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    AS Level Chemistry Notes Subject Code: 9701 Article No. 238 2019 Edition A Rational Approach To Learning AS Level Chemistry Principles With Rasheed Ahmed Beaconhouse Defence Campus Lahore READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS Ornsrasnane Pimarssisisr — @ wwwradonsis El wadanéwetepueaionShop @ Hew OMe: 3.C,zahoo ahi Ron, Gee Lahore [Ei readndwrte pubistions@emsil com Sale Point 25-28 Lower Ground Flot, Heal Hsleema Centre, Ghazni Set, Uris Baz, Lahore Allright reserved. No part ofthis publication maybe reproduced, stored ina retrieval system or transmted, i any form ary any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording or otherwise Title Author Pablished by Printed by Composed by “Tite designed by Legal Advisor Edition: Price For Books Order LAHORE a > READ & WRITE SALE POINT, ‘Shop No. 25-28 Lower Ground Floor without the prior writen permission ofthe Publis, [AS Level Chemistry Notes (Article #238) Rasheed Abmed (Cell, 492.333 4277385 Read & Write Publications Read & Write Publications ‘Sharjel Khan, Salman Buksh, Shahab, Hayat, Wagas, M. Awa {Usama Ahmar Faroog, Awais Ahmed Rashid Mehmood, Khalid Khurshid Mian Tariq Ahmad (Advocate Supreme Court) Rootn No. 10, 1, 12 AF-Majged Cente |-Morang Roud, Lahore Tel: O42-37236145, Fax: 062:37241367 2019 Eton Call Or SMS: 0336:5314141 DISTRIBUTORS oe > BURHANI BOOK CENTRE ‘Shop # 6 Hashmi Trust Bulding Rotson Road Haadia Haleema Centre, Ghazni Street, [New Urdu Bazar Karachi Urdu Bazar, Lahore. Ph: 042-35714038 Tet: 021-32212640 LT "ABDUL RAHMAN BOOKS > MARYAM ACADEMY ‘Tayyab All Bulding, Urdu Bazar, Karachi Tel: 021-82214243 ,021-32654243 ‘Abdul Flahman Plaza, College Road, Rawalpindi. Tel: 051-5551226, +92-315-5618976 I DEDICATE THIS ENDEAVOUR TO MY PARENTS & MY LIFE LINES: LINTA AND BASIM Preface “What you seek is seeking you” Jalal — ud — Din Rumi | have been teaching introductory chemistry courses for over 20 years, ad for much of thal time, | considered iting my own tex. One reason was thal the existing textbooks stuck me as disjointed. They read more Ike a list of skis to master than tke a coherent story ofthe nature of chemist. | thought it should be possible 0 ‘organize the fundamentals of chemistry so thal each would flow smoothly nto the ext, 60 I began to take the prospect a wing a new textbook seriously. ‘Ave you ever frustrated that takes so long to get to deserbing interesting chemical changes? Most prep:chem texts don't describe chemical reactions unt! miaway through the text or even later, thereby reinforcing students ‘expectations that chemistry wil be boring and irelevant. Do you ever worry that your students can write and ink balanced chemical equations withthe type of chemical reaction, but do not have a clear mental image of the ‘evens that occur during a chemical reaction? | thnk itis extremely important for students to develop the ablity {o visualize the models that chemists use for describing the sructure and behavior of mate. | want them to be able to connect a chemical equaton wih reaction type to a visual image of what fs happening in the reaction. “Throughout the text, | emphasize the development of a mental mage o tho sbucture of matter and the changes it Undecgoes along with tabular presentation lor clear understanding especialy n organic chemi, “Thus, the idea of scheming a book, which would enable students to propare more effectively fr their CAIE A Loval Chemisty 970%, was mainly tiggered by my own experiances ranging ver 20 years as an O and A Level ‘Ghomistry taacter. I dre et the need ofa compendium: where In both the teacher and the students coud ind all the rolated topics covered in depth and In deal, s0 A Rationale Approach to Learning A Lovel Chemisty Principles" happened. | have ensured to make this book an unadulterated and untainted guide, following a lucid style. While writing this ‘book | ensured to folow the sylabus outine. Every topic is explained to meet the CAIE A Level Chemisty requicemanis. Topics ae elaborated using appropiate examples, abvlar demonstration of various concepts an atthe end of chapter past papers practice questions, Professionally | developed mysell every year. Along with blessings of parens, my organization Beaconhouse Defence Campus Lahore trusted in my capabilies and gave me opportuni to teach A level Cherristy. My professional journey s fl of achievements that includes repeated best GPA in the school as well as at SGH level. came across competent and dignified school management, dedicated caleagues and pronounced tends. | woud like fo thank especially Mr.Tanvir Khalid Gil, Mr. Aljaz Awan, Mr. Abdul Rabb and Mr. Mehboob Lodhi for the support and encouragement | would like 19 acknowledge Mr. Imran Lalit who exhlarated and ‘energized me fo take up iis challenge. | would tke to dedicate his determination and struggle to my parents, family and fiends. also dedicate my this ‘tort to all my students; who wil ind ita great Benett and a support to get through thei A Level Chemistry ‘examinations with excaiant grades. Rasheed Ahmed Naveed Mo. B.Ed CIPSIE (UG Cambridge Cetticaton or Level Teaching Mes 192.309 4277385 Fasheed.ahmad7874@gmallcom unit: 1a 12: 13: 14: unit2: 2A 22: 2a: 24: units: 3A 32: 33: 34: 35: 36: a7: 38: Unita: 44 42: 43: 44: 45: 46: 47: units: 5A 52: 53: 54: 55: units: 6A unit7: Contents ‘Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry Relative Atomic Mass Galculatons of EmpiricalMolecular Formula: Chemical Equations End of Chapter Past Paper Questions. ‘tomic StHUCTUFE AiOM os Electron Configuration lonisation Energy: AH End of Chapter Past Paper Questions. ‘Chemical Bonding lonic or Eleetrovalert Bor! Covalent Bonding: Coordinate of Dative Covalent Bonding ‘Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory Oita Hybrization Matalic Bond os Inter Molecular Foccas of Atractions: End of chapter past paper questions ‘States of Matter nnn Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) of Gases Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids Solids Macromolecules (Giant Covalent Stucture): ‘Garton Nanoparticles: Metalic Latioes: 7 End of chapter past paper questions ‘Chemical Energetic... ‘Standard Concitions for Standard Erthalpy Changes Measuring Erthaipy Change ofthe Reactions. Hess's law Aativaton Energy (Ea) End of chapter past paper questions: Electrochem sty nn End of chapter past paper questions... Equilibria 7A 72: 78: 74: 75: 76: 77: units: aA a2: as: aa: 85: unite: oa 92: 93: 94: unit-o: 104 102: 103: 104: unite: nA 112: 113: 114: unit: 124 122; 123: 124: units: 134 132: 133: 134: 135: Irreversible and Reversible reactions. Le-Chatier’s Principle Equiibrium Constant Ke Haber’s Process of Ammonia Formation ‘Contact Process of Sulphuric Acid Formation Bronsted ~ Lowery Theory of Acds and Bases: End of chapter past paper questions Reaction Kinetics nun — Rate of Reaction Boltzmann Distribution Curve and Erfact of Temperature on Reaction Rate 108 Catalysis. Enzymes — Biological Catalyst End of chapter past paper questions ‘The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity Periodicity of Physical Properties of Third Period Elements 116 Periodicity of Chemical Propotis of Third Period Elements. 118 Reaction of Sodium and Magnesium with Water. 121 End of chapter past paper questions 122 Group 2. . General Characterse Properties of Group Il Elements 490 Behavior of Group Il Elements Oxides, Hycroxides and Carbonates. 431 ‘Solubility of Group ll Metal Sulphates. 192 End of chapter past paper questions... . . vo vo 3B Group 17. General Characteristics. 140 Reaction of Metal Halide with Conc. HeSO. sat Disproportion Reaction 142 End of chapter past paper questions 144 Nitrogen & Sulphur : o Industial Importance of Anna & ts Compounds 450 Pollation, ‘Oxides of Nitrogen - Air Pollution End of chapter past paper questions ‘An Introduction to Organic Chemistry. Cassicaon of Organic Compounds (Stuctural 158 ‘Types of Chemical Formulae. 158 IUPAC Rules of Nomenclature (Assign Name to Organic Substances) 160 ‘Characteristic Organic Reactions. Isomers. 175 136: Unita: 141 142: 143: 144: 145: 146: 147; 148: 149: 14.10: units: 154 152: 153: 154) units: 16.1 162: 163: 16.4 165: 166: unita7: 174 172: 173: 174: unit-a: 184 182: 183: 184: 185: 185: End of chapter past paper questions 178 Hydrocarbons. . : so 184 Alkanes. 104 Free Racial Substitution Reaction: (characteristic of alkanes-unsaturated) 184 ‘Akones. os vs vs vs vo 1B. Addition Reactions 186 (Oxidation of Akenes, 188 Polymerization 169 Problems to Dispose of Plastic Wastes 190 Fractional Disillation of Crude Ol 190 Cracking of Alkanes 491 End of chapter past paper questions 192 Halogen Derivatives. za Physical Properties... - 7 : vo 200 Reactions of Halogenoalkanes 200 Uses of Halogenoakanes 203 End of chapter past paper questions 205 Hydroxy Compounds... . : Physical Properties of Alcohols. 212 Manufacture of Ethanol 212 Reactions of Alkanols 21a Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. 216 “Ti lodo Methane Test... vs vs vs vs 218. End of chapter past paper questions 218 Carbonyl Compounds... : —— = _) Preparation of Carbonyl Compounds. 204 Nucleophilc Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide. 208 ‘Test For Carbonyl Compounds 2206 End of chapter past paper questions... 227 Carboxylic Aclds & Derivatives. 36 Formation of Carboxylic Acids 236 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids. 236 Formation of Esters, 238 Commercial Uses of Ester. 238 Infrated Spectroscopy 239 End of chapter past paper questions 243 Blank Page [AS Level Chemity Notes UNIT1 ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed con oasa-a27785 rasheed ahmad7874@gmailcom rite READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 0, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tol: 042-95714008 Cell: 0936-53141441 Web: www readnwrite.org E-mail: readanducteotice@gmailcom Topics 1.1 Relative Atomic Mass 1.2 Calculations of Empirical/ Molecular Formula 1.3 Chemical Equations 1.4 End of Chapter Past Paper Questions AS Level Cramioty Notes msc vntinwncaon Watt Alam Meese 8 Steiomety 4.4: Relative Atomic Mas: Its an average mass of one atom (isotope) of an element with respect to 1/12" of the mass of standard carbon -12. Most of the elements exist in diferent isotopic forms, so their average relative atomic mass can be ‘calculated by considering thei relative abundances. A relative mass does not possess any unit as it's @ ‘comparisonielative mass, Exampl Chlorine exists naturally in to allotropic forms, chlrine-35 and chlorine.a7 in the relative abundance of 755% and 24.5% respectively Relative Atomic Mass = 755 x 35 + 24.5 x 37/100 = 35.5 Calculate Ar From The Mass Spectrum: Mass specttum has mia values (mass of isotope) on x-axis and abundance on y-axis. Mass spectrum of Neon (Ne) ‘Abundance 20 21 22 8 24 O5 Mass charge (ve) value (20. 10) + (22 1) 11 Mass Spectrum of Zirconium (21) Percentage ‘Abundance Mass charge An of2r = (90x51.5/100) + (91 x 11.2/100) K@RX 175 46.35 + 1019 + = 7387 AS Level Cramioty Notes mca vntincauong Unt Aom Meese 8 Stoney tis the mass of molecule of an element ora compound with respect to 1/124 of the mass of standard carbon -12. Relative formula mass and molecular mass can also be calculated by adding Ar of ll the elements present in that substance. Relative molecular mass of corine = 95.5 x 2=71 Relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride = 1.0 + 95.5 = 96.5, Rolative Formula Mass: Its the mass of formula of an lonie compound with respect to 1/12" of the mass of standard carbon “12. Relative formula mass of copper l) chloride = 63.5 + 95.5 x 2 = 1345 Relative formula mass of potassium bromide = 99.1 + 78.8 = 119 Its the amount of substance which contains the same number (6 x 10 Avogadro's constant of particles (atoms, tons or molecules) as there are in 12 grams of standard carbon-12, Empirical Formul Its the simplest formula of the compound that shows the simplest whole number rato of the atoms of ifferent elements in the compound tis the complote formula ofthe compound that shows the actual numberof atoms of diferent elements in the compound. Covalent compounds may have different empirical and molecular formula, but ionic ‘compounds usually represented in the simplest formula based on valency ofthe combining elements Exampl Empiical formula of glucose: cH Molecular formula of glucose: CiHOe Chemical formula of sodium chloride: NaC! 4.2: Calculations of Empirical/Molecular Formul From Composition Dat + Wit symbol of elements andthe compasiion massipercentage underneath. 9) * Die ompeaion masta ach loner by Ar fa especie olomak Wo Wi qe ofeach eement eo + Divide moles of each element bythe smalest quantity number. ‘ +f the final answer isin whole number then itis ok, otherwise multiply all pbeySionnen umber to have a whole number rao, ee For Molecular Formula Calculation from Empirical Formula! Molecular formula = n x empirical formula Whereas n= Mr/mass of empirical formula (Wr wil be given inthe question) AS Level Cramioty Notes mca vitiwncauong Unt om Meese 8 Steiomety Exampl Calculate the empirical formula of the compound that contains 31.58% of carbon, 5.26% of hydrogen and {63.16% of oxygen. Elements: ‘carbon hydrogen oxygen Massipercentages: 31.58 5.26 63.16 Divide by Ar 12 1 16 Moles: 263 5.26 3.98 Moles divide by smallest vale: 263 263 263 Ratio 1 2 15 Mutiply by 2to have whole Number 2 4 3 So the empirical formula of the compound is C:HyOs From Combustion Data: Exampl 10.500 gram ofan organic compound X containing carbon hydkogen and oxygen produces 0.733 g of earbon Co + HO Cee + 650: —> 400: + SHO on 20H + 130 —> 800; + 100 “Thermal decomposition of lead (I) nitrate gives lead (Il) oxide and nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. PbINOs2 = —> fo) 5 GS PLINO:)2 = —> PbO + © 2NO; + 05Or on 2PbIN:)s = —> 2POO + 4NOz + Or onic Equation: ‘A chemical equation that speciies where actually the reaction is taking place with respect to a particular type of reaction. There are mainly three diferent ypes of ionic equation ‘Acid Alkali Neutralization: Whenever an acid reacts with an alkall, salt and water is formed. But actualy H* of an acid is neutralized ‘by OH of an akal to form H:0, So ionic equation involving reaction of any acid with any alkali willbe ke below. Hin + Oi — HO pH below 7 above 7 7 cid kali water. onic Precipitation: ‘A reaction in which a water insoluble salts prepared by the reaction of aqueous solulons of water soluble ‘substances. Water insoluble salt (substance) can be separated by fitration of the mixture. ‘Yellow precipitates of lead I) ocd are prepared by the reaction of aqueous solutions of lead (nitrate ‘and aqueous potassium iodide, he HINO) au 2a — Phi + ens In this action inslube satis he primary focus, so ony those ors ined in expat formation wil Spectator ions suchas Kang NO¥ wil be omits Poi ee — Redox Reactions: ‘A chemical reaction n whieh oxidation and reduction cece onn plac simutaneousy & of In this case Zinc is oxidised 2n xy zn? 426 Zn + CuSO. — AS Level Cramioty Notes mca vntincauong Unt Mom Meese 8 Steiomety Whereas Copper is reduced cut + te cu Hence overall ionic equation: zn) Ot zn? sCu 'SOv2is a spectator fon (no change in oxidation state). ‘We may use half equations trom the data booklet to caloulate overall onic equation forthe reaction. Exampl Acidfied KmnnO«s used to oxidize Fe to Fe, Half equation for ron oxidation: Fe eee Half equation for reduction of MO" MoQe! 4 BH 4 Be Mo? +40 [As redox reaction involves gain and loss of election so number of electron gained should be equal to numberof electrons given out to have a balanced redox ionic equation. That's why iron equation will be muted by 5 to balance the electrons. SFo® — 5 Fe + Se Moos! a ee ns Move + HO BFe? + MnOe'+ HY > 5 Fe + Mme 4 HO Example: Potassium dichromate tums from orange to green on reaction with SO2 gas. {S02 + BHO — SO# 4 4H + 28) 3800 + BLO — 3802 + 12H + 60) ceo + WH 4 be 20R + THO 380: + CnO® + 2H > asoe + ‘Some Important Molar Calculations Formulae: 1. Moles of a Substance from the Given Mass Moles = Mass / Me (4s, Mr or formula mass depends on the type of substance given, and itis, 2 Moles of a Gas from the Given Volume ‘Atroom temperature and pressure, ‘Motes = Volume (am!) /24 Every gas one mole at ip has a volume of 24 dm? 1 given volume ofthe gas i in cm, then divides by 24000. ~ ©) AS Level Cramioty Notes msc vntinwncauong —— Uat* om Meese 8 Steiomey ‘At Standard Temperature and Pressure Moles = Volume (dm!) /22.4 Every gas one mole at sip has a volume of 22.4 dm? I given volume ofthe gas is in om®, then divides by 22400, 3. Moles of a Substance from the Volume of Aqueous Solution. Moles = Volume (cm) /1000 x Concentration (move) It he volume ofthe solution is given in dm, then there is no need to divide by 1000, 4. Concentration in gidm? from the Concentration in mol dm? Concentration gramédm? = Concentration (movdm®) x Mr ofthe substance 5. Concentration of Diluted / Undiluted Solution Undiuted solution = Diluted solution Mx ws Me x Ve IM (concentration) and V (volume) must be inthe same units. 6 Number of Particles (Atoms, lons or Molecules)of a Substance Number of particles = Moles x 6,02 x 10 (Avogadro's constant) 7. %Age of an Element in the Compound or Mass of An Element in the Given Quantity of the Compound. ‘kage ofthe element = mass ofthe element in the compound /Mr x 100, oR Mass ofthe element = Mass ofthe element in the compound /Mr x Given Mass 8 %age yield ‘hage Yield = Actual Yield/ Theoretical Yield x 100 ‘Actual yield (given in the question), theoretical yield (needs to calculate from the data using balanced equation), 9. Puri Pureiimprove x 100 AS Level Cramioty Notes 26 Unies: Atoms, Molecule & Stochomety Ermira ey 1. Mi t61P2a101 ‘An experiment was carried ut 1 determine the percentage of iron in a sample of ion wire. @ 183.35 9 piece of the wire was reacted with dilute sulluric asi, in the absence of air, so that all of the iron atoms were converted to iri ions. The resulting solution was mace up to 250 om. (Write balanced equation for the reaction between the iron in the wire and the sullric aca [0] ‘A 25.0 cm& sample of this solution was acidified and trated wih 0.0250 mol dm potassium dichromate(V)-32.0 om? ofthe potassium cichromate{ VI) soluion was required for complete reaction with the on{l) ons in the sample. The relevant half-equations are shown, Crs0! 4 14H" + 62" ——> 200 + THO Fo > Fo +e (W) Use the hal-equations to write an equation for the reaction between the iron() Tons and the acide siervomate| Vi) fons m Calculate the amount, in moles, of aichromate(VI) ions used inthe tation amount = ‘mol 1] (W¥) Calculate the amount, n moles, of ian(t}) lon inthe 25.6 em sample of solution. amount mol [1], (v) Calculate the amount, in moles, of iron in the 3.35 g piece of wire. > GL S moun SG Pratt (4) Caleulate the mass of ron in the 3:35 g piece ow. SS roe g ot) (wi ‘percentage = corn AS Level Cramioty Notes msc vntwncaueng Watt Am Meese 8 Steiomety (©) Some electronegativiy values are shown. element | elecionegativily ‘aluminiory 15 chlorine 30 iron 18 () Use the data fo suggest ie nature ofthe bonding in ron(l) chloride. Explain your 2 (W—_Suggest an equation forthe reaction between ion (ll chloride and water. io 2 MW 15°P21/A1/a,b (8) Chemists recognise that atoms are made of three types of particle Complete the folowing table with their names and properties. Name of parce | Relaive mass | Relative charge 0 T1836 @ (©) The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined using data from iis mass spectrum. The mass spectrum of element X ig shown, with the percentage abundance of each isotope labeled. percentage sbundanes AS Level Cramioty Notes mcs vntinwneauen Watt Mom Meese 8 Stciomety (Define the toms relative atomic mass and isotope. relative atomic mass Isotope (3) (Use the data in the mass specitum fo calculate the relate atomic mass, A, of X {Give your answer to two decimal places and suggest the identity of X Ar of X entity of X 2) 3. MW 12P2t/a2 ‘Ammonium sulfate, (NH):80., is widely used asa fertliser. In order to determine its percentage purity, a sample of armmonium sulfate fetiser was analysed by reacting a known amount with an excess of NaOH(aq) and then trating the unreacted NaOH, vith dilute HCL (2) Ammonium sulfate reacts with NaOH in at =2 ratio Complete and balance the equation fortis reaction (NH)eS044 2NEOH = snaNHe + + @ (&) 45.00. sample ofa fertiliser containing (NH4):SO+was warmed with 50.0 cm? (an excess) of 2.00 mol d-? NaOH, When all ofthe ammonia had been driven of, the solution was cooled. “The remaining NaOH was then tiated with 1.00 mol dm? HCland 31.2 cm? were required for neutralisation, o (iW) Galcuiae the amount, in moise, of HClin 31.2 en of 100 mol dv EL. (il) Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH in 50.) AS Level Cramioty Notes mcs vtwncauon Watt om Meese 8 Steiomety (@¥) Use your answers o (0), (t) and (i) to calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH. used up in the reaction with (NH4):S0a. (¥) Use your answor to (lv) and the equation in (a) to calculate the amount, in moles, of (NHi)eS0. that reacted with NaOH. (W)_Useyour answer to (v) to calculate the mass of (NH):SOthat reacted with NaOH, (vil. Hence, calculate the percentage purity of the ammonium sulfate fertiliser. m 4 ONTP220V ‘Compound Ais an organic compound which contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, When 0.240 9 ofthe vapour of is slowly passed over a large quantity of heated copper) oxide, (CUO, the organic compound A is completely oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. Copper is the nly other product ofthe reaction, ‘The products are collected and its found that 0.352 g of COs and 0.144 g of HzO are formed. (@) inthis section, give your answers to three decimal places. (Calculate the mass of carbon present in 0.352 9 of COs. Use this value to calculate the amount, in moles, of cabon atoms. Oe < ¢ © AS Level Cramioty Notes Unies: Atoms, Molecule & Stochomety Use this value to calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrogen atoms present in 0.240 9 of a (il) Use your answers to calculate the mass of oxygen present in 0.240 g of A. Use this value to calculate the amount, in moles, of oxygen atoms present in 0.240 9 of A. 6 5. MW 1Pagia1 Methanoic acid, HOH, was formerly known as formic acid because I is present inthe sting of ants and the Latin name for ants formic, lt was fst isolated in 167! by John Ray who colected a large number af dead ants and extracted the acid trom tham by dstilato, Inthis question, you should give all numerical answers to two significant figures. [At room temperature, pure methancic acd isa liquid which is completely soluble in water. \When we are stung by a typical’ anta soluton of methanoic acid, A, i injected into our skin. Solution contains 50% by volume of pure methanol aca. ‘Atypical ant contains 7.6 x 10°° dm of solution A (@) (2) Calculate the volume, in em®, of soluton A in one ant volume = om3 (W) Use your answer to() to calculate the volume, in om®, of pure methanaic acid in fone ant we A? voluns.. A. oma (lil) Use your answer to (il) to calculate how many have to be distilled to SV produce 1 dm? of pure methane aci. Sage © umber = ro} AS Level Cramioty Notes Unies: Atoms, Molecule & Stochomety ‘When we are stung by an ant, the amount of solution A injected is 80% of the total amount of solution A present in one ant The donsiy of pure methanoic acd is 12 g ems. (©) (Calculate tne volume, in cm, of pure motrancic acid injected in one ant sting VOLUME = en ems (i) Use your answer to (i) 10 calculate the mass of methandic acid present in one ant sing mass = 913) Bees also sting us by using methanoic acid. One simple treatment for ant or bee stings is Yo use sodium hydrogencarbonate, NalCOs. (©) (Construct a balanced equation for the reaction between methanoic acid and Sodium hydrogencarbonale. (Win atypical bee sing, the mass of methanoic acd injected is 54 x 109g. Calculate the mass of NaHCO» needed to neutralise one bee sting, mase ots cnet Atoms, | Steiciomety i a & a? [AS Level Chemity Notes Un 2: Atom race INIT 2 ¥ Topics 24: Atom ATOMIC 22: Electronic Configuration STRU CTU RE 2.3: lonisation Energy AH 2.4: End of Chapter Past Paper Questions AS Level Chemistry Notes Rasheed Ahmed co 0333-2277385 rasheed ahmnad7#74@ gmaltcom Read Write READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-0, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Cel: 0396-5314181 Web: www teadnwrite.org E-mal: readandwriteotfice@gmallcom AS Level Cramioty Notes sc mitt tcatons Un 2: Atom race Uni eee 2.4: Atom ‘Atom s the smallest possible particle of an element that + exist independently + take part in the chemical reaction ‘+ represent all characteristic properties ofthe element + neutral on charge bases ‘Sub Atomic Particle: ‘Atom consis of folowing sub atomic particles ‘Sub Atomic | Relative Relative | Location | ~ Behaviour in the Electric Particle ‘Mass Charge Field Proton 1 “ Nucleus | Attracted towards negative T1840 Btectron | igarieie) 4 Sheiis | Attracted towards postive Neutron 1 a Nucleus Not deflected rays (octon) oe ceo t Yay (ter) C= Tego Cee ara (80) Atomie Humber (2: Metheunav unter al dlrs betwen eames sled as number of pstns preset = honebn riba of obs ae eqed oe amber prs Se, * Electronic configuration is based on proton number QOD + So postion of element inthe periodic table can be determined hence many, pees related Mass Number (A): iis the sum of numberof protons and neutrons present in he nucleus Pw \tis also reterod as omic Maas or Nusleon Number is vsed v gS + Mass calculations xs Sy + Molar calelatons S25 On Sap Conclusion: Itis quite evident from the above information that + Mass ofan atom presenti the nucleus. AS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2: Atom race + Postve charge is in the nucleus + Negative charge is in the shells around nucleus. Calculate Number of Sub Atomic Particles From the Given Symbol: ‘Sub Atomic Particle ‘Source Remarks Proton ‘emi Nonbr@) Conner ea oer oe irate of patie on Beans wa bets a preon 290h ‘Atomic Number (as number of Electron Brin alo ema | sn Ee ha protons Neutron Mass Nomber~ Atomic Number | Vat erent oiopes fhe Isotopes: Atoms of the same element having same atomic number (oroton number) but diferent mass number (neutron). Isotopes cannot be determined from the periadic table as elements are arranged on the basis ‘of proton numbers. Example: Hydrogen have three isotopes namely protium ('H), deutium ('H) and ttium (H). (Chlorine *°Cl and C1 Sodium ®°Na and *Na, 2.2: Electronic Configuration ‘Arrangement of electrons inthe shells, sub shells and orbitals around the nucleus. Itis based on atomic numberof the element ‘Some Basic Concepts: tis considered that at maximum there are 7 shells (energy level) around the nucleus which ae represented by Principal Quantum Numbers from 1 to 7. Shell 1 is closest to the nucleus and has lowest energy whereas shel 7 is farthest and has maximum energy. Maximum number of electron that can be present in the shell can be determined by he formula 2n?. Whereis the shell number (Prinelpal Quantum Numbers). Maximum Capacity of the Sholls: ‘Shell Number | 2x? | Max Electrons 7 DF z 2 De 3 3 De 6 cE. a 2a w a ut wo also know Tat maximum SBaN Tal canbe rosin Ta aTnCD gel ost) ae 8. Sub Shells 8 ‘spr capac, each shell have sub shells namely s, pd and in smal ter), Sub shlls te at lowest energy vel and sub hol fi ai highest onecgy io ‘Sub shell | Capacity S$ Ss 2 - ingly. P é 7 T AS Level Cramioty Notes ssc vn tears Un 2: Atom race ‘Sub shell sis spherical and sub shell pis dumbbell shape in which electrons are revolving and spinning, § sub shell p sub shell d sub shell ‘orbital: Each sul shell is further dived into arias in which maximum 2 electrons can exist but with opposite ‘spin. Dumbbell shape orbitals are named on the basis of cartesian axis at which that exist. ‘Sub shell | Capacity | Orbitals Names z T = Pe 6 a PX. By. BE d 0 5 [ox be, dz oe 7 14 7 |When an atom is in ground state (most stable state as electrons are al the lowest energy level), following rules are applied for the electronic configuration ‘Aufbau Principle: Electrons in the ground state occupy orbital in order of energy, from lowest energy tothe higher energy. Shell ‘Sub Shells reat quan manera 181 0 ore ' & 2 OS 3 SOO ‘ OOOO 5 OOOO 6 OOOO 7 OOOO ee Serer eee ‘Always Remember: Zo ‘3d (winon empty) sat high energy than 4s, so 4 wil bo i 42d conan any eocvons thon it must bo placed with 3 shell sub sholl. Always remontBr wil bo fled fist ns and also ‘removed from 46 a8 I the outer most sub shel. © Caretully eas the folowing order when the orbitals are completely tile. AS Level Cramioty Notes pane Un 2: Atom race 18%, 258, 2p, 958, Op ae, As, Apt, 4d, Ss, Sp Electronic Configuration of Some Elements: oN = 12, 25?, 2p? 1S = 187, 267, 29%, 98°, Spt ahr = 182, 25%, Op, Ose, Sp WH = 15, 26%, 2pF, B52, Spt, ds! ‘aiCr= 1st, 2s, 2p, 9s, pF, 3, 4s ‘Fe = 18%, 25%, 2p, 96, 3p, Sa, 45? ‘=0u = 187, 25%, 2p, 3s%, dp, 3d", ds! It.can also be written in this form; Fe = [AV], Sa, 458 +P will have three more electrons than atomic number) 484,258, 2p, 95%, 9p s«S+=(will have two less electrons than atomic number) 154,254, 2p, 98%, 9p8, 90", 4s#, 4p OR Sr KE] Paul's Exclusion Principle: ‘An ofbital can contain maximum two electrons, only if they have opposite spin. One ofthe electrons wil have clockwise and the other will have ati clockwise spin. wAr= 182, 25%, 2px2, 2py2, 2pz?, Sst, Spx’, Spy®, pz? Clockwise SD) Ant Clock wise Huna’s Rute: T doped ois (lol he sare shal) are aval, ten elacrom wifey wih parallel spin (to avoid repulsion). 7 IN tt 2% 2x2! 2p 1 18,20, 20 AS Level Cramioty Notes 2 Un 2: Atom race 2.3: lonisation Energy: AH%e Itis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons trom the valence shell of one mole gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous unipositive ion. itis denoted by AH itis an ‘endothermic process with Kd mat unit Kg > XH” First ionisation Energy: tis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from the valence shellofone mole gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of gaseous unsitive ion. lis denoted by AH.e: ‘Second lonisation Energy: {tis the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole gaseous uni positive ion of an ‘element to form one mole of gaseous di positive ion. It's denoted by AH* en Ca) ———> Carty + te AH) = +590 KJ mot* (first 1) Cary ———> Carty +e AHe = +1150 KJ mot* (second IE) sic concepts: Second ionization energy value or any successive ionisation value wil alvays be higher than the frst ionisation value as itis geting more dificult fo remove electron from the postively charged ion, due to more ‘rotonic attraction from the ncious onthe remaining elacrons, Factors Affecting lonisation Energy: First IE of Na - 484 KJ mol" & 6 Serbo | ee @* rane amma naarstnsar wenn enema Soe cu fom wan saecnmin cova vores SM ‘Shielding Etfect: ‘As elecirons are negatively charged so they repel each other. Ek the valence electrons so the effect of positive nuclear charge ata More the number of shells used in electronic configuration, 'be the ionisation energy. From top to bottom in a group ofthe periodic table atomic size i veto increased numberof shel Hence shielding effect increases so ionisation energies decreases! In a particular period from ltt right, numberof shells remain same, so shielding alomic number effect remain same, Ny ee pega the iver shes repel Seeger ‘electrons is reduced. 9B shielding tect so lsser wi AS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2: Atom race Effective Nuclear Charge: Protons in the nucleus attracts electrons towards the center, however i isthe net positive charge that is used to attract the valence electrons. I increases withthe atomic number (proton number). Effective nuclear charge increases trom let to right in a period (as elements are arranged! rom left to sght in the periodic table onthe basis of atomic number). So ionisation energy also ineceases from let tonight in the petiodie table. In a group trom top to bottom ellective nuclear charge does not vary First IE of Na = 494K molt Fist IE of Mg 736 KJ mol* ‘Tronds of First lonisation Enorgy in the Periodic Table: Group: Ina particular group from top to bottom + Aiomie size increases + Shielding effect increases + Effective nuclear charge remain samo So attractions between the valence electrons and the nucleus decreases, hence lanization energy decreases, Fist IE of Be = 900K mol! Fist IE of Mg 736 KJ mol" Fist IE of Ca 590 KJ mol? Period Ina particular period from lft to right + Aomic size comparatively decreases + Shielding effect remain same + Effective nuclear charge increases So attractions between the valence electrons and the nucleus increases, hence Jonisation energy Increases. First IE of Na. 494 KJ mol" Fist IE of Mg = 736 Ks mot! lonisation energy also depends on the type of sub shel (orbital from which electrons are removes. For example p sub shell is at high energy state and more shielded than s sub shell f the electron ‘is removed from 2p then ionisation energy is lower than the electron removed from 2s. Bo = 188,28 First IE of Be 900 Kumol* B= 188,268,291 First IE of B 799 Kulmole* Similar case is applied for magnesium and aluminum (Period 3) Also half filled p orbital is more stable than partially filed. Atoms having higher ionisation energy than partially filed (as pairing of electrons in the o N 18% 20,29 FistiEoIN = 1400 Kumole* << co ‘1s? 28°, 2pt First IE of O 910 Kulmolas & Siar cas is applied for Phosphons and Sulphur(Peied3) = a as C5 mais Successive lonisation Energies and the Position of Eiinegtin The Periodic Table: ‘As we know that electrons are removed in an order from highest afféray orbital (valence) tothe lowest nergy otal To remove eecron em fe igh energy Peters orisalin energy as compared tbremove an eecvon rom thelow energy oma Hench uceeasve lonizaton energies are avays hgh. AS Level Cramioty Notes psc vn tenons Un 2 Atom ruts However a sudden and abnormal increase in successive ionization energy represents change ot shell (quantum number) Example: ‘An element X has following successive ionization energies 520,7300,11800. Identity the element. Answer: FE PE IE Element x 520 7300 11800 Difference of IE 6780 4500 ‘Tho diferonce between 1% and 2° value suggests change of shel. So there is only one electron in the valence shell and total tiee elections are present. is electronic configuration willbe 182, 2s1, hence group 4 and period 2 (ci. Example: ‘An element Y has folowing frst four suocessive ionization energies 577, 1820, 2740 and 11600. Identity the element Answer: IE Dae 31E ee Element ¥ 577 1820 2740 11600 Difference of IE 1243, 920 860 ‘The aifference between 3" and 4" value suggests change of shel, So there are three electrons in the valence shall. Hence element Y belong to group thee. Exampl ‘An olement Z has the folowing successive ionization energies 510, 4560, 6940, 9540, 12400, 16600, £20100, 28600, 28800, 141000 and 188700. Give the electronic configuration ofthe element. WE Pe [WE [OE | OE [OE PE | OE | ME WE | THE Element | 510 | «G60 | 6840 | o540 | 19400 | ve600 | 20v00 | 2séon | 2aaoo | 141000 | 158700 Diteronce ‘oso_| 2280 | 2600 | 960 | 2200 | asco | s4o0 | 00 | 112100 “The iterence between 1* and 2* and O° and 10* ionization energies represen a there is only 1 valence electton and total 11 electrons. So electronic configuration is 182, 25%, Element is sodium. group 1 and period 3 Sr © AS Level Cramioty Notes a Un 2: Atom race : Srna et Mig 161P2201/¢.6 (8) Complete the table to show the composition and identity of some atoms and ions. ‘rama of | nucleon | alomie | numberof | numberof | number of | overall element | number_| number | protons | neutrons | electrons | charge ‘boron | 10 5 0 nitrogen 8 10 208 2 2 20 3 3 a co] (©) The ith to eighth ionisation energies of three elements inthe third period ofthe Periodic Table are given. The symbols used for relerence are nol the actual symbols of the elements. Tonization energies, KJ mor* ‘in| sian | seventn | eighth x | 7012 | e496 | 2rto7 | 31671 y | e542 | 9362 | 11018 | 33606 z | 7238 | s7a1_| 11996 | 13842 (State and explain the group number of element Y. croup number explanation oy) (W)_Siaie and explain the general wend in first lanisaion energies across the thd Perio. (iW) Complete the electronic coniguration of element x, 192 ON 11/P21/02%0,0.6 re @ ‘The Periodic Table we currently use is derived directly from enna in 1869 by Mendeleev iho had noticed pattern in the physical an chemical proper of fhe elements he had stsies ‘The diagram below shows the fst ionisation energies of thirst 18 blements ofthe Periodic Table. AS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2 Atom ruts 2500: He 2000: No first ionsaion 4509 “energy, t KIM G69 500 t Ne ° OT ESAS GTB Stor zIBIAIS TOTTI Proton number (2) Give the equation, including state symbols, forthe fis ionisation energy of sulr. (2 (©) Explain why there Is @ general increase in ist ionisation energies across tha Period from socium to argon 5 (©) (Explain why the fist ionisation energy of magnesium i greater than that of aluminium. (i) Espiain why the first ionisation energy of phosphorus is greater than that of sifu. 3. MW 10/P22/01 In the 19th and 20th centuries, experimental results showed scj positive, heavy nucleus which is surrounded by electrons. (7 Then in'the 20th century, theoretical scientists explained, (eine aranges in ils ‘round Complete the table to show the composition ‘of some atoms and ions. (@) The diagram below represents the energy levp$4/ jhe fits present in atoms of the second period (Lo Ne). ae (Label the energy levels to indicate fuartum number and the type of orbital at each energy level © © AS Level Cramioty Notes ance mn Un 2 Atom ruts energy (W)—_Onthe axes below, draw a sketch ciagram of one of each citferent type (shape) of orbital that fs occupied by the electrons in a secondperiod element, Label each type. ee (i) Complete the electronic configurations of nitrogen atoms and oxygen atoms on the energy level diagrams below. Use arrows to represent electrons. energy rirogen energy ‘oxygen (b) (i) Use the Data Booklet to state the value,of the trot ongen ‘ N ka mot! £- ka mot s AS Level Cramioty Notes Un 2 Atom ruts (WH) Explain, with reterence to your answer to (a)(l), the relative values of these two ionisation energies. [AS Level Chemity Notes ost Chemie Boning UNIT3 — 3.1: lonie or Electrovalent Bond Chemical 3.2: Covalent Bonding 2.3: Coordinator Dative Covaont Bonding Bonding {: Valence shell electron palr repulsion theory 3.5: Orbital Hybridization AS Level Chemistry Notes 418: End of Chaptor Past Paper Questions Rasheed Ahmed ols0533-277385, rasheedahmad7874@ grallcom Bene READ & WRITE PUBLICATIONS 3-€, Zahoor Elahi Road, Gulberg Il, Lahore. Tek 042-35714088 Call: 0396-5314141 Web: www teadnwrite.org E-mal: readandwrteotfice@gmallcom AS Level Cramioty Notes ost Chemie Boning Hr Chemical Bonding ‘A chemical bond isthe force of attraction that holds the particles together in a chemical substance. ‘These are diferent types of chemical bonding: lonic or electrovalent bonding ‘Covalent bonding Govordinate or dative covalent bonding Metalic bonding Inter molecular forces of attractions (that include the folowing: Induced / instantaneous dipole * Permanent aipole Hydrogen bonding Need to Remember: AAioms gain, lose or share electrons in order to attain stable electronic configuration like inert gases by following the duplet or octet ul. 3.4: onic or Electrovalent Bond: ‘A.bond thats formed due 1 compete transfer of eloctron(s) from a metal atom to anon metal atom. Hence ‘electrostatic forces of attractions develop betwoen metalic cation and non metalic anion. Formation of NaCl: Sodium is a metal where chlorine is a non meta Na = 188.258 2p3e! Cl = 18828*2p".a8%, 3p! There is a complete transfer of one valence electon from sodium 36! tothe valence shell 3p* of chlorine. Resutanly postive and negative ions are formed with the nable gas electronic configuration, Nar! = 16825*.2p8e Cl" = 168,258 2p8 368, apt AS Level Cramioty Notes esc croncatne ost Chemie Boning oR a" Ci Formation of MgO: Magnesium is a metal where oxygen is @ non metal. Mg = 1822s".2p8 ast 1O= 58, 25%.2p8 ‘There ie a complete transfer of two valence electrons from magnesium 3s to the valence shell 2p* of ‘oxygen. Resulantly positive and negative ioe are formed with the noble gas electronic configur Mg’? = 132 2st, 2pF.96° 202 = 15225829" oR ‘Stor Ceniaty Noes ‘aa wri ubteabons Needs to Remember: Cation (positive ion is always smaller in size than is atom because + One complete valonce shells omitted + Same numberof protons has a more fim hold on less electrons. ‘Whereas anion (negative ion) wil be large in size than the atom because + Same protons will have weaker hold on mare electrons. Concept: |When an atom lose election, itis endothermic, gains energy (lonsation energy) whereas gain of elacton is exothermic, means lose energy (electron alin). ‘Some Characteristic Properties of lonic Compound: Melting / Bolling Point: {As the bonding involve electrostatic force of attractions between oppositely charged particles, hence they ‘exist inthe form of ionic latices (hard solids) with high meling and boiing point. Explain why MgO has higher meting point 2850°C than NaC! 801°C? ‘Water Solubility: Mostly ionic compounds are water soluble. On aissolving, oppositely charged ions dissociate and arrango ‘themselves in between the spaces of water molocues. Electrical Conductivity: lonic compounds are nan conductors of electri in thee solid state as ions are compactly packed and are not free to move. In molten and aqueous solution form ions are free to move hence elecincal conductors. 3.2: Covalent Bonding: ‘A bond formed between non metals due to mutual sharing of electrons. Shared pair of electron is represented in dot and crass form in the valence shell overlapped area of the bonded atoms. ‘Single Covalent Bond: Bond formed due to sharing of one electron pai (one electron each by bonding atoms). I is represented by a singe line between atoms. He, Cb, HCl and He Gg SO Electronic Contigurations: Sar Hats! (864s one electron to complete the valence 3natA\, > 01-1220 29 26, 99° (reeds one eleton to complete vale sl)» y C= 15425°.2p% (needs four electron to complete AS Level Cramioty Notes Double Covalent Bond: Bond formed due to sharing of two electrons each by bonding atoms. tis represented by a double line between atoms. Example: (Oz, COs and Cole 10 = 188, 25%,2p¢ ‘Triple Covalent Bond: Pe Bond formed due to sharing of three electrons each by bonding atoms. It is represented Ba FAple line between atoms Exampl Neand CoH N= 188.284, 2p" AS Level Cramioty Notes psc vit tears ost Chemie Boning ‘Shared / Bond Pair: ‘A pair of electron formed due to mutual sharing of electron between the bonded atoms. Lone pal ‘A pair of electron inthe valence shell that do not participate in covalent bond formation, 3.3: Coordinate or Dative Covalent Bonding: ‘A.bond that is formed when an atom (molecule or molecular ion) donates its lone parol elections to shave. ‘Other atom does not contribute any electron in bond formation Electron par donating atom called donor and the other one is reeiplent. This is represented by an arrow. from donor to the recipient tom. Dative covalent bonding plays an important role inthe formation of molecular addtion compounds (adduct) ‘and complex ions such as NH", AlsCls and HiNBF ‘Ammonium lon NH Itis formed due to dative covalent bond between nitrogen of ammonia (donor) and hydrogen positive fon (cecipieny. O-4G:H no we AlCl: Molecular mass of anhydrous aluminum chloride in benzene is 267. Because aluminum eX ct tp fom AlCl, Lone par of hone (Serer of oe cf he As forms cate coven 9S (ecipient) of ther AICI, A Seng ee Similarly at higher temperature aluminum chloride exist as a molecule wit f (2s at lower "ompaatue Yoon enperatie} teense fom amelie wn he . AS Level Cramioty Notes a ost Chemie Boning Ce io NZ eee, <> ae " WL ROR a Ng ‘Some Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compound: Melting / Bolling Point: Mostly covalent substances are gases or liquids with low meting and boling points because they ‘experience weak intermolecular forces of atracions. Only macromolecules (diamond, graphite, sca) are sold with high meting and boing point ‘Water Solubility: Mostly covalent substances are water insoluble, However certain polar covalent compounds dissolve and ionize in water. Electrical Conductivity: CCovalont substances are non conductors of electricity as they don't have free electrons or ions to conduct. ‘Aqueous solution of certain polar covalent compounds .e., Aqueous HCI have free ions to conduct, Covalent Bonding In Terms of Orbit ‘Sigma Bond: A single covalent bond that is formed due to direct overtapping (head to head) of the orbitals of the bonded ‘atoms. Electron density is concentrated in between the bonded atoms. O O- Pi (m) Bond: ‘This bond is formed between the atoms which are already bonded with sigina boA@S. If the two atomic SRE et eve econ panne ey eaten oom eer (7) bond electron lone pair—bond pair > bond pair bond pair Presence of one palo letron ntuence the shape, although inthe description ony bond par are shown. Doube or tile covalent bonds occupy the same space as te single bond electron pa Presence of amore elecuonegaive alom in the suroundng of crial atom pull ho shared pai of electron towards sel hence remaining elocronic pai can separate mare, increasing the bond angle eos seems ee ts hn os Valence nets | nye | enstow |eanpie| shape | Peon | sree Pair 2-bond | pects pais Planner Te | | rotane [2 ter | te pai cw 3-bond | ar, | bake Planner i Tome 45 | ine [80% [tier | van pai l a ce H 4= bond 1 Ys aes | PS | cue | Tetahecras | Nonplanner c Notere ‘095 JAN mr HOH CH Four bond | NH» noe | pare |p | Trgona! | Non planer amid 1 tone pat | Pots 2—bond noe | ees ies [lean 2ione pair ee ‘Sulphur is surrounded by six bond pair (no fone pair) thavrodug® an octahedral arrangement with all angles of 9° Bers 1S = 184.2582p83st, Spx*, Spy', Spz! Ss AS Level Cramioty Notes psc vittcatone ost Chemie Boning Sulphur undergoes spd? orbital hybridization, by which one electron from 3s and one from 3p are ‘promoted to 34, gonerating a set of six degenerated orbital with one electron where flouine share lis alecton. F Flin, |. ja’ F Molecule Containing Five Electronic Pair (bond palt) PFs: Phosphorus is surrounded by five bond pair (no lone pai) that produce a Trigonal bl Pyramidal arrangement with tree bond pairs ina plane with bond angles of 120°, whereas two of the bond pairs ‘become arial in position. This axial bond pair forms a bond angle of 80° with each ofthe bond pairs in a planer arrangement. uP = 1s8,2s8.2p8.3st, Spx’, Spy', Spa! Phosphorus undergoes sp'd? orbital hybridization, by which one electron ftom 8s is promoted to 9d, ‘generating a set of five degenerated orbital with one electron where urine share its electron. F Lye WF oN F 3.5: Orbital Hybridization é eZ ' process by which obtals of diferent energy and shape merge ogebero dee a ABLE’ of ‘same energy and shape. Number of degenerated orbitals formed is equal ibeA(ofbitals merge together, IA iil myoizaton used explain bonding ar geomet of he male Sy extabng such mmolcues which have expanded tre oct. 3 ‘As per VSEPR theory, valenoy i defined as number of urpaked a 7 valence shel ot an ato, Sei re ot apd on Be, 8 aa nthe 2 prod Top HEN pe of otal hybreaon bitte we wil aces ony tw oem. oe Hybridization Ay? A hybridization in which one and tree pores hybrczedabenerate four sp orbitals (naving one electron) of same energy and shape. AS Level Cramioty Notes sce vt teatone ost Chemie Boning .G= 18, 2s°, 2px, 2py', 2p2” ‘One of the electrons of 2s is promoted to 2pz, hence 2s?, 2px', 2py', pz merge together to form 4sp? orbitals. toot. ot. ot «C= 18,25p', 23p', 2sp, 256° “These sp? orbitals acange themsaves in a regular tavahedron with a bond angle of 109.5%. nal those ‘examples (CHa, CCl and other alkanes) where carton forms four single covalent bond with other atoms ‘carbon follow sp® hybridization. ‘sp? Hybridization: '\ hypridization in which one s and two p orbitals hybridized to generate three sp® orbitals (having one: ‘lectron) of same energy and shape. One of the p oral does not undergo hybridization. eG 18%, 25%, 2px’, 2py', 2p ‘One of the electrons of 2s is promoted to 2pe, hence 2%, 2px', 2p2°merge together to form Sep? orbitals toot ot «C= 18, 2sp, 2sp' 2sp, py “These sp ori arrange themselves ina regular trgonal with a bond angle of 120°. In Cats, carbon form two single covalent bond with hydrogen and one double covalent bond with other ‘atoms Carbon follow sp? hybridization. ide >» In ethyne (CeHs), carbon follows sp hybridization where carbon forms a triple coyaldr tnd and one single v Coton rg Fintan ne cos ors coaentons witb son ardor a i Se.” tonic Character in Covalent Substances: ‘ Simple covalnt molecules ae classi into two catogois + Non polar molecules Polar covalent molecules “ese categories are designed on tho basis of; ’ + Types of atoms (elements) present in the molecule (Blecteghegativily cfference) © Geometrical shape of the molecule ey ‘Stor Ceniaty Noes ‘aa wi ubteabons nes: Chel Bondiog Electronegatvity: tis the tendency of an atom to attract shared pair of electrons in a covalent molecule. IRincreases trom left to right in the period and decreases from top to bottom in a group. Maximum electronegatvity (4.0) is of fuorine group 7, Non Polar Covalent Molecule: ‘A covalent molecule formed betwoen similar atoms are non polar. They are considered as purely covalent Example: Hs, No, O:, Os, Se and Ps ete. “There are certain covalent compounds which are non polar due to ts geometrical shape. As dipole in one rection will cancel the equal cipolein the opposite direction, Be, CH, Cie, CO> and CC ‘ 5 c—e—c choO= Exampl Polar Covalent Molecul ‘A covalent molecule formed between dissimilar aloms i polar. A molecule in which shaved pai is not ‘equally dstributed so positive and negative poles are formed within the molecule (dipole) ‘A more electronegative atom in the molecule will attract shared pair so cary partial negative charge and the less electronegative atom wil carry partial positive charge. Hence it can be stated that a covalent bond is formed due to unequal sharing of electronic pairs. ‘These molecules exhibit some othe ionic characteristics such as HOI dissolve and ionize in water and also ‘become electical conductor. ¢ f—& c © BEAN, g 4 O°. Asymmatieal molecules wih one pa of elation i the cenal atm of the 5 polar for frame, ACL Te nonpolar where se PCs polar due o presence ne ee shal ot os ca ct mtd g lero he nepaveton,hoce ee ‘the positive and negative ion

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