AS Level Chemistry Notes Subject Code: 9701 Article No. 238 2019 Edition A Rational Approach To Learning AS Level Chemistry Principles With Rasheed Ahmed Beaconhouse Defence Campus Lahore READ WRITE PUBLICATIONS Ornrasnane Pimaresssisr — @ wwwradowsias KE wakknéwetepulcaion/Shop @ Hew OMe: 3.C,zahoo Hah Ron, Gee Lahore [El radar pubicaons@emal com Sale Point: Shop No. 2528 Lower Ground Flor Haadia Hlcema Cents, Ghani Set Urdu Bara LahoreAllright reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval sytem or transmited, in any form ar by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior writen permission ofthe Publis, ‘Title [AS Level Chemistry Notes (Article #238) Author Rasheed Abmed (Cell, 492.333 4277385 Pablished by Read & Write Publications Printed by Read & Write Publications ‘Composed by ‘Sharjel Khan, Salman Buksh, Shahab, Hayat, Wagas, M. Awals, (Usama, Ahmar Faroog, Awais Ahmed “Tite designed by Rashid Mehmood, Khalid Khurshid Legal Advisor Mian Tariq Abad (Advocate Supreme Court Rootn No. 10, 1, 12 AF-Majeed Cente |-Morang Road, Lahore. Tel: 042-37236145, ax: 062-37241367 Eition 2019 Eton Price For Books Order Call Or SMS: 03365314141 DISTRIBUTORS Es Le > READ & WRITE SALE POINT. > BURHANI BOOK CENTRE ‘Shop No. 25-28 Lower Ground Floor, ‘Shop # 6 Hashmi Trust Bulding Rotson Road Haadia Haleema Centre, Ghazni Street, ‘New Urdu Bazar Karachi Urdu Bazar, Lahore. Ph: 042-35714038 Tet 021-82212640 > MARYAM ACADEMY ‘Tayyab Ali Bulding, Urdu Bazar, Karachi Tel 021-82214243 ,021-32654243 LO) > ABDUL RAHMAN BOOKS ‘Abdul Flahman Plaza, College Road, Rawalpindi. Tel-051-5551226, +92-315-5618976I DEDICATE THIS ENDEAVOUR TO MY PARENTS & MY LIFE LINES: LINTA AND BASIMPreface “What you seek is seeking you” Jalal — ud Din Rumi | have been teaching introductory chemistry courses for over 20 years, and for much of thal ime, | considered ting my own text. One reason was thal the existing textbooks stuck me as disjointed. They read more Ike a list of skis to master than tke a coherent story ofthe nature of chemist. | thought it should be possible 0 ‘organize the fundamentals of chemistry so thal each would low smoothly nto the ext, 60 I began to take the ‘rospect of wing a new textbook seriousy. ‘Ave you ever frustrated that takes so long to get deserbing interesting chemical changes? Most prep-chem texts don't describe chemical reactions unt miaway through the text or even later, thereby reinforcing students ‘expectations that chemistry wil be boring and ielevat. Do you ever worry that your students can wre and ink balanced chemical equations withthe type of chemical reaction, but do not have a clear mental image of the ‘evens that occur during a chemical reaction? | thnk itis extremely important for students to develop the ablity {o visualize the models that chemists use for describing the sructure and behavior of mate. | want them to be able o connect a chemical equation wih reaction type to visual image of what ls happening in the reaction. “Throughout the text, | emphasize the development of a mental mage of tho sbucure of matter and the changes it undergoes along with tabular presentation for clear understanding especialy in orgaric chemist. “Thus, the idea of scheming a book, which would enable students to propare more effectively fr their CAIE A Loval Chemisty 970%, was mainly tiggered by my own experiances ranging over 20 years as an O and A Level ‘Chemistry teacher. Ire fet the need of a compendium: where In both the teacher and the students could ind all the rolated topics covered in depth and In deal, s0 A Rationale Approach to Leaming A Lovel Chemisty Principles" happened. {have ensured to make this book an unadulterated and untainted guide, following a lucid style. While writing this ‘book | ensured to folow the sylabus outine. Every topic is explained to meet the CAIE A Level Chemisty requirements. Topics are elaborated using appropriate examples, abvlar demonstration of various concepts an atthe end of chapter past papers practice questions, Professionally | developed myselt every yea. Along wth blessings of parents, my organization Beaconhouse Defence Campus Lahore trusted in my capabilies ard gave me opportuniy to teach A level Chernisty. My professional journey is ful of achievements that includes repeated best GPA in the school as wel as at SGH. level. came across competent and dignified school management, dedicated caleagues and pronounced tends. | would ike fo thank especially Mr.Tanvir Khalid Gil, Mr. Aljaz Awan, Mr. Abdul Rabb and Mr. Mehboob Lodhi for the support and encouragement. | would like fo acknowledge Mr. Imran Latif wno exilarated and ‘energized me fo take up this challenge. | would tke to dedicate his determination and struggle to my parents, family and tionds. also dedicate my this ‘tort to all my students; who wil find ita great Benet and a support to get through thei A Level Chemistry ‘examinations with excaiant graces. Rasheed Ahmed Naveed Mo. B.Ed, CIPSIE (UG) Cambridge Certiicaton for ‘A-Level Teaching Mes 192.380 4277385, rasheed.ahmad7874@gmallcomunits: 3A 32: 33: 34: 35: 36: a7: 38: Unita: 44 42: 43: 44: 45: 46: 47: units: 5A 52: 53: 54: 55: units: 6A unit7: Contents ‘Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry. Relative Atomic Mass: Calculations of Empirical Molecular Formula: 1" (Chemical Equations... . = 7 12 End of Chapter Past Paper Questions 16 ‘Atomic Structure. LOM rons Electronic Configuration lonisation Energy: AH, End of Chapter Past Paper Questions ‘Chemical Bonding. lonic or Electrovalant Bond: Covalent Bonding ‘Coordinate or Dative Covalent Bonding: Valence Shel Electron Pair Repuision Theory Orbital Hybridization Metalic Bond Inter Molecular Forces of Attractions: End of chapter past paper questions States of Matter... kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of Gases. Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids Solids. Macromolecules (Giant Covalent Structure): Carton Nanoparticles: Metalic Lattices. vs End of chapter past paper questions ‘Chemical Energetics... ‘Standard Conditions for Standard Enthalpy Changes. Measuring Enthalpy Change of the Reactions Hess's law. Activation Energy (Ea) End of chapter past paper questions: Electrochemistry . End of chapter past paper questions Equitibri RESSASAANRRRBRRASRSSPRSERBRERRRE7A 72: 78: 74: 75: 76: 77: units: 8A a2: as: 8a: 85: unite: oa 92: 93: 94: unit-o: 10.4 102: 103: 104: unite: nA 112: 113: 114) unite: 124 122; 123: 124: units: 134 132: 133: 134: 135: Inreversible and Reversible reactions. 2 Le-Chatier’s Principle 3 Equiibrium Constant Ke 94 Haber's Process of Ammonia Formation 7 ‘Contact Process of Sulphuric Acid Formation, 98 Bronsted ~ Lowery Theory of Acds and Bases: 98 End of chapter past paper questions Reaction Kinetics.. Rate of Reaction Boltzmann Distribution Curve and Erect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 108 Catalysis. Enzymes — Biological Catalyst End of chapter past paper questions ‘The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity Periodicity of Physical Properties of Third Period Elements 116 Periodicity of Chemical Propertis of Third Period Elements 118 Reaction of Sodium and Magnesium with Water. 121 End of chapter past paper questions 122 Group 2. e Goneral Character Propories of Group I Elmont 490 Behavior of Group Il Elements Oxides, Hycroxides and Carbonates. 131 ‘Solubility of Group ll Metal Suiphates. 132 End of chapter past paper question... _ _ penne 1B Group 17. General Characteristics. 140 Reaction of Metal Halide with Conc. HeSOu 141 Disproportion Reaction 142 End of chapter past paper question... : vs vo Nitrogen & Sulphur o Indust Importance of Anmonia & ts Compounds. 450 Pollation, ‘Oxides of Nirogen - Air Pollution End of chapter past paper questions ‘An Introduction to Organic Chemistry. . - Cassicaton of Organic Compounds (Stuctural) 158 ‘Types of Chemical Formulae 158 IUPAC Rules of Nomenclature (Assign Name to Organic Substances) : 1 160 ‘Characteristic Organic Reactions. Isomers. 175136: End of chapter past paper questions Free Racial Substitution Reaction: (characteristic of alkanes-unsaturated) vo 1A ‘Alkeones. 7 sn vs von BS ‘Addition Reactions 186 ‘Oxidation of Akenes 188 Polymerization 2 169 Problems to Dispose of Plastic Wastes 190 Fractional Disillation of Crude Ol 190 Cracking of Alkanes 491 End of chapter past paper questions 192 Halogen Derivatives... Physical Properties Reactions of Halogenoalkanes Uses of Halogenoakanos. End of chapter past paper questions Hydroxy Compounds... Physical Properties of Alcohols. 212 Manufacture of Ethanol 212 Reactions of Alkanols 213 Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. 216 “Ti lodo Methane Test. o vs pon 18 End of chapter past paper questions : 218 Unit-17: Carbonyl Compounds... — = BM 17.4: Preparation of Carbony! Compounds. 204 17.2: Nucleophilc Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide. 208 178: Test For Carbony! Compounds. 22 17.4: End of chapter past paper questions 227 Unit-8: Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives. 38 18.1; Formation of Carboxylic Acids 236 18.2; Reactions of Carboxylic Acids. 236 183: Formation of Esters, 238 184: Commercial Uses of Esters 238 185: Inraed Spectroscopy 239 185: Endof chapter past paper questions. 243Blank PageAS Level Cramiay Notes UNIT1 ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed con onss-a277385, rasheed ahmad7874@gmailcom rite READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-0, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tol: 042-95714008 Cell: 0336-531414% Web: wurweadnwrite.org E-mail: readanducteotice@gmaiLcom Topics 1.1 Relative Atomic Mass 1.2 Calculations of Empirical/ Molecular Formula 1.3 Chemical Equations 1.4 End of Chapter Past Paper QuestionsAS Level Cramiay Notes mca vtinwneanen Unt Aome Meese 8 Steiomety 4.1: Relative Atomic Mas: {tis an average mass of one atom (isotope) of an element with respect to 1/12" of the mass of standard carbon -12. Most of the elements exist in diferent isotopic forms, so their average relative atomic mass can be ‘calculated by considering thei relative abundances. A relative mass does not possess any unit as it's @ ‘comparsonielative mass, Exampl Chlorine exists naturally in to allotropic forms, chlrine-35 and chlerine-a7 in the relative abundance of 75.5% and 24.5% respectively Relative Atomic Mass = 755 x 35 + 28.5 x 37/100 = 35.5 Calculate Ar From The Mass Spectrum: Mase specitum has mie values (mass of isotope) on x-axis and abundance on y-axis. Mass spectrum of Neon (Ne) ‘Abundance 20 21 22 88 m4 25 Mass charge (me) value (20 10) + (22 1) 11 Mass Spectrum of Zirconium (21) Percentage ‘Abundance 12min 74% oo or 92 a9 oF ae cha pelts = (xs1s1100) 14 12109 46.35 + 1019 + = 7387AS Level Cramiay Notes mca vntiwncanen Watt ome Meese 8 Stoney Relative Molecular Mass: {tis the mass of molecule of an element ora compound with respect to 1/12 of the mass of standard carbon -12. Relative formula mass and molecular mass can also be calculated by adding Ar of ll the elements present in that substance. Relative molecular mass of chlorine = 95.5 x 2=71 Relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride = 1.0 + 95.5 = 96.5, Relative Formula Mass: {tis the mass of formula of an lonle compound with respect to 1/12" of the mass of standard carbon “12. Relative formula mass of copper l) coride = 63.5 + 35.5 x 2 = 1345 Relative formula mass of potassium bromide = $9.1 + 78.8 = 119 Its the amount of substance which contains the same number (6 x 10 Avogadro's constant of particles (atoms, tons or molecules) as there are in 12 grams of standard carbon-12, Empirical Formula: Its the simplest formula of the compound that shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of itferent elements in the compound. Motecul tis the compote formula ofthe compound that shows the actual numberof atoms of diferent elements in the compound. Covalent compounds may have different empirical and molecular formula, but ionic ‘compounds usually represented in the simplest formula based on valency ofthe combining elements. Example: Empiical formula of glucose: CHO Molecular formula of glucose: CiHaOe ‘Chemical formula of sodium chloride: NaCl Formula: 4.2: Calculations of Empirical/Molecular Formul: From Composition Data: + Write symbol of elements and the composition mass/percentage underneath. RS + Divide composition mass of each element by Ar of the respective element. We wi es of each element f ce Divide moles of each eloment by the smallest quantity number. Ss ‘+ the final answer is in whole number then itis ok, otherwise muttiply all sss o Seren ‘number to have a whole number rato. For Molecular Formula Calculation from Empirical Formutel Molecular formula = n x empirical formula Whereas n= Mr/ mass of empirical formula (Mr wil be given inthe question)AS Level Cramiay Notes mca vntinoncanen Watt Mom Meese 8 Steiomety Exampl Calculate the empirical formula of the compound that contains 31.58% of carbon, 5.26% of hydrogen and {63.16% of oxygen. Elements: ‘carbon hydrogen oxygen Massipercentages: 31.58 5.26 63.16 Divide by Ar 12 1 16 Motes: 263 5.26 3.95 Moles alivide by smallest vale: 263 263 263 Ratio 1 2 15 Mutiply by 2to have whole Number 2 4 3 So the empirical formula of the compound is CHyOs From Combustion Data: Exampl 10.500 gram ofan organic compound X contalning carbon hydrogen and oxygen produces 0.733 9 of carbon Co + HO Cee + 650: —> 400: + SHO on 201H0 + 130: —> 800, + 100 “Thermal decomposition of led (I) nitrate gives lead (I) oxide and nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. PDINO:2 = —> Ho + Ne + Ge PLINO:)2 = —> PbO + — 2NO; + 05Or on 2PbING:)s = —> 2PRO + 4NGz + Or onic Equation: ‘A chemical equation that species where actually the reaction is taking place with respect to a particular type of reaction. There are mainly three diferent ypes of ionic equation. ‘Acid Alkali Neutralization: ‘Whenever an acid reacts with an alkall, salt and water is formed. But actualy H* of an acid is neutralized ‘by OH of an akal to form H:0, So ionic equation involving reaction of any acid with any alkali wil Be ke below. Hi) + Oi — HO pH below 7 above 7 7 cid alkali water. onic Precipitation: ‘A reaction in which a water insoluble salts prepared by the reaction of aquegus solutions of water soluble ‘substances. Water insoluble salt (substance) can be Separated by fitraion of the mixture. er ee ee ee emcee ee ‘and aqueous potassium Iodide. PRINOs}ayac) + 2Kliag, — Polis) + g < In this reaction insoluble salts the primary focus, so only those ions involved in préptaté formation wil bo witten nthe lone equation, Orn other words fone whee stato symbols a ibe wien ‘Spectator ions such as K* and NOs will be omitted. es o Po, + Bh — Pong A” Se 9 rae 3 ‘etic econ hich oon andra reaps acs utes pce snarl Zn + CuSO — Inthis case Zinc is oxidised 2n — zn? 426AS Level Cramiay Notes mca vitincanen Unt ome Meese 8 Steiomety Whereas Copper is reduced cut + te cu Hence overall ionic equation: z+) Ot zn? sCu 'SOv2is a spectator fon (no change in oxidation state). ‘We may use half equations trom the data booklet to caloulate overall onic equation forthe reaction. Example: ‘Aciiod KmnO. is used to oxidize Fe" to Fe", Half equation for ron oxidation: Fev > Feo ee Half equation for reduction of MnO MnOs' + BH} Se Mave ar) ‘As redox reaction involves gain and less of electron so number of electron gained should be equal to number of electrons given out to have a balanced redox ionic equation. That's why iron equation will be mutipied by 5 to balance the electrons. Sree — 5 Fe + be Manos! a ns Moe + 40 BFe? + MnOe'+ HY > 5 Few + Mn® 4 AHO Example: Potassium dichromate turns from orange to green on reaction with SO: gas. {S02 + BHO — SO# + 4H + 20) 3800 + BO — 3802 + 12H + 60) cee + UH 4 be 20F + THO aso: + CnO® + 2H > ssoe ‘Some Important Molar Calculations Formulae: 1. Moles of a Substance from the Given Mass Mole was (A Mo: frmaa mass depends onthe ype of substance vn, and 4 2s one ol) 2 ieee ems oom aes Airoom temperature and pressure oe Say? ‘Moles = Volume (am!) /24 Every gas one mole at ip has a volume of 24 dm? jven volume ofthe gas is in om®, then divides © Hoi ofthe 9 then divides by 24000, ” ©)AS Level Cramiay Notes mca vtinwnanon —— Uat* Mom Meese 8 Steiomety Atstanc ‘Temperature and Pr ‘Moles = Volume (dm!) /22.4 Every gas one mole at sip has @ volume of 22.4 dm? It given volume ofthe gas is in om®, then divides by 22400, 3. Moles of a Substance from the Volume of Aqueous Solution. ‘Moles = Volume (cm) 1000 x Concentration (move) Ifthe volume of the solution is given in dm, then there is no need to divide by 1000, 4. Concentration in gidm? from the Concentration in mol dm? ‘Concentration gram/din® = Concentration (mold) x Mr of the substance 5. Concentration of Diluted / Undiluted Solution Undiluted solution = Diluted solution Mx Me x Ve 1M (concentration) and V (volume) must be ia the same units. 6. Number of Particles (Atoms, Ions or Molecules)of a Substance Number of particles = Moles x 6,02 x 10 (Avogadro's constant) 7. %Age of an Element in the Compound or Mass of An Element in the Given Quantity of the Compound. ‘4age ofthe element = mass of the element in the compound /Mr x 100, oR Mass ofthe element = Mass ofthe element in the compound /Mr x Given Mass 8 %age yield ‘hage Yield = Actual Yield/ Theoretical Yield x 100 ‘Actual yield (given in the question), theoretical yield (needs to calculate from the data using balanced equation), 9. Puri Pureiimprove x 100AS Level Cramiay Notes 26 Unies: Aloms, Molecule & Stochomety Ermira eee 1. Mi t61P2a101 ‘An experiment was carried out 1 determine the percentage of iron in a sample of iron wire. @ ‘8.3.35 9 piece of the wire was reacted with dilute sulluic asi in the absence of air, so ‘that al ofthe iron atoms were converted to ron(l) ions. The resulting solution was made up to 250 om. (Write balanced equation for the reaction between the iron in the wire and the sulluric ac o o os o - sone ‘A 25.0 cm& sample of this solution was acidified and trated wih 0.0250 mol dm~= potassium dichromate(V)-32.0 om? ofthe potassium dichromate{ VI) solution was required for complete reaction with the ron(l) ons in the sample. The relevant half-oquations are shown, Cre} + 14H" + Ge” —> 200 + THO Fo > Fo +e (Use the halt-equations to write an equation for the reaction between the iron) ons and the acid siervomate| Vi) lone fo] (ii) Galculate the amount, in moles, of eichromate(VI) ions used in the tration amount = ‘mol 1] (W¥) Calculate the amount, in moles, of iran(t}) lon in the 25.0 em sample of solution. (¥) Calculate the amount, in moles, of ton inthe 3.35 9 place of wire. ‘mol 1] (wt) Calculate the mass of ron inthe 3.35 g piece of wire. Or yA’ on wi corn)AS Level Cramiay Notes pect vntwncanon Unt Mom Meese 8 Stciomety (b) Some electronegativiy values are shown. ‘lement_| elecionegativily ‘aluminiory 15 chlorine 30 iron 18 (0) Use the data fo suggest ine nature ofthe bonding in ron(l) chloride. Explain your 2 (W) Suggest an equation for the reaction between iron (il chloride and water. om 2 MW15°P2t/A1/a,b (8) Chemists recognise that atoms are made ol three types of particle. Complete the folowing table with their names and properties. Name of particle | Relave mass | Relative charge 0 T1836 @ (©) The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined using data from lis mass spectrum. The mass spectrum of element X is shown, with the percentage abundance of each isotope labeled. percentage sbundanesAS Level Cramiay Notes aca vntinwncanen Watt Mom Meese 8 Steiomety (Define the tors relative atomic mass and isotope. relative atomic mass ‘sotope (3) (Use the data in the mass specitum fo calculate the relative atomic mass, A, of X Give your answer to two decimal places and suggest the identity of X Ar ot x Identity of X acco 3. MW12/P2t/02 ‘Ammonium sulfate, (NH):80., is widely used asa fertliser. In order to determine its percentage purity, a sample of armmonium sulate fertiser was analysed by reacting a known amount with an excess of NaOH(aq) and then trating the unreacted NaOH, vith dilute HCL (2) Ammonium sulfate reacts with NaOH in at =2 ratio, Complete and balance the equation for this reaction (NH)eS044 2NEOH = snaNHe + + @ (©) _45.00.gsample ofa fertiliser containing (NH4):SO«was warmed with 50.0 om? (an excess) of 2.00 mol di NaOH, ‘When al ofthe ammania had been driven of, the solution was cooled. “The remaining NaOH was then tiated with 1,00 mol dm? HC/and 31.2 om? were required {or naualistion. (Write a balanced equation forthe reaction between NaOH and HCl (i) Galcuiae the amount in moise, of Hin 31.2 en of 1100 mol dv NEI. ayAS Level Cramiay Notes mca vntwneanen Watt ome Meese 8 Stciomety (@¥) Use your answers to (0), (l) and (i) to calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH. used up in the reaction with (NH4):S0a. (%) Use your answor to (v) and the equation in (a) to calculate the amount, in moles, of (NHi}eSO. that reacted with NaOH. (W) Use your answer to (v)1o calculate the mass of (NH):SO«that reacted with NaOH, (vil) Hence, calculate the percentage purity of the ammonium sulfate fetliser. m 4 ONTP2201 ‘Compound Ais an organic compound which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, ‘When 0.240 g ofthe vapour of Ais slowly passed over a large quaniily of heated copper) oxide, (CUO, the organic compound A is completely oxidised fo carbon dioxide and water. Copper is the nly other product ofthe reaction, ‘The products are colleced and its found that 0.352 g of COs and 0.144 g of HzO are formed. (@) inthis section, give your answers to three decimal places. (Calculate the mass of carbon present in 0.352 9 of COs. Use tis valet clelate he amount, in eles, of carbon atoms pret 240 of A s a) (conte nemesstnsenn senino seats 2AS Level Cramiay Notes psc vnc Unies: Aloms, Molecule & Stochomety Use tis value to calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrogen atoms present in 0.240 9 of a (il) Use your answers to calculate the mass of oxygen present in 0.240 g of A. Use tis value to calculate the amount, n moles, of oxygen atoms prosent in 0.240 9 of A. o] mis t1p2aa1 Methanoic acid, HOH, was formerly known as formic acid because I is present inthe sting of ants and the Latin name for ants formic, lt was fst isolated in 167' by John Ray who colected a large number af dead ants and extracted the acid trom them by dstilatn, Inthis question, you should give all numerical answers to two significant figures. [At room temperature, pure methanoic acd isa liquid which is completly soluble in water. \When we are stung by a typical’ anta soluton of methanoic acid, A, is injected into our skin. Solution A contains 50% by volume of pure methanoi acid. ‘Atypical ant contains 7.6 x 10°° dm? of solution A (@) (2) Calculate the volume, in em®, of solution A in one ant volume = coms (Use your answer to () to calculate the volume, in em®, of pure methanoic acid in a er SV volu (i) Use your answer to (i) to calculate how many to be dstilod to produce 1 dm? of pure methanoic acid. umber = 3(AS Level Chai Notes mesa emauoe — Unb*Aloms Moe Somat ‘When we are stung by an ant, the amount of solution A injected is 80% of the total amount of solution A present in one ant The donsiy of pure methanoic acid is 1.2 g ems. (©) (Calculate tne volume, in cm, of pure metrancic acid injected in one ant sting VOLUME = ese m3 (Use your answer to (i) 10 calculate the mass of methancic acid present in one ant sing mass = or Bees also sting us by using methanoic acid. One simple treatment for ant or bee stings is o use sodium hydrogencarbonate, NalCOs. (©) (Construct a balanced equation for the reaction between methanoic acid and sodium hyrogencarbonate. (Win atypical bee sing, the mass of methanoic acd injected is 54 x 109g. CCaleulate the mass of NaHCOs needed to neutralise one bee sting. mass = otaUnies: Aloms, Molecule & Stochomety AS Level Cramiay NotesAS Level Cramiay Notes Uns 2: Atomic rte INIT 2 u Topics 24: Atom ATOMIC 22: Electronic Configuration STRU CTU RE 2.3: lonisation Energy AH%e 2.4: End of Chapter Past Paper Questions AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed cel 0333-2277385 rasheed ahmnad7#74@ gnaltcom READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-€, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg I, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Cel: 0396-5314141 Web: www teadnwrite.org E-mal: readandwrteotfice@gmall.comAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vid ncatns Uns 2: Atomic rte Uni eres 24: Atom ‘Atom s the smallest possible particle of an element that + exist independently ‘+ take part in the chemical reaction + represent al characteristic properties ofthe element + neutral on charge bases ‘Sub Atomic Particle: ‘Atom consis of folowing sub atomic particles ‘Sub Atomic | Relative Relative | Location | ~ Behaviour in the Electric Particle ‘Mass Charge Field Proton 1 “ Nucleus | Attracted towards negative T1840 eetron | nevi) 4 Sheiis | Attracted towards postive Neutron 7 a Nucleus Not deiecied Bras (ecto) oe Posve Chase oh fase] ray (ote) a Tage Cee rays (000) ‘Atomic Number (2): itis the unique numbor tha forontates between elements. tis rte as numberof pretons present + nan atom numberof cron are equslto he number of protons Se +Electronic configuration is based on proton number SD * Sopot amertin te prt te an eden hence many sep eae ¢ AZ SA ann tis aso reteredas V ‘Mass Numbor (A) 1\she sum of number of protons and neurons preset in he nous Alomic Mass or Nucleon Number. tis used in; + Mass calculations + Molar calculations Conclusion: Itis quite evident from the above information that + Mass ofan atom presenti the nucleus.AS Level Cramiay Notes + Positive charge in the nucleus + Negative charge is in the shells around nucleus. Calculate Number of Sub Atomic Particles From the Given Symbol: Sub Aomie Pate Sours Remar Proton ‘tic Muber Some an lonent fe ince of pose fn eons Tonio Humbor (as runter of | ie ion leans Electron protons aegis te mombe | Mil tw es an pron and onan pons Neutron ‘Mass Number — Atomic Number | Yar for Silent topes ofthe Isotopes: Atoms of the same element having same atomic number (proton number) but different mass number (neutron). \sotopes cannot be determined from the periodic table as elements are ar ‘of proton numbers. Example: ged on the basis Hydrogen have three isotopes namely protium ('H), deutium (*H) and ttium (H). (Chlorine *°Cl and C1 Sodium ®°Na and *Na, 2 Electronic Configuration ‘Arrangement of electrons inthe shells, sub shells and orbitals around the nucleus. Itis based on atomic rhumber of the element ‘Some Basic Concepts: Itis considered that at maximum there are 7 shells (energy level) around the nucleus which are represented by Prinolpal Quantum Numbers from 1 to 7. Shell 1 is closest to the ucleus and has lowest energy whereas shell 7 is farthest and has maximum energy. Maximum number of electron that can be present in the shell can be determined by the formula 2n?. Wherenis the shell number (Principal Quantum Numbers). Maximum Capacity of the Shells: ‘Shell Number | 2 xn? | Max Electrons T Dx 2 2 2xe a a Be 76 4 2xa 2 But we also know That maximum eleatrons that Gan be present in The valen, ‘Sub Shell AS per capacity, each shell have sub shells namely s, p, d and f (in s ee a Sib hols I at lowest anergy lvel an sub shat fat highest one ingly. ‘Sub shell Capacity Ce = Z| 9 ot P 6 Oo ff a OP 8 7 asAS Level Cramiay Notes Une 2: Aton ruts ‘Sub shell is spherical and sub shell pis dumbbell shape in which electrons are revolving and spinning, 8 & sub shell p sub shell d sub shell orbital: Each sul shell is further divided into arias in which maximum 2 electrons can exist but with opposite ‘spin. Dumbbell shape orbitals are named on the basis of cartesian axis at which that exist. ‘Sub shell | Capacity | Orbitals Names z T = Pe 6 a PX. By. BE d 0 5 [oy be, dye, oe 7 [3 7 |When an atom isin ground state (most stable state as electrons are al the lowest energy level), following rules are applied forthe electronic configuration Rana rr ee oa Ques penton tert 1 & 2 OS 3 SOO ‘ ©OOO 5 OOOO 6 QOO@GO 7 ®O@O ‘The Order of Filing of Orbitals: 15%, 254, 2p, Sst, 9p, 45, 3, Ap, Sst, Ad, Sp, Gs, at, 5, ‘Always Remember: ‘3d (winen empty) is at high energy than 4s, s0 4s wil bo i ‘3. 3d contains any electrons thon it must be placed with 3 shell sub shell. Always re wil bo fl fist ns and also ‘removed from 4e as If the outer most sub shel. Carefully ead the folowing order when the orbitals are completely ile.AS Level Cramiay Notes para ane Une 2: Aton ruts 18%, 2st, 2p, Os, Sp, ae, As, Ap, Ad, SS, pF, Electronic Configuration of Some Elements: TN = 188, 28%, 2p? 1S = 187, 267, 29%, 98°, Spt ahr = 182,258, 2p, Os, Spt WH = 16%, 26%, 2pF, B52, Spt, ds! ‘aiGr= 1st, 2s, 2p, 9s, pF, 3, 4s ‘Fe = 18%, 252, 2p, 36, 3p, Sa, 45? 90u = 18, 26%, 2, 35%, dp, ad! ds! I.can also be written in this form; = (A, Sa, 458 +P2(will have three more electrons than atomic number) 484,258, 2p, 95%, ph «S+(uill have two less electrons than atomic number) 184,254, 2p, 98%, 9p", 90", 4s#, 4p OR Sr = KE] Pauli's Exclusion Princi ‘An ofbital can contain maximum two electrons, only if they have opposite spin. One ofthe electrons wil have clockwise and the other will have anticlockwise spin. wAr= 182, 25%, 2px2, 2py2, 2pzt, Sst, Spx, Spy®, pz? Clockwise C SD) Ant Clock wise Hund's Rule: If degenerated orbitals (orbitals of the same shell) are available, then electrons ihe parallel spin (to avoid repulsion). rN = 18%, 26%, 2px!, Qpy! patAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vid scans Uns 2: Atomic rte 2.3: lonisation Energy: AH" tis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from the valence shel of one mole gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous unipositve fon iis dercied by AM. it an endothermic process wih Ki mol un Xq PX" g He First lonisation Energy isthe energy required io remove one mole of elections rom the valence shel ofone mole gaseous atoms ofan element to frm one mole of gaseous unposive on. Nis denoted by AHL, ‘Second ionisation Energy 1tis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons irom one mole gaseous uni posive ion of an element to form one mole of gaseous oi postive ion. itis denoted by Au Cay ———* Cory + te AH) = 4580 KU mol ist) Cay ———» Cary + te He = +1150 Kd mot” (second IE) sie concepts: Second ionization energy valve or any successive ionisation valve will aways be higher than the fist ionisation value as itis geting more dificult o remove electton from the postively charged ion, due to more ‘rotonic attraction from the ncous on the remaining elacrons, Factors Affecting lonisation Energy: ‘Atomic size: {As atomic size increases, distance between the protons (nucleus) and electron increases, s0 attractions ‘decreases hence ionisation energy decreases. First of K eee cae From top to bottom in a group of the periodic table atomic size increases so igr sa decreases, From el ight atomic size comparatively decreases so rsation enero Ny e the valenge electrons so te fet of posive ndlear charge at > From tof botom i a group of he period able atomic is ng dv to nereased rumba of shes ‘Shielding Etfect: ‘As elecirons are negatively charged so they repel each other. El oo einer shal repel nce electrons is reduced. More the number of shells used in electronic configuration, sch eel oe id 'be the ionisation energy. oO Hence shielding effect increases so ionisation energies decrease! In a particular period from lett right, numberof shells remain same, so shielding atomic number effect remain same,AS Level Cramiay Notes pceaa ao ne Uns 2: Atomic rte Effective Nuclear Charge: Protons in the nucleus attracts electrons towards the center, however i isthe net positive charge that is used to attract the valence electrons. It increases withthe atomic number (proton number). Effective nuclear charge increases trom let to right in a period (as elements are arranged rom left to right in the periodic table onthe basis of atomic number). So ionisation energy also ineceases from let to right inthe period table. In a group trom top to Bottom elective rulclear charge does not vary First IE of Na = 494K mol Fist IE of Mg = 796K mol ‘Tronds of First lonisation Enorgy in the Periodic Table: Group: Ina particular group from top to bottom + Aiomie size increases “+ Shielding effect increases + Effective nuclear charge remain samo So attractions between the valence electrons and the nucleus decreases, hence lanization energy decreases, Fist IE of Be 900 KJ mot Fist IE of Mg 736 KJ mol" Fist IE of Ca = 590K mol! Period Ina particular period from left to right + Atomic size comparatively decreases + Shielding effect remain same + Effective nuclear charge increases So attractions between the valence electrons and the nucleus increases, hence Jonisation energy increases. First IE of Na = 494K mol! First IE of Mg = 736 KJ mot! lonisation energy also depends on the type of sub shel (orbital from which electrons are removed. For example p sub shell is at high energy state and more shielded than s sub shell f the electron ‘is removed from 2p then ionisation energy is lower than the electron removed from 2s. Bo = 18828 FistiEotBe = 900 Kilmol* B= 108,268, 2p8 First IE of B 799 Kulmole* ww Similar case is applied for magnesium and aluminum (Period 3) SL & ‘Also hal led p orbital is more stable than partly filed. Atoms having ha 4 ee higher ionisation energy than partially filed (as pairing of electrons in oe N 18%, 28%, 25° FistiEofN = 1400 Kulmole* 0 6%, 238, Opt First IE of 0 Similar case is applied for Phosphorus and Sulphur (Period 3) Successive tonisation Energies and the Postion of Einent |As we know that electrons are removed in an order from hight srgy orbital (valence) to the lowest Sry tal To eanvo ecto be igh ove 1 eaten sovomoarel {oremove an electron from the low energy orbital. Hence @uccessive lonzalion energies are always high.AS Level Cramiay Notes Une 2: Aton ruts However a sudden and abnormal increase in successive ionization energy represents change ot shell (quantum number) Example: ‘An element X has following successive ionization energies 520,7300,11800. Identity the element. Answer: rE PE SIE Element 520 7300 11800 Difference of IE 6780 4500 ‘Tho diferonce between 1% and 2° value suggests change of shel. So there is only one electron in the valence shell and total tiee electrons are present. is electronic configuration willbe 182, 2s1, hence group 4 and period 2 (a. Example: ‘An element Y has folowing frst four suocessive ionization energies 577, 1820, 2740 and 11600. Identity the element Answer: re Dae 3a1E Pe Element ¥ a7 1820 2740 11600 Difference of IE 1243, 920 8860 ‘The aitference between 3" and 4% value suggests change of shel, So there are three electrons in the ‘Y belong to group three. ‘An olement Z has the folowing successive ionization energies 510, 4560, 6940, 9540, 12400, 16600, £20100, 28600, 28800, 141000 and 158700. Give the electronic configuration ofthe element. WE Pe [EE | OE OE PE | OE ME] WE TE HlomentY | st0 | «660 | 6940 | 9540 | 15400 | ve600 | 20i00 | 25800 | 28900 | 141000 | 158700 Dierence ‘oso_| 2200 | 2600 [aco | a2oo | aso | soo | 400 | 112100 | 17700 ‘The difference between 1 and 2” and 9° and 1 0" ionization energies represents change: is only 1 valence electron and total 11 electrons. So electronic configuration is 182, 252, Element is sodium. group 1 and period 3AS Level Cramiay Notes a Uns 2: Atomic rte SIR ek et 1. MY T6201 (8) Complete the table to show the composition and identity of some atoms and ions. ‘rama of | hucleon | alomie | numberof! | numberof | number of | overall element | number_| number | protons | neutrons | electrons | charge ‘boron | 10 5 0 nitrogen 8 10 208 2 2 20 3 3 zi a 4 (©) The itn to eighth ionisation energies of three elements inthe third period ofthe Periodic Table are given. The symbols used for relerence are not the actual symbols of the elements. ionization energies, KI mot ‘mn | sian | seventh | eighth x | 7012 | e496 | 2rto7 | 31671 y | e542 | 9362 | 11018 | 33606 z_| 738 | s7a1_| 11996 | 13842 (State and explain the group numberof element Y. croup number explanation. (1 (W) State and explain the general wend in first lanisaion energies across the thd Perio. (i) Complete the electronic configuration of element x, 182 2 ONTIP2102ebe ‘The Periodic Table we currently use is derived directly from on eee in 1869 by Mendeleev iho had noticed patterns inthe physical and chemical proper ‘elements he had stusied. The diagram below shows te rst ionisation energies of tgs semen of the Pero TableAS Level Cramiay Notes ‘psc miners Une 2: Aton ruts 2500: He 2000. No first ionsaion 4509 rn energy t IKIME 4969. 500 t Ne ° OT ESAS GTB Oi DiBIAIS TOTTI Proton number (2) Give the equation, including state symbols, forthe fist ionisation energy of sulr. os os v2] (©) Explain why there Is @ general increase in ist ionisation energies aorass tha Period from sodium to argon 5 (©) (Explain why the first ionisation energy of magnesium is greater than that of aluminium. (i) Espa why the first ionisation energy of phosphorus is greater than tha of sir. ae 3. Mi 10"P22I01 In the 19th and 20th centuries, experimental results showed sj al\atoms consist of a positive, heavy nucleus which is surrounded by electrons. (7 ‘Then in'the 20th century, theoretical scientists explained, fe arranged in orbitals ‘round Complete the table to show the composition ‘of some atoms and ions. (@) The diagram below represents the energy le is present in atoms of the second period (Li to No). ox ) () Label the energy levels to incicat Wee xp Guantum number and the typeof orbital at each energy level ™ xo)AS Level Cramiay Notes psc mi hencatre Une 2: Aton ruts energy (®)—_Onthe axes below, draw a sketch ciagram of one of each citferent type (shape) of orbital that fs occupied by the electrons in a secondperiod element, Label each type. ee (ii) Complete the electronic configurations of nitrogen atoms and oxygen atoms on the energy level diagrams below. Use arrows to represent electrons. So reopen le Ee So” oxen e o X ? (6) ©) (Uso he Data Booka 1 ette he van gf TP gflSiaton energy of nzogen and of oxygen. KO 5 N kJ mor" Or . kd moh SsAS Level Cramiay Notes Une 2: Aton ruts (1) Explain, wit reference 1 your answer to (ali), the elatve values ofthese two ionisation energies.AS Level Cramiay Notes UNIT3 Chemical Bonding AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed ots0533.277385, rasheedahmad7874@ gralicom Bead READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-6, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg I, Lahore. Tek 042-95714088 Cal: 0396-5314141 Web: www: seadnwrite.org E-mal readandwrteotfice@gmallcom it mil Bonding Topics 3.1: lonic or Electrovalent Bond 3.2: Covalent Bonding 3.8: Coordinate or Dative Covalent Bonding i: Valence shell electron palr repulsion theory 3.5: Orbital Hybridization 3.8: End of Chapter Past Paper Questions,AS Level Cramiay Notes st Chemie Boning i Chemical Bonding ‘A chemical bond isthe force of attraction that holds the particles together in a chemical substance. ‘These are diferent types of chemical bonding: lonic or electrovalent bonding ‘Covalent bonding Govordinate or dative covalent bonding Metalic bonding Inter molecular forces of attractions (that include the following: Induced / instantaneous dipole * Permanent dipole + Hydrogen bonding Need to Remember: AAioms gain, lose or share electrons in order to attain stable electronic configuration lke inert gases by following the duplet or octet rule. 3.4: onic or Electrovalent Bond: ‘A.bond that is formed due 1 compete transfer of eloctron(s) from a metal atom to anon metal atom. Hence ‘electrostatic forces of attractions develop between metalic cation and non metalic anion. Formation of NaCl: Sodium is a metal where chlorine is a non meta Na = 188,258 2p3e! ‘nC 18828*2p".a88, 3p! There is a complete transfer of one valence electon from sodium 36! tothe valence shell 3p* of chlorine. Resultanly postive and negative ions are formed wit the nable gas electronic configuration, Nar! = 16825" phe Cl" = 168,258 2p8 3st, aptAS Level Cramiay Notes oR Formation of MgO: Magnesium is a metal where oxygen is @ non metal. Mg = 182,25" 2p ast ‘There is a complete transfer of two valence electrons ‘oxygen. Resultantly positive and negative ions are formed with the noble gas Mg"? = 152 2st, 2ph.96° oR sO= 1s, 28,2p¢ om magnesium 952 tothe valence st SE DstaptAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vn teens st Chemie Boning Noeds to Remember: Cation (positive ion is always smaller in size than its atom because + Ono complete valonce shells omitted + Same number of protons has a more fim hold on less electrons. ‘Whereas anion (negative ian) wil be large in size than the atom because ‘+ Same protons will have weaker hold on more electrons, Concept: |When an atom lose election, tis endthermic, gains energy (lonsation energy) whereas gain of elacon is exothermic, means lose energy (electron afin) ‘Some Characteristic Properties of lonic Compound: Melting / Bolling Point: ’As the bonding involve electrostatic force of atractions between oppositely charged parisles, hence they ‘exist inthe form of ionic latices (hard solids) with high meling and boiing pot. Explain why MgO has higher meting point 2850°C than NaC! 801°C? ‘Water Solubility: Mostly ionic compounds are water soluble. On aissolving, oppositely charged ions dissociate and arrange ‘themselves in between the spaces of water molocues. Electrical Conductivity: lonic compounds are nan conductors of electric in ther sold state as ions are compactly packed and are not free to move. In molten and aqueous solution form ions are free to move hence elecincal conductors. 3.2: Covalent Bonding: ‘A bond formed between non metals due to mutual sharing of electrons. Shared pair of electron is represented in dot and crass form in the valence shell overlapped area of the bonded atoms. ‘Single Covalent Bond: Bond formed due to sharing of one electron pair (one electron each by bonding atoms). I is represented by a singe line between atoms. He, Ob, HCl and CH ron Electronle Configurations: Hate! (needs one lecvon to complete he valncd3 nOln1s*2s229836, 598 (needs one electron to complete the va on 1h2eh 2p (neds four electron to complete ny osAS Level Cramiay Notes Double Covalent Bond: Bond formed due to sharing of two electrons each by bonding atoms. tis represented by a double line between atoms. Example: (Oz, COs and Cole 10 = 1s8,2s%.2p¢ Triple Covalent Bond: : Bene formed de to sharing of tree decors each by boning atoms. iis repeseried Bf Eon ane i &< Example: Ns(Stee Qeniaty Noes ‘aa 8 wi ubteatons ‘Shared / Bond Pair: ‘A pair of electron formed due to mutual sharing of electron between the bonded atoms. Lone pai ‘A pair of electron inthe valence shall that do not participate in covalent bond formation, 3.3: Coordinate or Dative Covalent Bonding: ‘A.bond thats formed when an atom {molecule or molecular ion) donates its lone pair of electrons to share. ‘Other atom does not contribute any electron in bond formation Electron pair donating atom called donor and tho other one is reeiplent. This is represented by an arrow from donor to the recipient atom, Dative covalent bonding lays an important role inthe formation of molecular addtion compounds (adduct) and complex ions such as NH", AlsCls and HiNBF, ‘Ammonium fon NHe+*: Itis formed due to dative covalent bond between nitrogen of ammonia (donor) and hydrogen positive fon (cecipient O-G:) x 7 we Alle: Molecular mass of anhydrous aluminum chloride in benzene is 267. Because aluminum el to form Alls. Lone pair of chore (donor) of ane ofthe AlCl forms dative covalent (ecipient) of ther AICI, Similarly at higher temperature aluminum chloride exist as a molecule witAS Level Cramiay Notes a st Chemie Boning ‘Some Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compound: Melting / Bolling Point: Mostly covalent substances are gases or liquids with low meting and boling points because they ‘experience weak intermolecular forces of attractions. Only macromolecules (diamond, graphite, sca) are ‘sold with high meting and boiling point ‘Water Solubility: Mostly covalent substances are water insoluble, However certain polar covalent compounds dissolve and ionize in water Electrical Conductivity: CCovalont substances are non conductors of electricity as they don't have free electrons or ions to conduct. ‘Aqueous solution of certain polar covalent compounds e., Aqueous HCI have free ions to conduct, Covalent Bonding In Terms of Orbital Overtapping ‘Sigma Bond: ‘A single covalent bond thats formed due to direct overlapping (head to head) ofthe orbitals ofthe bonded ‘atoms. Electron density is concentrated in between the bonded atoms. O © Pi (mn) Bond: “Mis bord famed betwen he loms which a akan bod wi apa once eal) become pre ans, ey err fo fom dona igh boveor owt ogra Don oe Fiateed ond between vo ams vl bo signe snore aber bn Bons i (m) bond electronAS Level Cramiay Notes Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles: ‘Shapes and bond angles ofthe molecules are discussed on the bass of many different rules, however as ‘ber syllabus requirement they are only discussed in this part of the chapter on the basis of Valence Stell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR), 3.4: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory Electronic pairs (bond pair and lone pair) are distributed around the central atom of the molecule and are responsible for the shapes and bond angles af the molacule, The basic postulates ofthe theory are given bolow: 4. Shape of a molecule can be determined on the basis of rumber of valence electranc pair ofthe central atom. 2. Dueto electronic pair repulsion, electrons try to separate as much as possible to minimize repulsion ‘3. Lone pair of electrons accupies more space than the bond pair. Elacronic pair repulsion decreases in the {allowing o Lone pa-lone par > lone pair—bond pait_ > bond pair ~ bond pair Presence of lone pai of electron nfence the shape, although inthe description only bond pair are shown. Double or triple covalent bonds occupy the same space asthe single bond electronic pair. Presence of amore electronegative atom inthe surounding of central atom pull the shared pair of electron towards itself hence remaining electronic pair can separate more, increasing the bond angle. eosAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vt tcatne st Chemie Boning Yerwes Etnctronc | Type | ®"°% | cxample| shape | Planarbord | sracture Pair Low a wm lame | come fe | Penrer me No lone fal — 180° ia f Pree i reo [ass | P [cu fron |e K Sar” | Cate a Ce 4 Abend ly s008 wae nenpumme |G) a | (PH om fret [None AS = H H H no | pais [rs [tera ton ‘ese een poe | 798" | Yoem | /Nensawer m @ ay Cr Molecule Containing Six Electronic Par (Bond Pal) SF: > & Sulphur suroundes by six bond pir (no one pt) thazprocud!an octahedral rangement wth al anges of 9° ‘$ 16S = 18825829836, Spx?, Spy', Spz! xAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vit catns st Chemie Boning Sulphur undergoes spd? orbital hybridization, by which one electron from 3s and one from 3p are ‘promoted to 34, gonerating a set of six degenerated orbital with one electron where flouine share lis alecton. FE Filii,, |. ja F Molecule Containing Five Electronic Pair (bond pait) PFs: Phosphorus is surrounded by five bond pair (no lone pal) that produce a Trigonal bl Pyramidal arrangement with three bond pais ina plane with bond angles of 120°, whereas two ofthe bond pairs ‘become arial in position. This axial bond pair forms a bond angle of 80° with each ofthe bond pairs in a planer arrangement. uP = 1s8,2s8.2p8.3st, Spx’, Spy', dpzt Phosphorus undergoes sp*d! orbital hybridization, by which one electron from &s is promoted to 9d, ‘generating a set of five degenerated orbital with one electron where fluorine share its electron. 3.5: Orbital Hybridization K z.& {A process by which bao itr energy and shape merge guna to Peotrs ot tame aray and shape. Number of opened aia ood & eqs, mre topoer Orta! hyridzaion i used 1 expan boring and geomet tthe nu pling such mnlelne Wn have expanded ta xe " ‘Aspe VSEPR theory, valeney dened a umber! unpsed eval ce sel ofa om, Corals rot aplosen Be Band Cit the2= pared Tepe tO) type of ral hyoricaton thee we wastes on fof hem. 9" Hybiztion: "<> Aybtzaion which ane 8 and teem orbtal ybrized@benerat our ep ebtls faving one tteton) of same energy a rapeAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vittcatns st Chemie Boning C= 18, 2s', 2px, 2py’, 2p7 ‘One of the electrons of 2s is promoted to 2pz, hence 2s?, 2px', 2py', 2px merge together to form 4sp? orbitals. feceteel {C= 18.25, 269,259, 256 “These 5p? oritals arrange themselves in a regular erahecron with a bond angle of 109.5. nal those txamples (CH, CCl and oer alkanes) where carbon forms fou single covalnt bond wih other aloms atbon flow gp! hybacizaton ‘sp? Hybridization: AX hybridization in which one s and two p orbitals hybridized to generate three sp® orbitals (having one: ‘lectron) of same energy and shape. One o the p orbital does not undergo hybridization. «C= 18%, 25%, 2px’, 2py', 2p! ‘One o the electrons of 2s is promoted to 2pz, hence 2%, 2px', 2p2° merge together to form 3sp* orbitals. totot (C= 18, 2sph, 2sp!, spl, 2py’ “These sp? orbitals arrange themselves ina regular tigonal wth a bond angle of 120° In Cats, carbon form two single covalent bond with hydrogen and one double covalent bond with other ‘atoms Carbon follow sp? hybridization. In ethyne (CeHs), carbon follows sp hybridization where carbon forms a trip ‘covalent bond. lonie Character in Covalent Substances: Simple covalent molecules are classified into two categories. + Non polar molecules + Polar covalent molecules Bo These ctogores ar ceignedon reba; ‘+ Types of atoms (elements) present in the molecule ( ‘+ Geometrical shape ofthe molecule s eclegavy sites)(Stee Qeniaty Noes ‘aa 8 wr ubteabons Electronegatvity: Its the tendency of an atom to atract shared pair of electrons ina covalent molecule Increases from eto right in the period and decreases from top to bottom in group. Maximum electronegativity (4.0) is of fucrine group 7. Non Polar Covalent Molecule: ‘A covalent molecule formed betwoen similar atoms are non polar. They are considered as purely covalent Example: Hs, Ns, O:, Os, Se and Ps et. “There are certain covalent compounds which are non polar due to ts geometrical shape. As dipole in one rection will cancel the equal dipole in the opposite direction, BeCk, Cle, Cds, CO2 and OC, d-s—d of o= Exampl Polar Covalent Molecul ‘A covalent molecule formed between dissimilar atoms is polar. A molecule in which shared pal Is not ‘equally distributed so positive and negative poles are formed within the molecule (dipole) ‘A more electronegative atom in the molecule will tract shared pair so cay paral negative charge and the less electronegative atom wil carry partial positive charge. Hence it can be stated that a covalent bond is formed due to unequal sharing of electronic pairs. ‘These molecules exhibit some othe ionic characteristics such as HOI dissolve and ionize in water and also ‘become electical conductors. Example: HCl, NHs, HO, SO2 and CH:Cl ete fe Bo. nH QS Asynmetiea! roles wth oe pl section i the cena im of pls tor ciple, Acris non pla where ao PCs polar de To presence one seh Covatent Characteristic in lonic Compound oa fale pps ed a ont rr ocr Gan a won ta oceans Seeds esatinnat eet oars moe SEoatecse tant poston sc caa aes ae epee credo crepancy ea Permanent Dipole > Induce Dipole Instantaneous Dipole - Induced Dipole Forces: (Vander Waal’s Attractions) “These are weakest intermolecular forces of attraction and also known as london or dispersion forces. These forces exis in all ypes of non polar molecules; mono atomic molecule, molecule of eloment and compound and polymer (graphite, palyethene etc) ‘Those forces are more effective at low temperature and high pressure. “These forces depend on numberof elections present which can be affected by instantaneous dipole. More the electron stronger willbe the forces of attractions ‘This Attraction Depends on the Following Factors: Molecular size: ‘+ larger the molecular size (more electron in the molecule, stronger will be the forces of attractions hence: higher wil be the boling point (latent heat of fusion and vapouriation). Boling point increases down the ‘group Vil and Vill of non metals Chain Structure: Inca lage yscaton mle, ag hn moles have songe fees fata han branched one due fo more sutace area and point of contacts. Example: ‘GHs- CHe— Hs — CHe- CH have the boing point 36°C. ‘GH - CH(CHs) ~ CH - CHy have the boiling point 23°C. ‘GH C (CHa CH: have the boiling point 10°C, ‘Those forces exist in polar molecules. Positive pote of a 1 fs tract the negative pole ofthe othor ™ovecule, inthis way all opposite poles come close an re arranged.AS Level Cramiay Notes “Tis force is stronger than instantaneous dipole — induced dipole attraction. Force depends ondliference othe elactronegativity of atoms in the molecule, more diference more defined «pole £0 higher the intermolecular forces of atractons. In general substances having dipole - dipole atractions have higher melting point, Boling point and enthalpy of vaporization, Polar solutes can also + Wehpetin LO + Low temperature, SP yso Deviation at High Pressure: ‘Alhigh pressure molecules of gas come closer ard occupy smal volume. Re increases, so close arrangement and more collision per unit volume mai Volume significant. Deviation st Low Toipertr: sons Sina a i npertie mois oe Mei ney 6 ey Ao cae one, here te Inlet atracions reas making the acta ume ©AS Level Cramiay Notes psc vid tcans Unit: States of eter Deviation of Polar Molecut Polar molecules deviate more than non polar gases. As cipole dipole attraction and hydrogen bonding is ‘stronger than instantaneous dipole induced dipole atraction. 'Non polar larger molecules deviate more than non potar smaller molecules. ‘Order of deviation of some ofthe gases: NHs > COs > Ne > He> He a pnt Real gases can show ideal behaviour at very high temperature and low pressure. 4.2: Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids ‘Type of matter that have definite volume but indefinite shape is called iquid. Following ae some postulates ‘of kinetic molecular model of liquids. Liquids are intermediate in character between solids and gases. Molecules of iquid are present inthe form of cisters. Long range disorder and short range order. Inter molecular forces of atractions are stronger than gases but weaker than solids. Molecules ofthe quid have less kinetic energy and more potential energy than gases. Molecules ofthe quid move randomly in a 29 - 2ag way (Brownian motion), ‘Typical Properties of Liquids: Metting: Wher sotd is heated, molecules gain kinetic energy so the molecules move by overcortyintr molecular ores of atractone and increasing gape between the molecslasreevtary Sold peleg” Vopourzation: Molecules othe quid are continuously moving and coidng wih each ter, 0. Iter changed, The molecules having suit energy to overcome er escape rom te laud sua as vapours (vapurzaor). Vapourization can ake place at any temperature, however increase in ‘apouraton (ovaporaton) & Vapour Pressure: © ‘An eculbsum state at which rae of evaporation coreg condensation ofthe liquid in a c ‘closed container ata given temperature. At this state p by the vapours on the wall ofthe Container is called vapour pressure. Os rAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vntwncatone Unit: States of eter Vapour pressure increases with increase of temperature, as number of vapours increases with increase of temperature. 4.3: Solid: Solids have definite shape, volume and strong intermolecular forces of attractions. Molecules are compactly ‘and regularly arranged. They are just vibrating a their fixed position due to less kinetic energy. ‘Solids are of diferent types on the basis of type of bonding involved. 1. tonic 2. Simple covalent 3. Macromolecule 4 5 Metals Hydrogen bonding. lonie Solids: lonic solids exist in definite crystalline form with high meting and boiling point due to strong electrostatic force of attractions in oppositely charged ions. Shape of crystal depends on size of ions. Mostly ionic ‘compounds exist in simple cubic form, Sodium chloxide and magnesium oxide exist in face centered cuble structure (each face ofthe cube has ‘anion ints centre). Each ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged ion. Oppasitely charged ions exist in 6:8 rato (empirical ratio 1:1). Covalent Soli Covalent substances consists of small molecules which are held by Van der Wall's forces of attractions or hydrogen bonding, Physical properties of such substances are determined by the strength of inter molecular {forces of atractons. Covalent substances generally have low melting and boling point, poor conductor of heat and electricity ‘and water insoluble, lode isa sublime solds which have face centered cuble structure, Simiary fullerene allotopes of carbon such as Ca» and nanotubes experience the weak Vander Waals attractions, Hydrogen Bonding: ‘A type of inter molecular force of attraction which exist in compounds containing hydrogen covalently ‘bonded with fuorine, oxygen or nitrogen (FON) Hydrogen bonding i stronger than Vander Wall's force of atvactions and much weaker than Importance of Hydrogen Bonding In Physica Properties: ‘Water isan important example of hydrogen bonding as inter molecular forces of 2 alga steer mseelen eo etretod by hyeogon boning ata wy hydride ofthe same group (HS) 3 Inice, water molecules are arranged in a regular pattern ike diamond. O3 molecule have ‘wo bond pairs and two lone pairs (which foem hyGrogen bond with the hy neighbouring water molecule). Resultatly space among water molecules widens maki than water, ‘Compounds showing hydrogen bonds are mutually soluble. Water, Cleaning action of soape and detergents are due to mong Helical structure of DNA is due to hyerogen bonding 4.4: Macromolecules (Giant connon sika Macromolecules are formed due to continuous covalent bord i form extended structure. These molecules have some properties in common; thalAS Level Cramiay Notes psc ve ncatns Unit: States of eter + Solids with high metting and boiling point ‘+ Water insoluble ‘+ Non conductors of heat and electricity (some exemptions are for electrical conductance). ‘Three Dimensional Macromolecules: Diamond, slicon dioxide (SiOz - Quartz) and silicon carbide (SiC) form three dimensional structures. In ‘diamond each carbon is bonded with four her careon atoms to form a regular tetrahedron, whieh In three g Metalic bonds the electrostatic force of atracton between cations and delocalized fr Gecko Os ‘Shapes (cubic or hexagonal) of metalic laios is due to compact arrangement ofc 2) ‘Copper has face centered cubic lattice. Metals are conductors of electricity and, nd ductile and have high meting point, boing point and density \ Uses of Copper and Alloys: \\ + Pure coppers used in electrical wiring and central heating system (9 ‘+ Being malleable and corrosion resistant, used in kitchen utensis, Pat heat and elect) pene oaing {Biase (Cun) used n making hinges screws and che {Bronze (Gu) ea evonger ao, used in making ships pr rigs of machines, ec cena sees 1 Aloy win magnesium makes te alominum hard bt rat ttre. + Being rust and corrosion resistant itis used in cooking utenSlS Wadows etc. + Being good electrical conductors, used in over head cables.AS Level Cramiay Notes Unit: States of eter Recycling to Conserve the Natural Resources: arth provides us with natural resources, which may be abundant in some cases) but are finite and wil not last forever. Increase in demand, not oniy decreases the natural resources but also cause mary pollution problems, Here are some acvantages of recyeing, ‘+ Reduced demand for new raw materials. ‘+ Reduction in environmental damages ‘+ Reduced demand for land fil sites to dump waste, ‘+ Reduce energy cost of extraction.AS Level Cramiay Notes SIRs see eed 1 MJ 15P21/02/a,b The relationship pV = nRT can be derived from the laws of mechanios by assuming ideal behavior for gases. (2) The graph represents the relationship between pV and p for areal gas at three diferent o) temperatures, Ts, Tz and Ts P (Draw one line an the graph to show what the relationship should be for the same ‘amount of an ideal ga. 1) (State and explain, wih reference tothe graph, which of Ts, Ts or Tas the lowest temperature. ow (wy Explain your answer to (i) wih reerence to intermolecular forces. 1 (iv) State and explain the effect of pressure on the extent to which a gas/deviates from soe Ce Cn « AD ss BM (21 A flask with volume of 160 cm? was fist weighed wii fii, fe flask, and then with another gas, ¥, filing the flask. The resuts, me 1 26°C and 1.00%105 Pa, are shown Br“y 5) Mase offaskconaing a= 4788092 CS So Mass of flask containing Y < ao Donat ot “ooo po)AS Level Cramiay Notes psc vnetcans Unit: States of eter Calculate the relative molecular mass, M. of Me of ¥ 4 2 omosp2aia1 The elements carbon and silcon are both in Group IV ofthe Periodic Table CCarbon isthe second most abundant element by mass in the human body and silicon is the second ‘most common element in te Earth's crust. Carbon and silicon each form an oxide of general formula XO, [At room temperature, CO:s a gas while SiO is a solid witha high melting point (2) Briefly explain, in terms ofthe chemical bonds and intermolecular forces present in each ‘compound, why CO: fs a gas and SiO. isa solid at room temperature. (©) Drawa'simpie diagram to show the siruciure of SiG. Your diagram should contain at ieast ‘wo sifcon atoms and show clearly how many bonds each atom forms. (COs does not behave as an Weal gas. (©) (State the basic assumptions ofthe kinetic theory as applied to an idea a os . sg vo (i) Suggest one reason wiy GO: daeg et bebe as an idea pas - 6AS Level Cramiay Notes Unit: States of eter Carbon exists in a number of forms, one of which is a conductor of electri and one of which is a ‘non-conducto of electricity. Silicon fs the main component of most semi-conductor. (@) Graphite isthe form of carbon thal a conductor of electric. Give a simplo explanation for this property. m1 When carbon and sileon(IV) oxide are Neated together at about 2000°C, silicon carbide, SiC, is formed. Siicon carbide is a hard malerial which is widely used as an abrasive and in ceramics. (©) (Construct an equation forthe reaction of carbon and siicon(IV) oxide, (SiG has a similar structure to one ofthe common forms of carbon Which form is this? Give a reason for your answer. form .. reason a 3. Muoarparat (2) State two assumptions of ideal gas behaviour o (i) a Use ofthe Data Booklet i relevant in () and () (b) Theideal gas equation s pV =nAT. Explain as fully as you can the meaning a the following terms, and give the units for each to correspond with the value of R. given in the Data Booklet, Oo Vn at (5) (986 at 24 °C and f the gas is ammonia, (©) ("When an evacuated glass bulb of volume 63.8 o 199.5 kPa, the mass increases by 0.103 9 riogen or argon.AS Level Cramiay Notes Unit: States of eter (W) Explain why ammonia isthe most likely of these three gases to deviate from ideal (gas behaviourAS Level Cramiay Notes ama? Unit: States of eter Blank PageAS Level Cramiay Notes Un 5:Cramicl energetics UNITS a 5.1: Standard conditions for standard enthalpy changes. CHEMICAL eeesnstmanyannston ENERGETICS «=~ 5.4: Activation Energy (Ea) ‘5.5: End of chapter past paper questions. AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed ots0533.277385, rasheedahmad7874@ gralicom ead rite Co READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-6, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg I, Lahore. Tek 042-95714088 Cal: 0396-5314141 Web: www: seadnwrite.org E-mal readandwrteotfice@gmallcomAS Level Cramiay Notes Un 5:Cramicl energetics i Citnieeesne ne Chemical reactions are always accompanied by energy changes. During a particular reaction bonds of the reactants broken down and bonds ofthe producis are formed. On the basis of energy changes, reactions. are classified in two types: Exothermie: Reactions in which energy is given out Reactant are at high energy level than the products. Enthalpy change aH is negative. aH = Hrwice - Haaxine Reaction mixture temperature increases, container become warm, “Temperature change AT is posite. Energy of activation i less, so the reaction is fat. Bond breaking energy (absorbed) is less than bond formation energy (released) esctant Enthalpy Ks mole Product Examples: ‘Oudation of ose and combustion of 2 chas nouakeabon rectors Poasve meta acion wih soe Deol of calcu ca (qh) a water frm eam ycoxa Frololand gaan cal nero ef ptt of mar tor ga lqu rlul soe Eloovon abeoing (ga ta valono sha loc afi ndotermic: acon which nergy taken in Products re ehh ony lvl the reactant Enialpy cargo Ah oot, SH Hoos tsa ee a ae te an a Satie hasimored pS! Tonpcrave Surge of erage oa» nay of activation & mote, ao he reaction is ow. PV Bond eager buon) are han ond latory eee) KoyAS Level Cramiay Notes msc mZhencatre Uns: Chemica energetics Enthapy KI mele ection Patay Examples: ‘Decomposition of metal carbonates. Photosynthesis, Photography (decomposition of siver bromide nto silver and bromine) Dissolving of ammonium chloride in water Electrolysis omoval of electron fram the valence shell ionization energy) Physical state conversion from solid to quid or Iquid to gas, 5.1: Standard Conditions for Standard Enthalpy Changes For afar comparison ofthe enthalpy changes of diferent chemical reactions, folowing standards are taken; ‘Temperature: 298 K (2540) Pressure 4 atmosphere (101 k Pa) ‘Aqueous solutions: 1.0M ‘Substance: 1 mole ‘Substances must be in its physical state soli, liquid or gas as under the standard temperature and pressure ‘conditions and more stable allotropic form must be taken Le, in case of carbon graphite s stable than other allotropic forms, g Standard enthalpy change under standard conditions is represented by (H naught). H® =D ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Reaction (AH®): & Enthaly change when amounts of reactans react together under suas coat ‘egiroever| in abr tenderd Sane, Hew + %0%) == —> 1:09 ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation ( H®) Ecthaby change under old eran, wt one mele ofa oka ered ts somos, hhaving both elements and compound ints standard states. 2S)AS Level Cramiay Notes psc vn zttcatns Uns: Chemica energetics ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Combustion (3H®:) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole of a substance reacts (combust) completely ‘wth oxygen, having reactants and products in ther standard physical states. Ha) + YeOnw — #09 AHP. = -286 KJ mot" ne os 002 AHP. = -994 KJ mot* GHOHH + 30x) =~ —> 200ny + 3 HO%; AHP, = 1367 Ki mot? ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Hydration (AH?ine) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole gaseous ions dissolves in water to give an infinitely dute solution. Itis exothermic reaction. Ue sag Us AHPing = S192 cma? Ory +aq > Cw AHP ya = -364 Kim" ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Solution (4H®sa) Enthalpy change under standard conditions, when one mole solute alssolves in water to give an infinitely allure solution Lichy —> UClae AHP aay =-97.2 KS mol Basicaly it's a difference of latice energy and enthalpy hydration and can be calculated by the formula AH = AHS ate (Lattice Energy) Latice energy is endothermic where as enthalpy change of hydration is exothermic. If value of AH® sexs is negative then solute is easly soluble and viee vers. Alea = (-519.2- 964) —(-846) 37.2.Ks mot! ‘Standard Enthalpy Change of Neutralization (AH°,eu) Enhaby change under standard condiions, when one mole of H: ions fom an act is completely ‘utalzed ty an aka to form one moe of water HClag + NaOHixy > NaCl + HO Enthalpy change of neutralization involving weak acid or weak base will be less CHeCOOH ng + NaCHin) ——> — CHyCOONajg) + HeOy Standard Enthalpy Change of Atomization (AMY): Enthaby change when one mole gaseous aoms is Yomed fom athe element ins standard stato ls ondobormi change. ay oy — te Cue = M8! crags 2 ae eae CdattioedAS Level Cramiay Notes msc Tenens Uns: Chemica energetics Bond Energy: itis the average amount of energy required to break covalent bond of one mole molecules ofa substance toform is atoms. lis uni is KJ mat" oR Fay released to form covalent bond of one mole molecules ofa substance tis the average amount of from its atoms, Some important Concopts: Bond enthalpy values are compared for bonds in gaseous compounds only. 2. Bord onhaby values a ait to cetormne det, ‘3. Strength ofthe bond can be related with bond energy, higher the bond energy higher wil be the bond strength and vice versa. 4. Double bond is stronger than single covalent bond but pi bond (2° bond) is weaker than sigma bond (bond) 5. These are average values, depends on the element bonding with the specific element {6 Bond breaking is endothermic and bond formation is exothermic. if bond breaking energy is higher than ‘bond formation energy, reaction wll be endothermic and vice versa, ‘Some Bond Enthalpies: HoH 436 Ks mol* 347 Kd mat* o-H 413K) mol* 612K mo Measuring Enthalpy Change of the Reactions Enthalpy change of he reaction canbe calculated by using the folowing formula; Enthalpy Change (@) moat on = meat ee m Mass of water (solution) —_(densy of wateris 4 g/em c ‘Specie hat capacity of water (4:2 J g"K}) AT = ise emperature(K or“) ofthe water eoistion) ‘Also we need quantities ofthe reactants to calculate enthalpy change in KJimolo" values, ‘Question: Calculate enthalpy change of combustion of propanal (Cs#:OH), when 0.28 g of propanol rises the temperature of 100 9 of water by 21.5 K. Solution: Mass of water = 1009 © = 42igtkt aT 215K ‘Applying the formula mcAT Energyreleased = 100 x 42 x 215 = So 0.28g of propanol released energy 60 g (Mrof propanol) wil release energyAS Level Cramiay Notes psc vn tcatons Uns: Chemica energetics oR Moles of propanol = = ~—=—028/60 = 0.00467 Hee = 9030/0.00467 = 1935000 =1935 KJ mot ‘As the temperature increases 60 reaction is exothermic, Hence AH®, =1935 KJ mot* ‘Question: Calculate molar heat of neutralization, when 50 cm of HNOs and 50 cm of NaOH, each of concentration (of 1.0 M, are mixed in a polystyrene cup, a temperature rise of 65 °C (K) is observed, Solution: Mass ofwater = 1009 co 42)9°k! a 65K Applying the formula mc aT Energyreleased = 100 x 42 x 6S = 27904. ‘As HNO: and NaOH reacts in same ratio, and given same volume have same concentration. ‘So number of moles of HNO: = §0/1000 x 10 = 0.05 moles AHF 2730/0.05 54600. =54.6 KJ mol? {All acid alkali ntralization reactions are exothermic so negative answer. ‘Answer value is smaller than data booklet value (57.1), as some ofthe energy lot from the cup during ‘experiment 5.3: Hess's law “The foal enthalpy change fora chemical reaction is independent ofthe route by which reaction takes place, provided the intial and final conditions are same. Ave at, Yaz AH aH tts — > P+aQ at $v ‘As per Hess's Law SQ? Route 1= Route 2route total enthalpy change wil be equal to rout 2 ay? sh Mes ee DA poem cee tae wey creer ae és LY Calculate AH®, Using Bond Enthalpy: Fire be/abroae Heep degen act epee ‘As we know that ina chemical reaction rearrangement of aig ence triple bond of nitrogen ‘and single Bond of hydrogen split (endothermic) to form atoms: ‘combine together to form single Covalent bon of nirogen and hydrogen in ammonia (exothermic{) Bond enthalpy of nitrogen (N-N) = 945 xmasAS Level Cramiay Notes paren ane Uns: Chemica energetics hydrogen HH) 496 cits nitrogen and hydrogen (N-H) 38 iets Mm o+ 94s, 300496) 2x3 (891) ‘As por Hoss’ Law’ Routei= Route 2 ane, i ee 45 +1308 + (2940) 22a 2340 3a" Calculate _H*; Using Combustion Enthal Calculate enthalpy change of formation (AH®) of methane using folowing combustion dala; CH) + 2061 > Or + BHOp AHP = 8003 me" Cu + Ow —+ MH = 9985 wn! Hem + 402m = > HeOn MH = 285.8 ws! Enthalpy Cycle: Cy + 2H SHE, Chie ae CO,iq) + 2HDH ‘As per Hess's Law: Route 1 = Route2 aH + = (8903) = (998.5) Hs + (8903) = (295) He = 8903 393.5 He, = 3985 ane, = Trim!AS Level Cramiay Notes psc vn nears Uns: Chemica energetics Calculate aH’, Using Formation Enthalp) Calculate enthalpy change of a reaction in which calcium oxide Is added into water to make calcium hydroxide. CAO) + H4Oy — > alohay at, ? Using folowing fomaton enthalpy change deta: Hew + 400 ya 205.8 na Caw + 000 ana Bt! Caw + %0r— + Hag = > CalOHng aH = 8081 Enthalpy Cyte: 2) + HOy {Oe AA aw/ Cay) + Oy + Hoy (635.1) + (2855)+ (HS) 986.1 2208 + (HS) 986.1 ane, = 986.1 + 9206 = 655 :mer! 5.4: Activation Energy (Ea) Itis the minimum amount of energy more than the average energy which is just sufficient to convert the higher reactants into products. ts denoted by Ea ts unit i mt Activated Complex: ‘The intermediate product wih maximum potential energy the intermediate complex portal energy then willbe converted ino produc, orerise wil revert back to he aa) Ea with Respect to Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: sD “Tre vals based on h posed pao erry oh ects (i on al sain fen ord niga i i ae cole he VA In exothermic reactions, products are at lower potential eneray lev! Eas smal for Iga mete ed ber me ci er acibWlast and backward is slow. In endothermic reactions, products are at higher potetal ene the reactants, Eas large for tne foward reacton and smal or te backward reaction, ton is slow and backward is fastAS Level Cramiay Notes Uns: Chemica energetics Ea (Activated Complex)AS Level Cramiay Notes ‘aa 8 wri ubteatons Uns: Creme erste EIR ee ee 1. Mi 13P231016 @ @ Calculate the standard enthalpy change of formation of CSefrom the folowing data. Include a sign in your answer. standard enthalpy change of combustion of CS: =~1110 ki mo! standard enthalpy change of formation af CO,» = ~395 kl mol! standard enthalpy change of formation of SO» = ~298 kJ mol" a Carbon disulfide reacts with nitrogen monoxide, NO, in a 1:2 molar ato. A yellow soid and two colourless gases are produced, (Construct a balanced equation forthe reaction (Whats the change inthe oxidation numberof sulfur in this reaction? from 0 a 2 MW12/P22/a2/a,5 Alcohols such as methanol, CHsOH, are considered to be possible replacements for fossil fuels because they can be used in car engines. @) ©) Define, withthe aid of an equation which includes state symbols, the standard enthalpy change of combustion, AH, for methanol at 298 K. as oe : Se for this reaction are given in the table below. » S& ‘compound AHS kg mor OQ _ “ze D ar = os fat aaeasie apatite ieee oe on nes eae ace ona ae (CO(Q) + 2He(a) -+ CF kJ mor?AS Level Cramiay Notes psc vill catns Uns: Chemica energetics @ 3 ON 11/P22103, O1N 11/P21103, For some chemical reactions, such as the thermal decomposition of potassium hydogen carbonate, KHCO:, the enthalpy change of reaction cannot be measured directly. In uch cases, the use of Hess’ Law enables the enthalpy change of reaction to be calculated from the enthalpy changes of other reaction. (2) State Hess! Law. - a In order to determine the enthalpy change for the thermal decomposiion of potassium hydrogen carbonate, two separate experiments were caried out. experiment 1 30.0 om of 2.00 mol dm hydrochloric acid (an excess) was placed in a conical flask and the temperature recorded as 21.0°C. ‘When 0.0200 mol of potassium carbonate, K:CO., was added to the acid and the mixture sired with a thermometer, the maximum temperature recorded was 26.2°C. (©) (Construct a balanced equation fr ths reaction. (W) —Galcuiate the quantity of heat produced in experiment 1, stating your units. Use relevant data from the Data oot: and assume that all solutions have the ‘same speci heat capacity as water. (W)_Use your answer to (i) to calculate the enthalpy change per mole of K:OOs. Give your answer in kJ mol" and include a signin your answer. ro) (iv) Explain why the hydrochionc acid must be in an excess. ‘experiment 2 “The experiment was repeated with 0.0200 mol of potassium hydrogencarbonate, KHCOs. All other conditions were the same. Inthe second experiment, the temperature fell from 21.0°C to 17.3°C. (©) Constvuct a balanced equation fr this reaction, w iy