These materials get weakly magnetized when placed in a strong magnetic field.

In the
absence of an external magnetic field, the atomic dipole moments are randomly oriented, and
the net magnetic dipole moment is zero.

When external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipole moment tends to align
themselves in the direction of applied magnetic field and the resultant magnetic field inside
the paramagnetic material becomes greater than the applied field. In a non- uniform magnetic
field, paramagnetic materials tend to move from the weaker to the strong region of the
external magnetic field. So, μ> μ0 and μr > 1 (slightly). The paramagnetic materials are
characterized by small and positive susceptibility ( χ m> 0).
The susceptibility of a paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature.
Examples of paramagnetic magnetic materials are aluminium, platinum, chromium,
manganese, nickel, palladium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, oxygen, lithium, tungsten,
titanium, potassium, ferric oxide, etc.
THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM AND CURIE LAW
The classical theory of paramagnetism was developed by Langevin in 1905. He assumed that
dipoles are freely rotating and the interaction between the dipoles is week. So there is no
generation of internal molecular field due to mutual interaction between the atomic magnetic
dipoles. He derived the expression of susceptibility for paramagnetic by using the classical
law of Boltzmann. A paramagnetic gas when subjected to an external magnetic field, the
molecular dipoles try to line up in the direction of the external field but due to thermal
agitation, they orient in
a direction making an angle with the magnetic field.
If μm is the magnetic moment of a molecule and θ is the angle made by the magnetic
moment with the direction of the magnetic field B, then potential energy (U) between μm
and B is equal to
U = μmBcosθ =−⃗ μm . ⃗
B
According to Boltzmann statistical theory the probability for a dipole to make an angle
between θ and dθ with the magnetic field is proportional to
μmBcosθ
e
2π sinθ dθ
KT
where K is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. Here 2 π sinθ dθ is the solid
angle between θ and dθ .
The component of the dipole moment in the direction of the external field will be μmcos θ.
The average of μmcos θ is
π μmBcosθ
∫ ( μ¿¿ m cos θ)2 πsinθ eKT dθ
θ=0
μm ¿cos θ ¿= π
¿
eμ mBcosθ

∫ 2 πsinθ KT d
θ=0

μmB
By putting =x and cos θ = y the limit of integration for y changes from +1to -1 because
KT
cos 0= +1 and cos π =−1
−1
−∫ y e dy
xy

+1
Now ¿cos θ ¿=¿ −1

−∫ e dy
xy

+1

[ ]
x −x
e +e 1
= x −x
−
e +e x

[
= cot h x−
1
x ]
[
The function cot h x−
1
x ]
is called the Langevin function and is represented by L(x).
Now μm ¿cos θ ¿=μ mL(x)

If N is the number of molecules per unit volume then total magnetic moment per unit volume
(M) will be
M = N μm ¿cos θ ¿=¿ N μmL(x)
If x = [ ] is large, i.e., for high field strengths or low temperature the
μm B
KT
function approaches the saturation value unity. In this situation,
all the magnetic dipoles are aligned in the direction of external field and
saturation value of magnetization M s =(μ¿¿ m N)¿ is obtained.
If x [ ]
μm B
KT
is small, i.e., for low field strength or high temperature

μm B
X<<1 or <<1.
KT

Under these situations the Langevin function

[ ]1 x μm B
2
1 1 x
L(x) =cot h x− = 1+ − = =
x x 3 x 3 3 KT
 2 2
Nμ m B Nμ m μ0 H
Hence M = =
3 KT 3 KT

The paramagnetic volume susceptibility

2
Nμ μ
χ m= M = m 0 = C
H 3 KT T

Equation is known as Curie law and C is known Curie constant.

Thus, the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic materials without particular magnetic
interactions obeys this law.
Thus for paramagnetic substance susceptibility χ m is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature. The variation of susceptibility χ m with temperature T for paramagnetic
substance is shown.
Ferromagnetic Materials
A ferromagnetic material exhibits a strong attraction to magnetic field and is able to retain its
magnetic properties after the external magnetic field has been removed. Ferromagnetic
materials have permanent magnetic dipole moment and shows magnetism even in the
absence of any external field.
This permanent alignment is due to exchange coupling between neighbouring atomic dipoles.
They are strongly attracted by magnetic fields. Permanent magnets are made of these
materials. For ferromagnetic materials, the relative permeability μr is extremely large( μr ≫ 1¿ .
The reason behind it is the existence of magnetized domain. The susceptibility χ m of the
ferromagnetic materials is high and positive. The susceptibility of the ferromagnetic material
varies with temperature in a complex manner depending upon the strength of the magnetic
field.
The susceptibility increases with temperature for weak external field but decreases for strong
values of magnetic field.
Beyond, a certain temperature known as Curie temperature the ferromagnetic materials
behave as paramagnetic material and below which they behave as ferromagnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic materials show hysteresis,
behavior. Examples of ferromagnetic magnetic materials are Iron, Nickel, Steel, Cobalt.
Domain Theory
A ferromagnetic material, in general contains a number of small region known as domain.
Domain is a very small region(≈ 10−8 m3) but contains about 1011 atomic dipoles. Within a
domain all atoms are arranged with, their magnetic moment parallel.
The boundaries between the adjacent domains consist of thin regions called domain walls or
Bloch walls.
In absence of external magnetic field, the direction of magnetic moments
in different domains are oriented randomly in different directions.
For weak magnetic field 1111· For weak magnetic field 1
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Magnetic Properties of Materials
The magnetism of materials is mainly and outcome of the interactions of magnetic moments
of their constituent atoms or molecules. Magnetic properties of solid can be divided into
groups under the following headings. Diamagnetic materials are those in which have no
permanent magnetic dipole moment. When a specimen of diamagnetic material is placed in a
magnetic field H, in net magnetic moment is induced in it which is proportional to H but
oppositely directed. Diamagnetism occurs from induce magnetic moment. The negative
magnetism may arise due to additional induced field. For diamagnetic material the
susceptibility( χ ¿¿ m)¿ is negative and permeability(μ¿¿ r )≤¿ 1.
Examples of diamagnetic materials are Cu, Au, Ag, H 2, Pb, Zn, Si, etc.

Paramagnetic materials are those in which the atoms have permanent magnetic dipole
moment. Paramagnetic results when spin magnetic moment orient themselves in an applied
magnetic field full stop in a zero magnetic field the movements are randomly oriented hence
zero magnetization occurs. When an external magnetic field is applied to the material the
resultant torque on the dipoles tends to align them with the field therefore producing a net(M)
magnetization parallel to H. For paramagnetic materials(μ¿¿ r )≥1 ¿ and
susceptibility ( χ ¿¿ m)¿ is positive. Examples of paramagnetic materials are Pt,Al,Cr,Mn, etc.

Ferromagnetic materials are those in which the atoms have permanent magnetic dipole
moment like paramagnetic materials. However in such materials there are strong interactions
between the individual magnetic moments of various atoms formed domains. The total
magnetic field inside a ferromagnetic nearly
times greater than the applied field.
For film magnetic materials,(μ¿¿ r )≥1 ¿ and susceptibility( χ ¿¿ m)¿ are typically of order
10 or 10 ever greater. Examples of ferromagnetic substances are Fe,Ni,Co, Steel etc.
3 4

Magnetization(M)

The magnetic moment per unit volume is known as magnetic polarization or magnetization.
In a magnetic material the atomic dipoles are in general orientation in various directions. The
net dipole moment(m) is the vector sum of all dipoles (∑
i
mi ¿. The magnetization is

∑ mi
then M = i
V.
Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux Density(B)

Magnetic Induction B represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a
substance that is subjected to a field H. The unit of B is Tesla or Wb /m2 .
The magnetic field strength and flux density are related, B= μH , where μ is called magnetic
permeability. In vacuum , B= μ0H where μ0 is permeability of vacuum.

Magnetic Permeability ( μ )
The degree to which the lines of force of the external magnetic field can penetrate through
the medium or material is known as magnetic permeability. Permeability
B
(μ ) = , where B is the flux density and H is the magnetic field intensity.
H
If μ0 is the permeability in free space or vacuum and is the relative permeability then
μ
μ=μ 0 × μ r or, μr =
μ0

the value of μ0is 4 π × 10−7 Henry /m or Wb /ampere−m .

Magnetic Susceptibility( χ ¿¿ m)¿

The magnetization of ordinary materials exhibits a linear functional relation with testing H.
The ratio of M to H is known as magnetic susceptibility, ¿ χ m
M
χm=
H
Magnetic susceptibility of a substance refers to the ability of the substance to acquire
magnetization when placed in a magnetic field. Ordinary weak magnetic substance
follows M= χ m H but strong magnetic substance magnetization involves higher terms of H.
The field dependencies of magnetization of (a) diamagnetic ,(b) paramagnetic and (c)
ferromagnetic materials are shown.

Relation between B, H and M

From Ampere's law we know that Curl⃗B = μ0 ⃗J , where J is known as total current density. J
is the sum of free current density ( J free ) and bound current density ( J bound ).
Free currents are ordinary conduction currents and bound currents are associated
with molecular or atomic magnetic moments.

So Curl⃗B= μ0( ⃗J bound + ⃗J free )

In a material medium the bound current J bound can be written as

⃗J bound = Curl⃗
M

M + ⃗J free )
Curl⃗B= μ0 ¿Curl⃗
or, [ ⃗
⃗J free = Curl B −⃗
μ0
M
]
If we now define a vector field ⃗
H such that

⃗
B
⃗
H= -⃗M
μ0
or , ⃗B = μ0 ( ⃗
H +⃗
M)

Equation is so general that it is valid for any medium.

We know that M= χ m H
or,⃗B = μ0 ( ⃗
H + χ m⃗
H ) = μ0 ⃗
H (1+ χ m )

or,

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)
I Since5= //(//,
3
Magnetic Properties of Materials
The Larmor frequency is much smaller than the angular frequency of the electron in its orbit. For the
deriva¬
tion of Larmor frequency we assume that the orbit is not deformed under the influence of the external
field.
Under the influence of external field, the angular frequency of the orbital electron gets changed that
produces
an induced magnetic moment opposite to that of B.
The magnitude of the total induced moment
M' = current x area of the loop of radius ( i.e., xR2)
_ Ze2B^_
-
cB Aft) t— 2»i
The Larmor precession for Z electron is equivalent to electric current. So

, . , . „ Aft) Ze2 B I = charge x revolution per unit time =-Ze x ——=— 2^ 4^772
This change in angular frequency is also known as Larmor frequency .
eiectron gets changed.
On application of an external magnetic field the angular frequency ojr u2 ffhe Qrhit

This change in angular frequency is known as Larmour frequency The Prec‘s\

°™™r like a spinning top about the direction of the applied magnetic field is known as
Larmour precessio .
I If the direction of external magnetic field is along the z-axis then < R2 > =
I So. the total induced magnetic moment in the atom will be
m'=- 2<r2 > = _ ,r.
4m 3 6m
|Now if TV is totai numbers of atoms per unit volume then total magnetic moment per unit
volume
! 6m

M= -~^<r2 6m
£ Here < R2 > [- + </> + <z2> ] is the mean square radius of the electron orbits. Since there
are a number I of the randomly oriented electrons orbits in the atom that shows that the charge

distribution is spherically
f symmetric, so that <?> = </> = or = = =1 Where < + + =
f is the mean square distance of the electron from the nucleus.
Since the radius is constant so the factor 2m is constant.
therefore, the change in angular velocity
Let do’dcnole the net change in o’in ’he whole process of bringing the field up to the final value '
In the year of 1 005 Langevin first explained the behavior of diamagne¬
tism on the basis of electron theory. The origin of diamagnetism may
be understood on the basis of Lanz's Jaw. which states that when the
flux through an electrical circuit is changed, an induced current is set
up in such a direction as to oppose the flux change (<p). The magnetic
field of the induced current is opposite to the applied magnetic field.
This means that the circuit is accompanied by a magnetic moment
opposite to the applied magnetic field. This is equivalent to the dia¬
magnetism caused by the Larmor precession of electrons
Let v be the speed of an electron revolving in a circular orbit of
radius rand angular frequency m The central force acting on the elec¬
tron is given by (external field B = 0)

F^Z^mrn2 ...(8.20)
r
Fig. fl.3 'Die direction of Lorentz
force (a) outward,
(b) inward depending
on the direction of the
motion of the electron
(external magnetic field
B is normally into the
paper).
Nou if an external magnetic field B is applied to the plane of the electron orbit normally an
additional may
netic force (Lorentz force) will act on the electron and is given by
Ft=-e(vxB) ...(8.21 >
or. F^-evB ...(8.2.’ i
The total force on the electron will be
F = Ft+Fc ...(8.2 L
F =mro2 T evB ...(8.2-h
Now. by means of some suitable large solenoid we begin creating a field B in the z-
direction uniform ovu
the whole region at any instant of time. While this field is growing at the rate —, there will
be an induced

electric field £all around the path. Again we know that

dt dt
— = ^r2— ...(8.2m
^

The line integral of the electric field gives the induced emf £
d(t> r - £ = =\Edl = 2nrE ...(8.2(>>
dt J
(by using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction)
or, nr2 = -2nrE
dt
orr, tF=- '2 dt
^

By Newton's second law of motion

dv _ m-= -eE,,= er dB dt 2 dt
So that we have a relation between the change in v and the change in B:
d\) =~dB
2m
...(8.2/1
...(8.2X1
...(8.2'H
..

.(8, MH

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