Bachelor of Science in Psychology
Convert the given amount of the
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY
“Notes”
Stoichiometry
● Greek Word: stoikheion “element or
part,” and metron, “measure”.
● Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.
Importance of Studying Stoichiometry
● To find the amounts of reactants and
products involved in a reaction.
● To interpret a reaction quantitatively, we
need to apply our knowledge of molar
masses and the mole concept.
● The principles of stoichiometry are
based on the Law of Conversation of
Mass, the Law of Multiple Proportions,
and the Law of Constant Composition.
● In order to satisfy all three laws, every
chemical reaction and corresponding
equation needs to have a set molar ratio
for its reactants and products that
explains how it proceeds to completion
every time.
General Approach for Solving Any
Stoichiometry Problem that Involves a
Chemical Reaction
1. Write a balanced equation for the
reaction.
2.
reactant (in grams or other units) to
number of moles.
3. Use the mole ratio from the balanced
equation to calculate the number of
moles of product formed.
4. Convert the moles of product to grams
(or other units) of product.
The procedure for calculating the amounts of
reactants or products in a reaction using the
mole method.
Limiting and Excess Reactants
Limiting Reactant - is the substance that is
completely used up when a reaction takes place.
● It is known as a ‘limiting’ reactant
because it limits the reaction so that
only a certain maximum amount of
product can be produced.
Identifying the Limiting Reactant
● Calculate the amount of product (moles,
grams) formed form each reactant
● Determine which reactant is limiting (the
reactant that gives the least amount
(mol) product is the limiting and the
other is in excess).
 ● Calculate the amount of the other ● Gases have much lower densities than
reactant required to react with the liquids and solids.
limiting reactant, then subtract this to the
from the starting quantity of the reactant.
This gives the amount of the substance
that remains unreacted.

Reaction Yield - the amount of limiting reagent

present at the start of a reaction determines the
theoretical yield of the reaction, that is, the
amount of product that would result if all the
limiting reagent reacted.

● The theoretical yield, then, is the

maximum obtainable yield, predicted by
the balanced equation.

The actual yield, or the amount of product

actually obtained from a reaction, is almost
always less than the theoretical yield.
To determine how efficient a given reaction is,
chemists often figure the percent yield, which
describes the proportion of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield. It is calculated as follows:
Pressure of a Gas
● Gases exert pressure on any surface
with which they come in contact,
because gas molecules are constantly
in motion.
● Pressure (P) - is defined pressure is
defined as force per unit area.

Gases and their Properties

p is Pressure
● Matter exists in three distinct physical F is Force
states: Gas, Liquid, and Solid. A is Area
● The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of
gases that consists mainly of elemental The unit of pressure in the SI system is newtons.
nitrogen gas and oxygen gas.

All gases have the following physical

characteristics:
● Pressure is one of the most readily
● Gases assume the volume and shape of
measurable properties of a gas.
their containers.
● Gases are the most compressible of the
states of matter. Common Units of Pressure
● Gases will mix evenly and completely
when confined to the same container.
 ● The volume of each gas is directly
❖ 1 Standard Atmosphere 1 atm = 760
proportional to temperature.
mm Hg = 760 torr
❖ Standard Atmosphere (1 atm) =
Charles’s Law:
101,325 Pa
❖ 1atm = 14.7 psi (lb/in2)
❖ 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
❖ 1atm = 29.92 inch of Hg
❖ 1 atm = 101.325 kilopascals (kPa) =
1.01325 x 105 Pa Gay-Lussac Law: The Temperature-Pressure
❖ 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr Relationship.

The Gas Laws ● Gay-Lussac law states that for fixed

amount of gas at contant volume, the
● The Pressure-Volume Relationship: pressure is directly proportional to the
Boyle’s Law temperature (in kelvin).
● In the seventeenth century, Robert
Boyle studied the behavior of gases Equations:
systematically and quantitatively. In one
series of studies, Boyle investigated the
pressure- volume relationship of a gas
sample.
The Volume-Amount Relationship: Avogadro’s
“Boyle’s law, which states that the pressure of a
Law
fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature is
● Avogadro’s Law, which states that at
inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.”
constant pressure and temperature, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional.
Boyle’s Law:

The Relationship Between Volume and

Temperature: Charles’s Law

● Scientists continued to study the

properties of gases. One of these
scientists was a French physicist,
Jacques Charles (1746–1823), who was
the first person to fill a balloon with
hydrogen gas and who made the first
solo balloon flight.
● Charles’s law, which states that the
volume of a fixed amount of gas
maintained at constant pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.