2 CHAPTER \ } 13) Inside D Nucleus ‘entopes soars and otnes 2 Mass energy relation "Binding energy of les 1 Nua feces 1 Ntceursabiiy ne w ) Nuclear energy wy Radioactivity Nuclei In the last chapter, we learnt that atomic nucleus was discovered in the year 1911 by Rutherford and his associates from the study of large angle scattering of alpha particles from the thin metal foils. In this chapter, we shall study the constituents of the nucleus and how they are held together. We shall also study different properties, of nuclei such as size, mass, density and stability of nuclei and associated phenomena such as radioactivity, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. a 1) Nucleus As per the Rutherford’s experiment, it was concluded that, the entire positive charge and mass of an atom was present at its centre known as nucleus. Composition of nucleus Nucleus is composed of two types of particles (i) Protons-positively charged particles (ii) Neutrons, neutral particles ‘Mass of neutron is slightly greater than the mass of the proton, Mass of proton, m, = 1672623110" "kg ‘Mass of neutron, m, = 16749286 107"kg m,= 1840m,, where m, = mass of electron Atomic number Atomic number of an element is the number of proton present inside the nucleus of a neutral atom, It is also equal to the number of electrons revolving in various orbits around the nucleus of the atom. It is represented by Z. lumber of proton = Number of electron. Atomic number (Z) = Mass number ‘The total number of neutrons and protons, i.e., number of nucleous present inside the nucleus of an element is called its mass number A. Number of neutrons is represented byN. So, Mass number (A) = Z +Nanne pisrepresented by’ z (chemical symbob 4 sou chare of the nucleus is equal to the hz protons init = Ze, where 2X4, total charge on 6x10 G, size of nucleus rom various experiments, it was found that the volume of the aueleus is directly proportional to the number of ucleons (mass Number) constituting the nucleus pris he radius ofthe nucleus having mass number A, then 3 v ae «A => Ra AYd es R= Ry Avs .2x10- m, where, Ro is the range of nuclear size. tis also known as nuclear unit radius. Owing to the small size of the nucleus, fermi (fm) is found tbea convenient unit of length in Nuclear Physics, Iris defined as, 1 fermi (fm) = 107 m ample 13.1 What is the nuclear radius of "Fe, if that of Al is 6.4 fermi? Sol Radius of the nucleus is, RaRA? Be (An) (2 Hi Ra laa) “lar bg 3 Rats pg = By 22x 4 w10Em Nuclear density Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of mass of nucleus and its volume. limis the average mass of a nucleon (=1.67* 10" kg) and A is the mass number of element, then the mass of ‘fucleus = mA. If R is the nuclear radius, then , 4 4 v3)3 _ Apps, Volume of nucleus: eI aR? = mR )? = BRIA mass of nucleus 4s, density of nuclear matter = Schaar TieleTsl 3m 4nR3 mA a 37k p= or |p= Thus, the density of nucleus is a constant, independent of ot all nuclei, Different nuclei are likes drop of liquid of int density. The density of nuclear matter is ‘*PProximately 2.3 x 10!7kgm™. This density is very’ large “compared to ordinary matter. “— 4 Chapter 13 : Nuclei 187 Densty_—_ Note tumber of nucleon per unit volume = oe cen hu)? Vex 20 Kulm Nuclide a A nuclide is a specific nucleus of an atom, which is characterised by its atomic number Z and mass number A. we equal Example 13.2. Assuming that protons and neutrons have equa rata calculate how many tes nuclear mater is denser than water, Take mass of nucleon =1.67% 107%" kg and Rg =1.2 10" m. Sol. Density of nucleus (of water) 2 Density of water p’ =10* ky /m' p _2.007«107 307% 10 Pi 10° Nuclear spin Protons and neutrons inside a nucleus moves in a well defined quantum states and thus they have orbital angular momentum. But, both of them also have internal spin. angular momentum. The total angular momentum of the nucleus is the resultant of all the spin and orbital angular momentum of the individual nucleons. This total angular momentum of the nucleus is known as nuclear spin of that nucleus. Note Alimucei witha gven Zandw are all together taken as mul eg, all 3S together taken as one nuclide. Isotopes, isobars and isotones Isotopes ‘The atoms of same elements having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes. In other words, isotopes have same value of atomic number (Z) but different value of mass number A). Almost every element has isotopes. Because of the same atomic number, isotopes of an element have the same place in the periodic table. The isotopes of some elements are7) OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol. 2 In nature, the isotopes of chlorine (y7C1°° and y7C1°”) are found in the ratio 75.4% and 24.6%. When chlorine is, prepared in laboratory, its atomic mass is found to be, M = (35x 0.754) + (37% 0.246) = 35.5 Note since, the isotopes have the same atomic umber, they have the same ‘chemical properties. Theit physical properties ar diferent as they have ‘ferent mass number. Twa slopes thus cannot be separated by {homeal metho, but they can be Separated From the physical methods. Example 13.3. Two stable isotopes of 4Li® and 5, respective abundances of 7.5% and 92.5%. Those isotopes have ‘masses 6.01512 u and 7.01600 u respectively. Find the atomic weight of lithium. Sol, Atomic weight = Weighted average ofthe isotopes Isobars ‘The atoms of different elements having the same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z) are called. Check point B11) : 1. The mass number of a nucteus is (@) always less than its atomic number (©) always more than its atomic number (6) always equa to its atomic number (©) sometimes more than and sometimes equal to its atomic number 2, Outside a nucleus (@) neutrons stable (b) proton and neutron both are stable (6) neutron is unstable (@) Nether neutron nor proton is stable 3. Nucleus of an atom whose mass number is 24 consists of {@) 11 electrons, 11 protons and 13 neutrons (©) 11 electrons, 13 protons and 11 neutrons (6) 11 protons and 13 protons (@) 11 protons and 13 electrons 4. For a nucleus to be stable, the correct relation between neutron numiber N and proton number Z for light nuciel is (@) Noz ©) N=Z () Nez ( N>z 5. In helium nucleus, there are (@) 2 protons and2 electrons (©) 2 neutrons, 12 protons and 2 electrons {¢) 2protons and 2 neutrons (@) 2 positrons and 2 protons isobars. They have different places in periodic table. Their chemical as well as physical properties are different. 1H? and 2He’, g0"7 and gF'” are examples of isobars, Isotones ‘The atoms of different elements having equal number of neutrons (A — Z) but different number of protons are called isotones. Li? and ,Be®, ,H® and ,He‘are examples of isotones, Example 124, Select the pars of iotones from the following nuclei. yyMg?y, Hp He‘, Na™. Sol, Isotones have same number of neutrons, N =A. Z (0)? and He" Number of neutrons =3—1 or 4 ~ (9 ,aMg and Na”? Number of neutrons =24 ~12 or 23-11 =12 ote nucle having same mass number A but with proton number 2) and ‘neutron number (4-2) interchanged are called miror nude 29, 4° and #7, Land Be 2=2 6. In egRa® nucleus, there are (@) 198 protons and 68 neutrons (©) 138 neutrons and 88 protons (©) 226 neutrons and 88 electrons (6) 226 neutrons and 138 electrons 7. As compared "°C atom, ¥C atom are (@) Two extra protons and two extra electrons (©) Two extra protons but no extra electrons (©) Two extra neutrons and no extra electrons (@) Two extra neutrons and two extra eectrons 8. The radius of a nucleus of amass number Ais directly proportional to (@) AS oA Qa oa? 9. The radius of 2yCu® nucleus in fermi is (Given, Ry =1.2%10-'S m) 48 12 77 @96 10. The three stable isotopes of neon ,.Ne®, ;gNe*! and y.Ne™ have respective abundances of 90.51%, 0.27% and 9.22% ‘The atomic masses of the three isotopes are 19.99 u, 2099U and 21.99 u respectively. The average atomic mass of neon will be (@) 20.170 (@ 20980 (@) 90170 (@) 3098ufhe predicted that if the ene Mount E, its mass changes equation, E = Ame? where, ¢is the speed of light, Everyda inate tv smal o produce detectable tenn Bat in nuclear physics this plays an important sole. Mang appears a8 energy and the two can be regarded as equivalent. Mass defect of nucleus Ithas been found that the rest mass of the nucleus of a stable atom is always less than the sum of the masses of its constituents nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the free state, The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest-mass of the nucleus is called mass defect (Am), Mass defect Am = (mass of protons + mass of neutrons) ~ mass of the nucleus Let us consider an atom of element 2X“. Isatomic number is Z and mass number is A. Thus, its nucleus has Z protons and (A — Z) neutrons. If m, is the mass of a proton, m, is the mass of a neutrons and my the mass of the nucleus, then the mass defect is, Am = Zm, +(A-Z)m, - my Atomic mass unit or amu Innuclear physics mass is measured in unified atomic mass units abbreviated amu or u as mass of an atom is very small. (i) The amu is defined as $ th mass of a gC’ atom. (ii) 1 amu (or 1 u) = 1.66107” kg. (ii) It can be shown using relation (AE = Ame”) that 1 u mass has energy 931.5 MeV For lu, ‘Am = 1.66107 kg ¢=3%10° mst AE = Ame? =1.66x10” @ x 10°)? = 1.49410 J _1.49%107 oy “16x10 = 931.5 MeV ju =931.5 meV a Example 135 Calculate the mass defect of Helium|,He*). ‘Mass of proton =1.007276 t ‘Mass of neutron = 1.008665 % ‘Mass of yHe" = 4.001506 u Sol, Mass defect = Mass of nucleons ~ Mass of nucleus [Here, Alnass number) = 4 Number of neutrons =A ~Z=4=2=2 = Mass of 2 protons + Mass of 2 neutrons ~ Mass of nucleus =[2« 1.007276 + 2x 1.008665 — 4.001506] = 0.030376 u Example 13.6 Calculate the eneray required to remove the least tightly bound neutron in, Ca*°. Given that Mass of 29a" = 39.962589 amu Mass of 9Ca*® = 38.970691 amu ‘Mass of neutron = 1.008665 Sol, Here in order to remove a neutron, energy has to be supplied. ((33Ca) + MU) = MU 39Ca) =38,970691 + 1.008663 ~39.962589 0.016767 amu Equivalent energy = 0.06767 x 931 =15.6MeV Mass defect, Am (: 1 amu =931 MeV) Example 13.7 A neutron breaks into a proton and electron. Calculate the eneray produced in this reaction in m, =9x10™" kg, m, =1.6725x 10" kg, 6147x107" ig, ¢ =3%10° m/s. Sol. We have \n + Ip Se Mass defect, Am =m, —my my = (1.6747 10? - 1.6725 x 10” — 0.0009 x 10-7} $1.3 10 kg. Energy produced = Ame? =1.3 10 x @ x 108)? 11.7% 10" 6x10 (21 MeV =1.6« 107) =1L.7x10"J = =0.73 MeV Packing fraction _ Actual isotopic mass — Mass number _ ‘Mass number = It may be positive, negative and zero. 0 Packing fraction of C ( = ) is zero. If isotopic mass is less than mass number, packing fraction is negative, indicating some has been converted into energy, called BE, are move stable. In general, lower the packing fraction, greater is the BE per nucleon, and hence greater is the stability.7) OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol. 2 Binding energy of nucleus ‘The binding energy (E,) of a nucleus is defined as the minimum energy required to separate its nucleons and place them at rest at infinite distance apart. The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. If Amis mass defect, then according to Einstein's mass energy relation. Binding energy = Amc? = \Zm, + (A Z)m,) ~ myl-e? This binding energy is expressed in joule if Amis measured in kg. If Amis measured in amu, then binding energy Ey = Amamu=[(Zm, +(A— Z)m,]— my] amu Ey = Am 931 MeV Note sinding energy can also be wrten as, EyalZmy + (A-Z)my mle where mis the mass of H-atom and m, the atomic mass. 8y using the masses of H-atoms rater than protons, masses ofthe electrons nthe atom cancel out We do this because iis atomic masses that are measured directly by mass spectrometer A sight eror made by doing so butthat is negigibl, Example B.8 Find the binding eneray of an a-partcle from the following data. ‘Mass of the helium nucleus m (qHe*) = 4.012654 ‘Mass of proton m, =1.007277 w ‘Mass of neutron m,, =1,008666 u (Take, 1 u=931.4813 MeV) Sol. arparticle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons Mass defect, Am =(Zm, + Nm, ~m(He) x 1.007277 + 2x 1.008666 ~ 4.001265 3062 w Binding energy = Am x 931.4813 MeV 03062 x 931.48 = 28.52 MeV Binding energy per nucleon ‘The average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon. Binding energy per nucleon Total binding energy ~ Mass number (Le. total number of nucleons) _ dmx 931MeV “~Anucleon E, 4 | Binding energy per nucleon « stability of nucleus. > Example 13.9 Binding energy of 7 Cl"? and ysP*! are 287.67 Mov ‘and 262.48 MeV. Which of the two nuclei is more stable? as _ Binding ener Sol. Binding energy pr nusieon af ,,ch* = HSN ees 280.1 gp nfev 35 262.48 Binding energy per nucleon of ,P* = "4 — aa7Mey BE of |.P°" is more than BE of C1, Hence, ;,P® is more stable. Example 13.10 If the binding energy per nucleon of deuteron is 1.115 MeV, find its mass defect in atomic mass unit. ee ce Sol Binding energy per nucleon is Eyy == For deuteron, atomic mass, A=2 Substituting the values in above equation, 1.115 Mev =42 2 siti > Byetmet = am=£b Ey Mass defect, Am = 21415, (20024 u Binding energy curve It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and total number of nucleons (i.e., mass number A). 3° I S| gy pes Ee | seo ary 5 abcd ae. 2 utd 50 fe Pe a6 Piao ba Ph, £ oft ew # 0% 30 100 150 300 ——=380 ‘Mass number (A) —= Fig. 13.1 Binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number Some features of this curve are given below () The curve has almost a flat maximum roughly from A= 50to A = 80 corresponding to an average BE/nucleon of about 8.5 MeV. So, the nuclei having. mass number between 50 to 80 are most stable. Iron (Fe®) (A = 56), having a BE/nucleon of about, 8.8 MeV has maximum stability. (Gi) For nuclei having mass number more than 80, the average binding energy per nucleon decreases slowly and drop to about 7.6 MeV for Uranium (A = 238). The lower value of binding energy per nucleon failsto overcome the repulsion having large number of py heavier atoms, beyond among protons in nuclei rotons. fe, the nucle of be a1Bi®” are radioactive, (i For nuclei having mass number below 20, it decreases sharply. For example, for heavy liydrogen (2), itis only about 1.1 MeV. This shee dar nuclet having mass number below 20 are comparatively less stable, : (ju) Below A = 50, the curve does not fall continuous but has subsidiary peaks a gol, scene This shows that these (even-even) nuclei are more stable than their immediate neighbours, Conclusions from the graph {@) The curve shows that very heavy and very light nuclei have Blower average BE/nicken ta he msl cerns masses. So if very heavy nucleus (sch as U") be spi to tw lighter nicks ea the at nonin ot eee the BE/nucleon will increase, Hence, energy will be released in the process. This meth of releaing nuclear eneray by breaking up a heavy nucleus into two lighter rauclel of comparable masses is called nuclear Faso. Is the basis of nclear bombs and nuclear reactors. (ii) Altern: ly, if two, or more, very light nuclei (such as H?) can be combined to form a heavier nucleus (such as He*), the BE/nicteon will again increase and now by a much greater amount than in the fission process. This will rsultin much larger release of energy. ‘This method of releasing nuclear energy is called nuclear fusion It occurs inside sun and other stars and is the source of ther energy. Nuclear forces ‘As we know that nucleus consists of positively charged frotons and neutral particle neutrons. The protons due to their positive charge repel each other, so there must be a strong forces inside the nucleus which overcome the repulsive force of protons and bind them together inside the nucleus, this force is called nuclear force. Therefore, the forces that holds the nucleons together Inside the nucleus of an atom are called nuclear forces. Some important properties of nuclear forces are given below (i) Nuclear forces are charge independent. (i) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not exist at large distances greater than 10°, ty These are cteactive force and cause tbiity ofthe nucleus. (iv) Nuclear forces are non-central force. (©) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature. (vi) Nuclear forces depends on the direction of the spins of the nucleons. The force is stronger if the spin of nucleons is parallel and is weak if itis anti-parallel, Chapter > Huclei 794 ween ballesars inverse Plecteical and rit Be Me?), bat nuclear fore square law (ota di adh dowes non follvnes He compli Yukawa's Meson theory of nuclear forces stist Yukiswa inv 1955 suggtesteed that the hricl ate paeatucedd by A Japanese seien rehearse exch fone exchange of new particles called 7.8 ; fucloons. These particles were later or actually divers 1 cosine radiation. unis W and n°. Uh ‘There are three types of reanesons, 3, a continuous exchange of eamnesons het wecn protons nnd neutrons due to which they continue ta be converted inte, ‘one another. pon tnandn pri ‘The forces between a pair of neutrons oF a pr are the result of the exchange of neutral 1 between the of protons ns a2) “ppl ert and noni 4x Thus exchange of m meson between nucleons keeps the nucleons bound together. It is responsible for the ‘nuclear force Nuclear Stability The stability of a nucleus is determined by the value of its binding energy per nucleon. Higher the binding energy of nucleon, more stable is the nucleus. The stability of pucleus is also determined by its neutron to proton ratio. A plot of number of neutrons and number of protons is, shown in the figure below. In the figure, the solid line shows the nuclei with equal number of protons and neutron WV = Z).Only light nucl are on this line, i.e. they are stable if they contain approximately same number of protons and neutrons. [Number of neutrons ees i yg 010 20-30 a0 806070 _a0 90 [Number uf protons (2) Fig, 13.2 Graphical representation of number of neutrons versus number of protons,~ 792) OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol. 2 Heavy nuclei are stable only when they have more neutrons than protons. ‘The long narrow region shown in the figure, which. contains the cluster of short lines representing stable nuclei is referred to as the valley of stability. The nuclide 9 Bi is the heaviest stable nucleus. Experimental study shows that the stable nuclei contain even number of protons or neutrons or both. Magic numbers We know that the electrons in an atom are grouped in ‘shells’ and ‘sub-shells’. Atoms with 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 electrons have all of their shells completely filled. Such atoms are unusually stable and chemically inert. A similar situation exists with nuclei also. Nuclei having 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 nucleons of the same kind (either protons or neutrons) are more stable than nuclei of neighbouring ‘mass numbers. These numbers are called as ‘magic numbers. Nuclear reaction The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle is called nuclear reaction. The general expression for the nuclear reaction is a follow Cc (Compound mcless) aE oneney x a (arent nucleus) " (Uniden particle) — oY +k (Product cleus) Daughter nucle) Here, X and a are the reactants, Y and b are the products and Qis the kinetic energy released in the nuclear reaction, Conservation laws obeyed by nuclear reaction are (i) Mass number and electric charge is conserved LZeawat =D Zs Arita = DAs (ji) Linear momentum and angular momentum are conserved. (Gi) Total energy of the reaction remains conserved, where in, term Q, helps to balance the total energy of reaction. Q-value _a-value ‘value means the difference between the rest mass, energy of initial constituents and the rest mass energy of final constituents of a nuclear reaction. ie, Q-value of nuclear reaction As considered, X +a —>Y¥+b+Q where, Q=U, ~ Uy Here, U, = Rest mass energy of initial constituents U; =Rest mass energy of final constituents = (My +M, ~My -M,)-¢? If, Q = + ve = reaction is exothermic and Q = —ve = reaction is endothermic. 294 For a-decay, 2X4 > 7.:¥** + ,He* So, Q value will be, Q=[m(gX4) —m(z_2¥**) —m(,He* J}.c? which represents the kinetic energy available to the products. For B-decay, 2X“ > zu¥*+e7+¥ U, =[m(,X4) - Zm,}-c? Uy =lmlz5¥4)-(Z+Dm, +m, => Kinetic energy available to the products, QU, —Uy = lg X4)—m(zu¥ Vc? For B*-decay, 7X4 > 2\¥4+e* +v U, =[m(zX4)- Zm,]-c? U; =[mlz4¥4)-(Z—-Dm, +m,]-c? ‘=> Kinetic energy available to the products, Q=[mlpX*)—m(z_,¥4)=2m,]-c? For electron capture, >X* > 7¥4 Q=[ml,X4)—m(z ¥4)]-c? Example 13.11 A deuteron strikes ;N"* nucleus with the subsequent emission of an a-particle. Find the atomic number, ‘mass number and chemical name of the element so produced. Sol The nuclear reaction as per the given data is given a, aN‘ +H? —> 2x4 + Het (a-particle) According to laws of conservation (For charge, Desi =D Zio = T+1=242 > Z=6 For mass number, DA nit Di Aon ad 14+2=A+4 = A=12 > GX! —s the element is carbon C2,3) Nuclear energy ‘The energy released during nuclear nuclear energy. Generally, reaction, Which results (ae inta release of energy, fuclear reaction is called there is loss of mass in nuclear “cording to Einstein's equation) consequently, if nuclei with less ansform to nuclei with greater be a net energy release. This hay nucleus decays into two or mor fragments (Fission) or when lig nucleus (fusion), Inanuclear reaction, the energy released is of the order of MeV. For same quantity of matter, nuclear sources produces a million times more energy than a chemical source. Two distinct ways of obtaining energy from nucleus are as (Nuclear fission (ii) Nuclear fusion. total binding energy binding energy, there will ippens when a heavy re intermediate mass ht nuclei fuse into a heavier Nuclear fission ‘The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after bombardment with a ‘energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission. QUP ess Fig. 13.3 Nuclear fission in Fission reaction resulting from the absorption of neutron is wn as induced fission. One of the common example of fission is when uranium ‘sctope 5,UJ235 bombarded with a neutron breaks into two ‘intermediate mass nuclear fragments. ne BU 4 ony gg pggBa'' + ggKr"? + 30m! +Q Vase naieos e This is one of the type into which the fission of 521 ‘akes place, there can be other combinations also. lo general, fission nuclei contains excess of nevtrons: therefore are highly unstable. Hence, undergo beta decay “til they reaches a stable end product. 235 fission is about 200 MeV or The energy released in U age 2.5 neutrons are °8 MeV per nucleon and on an aver liberated. These neutrons are called fast neutrons and their energy is about 2 MeV (each). These fast neutrons can escape from the reaction. So, in order to proceed the reaction they are needed to slowed down. Fission of U** ‘occurs by slow neutrons only of energy about 1 eV or even by thermal neutrons of energy about 0.025 eV. Note The mss ofthe compound nucleus must be greater than the sum of masses of fssion products, she ising eves fission products. Hence, mass difference ie, mass defect is converted into energy (E = mc) Thus, wemendous amount of eneray i released, fist appears as Kinetic energy ofthe fragments and neutrons, then is, transferred tothe surrounding appearing as heat ‘of compound nucleus must be ess than that ofthe Chain reaction In nuclear fission many neutrons are produced along with the release of large energy. Under favourable conditions these neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing large number of neutrons. ‘Thus, a chain of nuclear fissions is established which continues until the whole of the uranium is consumed. ee SOS Fig. 134 In the chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission increases very fast. So, the energy produced takes a tremendous magnitude very soon. Important points related to chain reaction A chain reaction once started will remain steady, accelerate or retard depends upon neutron reproduction factor or multiplication factor (R) which is defined as ip = Rate of production of neutrons Rate of loss of neutrons IER =1 then chain reaction will be steady. The ze of the fissionable sample used is said to be the critical size and it's mass, the critical mass.138) OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol. 2 If R> | then chain reaction grows faster. Size of the material is super critical. If R< then chain reaction comes to hault, Size of the material is said as sub-critical. There are two types of chain reaction () Controlled chain reaction The reaction which can, be controlled by absorbing suitable number of neutrons at each stage of the reaction, so that all, neutrons are absorbed except one, which is available for further fission. This type of reaction is called controlled chain reaction. The rate of this reaction is, slow and the energy liberated is always less than the explosive energy. The reproduction factor is, R =1. Nuclear reactor works on this principle. (ii) Uncontrolled chain reaction The reaction which cannot be controlled externally, rather there are more than one neutron taking part in reaction, then the reaction will accelerate at such a rapid rate that the whole material will explode within few micro-seconds, liberating tremendous amount of energy. The reproduction factor is R > 1. Atom ‘bombs works on this principle. Nuclear reactor A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through a sustained and controlled chain reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled energy which is utilised for many useful purposes. ‘Nuclear reactor energy is used to generate steam, which ‘operates on a turbine and turns a electric generator. ‘os Core Coolane a Giant out Ly Tirhine nepte ( “To clectse cet ‘generator. Condenser ON Heat Coplnt exchanger Pool elements Fig. 13.5 Nuclear reactor Construction The key components of the nuclear reactor are as follows () Fissionable material (Fuel) The fissionable material used in the reactor is called the fuel of the reactor. Ur.ninm isotope (U5), thorium isotope (Th) and plutonium isotopes (Pu, Pu and Pu") are the ‘most commonly used fuel in the reactor. (ji) Moderator Moderator is used to slow down the fast ‘moving neutrons. Most commonly used moderators are graphite and heavy water (DO). Heavy water is the best moderator. (ii) Control rods Cadmium rods are inserted into the care of the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons. The neutrons available for fission are controlled by moving the cadmium rods in or out of the core of the reactor. Gv) Coolant tis a liquid used to remove heat from nuclear reactor core and transfer it to electrical generator and environment. Ordinary water under high pressure is used as coolant. (v) Shielding It is the protective covering made of concrete wall to protect from harmful radiations, (vi) Working ‘Newtons produced by a:partile action on polonium. I ‘Nevins alowed down and art fsion of 32 mo frst neutrons released slowed] down by moderator. “agin the neurons sawn down, “Ge hence poisson of sot cain eats balls up By adjusting control rods, the chain reaction can be controlled. ‘As water is used as coolant as well as moderator. Hence, Coolant takes up the heat __ Passes to water ‘produced in the nuclear" in heat exchanger Fission j Drives turbine Pere From turbine low Condensed __, Forced back to pressure steam cooled" to-water steam generator Superheated steam is produced Uses of nuclear reactor {i) In electric power generation. (ii) To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical, science, agriculture and industry. (ii) In manufacturing of Pu? which is used in atom bomb. Wate sreedereactor The reactors which can prodce fel moce than thy We ie, produce more se material than consumes eg, '3U SooPE nen bombarded with fast neutrons, transformation occurs lite -, aU + gt a gu Es gnp™ —s ,pu™ a ot? — ‘Thus, breeder reactor produces more fssionable nucle, more felt the form of Pu from non-fsile uranium,Atom bomb inthe atomic bomb an increasing uncontrolled chain aston coeur n'a ren) short time when two pce of jranium-235 are rapidly brought together to farm « mas ester than the critical sig, BAEF form a mass gxample B12 Neon-23 decays inthe following way 1oNe>—5 Na? 4 ert Find the minimum and maximum kinetic energy thatthe teta particle (¢) can have. The atomic masses of 1oNe* 2 and Na are 22,9945 u and 22.9898 u, respectively. Sol. Here, atomic masses are given (not the nuclear masses), but sii we can use them for calculating the mass defect because mass of electrons get cancelled both sides, Thus, mass defect, Am = m(gNe2)— mi Na) 22.9945 - 22.9896) Kinetic energy is given by Q=Am- Q=(0.0047u) (931.5 MeV/u) = 4.4 MeV. Hence, the energy of beta particles can range from 0 to 4.4 MeV. Example 13.13 Find the amount of energy produced in joules due to fission of 1 9 of 92U*** assuming that 0.1% of mass is transformed into energy. Atomic mass of .,U** =235 amu, ‘Avogadro number N , = 6.023 10°. Given that the eneray released per fission is 200 MeV. Sol, It is given that 0.1% of 1gm of 9,0 is being used. So, 0.0047 u 1 3 mass used, m = 21 x 1=10 ass used, m = @ 107 Given mass y= 107 » 6,023 x10 238 ‘Atomic mass Energy produced, E = Number of fissions x Energy released per fission Number of fissions = = 8.02310" 5 990 1.6 10° = 8.2% 10" J 235) MeV =16x 10") Sample 13. the amount of energy released when ' om foram oes eas O19 amu) undergoes fission 4y slow neutron (1.0087 amu) and is splitted into Krypton aeKr?? (01,8973 amu) and Barium 55B'" (140.9139 amu) ‘suming no energy is lost. Hence, find the energy in kWh, hen 1g of it undergoes fission. : etd SoL Fission equation, gU%°-+ gt > sgBd! + eK? + on Mass defect, Am = rn(ggJ 25) + mq) Lome Ba") + m(ggKr°2) + 3m] = [(236.0499 + 1.0087) - 140.9139 “+ 91.8973 + 31.0087} =0.2135 amu Chapter 13 : Nuclel (is MeV ene? 2Amx 99 ivan energy, =Ame? = 7 100 MeV 0.2153 93: [Number of atoms/fssion ink of atom is Lx 6.02810 =2.56 x 10" A238 Energy released in fission of 1 g of 33°U 56 x 10" x 200 MeV 56 x 107! x 200 x 1.6 x 107" J (1 MeV =1.6x 10) 56 x 107! x en 1079 kWh 3.6%10 =2.28x10* kWh = nxE= Example 13,15 In a neutron induced fission of go U5 nucleus, usable energy of 185 MeV is released. If a 92) uss continuously operating it ata power level of 100 MW how tong twill it take for] kg of uranium to be consumed in this reactor? Sol. Total number of nuclet in 1 kg of uranium, n-=(Number of moles)x (Avogadro's number) - pe) (6.02 x 10°) =2.56 x 10% 235) reactor is By the fission of one nucleus, 185 MeV energy is released. Hence total energy released by the fission of 1 kg of uranium is, E = (2.56% 10) 85 x 16 107") J = 75810? J Power of the power plant is given 100 MW or 10® J/s. ‘Therefore total time upto which the power plant ean be run 8x10 288210" 758% 10° s by 1 kg uranium is, ma Nuclear fusion When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, then the process is called nuclear fusion, In order to fuse two nuclei, they must come together in the range of nuclear force and to do this, they must ‘overcome electrical repulsion of their positive charges. Hence, the kinetic energy required for fusion depends on the Coulomb barrier height = 400keV for two protons. This energy is only achieved at high temperature. Hence, for fusion, high pressure = 10'° atm and high temperature of the order of 107 K to 10° K is required and so the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction, eg.» two deuterons (heavy-hydrogen nuclei) can be fused to form a triton (tritium) according to following reaction, 1H? +H? >, H+ JH + 4.0 MeV (energy) ‘The triton so formed can further fuse with a third deuteron to form an a-particle. UP +H? > He" + on 417.6 MeV (energy)798) OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol. 2 The net result of the two reactions is the fusion of three deuterons and the formation of ct-particle (,He*), a neutron gn! and a proton (\H"). The total energy released is 21.6 MeV. Solar energy is duc to fusion in the interior of the sun which has a temperature of 1.5% 101 K (<< 3x10°K). The fusion in star and sun involves protons whose energies are much above the average energy. The fusion reaction in the sun is a multistep process in which hydrogen is fused into helium, which is follows as iH! + |H! —» \H? +et +v4+0.42 MeV et +e” —y +7 +1.02 MeV 1H? + |H! —> jHe? +7 +5.49 MeV 2He® + He” —> ,He* +H! + ,H! + 12.86 MeV ti) Ai) ) First three reactions occurs twice to react to fourth reaction, => 2(i) + 2Gi) + 2Gii) + (iv) => 4,H! +2e” —» ,He‘ +2v+6y +267MeV. Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an He* atom with a release of 26.7MeV of energy. As the hydrogen in the core gets depleted and becomes helium, the care start to cool. The star begins to collapse under its own gravity, which decreases the temperature of the core. Note Hydrogen bomb due to nuclear fusion Controlled thermonuclear fusion ‘The aim of thermonuclear fusion is to generate steady power by heating the nuclear fuel to the temperature in the range of 10°K. At these temperature, the fuel is a mixture of positive ions and electrons (plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, since no container can stand such a high temperature. Several countries around the world including India are developing techniques for this, Note a controlled fsion reaction can be achieved an almost unimited supply ‘of energy will become availabe from deuterium inthe watrof oceans. Example 13.16 The binding energy per nucleon of deuterium and helium atom is 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV, respectively. If two deuterium nuclei fuse to form helium atom. Find the eneray released. ‘Sol. Given, fusion reaction, ,H? +, H? —+ He! + energy Binding energy of a (,H?) deuterium nuclei =2x1.1=2.2MeV Total binding energy of two deuterium nuclei =2.2%2=4.4 MeV So, energy released in fusion = 28-44 Example 13.17 In the fusion reaction , H?+, H? >, He*+ gn, the masses of deuteron, helium and neutron expressed in amu are 2.015, 3.017 and 1.009, respectively. If 1 kg of deuterium undergoes complete fusion, then find the amount of total energy released. 1 amu = 931.5 MeVic?. Sol. Given, fusion reaction, , H? +H? —» gHfe™ + on! Mass defecty Am =2% mH?) ~(m(gHe!) +My] = [12.015 « 2) ~ 6.017 +1.009) =4x10 amu Equivalent energy, E = Ame? = Am x 931.5 MeV/c? = 4x10 x 931.5 =3.726 MeV Number of atoms in 1 kg of , H? Given mass ‘Atomic mass es x Avogadro number > 6.023 x 10” In one reaction, two atoms of ?H are used. So total energy released “2 Example 13.18 In a nuclear reactor U™* undergoes fission releasing energy 100 MeV. The reactor has 20% efficiency and the power produces is 2000 MW. If the reactor is to function for 5 yr, find the total mass of uranium required. Sol. Given, output power, P, = 2000 MW =2 x 10°W: Bificiency, 1 = Quput power Pe ¥ 1 Taput power P, 20 _2x10 100 Consider the mass of uranium be m. Number of fissions = Number of atoms “_ Given mass ‘Atomic mass A 235, Energy produced, £ =Number of fissions x Energy per fission Ex 6.023 x10 x fe ae 200MeV =P =10°w x Avogadro number x 6.023 x 10% m = x 6.023 x 10 x 100 re 335 * 023% 10 x 100 x 16 x 107] (eT MeV = = mx 0.041x107J = mx 4.1x10%F 6x10) 0 Power = EMMY. _, yqgo.__mx 4.1x10! Time 5x 965 24x 3600 3.84 x10" g =38.4 x 10° kgCheck point 13,2 4. 1.9 of hydrogen is converted into 0 thermonuclear reaction, The energy released (@) 83x10") () S3x10°J () Gaxt0!y (oh 6axt0 J 2, Han electton and a postron anata 993 g of helium in a released is then the energy 9 s2xined © texto y texto td ( 6axto®y 3, The mass defect in a amount of energy libe light = 3x10® ms™) (@) 15x10" (b) 25% Gane rece 4.1frm, m, and my are the masses of and proton respectively, then (@) M<(A~ Zn + Zp (0) M=(A~ Zien + Zpy (©) M=(A~Z)po + 2m (O) M>(A~Zjent Ze 5. The masses of neutron and proton are 1.0087 amu and 1.0073 amu, respectively. the neutions and protons ‘combine to form a helium nucieus (alpha particles) of mass 4.0015 amu the bincing energy ofthe helium nuctous will be (amu = 931 MeV) (a) 28.4MeV (b) 20.8MeV (c) 27.3MeV (d) 14.2 MeV 6. ina fission reaction 3FU-» x+y 4.1 +n, the binding ‘energy per nucleon of X and Y is 8.5 MeV, whereas of 7U is 7.6 MeV. The total energy liberated willbe about (@) 200keV (b) 2MeV (¢) 200 MeV (c) 2000 Mev Fission of nuclei is possible because the binding eneray per rrucleon in them {a) increases with mass number at high mass numbers (b) decreases with mass number at high mass numbers (©) increases with mass number at low mass number {@) decreases with mass number at low mass number 8. A chain reaction is continuous due to (@) large mass defect (©) large energy (©) production of more neutrons in fission (2) None of the above 4) Radioactivity Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel in Wanium salt in the year 1896. - The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation by nucleus of some elements is known as radioactivity. The ¢lements which show this phenomenon are called tadioactive elements. Particular nuclear reaction is 0.9.g. The erated in kilowatt hours is (velocity of 2X" nucleus, neutron be 9. The principle of controlled chain reaction is used in {2} atomic energy reactor _(b) atom bomb (©) the core of sun (@) arificial radioactivity 10. Which of these is a fusion reaction? (@) 9H, + 2H, > “He, + In (©) Uz, + *°Pdgp + B(*Hea) + 6(°8,) (©) °C, 9"Cy + B+y (@) None ofthe above 11. Solar energy is mainly caused due to {@) fission of uranium present inthe sun {b) fusion of protons during synthesis of heavier elements (©) gravitational contraction (6) burning of hydrogen in the oxygen 12, Nuclear fusion is common to the pair {a) thermonuclear reactor, uranium based nuclear reactor (b) energy production in sun, uranium based nuclear reactor (c) energy production in sun, hydrogen bomb {@) disintegration of neavy nucle, hydrogen bomb 13. Fusion reaction takes place at high temperature because (@) molecules break up at high temperature (0) nucle! break up at high temperature (©) atoms get ionised at high temperature (6) kinetic energy is high enough to over come the coulomb repulsion between nuciel 14, Heavy water is used as moderator in a nuclear reactor. The function of the moderator is {@) to control the energy released in the reactor (©) to absorb neutrons and stop chain reaction (©) tocoo! the reactor factor (6) 10 slow down the neutron to thermal energies 15, Pick out the correct statement from the following (@) Energy released per unit mass of the reactant is less in case (of fusion reaction (©) Packing fraction may be positive or may be negative (©) Pu is not suitable for a fission reaction (@) For stable nucleus, the specitic binding eneray is low Atoms are radioactive if their nuclei are unstable and spontaneously (and randomly) emit various (c, B and/or ) radiations and decay into stable nucleus. ‘When naturally occuring nuclei are unstable, we call the phenomena natural radioactivity. When some nuclei are ‘made radioactive, nuclei in laboratory, then phenomena is known as artificial radioactive. Some examples of radioactive substances are uranium, radium, thorium, polonium, neptunium, etc.798 OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol, 2 Generally, three types of emission are emitted from radioactive nuclei, which r, B and y radiations. Properties of radioactive radiations Properties of c.-particles a-particle carries +2e charge and mass equal 4 times that of proton ic., is equal to doubly ionised helium atom (, He). Some important properties of c.-particles are as follows (i) a-particles are deflected in electric and magnetic fields. They are positively charged. (ii) The velocity of a-particles vary from 0.01-0.1 times ¢ (velocity of light). (ii) a-particles have low penetrating power. (iv) a-particles have high ionisation power. Their ionising power is 100 times greater than that of B-rays and 10000 times greater than that of 7-rays. (v) a-particles produce fluorescence in substances like Zine sulphide and barium platinocyanide. They produce scintillation on fluorescent screen, (vi) a-patticles feebly affect photographic plate. They also produce heating effect, when stopped and can cause incurable burns on human body. (vii) All @-particles coming from a source have same energy. Properties of B-particles (i) B-particles are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. They are negatively charged. Their deflection is much larger than the deflection of o.-particles. This shows that f-particles are much lighter than the ce-particles. (ii) The velocity of f-particles vary from 0.01 to 0.99 of the velocity of light. (iii) The penetrating power of B-particles is about 100 times larger than the penetrating power of ‘a-particles. They can pass through Imm thick sheet of aluminium, (iv) B-patticles ionise gases, but their ionising power is much smaller, only (1/100)th of the ionising power of a-particles. As B:particles cannot produce ionisation continuously, their tracks in cloud chamber do not appear to be continuous. (v) Prparticles produce fluorescence in calcium tungstate, barium platinocyanide and zine sulphide. (vi) Brparticles affect photographic plate more than do the a-particles. Properties of y-rays () y-tays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields, ‘This indicates that they have no charge. (ii) y-rays travel with the speed of light @ x 10® ms“, (ii) The penetrating power of y-rays is much more than that of a and B-particles. They can pass through 30 em thick iron sheet. (iv) 7-rays ionise gases, but their ionisation power is very small compared to that of a and B-particles. (0) yrrays produce fluorescence. (vi) y-rays affect photographic plate more than do Brparticles. ‘y-rays are diffracted by crystals in the same way as X-rays. Noten acioactve substance emits both «and p-partcles simutaneousy, +a are emitted alongwith both and B-patles. wi Comparison of the properties of c-particle, Beparticle and y-rays SNe Property operticle — Byutice tage Nature Helium micleus Fast moving Electromagnetic clecrona waves ae 20 3. Rest mass 667x10kg 91x10" kg zero 4, Speed 1.4 x10" to 100 99% of & 10" ms“! 2.2% 107 ms = 3x10" ms" 5. Tonising 10° 10 1 pone Peta mr tee Penetrating 1 10? 10 power Radioactive decay A radioactive nucleus (parent nucleus), decays by particle emission into another nucleus (daughter nucleus), this phenomenon is called radioactive decay. Innature, three types of radioactive decay occurs 1. Alpha decay j ‘An alpha particle is a helium nucleus. Thus a nucleus ‘emitting an alpha particle loses two protons and two neutrons. Therefore, the atomic number Z decreases by 2, the mass number A decreases by 4 and the neutron. number N decreases by 2. The decay can be written as, Ayana 4 2X4 = V4 + Hewhere, X i the parent nucleus and ¥ is the daughter pucleus. AS examples 92U* and Ra? are both, alpha dmitters and decay according to, 20" 5 Th 4 tet 226 _ — Rn” +,He* Asa general rule, in any decay sum of mass numbers A and atomic numbers Z must be the same. ‘on both sides. Alpha decay occurs with nuclei that are very heavy, hence, unstable. So, emitting alpha particle, mass number decreases and it moves towards stabi oeRa 2. Beta decay Beta decay involves the emission of electrons or positron, ‘A positron is a form of antimatter, which has a charge equal to +¢ and a mass equal to that of electron. The electrons and positron emitted in B-decay do not exist inside the nucleus. They are created at the time of emission, just as photons are created when an atom makes a transition from higher to a lower energy state. ‘There are three different types of B-decay (i) InB~ decay a neutron in the nucleus is transformed into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino, An anti-neutrino is represented by symbol ¥. It has. zero rest mass, is chargeless and its spin quantum number is +4, 2 n—> pte +¥ Thus a parent nucleus with atomic number Z and ‘mass number A decays by B~ emission into a daughter nuclei with atomic number Z + land the same mass number A. ox* os yt B” decay oceurs in nuclei that have too many neutrons i.e., N/Z ratio is too large for stability. An example of B decay is the decay of carbon 14 into nitrogen, och ao NM He (i) In B* decay, a proton changes into a neutron with the emission of a positron and a neutrino. Neutrino and anti-neutrino are anti-particles to each other. ponte ty ron (¢*) emission from a nucleus decreases the Posit le keeping the same mass atomic number Z by 1 whil umber A. ae, x A x4 — 7 ¥ BY decay occurs in nuclei that have too many protons i.e., N/Z ratio is too small for stability. B* decay can occur only when the neutral atomic mass of the original atom (zX“) is at least two electron mass (2m, ) larger than that of the final atom a¥). BN > Poret +v Example 3.19 How many a and B~-particles will be emitted when goTh?°? changes to g3Bi?'?? Sol, gg Th®™? —> ggBi"? Decrease in mass number = 232-212 =20 Number of a-particles emitted due to the above decrease in mass number =22 = 5 4 Expected decrease in atomic number due to emission of Sa-particles = 5x 2=10 Expected atomic number of the nucleus formed = 90-10=80 But the atomic number of nucleus formed = 83 Increase in atomic number = 83 ~ 80 =3 Number of f-particles emitted Thus, 5 a-particles and 36"-particles are emitted, Gii) Electron capture is competitive with positron emission since both processes lead to the same nuclear transformation. This occurs when a parent nucleus captures one of its own orbital electrons and emits a neutrino, 7a A 2X4eet 3) yA ay In most cases, it is a K-shell electron that is captured, and for this reason the process is referred to as K-capture. One example is the capture of an electron by , Be? aBe’ +e" —+ gli7ay Note exon pte csi os mcs oi at to sa or sy 8" ensson rot erent pnite 2 Aro eeton ape Tenneson ys created in the atomic shell and800) OBJECTIVE PHYSICS Vol. 2 3. Gamma decay In ordinary physical and chemical transformation the nucleus always remains in its ground state. When a nucleus is placed in an excited state, by a radioactive transformation, it can decay to the ground state by emission of one or more photons called gamma rays and this process is called gamma decay. A gamma ray is emitted when an a or a decay results in a daughter nucleus in a an excited state. 20S pr decay | __Excited state (eles) Fig. 13.6 Brdecay of 100" followed by 2 decay Note tn bot « andp-secay, the value of ofa nucleus changes and nucleus of ane element becomes re nucleus ofa diferent element, Aires dscay te elemen doesnot chnge, te niles rey es fom an excited state to ass exited Sate Example 1320 A radioactive nucleus undergoes a series of dlecay accorlng to scheme. A—23A—* 4A, 2 A, 4 Ay If the mass nuember and atomic number of A are 180 and 72 respectively, then what are these numbers for A? Sol. In a- decay, $X —» $47 + tHe Here, 2A > ATS + Ste Inprdecay, 4X9 Ste 4¥ Here, pA Are 40 Again, — AY > gpAll? + $e In ydecay, $X—> SK +7 oh? oA oy So, we have, iio, yi bpm a , aE yA a Ad Eo gh Lgl” Pair production and pair annihilation Pair production When an energetic y-ray photon falls on a heavy substance, it is absorbed by some nucleus of the substance and its energy gives rise to the production of an electron and a positron. ‘ah? : wt M an @ (photon) cleus “A ae Figh37 ‘This phenomenon is called pair production and may be represented by the equation Iv —> 4,8° + 8° mn, E' = mc, the least energy of photon From the equi required for pair production will be, E = 2(9.1«107" kg(3.010* ms“) =1.64x10°° J 1.6410" 1:64x10"— Mev 16x10 = 1.02 MeV Hence, for pair production, itis essential that the energy of y-photon must be at least 1.02 MeV. Note + the energy of photons lssthan 102 Me¥, it would cause photoelectric ef or Compton effect on striking the matter (no pat-production). 2. the energy of photons mare than 1.02 Me, then electron and positon ae produced andthe energyin excess of 102 Med isobtainedasthetneicenergyof these particles. his kinetic eneay snot distributed equaly between these wo particles, but the positon gets more than half. This is because (osttely hanged) nucleus accelerate the escaping (pstvely charge) posivon de to repulsion but retards the electron due ta attraction, Pair annihilation ‘The converse phenomenon of pair production is called pair annihilation. When an electron and a positron come very close to each other, they annihilate each other by combining together and two 7-photons are produced. This phenomenon can be represented by the following equation. 18° + 2° —> hv+hw Posten) Giro) photos) “ag? 4p? _, Fheton) —-phaond Sea Fig. 13.6 Pair annihilation Note. That wo photons (nat one) are pratuced in pir-anihilation to conseré both the energy and the momentum,ae ytherford and Soddy's ta i jioactive decay WS law regarding cording to this law, the rate of decay of radioactive nuclei at any instant is proportional to the number clei present at that instant, aa et N be the number of nuclei present in a radioactive fabstance at any instant ¢ Let dN be the number of noclet that disintegrates in a short interval de, hi ion AN shen the rte of disintegration “2 is proportional oN an ies HE N or where, 2 iS a constant for the given substance and is called decay constant (or disintegration constant or radioactive constant or transformation constant) and the ve sign indicates that radioactive nuclei are decreasing with time. For a given element, the value of 2 is constant but for different elements, it is different. From the above : aN equation, we have SV = 2 ae Integrating above equation, we get Jain =-2fae > logN=-At+C A) vere, C is the integration constant. To determine C, we apply the initial conditions. Suppose, there were Np nuclei in the beginning i.e, N= No at t= 0. Then, log. No =C Substituting this value of Cin Equi), we have log, N = -At + log. No log, N-log. No re 7 Ne No : here, Np and N are numbers of nuclei in a radioactive Substance at time ¢ = O and after time 6, respectively. According to this equation, the decay of a radioactive ‘ubstance is exponential i.e., the decay is api inthe inning and then its rate decreases continuously. Tt. Means that a radioactive substance will take infinite time ‘caying completely. a Chapter 13: Nuclei (a [Number of undecayed muck o ah aT, 4h OT Time ( Fig. 13.8. Exponential decay ofa radioactive substance Note number af nuclei decayed after time MynWa Nata Noe “he corresponding graph sas shown in igure. itt) ‘Number of nuclei decayed Time Fig. 13.9 Note Probatiliy of nucleus to survive in time tis, New Pl survival) Me Probability of a nucleus to disintegrate in time tis, Hisintegrtion) =1— P( survival) aiem }, number of nuclet of a radioactive s these numbers become 90. Find the Example 1321 At time t substance are 100. At number of nuclei att = 2s. ‘Sol, in 1 second 90% of the nuclei have remained undecayed, so in another 1 second 90% of 90 ke. 81 nuclei will remain sundecayed. Activity of radioactive substance ‘The rate of decay of a radioactive substance is called the activity (R) of the substance. Rat dt Also, according to Rutherford and Soddy law, =Ween or -2N an at dt Thus, R= og RaaN at or R=ANoe™ “ div)