ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project has been completed with immense

support and guidance from our subject teacher
(TEACHER NAME). I also thank my parents for
their helpful and experienced suggestions. I thank
my friends for their support.
I am indebted towards school for providing us
with such a good opportunity to explore
something so unique and interesting. Sincere
thanks to all those who gave me moral support to
complete this project.
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that (STUDENT NAME) of Class
XII, has successfully completed investigatory
project on the topic under the heading
“Taylor Series”
During the academic session of 2023-2024 under
the guidance of (TEACHER NAME).

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
MATHS TEACHER EXTERNAL EXAMINER
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
 INTRODUCTION
 DEFINITION OF TAYLOR SERIES
 TAYLOR’s SERIES THEOREM
 PROOF
 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
 USES OF TAYLOR SERIES FOR
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
 APPLICATION ERROR AND
CONVERGENCE
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF TAYLOR SERIES
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Taylor series or Taylor Expansion of a
function is an infinite sum of terms of
the functioning derivatives at a single
point.
Taylor series is named after BROOK
TAYLOR, who introduced them in 1715. A
Taylor series is also called a MACLAURIN
SERIES when 0 is the point where
derivatives are considered.

It is an approximation of a non-
polynomial function by a polynomial. It
helps us to find value of functions that
doesn’t have a simple formula, i.e.,
sin(x), cos(x), ex.

Taylor series is this the approximation

of a function with a polynomial with
infinite sum of terms. Each successive
term of this polynomial will have a
greater exponent or higher degree than
the preceding term.
DEFINITION
Taylor series is the polynomial or a
function of an infinite sum of terms each
successive term will have a larger
exponent or higher degree than the
preceding term.

𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓′′′(𝑡)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + ⋯ , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
1! 2! 3!

The above Taylor series expansion is

given for a real valued function f(x)
where f’(t), f’’(t), f’’’(t) etc denotes
derivative of a function at a point t.
If the value of ‘t’ is zero, then Taylor
series is also called MACLAURIN SERIES.
TAYLOR’s SERIES THEOREM
Assume that if f(x) is a real or
composite function, which is a
differentiable function of a neighborhood
number that is also real or composite,
then Taylor series describes the
following power series.
𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓′′′(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + ⋯ , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
1! 2! 3!

In terms of sigma notation, the Taylor

series can be written as:
𝑓 ( ) (𝑡)
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑡)
𝑛!

F(n)t = nth derivative of t

n! = factorial of n.
PROOF:
The proof is using fundamental theorem of
integral calculus.

i.e., ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) |

= 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
Where, F(x) = antiderivative of f(x)
Or, F’(x) = f’(x)
TAYLOR SERIES: -
f: [a,b]R, it is a real analytical
function:
𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓′′′(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + (𝑥 − 𝑡) + ⋯ , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
1! 2! 3!
𝑓 ( ) (𝑡)
= (𝑥 − 𝑡)
𝑛!

Proof: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) where, F’(x)=f(x)

Applying integration by parts

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + [𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑡. 𝑑𝑡]

𝒕 𝒕
Applying property ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝒐 𝒇(𝒕 − 𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝒙
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + [𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑡) − 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑡). 𝑡𝑑𝑡]
𝟎

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (0)𝑥 + 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑡)𝑡𝑑𝑡

 𝑡 𝑡
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (0)𝑥 + [𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑡) + 𝑓′′′(𝑥 − 𝑡) ]
2 2
𝑥 𝑡
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (0)𝑥 + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓′′′(𝑥 − 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ⋯
2! 2
This algorithm will continue up to
infinite, at a=0, TAYLOR SERIES is called
MACLAURIN SERIES.
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS:
If f(x) is given by a convergent power
series in an open disk centred at b in
the complex plane (or an interval in the
real line), it is said to be analytic in
this region. Thus, x in this region, f is
given by convergent power series

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑏)

Differentiating by x the above formula n

times, then setting x=b gives:
𝑓 ( ) (𝑏)
= 𝑎
𝑛!
And so, the power series expansion agrees with
TAYLOR SERIES, thus a function is analytic in
an open disk centred at b if and only if its
Taylor series converges to the value of the
function at each point of the disk.
If f(x) is equal to the sum of its Taylor
series for all x in the complex plane, it is
called ENTIRE.
The polynomials, exponential function 𝑒 and
the trigonometric functions sine and
cosine are examples of entire functions.
USES OF TAYLOR SERIES FOR
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS:
1. The partial sum (Taylor polynomial)
of the series can be used as
approximations of the functions. These
approximations are good if sufficiently
many terms are included.
2. Differentiation and integration of
power series can be performed term by
term and is hence particularly easy.
3. An analytic function is uniquely
extended to a holomorphic function on
an open disk in the complex plane, this
makes the machinery of complex
analysis.
4. Algebraic operations can be done
readily on the power series
representation; for instance, Euler’s
formula follows from Taylor series
expansions for trigonometric and
exponential functions. This result is
of fundamental importance in such
fields as harmonic analysis.
5. Approximations using the first few
terms of a Taylor series can make
otherwise unsolvable problems possible
for a restricted domain; this approach
is often used in physics.
APPLICATION:
APPROXIMATION ERROR
AND CONVERGENCE:
Given is an accurate approximation of sinx
around the point x=0.
The highlighted curve is a polynomial of degree
seven:
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 − + −
3! 5! 7!
The error in this
approximation is no
| |
more than . For a
!
full cycle centred at
origin (−𝜋 < x < 𝜋) the
error is less than 0.08215. In particularly for
-1<x<1, the error is less than 0.000003.
In contrast, also shown
the natural logarithm
function log(1+x) and
some its Taylor
polynomial around a=0.
These approximations
converge to the function
only in the region -
1<x≤1; outside of this
region the high degree
Taylor polynomial are
worse approximation for the function.
More generally, every sequence of real or
complex numbers can appear as coefficients in
the Taylor series of an infinitely
differentiable function defined on the real
line.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF TAYLOR SERIES:
ADVANTAGES:
 It is very useful for derivations.
 It can be used to get theoretical
error bounds.
 Power series can be inverted to yield
the inverse function.
 It is the only way for computers to
even solve equations.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Successive terms get very complex and
are hard to derive.
 Round off error and truncation error
might come that disturbs the whole
equation.
 Almost not as efficient as curve
filling or direct approximation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
 NCERT Mathematics Class XII
 https://wikipedia.org
 https://desmos.com
 https://wolframalpha.com