CHAPTER 4

TISSUES

Tissues Classification of Epithelia

● A tissue is a group of cells with similar ● Epithelial tissues are classified primarily
structure and function, plus extracellular according to the number of cell layers and
substance surrounding them. the shape of the superficial cells.
● Histology is the study of tissues ● The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or
pseudostratified.
Types of Tissues ● The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,
- There are four tissue types in the human columnar, or a special transitional shape
body: that varies with the degree of stretch.
1. Epithelial- a covering or lining tissue ● Simple epithelium consists of a single layer
2. Connective- a diverse primary tissue type of cells, with each extending from the
that makes up part of every organ in the basement to the free surface.
body ● Stratified epithelium consists of more than
3. Muscle- a tissue that contracts or shortens, one layer of cells, but only the basal layer
making movement possible attaches the deepest layer to the basement
4. Nervous- responsible for coordinating and membrane
controlling many body activities ● Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a
special type of simple epithelium that
appears to be falsely stratified.
Epithelial Tissues
● It consists of one layer cells, with all the cells
● Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and
attached to the basement membrane
protects surfaces, both outside and inside the
● Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the
body
epithelia appears stratified
● Included under the classification of
epithelial tissue are the exocrine and
Classification of Epithelia
endocrine glands
● There are three types of epithelium based on
idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
Epithelial Tissue Characteristics
1. Squamous - cells are flat or
1. Mostly composed of cells
scalelike
2. Covers body surfaces
2. Cuboidal - cells are cube-shaped
3. Distinct cell surfaces
about as wide as they are tall
4. Cell and matrix connections
3. Columnar - cells tend to be taller
5. Nonvascular
than they are wide
6. Capable of regeneration

Simple Squamous Epithelium

● Simple squamous epithelium is a single
layer of thin , flat cells
● Some substances easily pass through this
thin layer of cells, but substances do not.
● The lungs, simple squamous epithelium,
allows gas exchange
● The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium,
helps filter wastes from the blood while
keeping the blood cells inside the blood
Functions of Epithelial Tissues vessels.
1. Protects underlying structures
2. Acts as a barrier
3. Permits passage of substances
4. Secretes substances
5. Absorption of substances

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
● Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer
of cube-like cells that carry out active
transport, facilitated diffusion, or secretion.
● They have a greater secretory capacity than
simple squamous epithelial cells
Simple Columnar Epithelium
● Simple columnar epithelium is a single
layer of tall, thin cells
● The large size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as secretion.
● The simple columnar epithelium of the small
intestine produces and secretes mucus and
digestive enzymes.
Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
● Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
secretes mucus, which covers its free surface
● Cilia in the airways move the mucus and
accumulated debris toward the throat,
where it is swallowed
KYLA ELYSHA MARIE P. RONDAN
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
● Stratified squamous epithelium forms a
thick epithelium because it consist of several
layers of cells
● Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or
columnar and are capable of dividing and
producing new cells, the naming is base on
the shape of the surface cells
● There are two types of stratified squamous
epithelia: Keratinized stratified squamous
and nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelia
Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
● The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
keratin squamous epithelium
● The keratin reduces the loss of water from the
body
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
● Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth
is a moist nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
● This nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium provides protection against
abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier
● Water, however, can move across it more
readily than across the skin (keratinized
stratified squamous)
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
● Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of
more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial
cells
● This epithelial type is relatively rare and is
found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian
follicular cells, and the salivary glands
● It’s function in absorption, secretion, and
protection
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Stratified Columnar Epithelium
● Stratified ColumnarEpithelium consists of
more than one layer of epithelial cells; the
surface cells are columnar but the deeper
cells are irregular or cuboidal in shape
● Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified
columnar epithelium is relatively rare, found
in the mammary gland ducts, the larynx,
and a portion of the male urethra
● This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption.
Transitional Epithelium
● Transitional epithelium is a special type of
stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched
● The shape of the cells change as the
epithelium is stretched
● Transitional epithelium lines cavities that
can expand greatly, such as the urinary
bladder
● It also protects underlying structure, like the
urinary bladder, from the caustic effects of
urine
Free Cell Surfaces
● Most epithelia have a free surface that is not
in contact with other cells and faces away
from underlying tissues
● The characteristics of the free surface reflect
its functions
● The free surface can be smooth or lined with
microvilli or cilia
● Cili move materials over the top of the cell
● Microvilli increase surface area
KYLA ELYSHA MARIE P. RONDAN
Cell Connections
● Cells have several structures that hold one
cell to one another or to the basement
membrane
● These structures do three things:
mechanically bind the cells together, help
form a permeability barrier, and provide a
mechanism for intercellular communication
● Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind
cells together
● Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that
anchor cells to the basement membrane
● Tight junctions prevent the passage of
materials between epithelial cells because
they completely surround each cell, similar
to the way a belt surrounds the waist. Tight
junctions are found in the lining of the
intestines
● Materials that pass through the epithelial
layer must pass through the cells, so those
cells regulate what materials can cross
● Gap junctions are small channels that allow
small molecules and ions to pass from one
epithelial cell to an adjacent one
● Most epithelial cells are connected to one
another by gap junctions, and researchers
believe that molecules or ions moving
through the gap junctions act as
communication signals to coordinate the
activities of the cells
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Glands
● Glands are secretory organs that secretes
substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or
into the bloodstream
● Glands are composed primarily of
epithelium, with a supporting network of
connective tissue
● Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands
● Both the gland and its ducts is lined with
epithelium
● Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they
secrete their products (termed hormones)
into the bloodstream
● Most exocrine glands are multicellular,
comprised of many cells
● Some exocrine glands are composed of a
single cell, like goblet cells, that secretes
mucus
● Multicellular exocrine glands can be
classified according to the structure of their
ducts and secretory regions
● Simple glands have a single, non-branched
duct, some have branched ducts
● Compound exocrine glands have multiple,
branched ducts
● Glands with secretory regions shaped as
tubules (small tubes) are called tubular,
whereas those shaped in saclike structures
are called acinar or alveolar
● Tubular glands can be straight or coiled
● Glands with a combination of the two are
called tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar
Exocrine Gland Structures
KYLA ELYSHA MARIE P. RONDAN
Exocrine Glands
● Exocrine glands can be classified according
to how products leave the cell
● Merocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products by exocytosis
● Apocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products as pinched-off fragments
of the gland cells
● Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of
the entire cells
Connective Tissue
● Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue
type that makes up part of every organ in the
body
● Connective tissue differs from the other three
tissue types in that it consist of ells separated
from each other by abundant extracellular
matrix
● Connective tissue is diverse in both structure
and function
● Connective tissue is comprised of cells,
protein fibers, and extracellular matrix
Function of Connective Tissue
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transorting
7. Protecting
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Connective Tissue Cells
● The specialized cells of the various connective
tissues produce the extracellular matrix
● The name of the cell identifies the cell
functions
● Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain
it, and osteoclasts break it down
● Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it
● Chondroblasts from cartilage and
chondrocytes maintain it
● Found in connective tissue are cells
associated with the immune system, such as
white blood cells
● Macrophages are large cells that are
capable of moving about and ingesting
foreign substances, including
microorganisms in the connective tissue
● Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release
chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
inflammation
Extracellular Matrix
● The extracellular matrix of connective tissue
has three major components: protein fibers,
ground substance, and fluid
● Ground substance consists of non-fibrous
protein and other molecules
● The structure of the matrix is responsible for
the functional characteristics of connective
tissues- for example, they enable bones and
cartilage to bear weight
Matrix Protein Fibers
● Three types of protein fibers—- collagen,
reticular, and elastic—- help form most
connective tissues
● Collagen fibers, which resemble microscopic
ropes, are very flexible but resist stretching
● Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen
fibers that branch to form a supporting
network
● Elastic fibers have the ability to return to
their original shape after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality
KYLA ELYSHA MARIE P. RONDAN
Matrix Ground Substance
● The ground substance consists of non-fibrous
molecules and is shapeless
● It consists of proteoglycans, which are large
molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides
● Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water
between the polysaccharides, which allows
them to return to their original shape when
compressed or deformed
Types of Connective Tissue
● The two types of connective tissue are
embryonic and adult connective tissue
● By eight weeks of development, most of the
embryonic connective tissue has become
specialized to form the types of connective
tissue seen in adults
● Loose connective tissue consists of relatively
few protein fibers that form a lacy network,
with numerous spaces filled with ground
substance and fluid
● Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue
are areolar, adipose, and reticular
● Areolar connective tissue primarily consists
of collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers
● The most common cells in loose connective
tissue are the fibroblasts
● Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat
cells, which contain large amounts of lipid
for energy storage. Adipose tissue pads and
protects parts of the body and acts as a
thermal insulator
● Reticular tissue forms the framework of
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and
the liver
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Types of Connective Tissues
● Dense connective tissue has a relatively
large number of protein fibers that form
thick bundles and fill nearly all of the
extracellular space
● There two major subcategories of dense
connective tissue: collagenous and elastic
Dense Collagenous
● Dense collagenous connective tissue has an
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
collagen fibers
● Dense collagenous connective tissue having
collagen fibers oriented in the same direction
is termed dense regular
● Examples of dense regular are tendons and
ligaments
● Dense collagenous connective tissue having
the collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed dense irregular
● Examples of dense irregular are in the
dermis of the skin and in organ capsules
Dense Elastic
● Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers
● The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch
and recoil
● Examples include the dense elastic connective
tissue in the vocal cords
● A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome
results from, in part the inability to properly
maintain and form elastic fibers
KYLA ELYSHA MARIE P. RONDAN
Cartilage
● Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes,
located in spaces called lacunae within an
extensive matrix
● Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage
flexibility and strength
● Cartilage is resilient because proteoglycans
of the matrix trap water
● Cartilage provides support, but if bent or
slightly compressed, it resumes its original
shape
Three Types of Cartilage
1. Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type
if cartilage and has many functions, such as
covering the ends of bones, where they form
joints
2. Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling
- Fibrocartilage is found in the disks
between the vertebrae (bones at the
back) and in some joints, such as
the knee and temporomandibular
(jaw) joints
3. Elastic Cartilage contains elastic fibers in
addition to collagen and proteoglycans
- The elastic fibers appear as coiled
fibers among bundles of collagen
fibers
- Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to
its original shape when bent
- The external era, epiglottis, and
auditory tube contain elastic
cartilage
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Muscle
● The main function of muscle tissue is to
contract, shorten, making movement
possible.
● Muscle contraction results from contractile
proteins located within the muscle cells

Three types of Muscle

1. Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and
Bone enables the body to move
● Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists - Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or
of living cells and a mineralized matrix. banded, because of the
Osteocytes are located within lacunae arrangement of contractile proteins
● The strength and rigidity of the mineralized within the cells
matrix enables bones to support and protect
other tissues and organs
● Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone
and compact bone
● Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae
or plates, of bone and therefore resembles a
sponge
● Compact bone is more solid, with almost no
space between many thin layers of
mineralized matrix

2. Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it

is responsible for pumping blood.
- Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical
but much shorter than skeletal
muscle cells
- Cardiac muscle cells are striated
and usually have one nucleus per
cell
- They are often branched and
connected to one another by
Blood intercalated disks
● Blood is a liquid connective tissue
● It contains a liquid matrix, termed the
plasma, along with formed elements
● The formed elements are erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets
● It functions in transport of food, oxygen,
waste, hormones, and other substances

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3. Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow
organs; it is also found in the skin and the
eyes
- Smooth muscle is responsible for a
number of functions, such as
moving food through the digestive
tract and emptying the urinary
bladder
- Smooth muscle cells are tapered at
each end, have a single nucleus, and
are not striated
Nervous Tissue
● Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord,
and nerves. It is is responsible for
coordinating and controlling many body
activities
● Nervous tissue consists of neurons and
support cells, termed glial cells
● The neuron is responsible for conducting
action potentials. It is composed of three
parts: cell body, dendrites, and an axon
Tissue Membranes
● A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of
tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity
● Most membranes consist of epithelium and
the connective tissue on which the epithelium
rests
● There are four tissue membranes in the body:
cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial
KYLA ELYSHA MARIE P. RONDAN
Tissue Membranes
● The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane, is
an external body surface membrane
● Many, but not all, mucous membranes
secrete mucus
● The functions of mucous membranes include
protection, absorption, and secretion
Mucous Membranes
● The mucous membranes line cavities that
open to the outside of the body, such as the
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive
tracts
● Mucous membranes consist of epithelial
cells, their basement membrane, and thick
layer of loose connective tissue.
Serous Membranes
● Serous membranes line cavities that do not
open to the exterior of the body, such as the
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities
● Serous membranes consist of three
components: a layer of simple squamous
epithelium, its basement membrane, and
delicate layer of loose connective tissue
● Serous membranes do not contain glands,
but they secrete a small amount of fluid
called serous fluid, which lubricates the
surface of the membranes
Synovial Membranes
● Synovial membranes line the cavities of
freely movable joints
● They are made up of only connective tissue
and consist of modified connective tissue
cells
● Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid,
which makes the joint very slippery, thereby
reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint
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● Regeneration can completely repair some

Tissue Inflammation tissues, such as the skin and the mucous
● Inflammation is usually a beneficial process membrane of the intestine. In these cases,
occurring when tissues are damaged. regeneration is accomplished primarily by
● When viruses infect epithelial cells of the stem cells
upper respiratory tract, inflammation and ● Stem cells are self-renewing,
the symptoms of the common cold are undifferentiated cells that continue to divide
produced sequential steps
● The inflammatory process occurs in stages
● Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses
and isolates and destroys microorganisms,
foreign materials, and damaged cells so
that tissue repair can proceed
● Inflammation produces five major
symptoms:
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
5. Disturbance of function

Tissue Repair
● Tissue repair involves substitution of dead
cells for viable cells
● Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or
by fibrosis
● In regeneration, the new cells are the same
type as those that were destroyed, and
normal function is usually restored
● In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of
tissue develops that eventually causes scar
production and the loss of some tissue
function

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