sliding velocity at the
ball-flat interface.
Fig. 15 (c) shows the variation of reduction in amplitude with the
number of cycles. The reduction in amplitude in one complete cycle is
directly proportional to the average frictional force in that cycle. The
higher the average frictional force in a cycle, the higher is the energy loss
which leads to a higher reduction in amplitude. For HD, there is a more
significant reduction in amplitude than HDSA. For HDSA, this Δa value
reduces continuously in region 1. However, for HD, Δa value starts to
rise just before transitioning to region 2, which indicates an increase in
the average frictional force in these cycles before transition.
The amplitude reduction in the experiments also includes the
amplitude decrement due to the bearing friction and air drag in addition
to the friction at the ball-flat interface. Therefore, the energy loss in the
calibration needs to be subtracted from the energy loss in the sliding
P.V. Likhar et al.
Fig. 17. (a) Average coefficient of friction vs Vmax, (b) percentage change in energy vs Vmax.
experiment for the cycles having the same initial θmax . This gives the
actual energy dissipated by the friction at the ball-flat interface.
Fig. 16 (a) shows the curves for the energy dissipation in the cali­
bration experiment, sliding experiment (HDSA) and their difference,
which is the actual energy lost at the ball-flat contact. The change in
energy per unit sliding distance in each cycle indicates the average
friction force in that cycle. Therefore, this actual energy dissipated in a
cycle is divided by the sliding distance in that cycle gives the average
frictional force in that cycle as shown in (Fig. 16 (b)) for HDSA. Fig. 16
(c) shows the plot of energy dissipated per unit sliding as a function of
θmax for all trials of HD and HDSA.
The variation of energy dissipated per unit sliding (ΔE/XT) with the
number of cycles is shown in Fig. 16 (d). There is an increase in the ΔE/
XT values for both HD and HDSA in region 1 with the number of cycles,
and it reduces to a much lower value in region 2. For HD, there is a large
increase in ΔE/XT values for HD (all trials) in region 1, whereas, for
HDSA, this increment is small and gradual. The average CoF is calcu­
lated by dividing the change in energy per unit sliding distance with the
normal load, and it follows the same trend as ΔE/XT. Since the frictional
force in a tribo-system depends on sliding velocity at the interface, we
plot the ΔE/XT values and average CoF with maximum velocity Vmax in
each cycle, as shown in Fig. 17 (a).
The average CoF values are higher at larger sliding velocities for both
lubricants, while the average CoF is lower at lower sliding velocities
(close to zero). For HD, as we go from higher to lower sliding velocity,
the average CoF increases and then decreases to a lower value as the
contact transits from region 1 to region 2. For HDSA, the average CoF
increase gradually by a marginal value before the contact goes to region
2.
However, as the oscillation amplitude reduces, the maximum energy
available at the beginning of each cycle also reduces at a lower value.
Fig. 17 (b) shows the percentage change in energy in each cycle with
maximum sliding velocity. The Percentage change in energy increases
from a lower to a higher value in both regions. In region 1, the per­
centage change in initial cycles is small due to the higher numerical
value of the initial potential energy at the beginning of each cycle. As the
pendulum oscillations continue, the maximum available energy at the
beginning of each cycle reduces. This lower available energy is accom­
panied by an increase in friction force resulting in a large amplitude
reduction during the transition. At lower velocities, the percentage
change in energy rises again in region 2 because of the lower available
energy at the start of each cycle. It keeps on depleting as the motion
continues and stops eventually. Therefore, even if we have very low
energy dissipation per unit sliding close to zero sliding velocity, we get a
10
Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548
high percentage change in energy.
5. Conclusions
In the present work, a new energy-based tribometer is designed and
developed to study friction at low sliding velocities. The designed trib­
ometer is a versatile machine in which the sliding distance can be
changed by changing the relative position of pendulums.
The calibration experiment shows very low damping in the system.
The reduction in amplitude in sliding experiments is an order of
magnitude higher than the amplitude reduction due to damping without
any sliding. Thus we get a more accurate estimate of friction values. Due
to lower damping, we get many cycles (high resolution) in the boundary
lubrication regime.
Experiments are conducted using Hexadecane and Hexadecane+ 1%
Stearic acid as model lubricants to demonstrate the working of parallel
pendulum tribometers. Comparison of θ vs Time response shows a large
number of cycles compared to other energy-based tribometers. The
maximum sliding velocity in these experiments is 13.8 mm/s, and it
goes down to (value) of 0.02 mm/s. These values of sliding velocities
indicate that the contact remains in the boundary lubrication regime in
the entire experiment.
For HDSA, the energy dissipation, as well as the average CoF values,
are much lower as compared to HD. In addition to this, for HDSA, the
transition from region 1 to region 2 happens at lower sliding velocities
compared to HD. Thus, HDSA is a more effective lubricant than HD in
boundary lubrication regime, and hence the working of the tribometer is
demonstrated.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge MHRD for providing an
opportunity to carry out this work. We would also like to thank UGC to
provide the funding for the development of the machine.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
P.V. Likhar et al.
online version at doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2022.107548.
References
[1] Pettersson U, Jacobson S. Textured surfaces for improved lubrication at high
pressure and low sliding speed of roller/piston in hydraulic motors. Tribol Int
2007;40:355–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2005.11.024.
[2] Maru MM, Trommer RM, Cavalcanti KF, Figueiredo ES, Silva RF, Achete CA. The
Stribeck curve as a suitable characterization method of the lubricity of biodiesel
and diesel blends. Energy 2014;69:673–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2014.03.063.
[3] Spikes HA. Boundary lubrication and boundary films. Tribology series, vol. 25.
Elsevier; 1993. p. 331–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8922(08)70389-4.
[4] Ratoi M, Anghel V, Bovington C, Spikes HA. Mechanisms of oiliness additives.
Tribol Int 2000;33(3–4):241–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-679X(00)00037-
2.
[5] Spikes H. Friction modifier additives. Tribol Lett 2015;60(1):5. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11249-015-0589-z.
[6] de Barros’Bouchet MI, Martin JM, Le-Mogne T, Vacher B. Boundary lubrication
mechanisms of carbon coatings by MoDTC and ZDDP additives. Tribol Int 2005;38
(3):257–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2004.08.009.
[7] Quinn C, Nečas D, Šperka P, Marian M, Vrbka M, Křupka I, et al. Experimental
investigation of friction in compliant contact: the effect of configuration,
viscoelasticity and operating conditions. Tribol Int 2022;165:107340. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.triboint.2021.107340.
[8] Myant C, Spikes HA, Stokes JR. Influence of load and elastic properties on the
rolling and sliding friction of lubricated compliant contacts. Tribol Int 2010;43
(1–2):55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2009.04.034.
[9] Lee SM, Shin MW, Lee WK, Jang H. The correlation between contact stiffness and
stick–slip of brake friction materials. Wear 2013;302(1–2):1414–20. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.wear.2012.12.017.
[10] Popov M, Popov VL, Popov NV. Reduction of friction by normal oscillations. I.
Influence of contact stiffness. Friction 2017;5(1):45–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s40544-016-0136-4.
[11] Zou HT, Wang BL. Investigation of the contact stiffness variation of linear rolling
guides due to the effects of friction and wear during operation. Tribol Int 2015;92:
472–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2015.07.005.
[12] Ding T, Chen GX, Zhu MH, Zhang WH, Zhou ZR. Influence of the spring stiffness on
friction and wear behaviours of stainless steel/copper-impregnated metallized
carbon couple with electrical current. Wear 2009;267(5–8):1080–6. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.wear.2008.12.098.
[13] Kossack C, Ziegert J, Schmitz T. The sliding friction contact frequency response
function. Procedia Manuf 2019;34:73–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
promfg.2019.06.119.
[14] Schmitz TL, Action JE, Ziegert JC, Sawyer WG. The difficulty of measuring low
friction: uncertainty analysis for friction coefficient measurements. J Tribol 2005;
127(3):673–8. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1843853.
11
Tribology International 171 (2022) 107548
[15] Burris DL, Sawyer WG. Addressing practical challenges of low friction coefficient
measurements. Tribol Lett 2009;35(1):17–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11249-
009-9438-2.
[16] Dong C, Yuan C, Bai X, Qin H, Yan X. Investigating relationship between
deformation behaviours and stick-slip phenomena of polymer material. Wear 2017;
376–377:1333–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.01.061.
[17] Jeong S-H, Yong S-J, Lee Y-Z. Friction and wear characteristics due to stick-slip
under fretting conditions. Tribol Trans 2007;50(4):564–72. https://doi.org/
10.1080/10402000701691076.
[18] Singh K, Mahato A, Tiwari M. Transition from mixed stick-slip to gross-slip regime
in fretting. Tribol Int 2022;165:107338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
triboint.2021.107338.
[19] Van de Velde F, De Baets P, Degrieck J. The friction force during stick-slip with
velocity reversal. Wear 1998;216(2):138–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-
1648(97)00190-7.
[20] Feeny BF, Liang JW. A decrement method for the simultaneous estimation of
coulomb and viscous friction. J Sound Vib 1996;195(1):149–54. https://doi.org/
10.1006/jsvi.1996.0411.
[21] Kossack C, Ziegert J, Schmitz T. Energy-based friction analysis. Precis Eng 2019;55:
88–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2018.08.011.
[22] Majdoub F, Perret-Liaudet J, Belin M, Martin JM. Decaying law for the free
oscillating response with a pseudo-polynomial friction law: analysis of a superlow
lubricated friction test. J Sound Vib 2015;348:263–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jsv.2015.03.019.
[23] Roemhildt ML, Gardner-Morse MG, Morgan CF, Beynnon BD, Badger GJ. Calcium
phosphate particulates increase friction in the rat knee joint. Osteoarthr Cartil
2014;22(5):706–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2014.02.938.
[24] Belin M, Miki H, Takagi T. Friction laws determination of random-textured surface
of microcrystalline diamond coatings, using the oscillating tribometer technique.
Tribol Online 2019;14(3):109–14. https://doi.org/10.2474/trol.14.109.
[25] Belin M, Arafune H, Kamijo T, Perret-Liaudet J, Morinaga T, Honma S, et al. Low
friction, lubricity, and durability of polymer brush coatings, characterized using
the relaxation tribometer technique †. Lubricants 2018;6(2):52. https://doi.org/
10.3390/lubricants6020052.
[26] Choudhury D, Urban F, Vrbka M, Hartl M, Krupka I. A novel tribological study on
DLC-coated micro-dimpled orthopedics implant interface. J Mech Behav Biomed
Mater 2015;45:121–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2014.11.028.
[27] Liang J-W. Identifying Coulomb and viscous damping from free-vibration
acceleration decrements. J Sound Vib 2005;282(3–5):1208–20. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jsv.2004.04.034.
[28] Belin M, Kakizawa M, Rigaud E, Martin JM. Dual characterization of boundary
friction thanks to the harmonic tribometer: identification of viscous and solid
friction contributions. J Phys Conf Ser 2010;258:012008. https://doi.org/
10.1088/1742-6596/258/1/012008.
[29] Belin M, Joly-Pottuz L, Martin J-M. An original dynamic tribotest to discriminate
friction and viscous damping. Tribol Int 2010;43(1–2):320–9. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.triboint.2009.06.011.