How Hormones Govern Body Activities, The Nervous System and the Body in Motion

All things are one. Every process and action of an organism play a key role for
his/her survival. Hence, it is important that interrelationships among organ systems are
understood for one’s application of knowledge.
In this module, you will demonstrate understanding on How Hormones Govern
Growth, The Nervous System, and the Body in Motion.

Hormones, in Greek literally means to excite, are substances which can cause a
reaction to a cell. Animals have two major regulatory systems that release chemicals:
endocrine system and the nervous system. The endocrine system secretes hormones, while
nervous system secretes neurotransmitters.
Hormones
Hormones are produced in ductless (endocrine) glands and move through the blood to a
specific target cell, tissue, or organ that can be far from the original endocrine gland. They
can produce an immediate short-lived response, the way adrenaline (epinephrine) speeds
up the heart rate, or dramatically alter the development of an entire organism, the way
ecdysone controls metamorphosis in insects. Tropic hormones have a far- reaching effect
when they stimulate other glands to release hormones. Pheromones in the urine of a dog
carry a message between different individuals of the same species. In vertebrates, nitric
oxide, a gas is produced by one cell and diffuses to and affects only neighboring cells before
it is broken down.

Endocrine Systems and Feedback Cycles

The endocrine system uses cycles and negative feedback to regulate physiological
functions. Negative feedback regulates the secretion of almost every hormone. Cycles of
secretion maintain physiological and homeostatic control. These cycles can range from
hours to months in duration.
In an endocrine pathway, the reaction involves an endocrine cell, which releases the
hormone to the bloodstream or the lymphatic system, which is able to attach to receptors of
a target cell.

Endocrine-related Problems
1. Overproduction of a hormone
2. Underproduction of a hormone
3. Nonfunctional receptors that cause target cells to become insensitive to hormones
The Nervous and Endocrine Systems
The pituitary gland (often called the master gland) is located in a small bony cavity at
the base of the brain. A stalk links the pituitary to the hypothalamus, which controls
release of pituitary hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes: the anterior and
posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary is glandular.

Biological Cycles
Biological cycles ranging from minutes to years occur throughout the animal kingdom.
Cycles involve hibernation, mating behavior, body temperature and many other
physiological processes.
Rhythms or cycles that show cyclic changes on a daily (or even a few hours) basis are
known as circadian rhythms. Many hormones, such as ACTH-cortisol, TSH, and GH show
circadian rhythms.
The menstrual cycle is controlled by a number of hormones secreted in a cyclical
fashion. Thyroid secretion is usually higher in winter than in summer. Childbirth is
hormonally controlled and is highest between 2 and 7 AM.
Internal cycles of hormone production are controlled by the hypothalamus, specifically
the suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN). According to one model, the SCN is signaled by
messages from the light-detecting retina of the eyes. The SCN signals the pineal gland in
the brain to signal the hypothalamus.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cell response as a result of hormone activation is a slow process, for instances in which a
response should be immediate another organ system is responsible, the nervous
system.
The nervous system is composed of circuits of nervous tissue and supporting cells. The
functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve composed of neurons that have
extensions for transmission of messages.
The Neuron
The neuron consists of a cell body, which contains the nucleus and other organelles, and
two types of cytoplasmic extensions called dendrites and axons. Dendrites are sensory;
they receive incoming messages from other cells and carry the electrical signal to the cell
body. A neuron can have hundreds of dendrites. A neuron has only one axon, which can be
several feet long in large animals. Axons transmit an impulse from the cell body outward to
another cell. The cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical
of eukaryotic cells.

There are three types of neuron

 Sensory neurons receive an initial stimulus from a sense organ, such as the
eyes and ears, or from another neuron.
 A motor neuron stimulates effectors (muscles or glands).
 The interneuron or association neuron resides within the spinal cord and brain,
receives sensory stimuli, and transfers the information directly to a motor neuron or
to the brain for processing.
The nervous system is further distinguished by the location of the neurons within the
system. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord while the
peripheral nervous system is composed of corresponding structures outside of this two
organs of the nervous system. The central nervous system is responsible for
data/information processing which is gathered by the peripheral nervous system.
Upon processing, the CNS transmit the message again to the PNS, which then
convey the message for the appropriate response. The PNS is further divided, based on
its function, into the motor system and the autonomic nervous system, which is diagramed
above. The motor system controls skeletal muscles or voluntary muscles, while the
autonomic nervous system functions in the control of involuntary muscles (cardiac, smooth
muscles) and glands. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions mostly have
antagonistic functions, while the enteric division function in digestive control. The diagram
below summarizes the function of the parasympathetic and sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system.
The series of changes in membrane potential (polarization and depolarization) results in the
one-way transmission of message as an electrical message across the neuron.

Components of the Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory - conveys information from sensory receptors or nerve endings
Motor
1. Somatic- controls the voluntary muscles
2. Autonomic System- controls involuntary muscles

 Sympathetic
 o Fight or flight response
o Increase heart and breathing rate
o Liver converts glycogen to glucose
o Bronchi of lungs dilate and increase gas exchange
o Adrenaline raises blood glucose level

 Parasympathetic
o Opposes the sympathetic system
o Calms the body
o Decreases heart/breathing rate
o Enhances digestion