College of Arts and Sciences Education

Environmental Studies Department

Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

Table of Contents
I. Introduction

A. Definition of genes
B. Overview of inheritance
C. Significance of understanding genes and inheritance

II. Genes and Their Functions

A. Structure of genes
B. Types of genes
1. Structural genes
2. Regulatory genes
3. Non-coding genes
C. Gene expression
1. Transcription
2. Translation
D. Role of genes in protein synthesis
1. Enzymes
2. Structural proteins
3. Hormones

III. Mechanics of Inheritance

A. The cell cycle and meiosis

B. Mendelian genetics
1. Dominant and recessive traits
2. Punnett squares
3. Genotype and phenotype
C. Non-Mendelian inheritance
1. Incomplete dominance
2. Codominance
3. Polygenic inheritance
D. Genetic disorders
1. Single-gene disorders
2. Chromosomal disorders
3. Multifactorial disorders

IV. Applications of Understanding Genes and Inheritance

A. Genetic counseling
B. Gene therapy
C. Personalized medicine
D. Forensic genetics

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

GENES AND INHERITANCE: UNDERSTANDING

THE FUNCTION AND MECHANICS OF HEREDITY
Genes and inheritance are fundamental concepts in biology that underpin the
mechanisms of heredity. Genes are the basic units of inheritance, containing the genetic
information that determines the characteristics of living organisms. Understanding how
genes function and how they are inherited is critical for gaining insights into the biology
of living organisms, as well as for developing treatments for genetic disorders and
diseases. This module provides a comprehensive overview of genes and inheritance,
covering their structure, function, and mechanisms of inheritance. We will explore the
basic concepts of gene expression, the cell cycle, and meiosis, and discuss the different
types of genetic disorders that can arise from genetic mutations. By the end of this
module, you will have a clear understanding of the role of genes in heredity and the
implications of genetic inheritance for the development of life.

I. INTRODUCTION

The introduction of the module begins with a definition of genes, which are the basic
units of inheritance.

Definition of Gene
Genes contain the genetic information that is responsible for the characteristics of
living organisms, and they are passed down from one generation to the next
through the process of inheritance. Understanding how genes function and how
they are inherited is crucial for gaining insights into the biology of living
organisms.

Overview of Inheritance
Inheritance refers to the process by which genetic information is passed down
from parents to offspring. Inheritance is the basis of heredity, and it plays a key
role in determining the traits and characteristics of an organism. The mechanisms
of inheritance can vary, but they all involve the transfer of genetic information
from one generation to the next.

Significance of Understanding Genes and Inheritance

The significance of understanding genes and inheritance cannot be overstated.
Advances in genetics have led to new discoveries and treatments for genetic
disorders, and they have improved our understanding of the biology of living
organisms. Understanding the mechanisms of inheritance is also important for
predicting and preventing genetic diseases. With a better understanding of genes
and inheritance, we can develop more effective treatments for genetic disorders

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

and improve the overall health and well-being of individuals and populations.
Therefore, this module provides a comprehensive overview of genes and
inheritance, covering their function, structure, and mechanisms of inheritance.

II. GENES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The second section of this module focuses on genes and their functions. It begins with a
discussion of the structure of genes, which are composed of DNA and contain the genetic
information necessary for the development and function of living organisms.

A. Structure of Genes
The structure of genes is the fundamental basis for understanding their function.
Genes are composed of DNA and are made up of a sequence of nucleotides, which
are the building blocks of DNA. The DNA sequence is organized into different
segments, including promoter regions, coding regions, and regulatory regions.

Promoter regions are important for initiating the process of transcription, which
is the first step in gene expression. Coding regions contain the genetic information
that codes for proteins, while regulatory regions control the expression of genes.
Regulatory regions are crucial for the regulation of cellular processes and play an
essential role in determining which genes are expressed and when.

B. Types of Genes
There are different types of genes, including structural genes, regulatory genes,
and non-coding genes.

1. Structural Genes
Structural genes are responsible for coding proteins that are involved in the
physical structure and function of living organisms. These proteins can
include enzymes, structural proteins, and hormones, among others.

2. Regulatory Genes
Regulatory genes control the expression of other genes, and they are
involved in the regulation of cellular processes, such as cell division and
differentiation.

3. Non-coding Genes
Non-coding genes do not code for proteins, but they play an essential role
in gene expression and regulation.

C. Gene Expression

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

Gene expression is the process by which the genetic information contained within
genes is used to create proteins. The process of gene expression involves two main
steps: transcription and translation.

1. Transcription
Transcription is the first step in gene expression, in which the DNA
sequence is used as a template to produce a complementary RNA molecule
called messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then carries the genetic
information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm, where the process of translation takes place.

2. Translation
Translation is the second step in gene expression, in which the genetic
information in mRNA is used to create a protein. The ribosomes read the
genetic information in the mRNA and use it to assemble a chain of amino
acids in a specific order, which forms a protein.

D. Role of genes in Protein Synthesis

The role of genes in protein synthesis is crucial. Genes provide the instructions to
produce different types of proteins, including enzymes, structural proteins, and
hormones.

1. Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, allowing
metabolic processes to occur.

2. Structural Proteins
Structural proteins provide support and shape to cells and tissues, such as
the collagen in skin and bones.

3. Hormones
Hormones are signaling molecules that regulate various physiological
processes, including growth, development, and reproduction.

Understanding the different types of genes and their functions is critical for
understanding the mechanisms of heredity and the development of genetic diseases.
Genetic disorders can arise from mutations in structural genes, regulatory genes, or non-
coding genes, leading to abnormal protein expression or dysfunction in cellular
processes. Therefore, studying the structure and function of genes is essential for gaining
insights into the biology of living organisms and developing treatments for genetic
disorders.

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

In conclusion, gene expression and protein synthesis are essential processes for the
development and function of living organisms. Understanding the mechanisms of gene
expression and protein synthesis and their role in the production of proteins is crucial for
understanding the biology of living organisms and the development of treatments for
genetic diseases.

III. MECHANICS OF INHE RITANCE

The mechanics of inheritance refer to the processes by which genetic information is

passed from parents to offspring. This process involves the cell cycle and meiosis, as well
as the principles of Mendelian genetics.

A. The Cell Cycle and Meiosis

The mechanics of inheritance refer to the processes by which genetic information
is passed from parents to offspring. This process involves the cell cycle and
meiosis, as well as the principles of Mendelian genetics.

The cell cycle is a series of events that occur in cells leading to their division and
duplication. Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that occurs in the gonads,
resulting in the production of haploid gametes (sperm and egg cells) with half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is important for the
maintenance of the correct number of chromosomes in a species and for the
creation of genetic diversity.

B. Mendelian Genetics
Mendelian genetics is the study of the patterns of inheritance of traits that follow
the laws first described by Gregor Mendel. These laws include the principles of
dominant and recessive traits and Punnett squares.

1. Dominant and Recessive Traits

Dominant and recessive traits are the two types of genetic traits that are
inherited from parents. Dominant traits are those that are expressed when
only one copy of the gene is present. These traits are denoted by a capital
letter (e.g., "D"). Recessive traits, on the other hand, require two copies of
the gene to be expressed. These traits are denoted by a lowercase letter (e.g.,
"d"). If an individual inherits one dominant and one recessive gene, the
dominant trait will be expressed.

2. Punnett Squares
Punnett squares are a tool used to predict the likelihood of certain traits
being inherited by offspring based on the genotypes of the parents. They
are named after British geneticist Reginald Punnett, who first devised the
technique in 1905. Punnett squares are composed of a grid, with each row

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

and column representing one of the two alleles for a given trait. By filling
in the grid with the possible allele combinations from the parents, we can
determine the probability of certain traits being expressed in their offspring.

3. Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an individual, or the specific
combination of alleles they inherit from their parents. Phenotype, on the
other hand, refers to the observable characteristics of an individual, such as
their eye color, hair color, or height. The phenotype is determined by both
the genotype and environmental factors. Some traits are determined solely
by the genotype, while others are influenced by environmental factors as
well.

C. Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Non-Mendelian inheritance refers to patterns of inheritance that do not follow the
classic Mendelian patterns of dominant and recessive traits. Instead, they involve
more complex relationships between alleles.

1. Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance occurs when the phenotype of the heterozygous
individual is intermediate between the two homozygous parents. In other
words, neither allele is dominant, and the resulting phenotype is a blend of
the two. For example, in snapdragons, a cross between red and white-
flowered plants results in pink flowers, which is an intermediate phenotype
between red and white.

2. Codominance
Codominance occurs when both alleles of a gene are expressed equally in
the heterozygous individual, resulting in a phenotype that shows both
traits simultaneously. For example, in certain breeds of cattle, the gene for
coat color has two codominant alleles - red and white. A heterozygous
individual will have both red and white hairs, resulting in a coat color that
is a mixture of the two.

3. Polygenic Inheritance
Polygenic inheritance occurs when multiple genes are involved in
determining a particular trait. Each gene contributes a small amount to the
overall phenotype. Examples of polygenic traits include height, skin color,
and eye color. Polygenic inheritance often results in a continuous range of
phenotypes rather than discrete categories.

D. Genetic Disorders

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

Genetic disorders are conditions that are caused by abnormalities or mutations in

an individual's DNA. These mutations can be inherited from parents or can arise
spontaneously. There are different types of genetic disorders, including single-
gene disorders, chromosomal disorders, and multifactorial disorders.

1. Single-Gene Disorders
Single-gene disorders, also known as Mendelian disorders, are caused by
mutations in a single gene. These disorders can be inherited in an autosomal
dominant or autosomal recessive manner or through X-linked inheritance.
Examples of single-gene disorders include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia,
and Huntington's disease.

2. Chromosomal Disorders
Chromosomal disorders are caused by abnormalities in the number or
structure of chromosomes. These disorders can occur due to errors in
meiosis or chromosomal mutations. Examples of chromosomal disorders
include Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome.

3. Multifactorial Disorders
Multifactorial disorders are caused by the interaction of multiple genes
with environmental factors. These disorders are often complex and can be
influenced by lifestyle choices, such as diet and exercise. Examples of
multifactorial disorders include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

IV. APPLICATIONS OF UNDERSTANDING GENES AND INHERITANCE

Advances in genetics have revolutionized the way we understand inheritance and the
role of genes in determining human traits and diseases. With this knowledge, scientists
and healthcare professionals have developed a range of applications that can help
individuals and families better understand their genetic makeup and potential health
risks. In this module, we will explore some of the most important applications of
understanding genes and inheritance, including genetic counseling, gene therapy,
personalized medicine, and forensic genetics. We will also discuss the ethical
implications of these applications and the challenges they present.

A. Genetic Counseling
Genetic counseling is a medical service that provides information and support to
individuals and families who may be at risk of a genetic disorder. Genetic
counselors use information about an individual's family history and genetic
testing to assess the risk of developing a genetic disorder and to provide
information on the inheritance pattern of the disorder. Genetic counseling can help

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

individuals make informed decisions about family planning, genetic testing, and
treatment options.

B. Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is a medical treatment that involves altering an individual's genes to
treat or prevent a genetic disorder. This can be done by replacing a faulty gene
with a functional one, adding a new gene to help the body fight a disease, or
inactivating a harmful gene. Gene therapy is still a developing field, but it has the
potential to provide targeted and effective treatments for a range of genetic
disorders.

C. Personalized Medicine
Personalized medicine is an approach to healthcare that uses an individual's
genetic information to tailor treatment plans and medications to their specific
needs. By analyzing an individual's genetic makeup, doctors can identify genetic
variants that may increase the risk of certain diseases and develop personalized
prevention and treatment strategies.

D. Forensic Genetics
Forensic genetics uses genetic information to identify individuals and establish
relationships between individuals. This can be used in criminal investigations to
identify suspects or victims, in paternity testing to determine biological
relationships, or in disaster victim identification to identify remains.

ASSESSMENT TASKS

Note! All assessment tasks should be in word document and follow the
following specification.

Font: Book Antiqua

Spacing: Single Spacing
Font: 12
Margin: Normal

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

ACTIVITY NO. 1

Instruction: Identify the following terms.

_________1. Thread-like structures made up of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of
cells. It also carries genetic information in the form of genes.

_________2. It is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth,
development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.

_________3. Characteristics or attributes of an organism that are inherited or determined

by genes and influenced by environmental factors.

_________4. Large, complex molecules made up of amino acids that perform a wide
variety of functions in the body, including structural support, enzymatic catalysis, and
transportation of molecules.

_________5. Changes in the DNA sequence that can occur spontaneously or due to
external factors, such as radiation or chemicals. It can have both positive and negative
effects on an organism's traits.

_________6. A process of cell division that occurs in the formation of sex cells (gametes)
in sexually reproducing organisms. It involves the shuffling of genetic material, resulting
in the creation of unique combinations of genes in each offspring.

_________7. The pattern of inheritance of traits that follows the laws of segregation and
independent assortment proposed by Gregor Mendel. The traits are determined by the
interaction of genes with each other and with the environment.

_________8. Conditions caused by abnormalities in the genetic material (DNA) of an

individual. It can be inherited or can occur spontaneously.

_________9. A process of providing information and support to individuals or families

who have or may be at risk for a genetic disorder. It can help individuals make informed
decisions about family planning and healthcare.

_________10. A treatment that involves the introduction of new genetic material (DNA)
into a person's cells to replace or supplement a defective gene. It has the potential to treat
or cure genetic disorders.

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

ACTIVITY NO. 2

Instruction: Answer the following questions by changing the font color of your selected
answer.

1. What is the significance of understanding genes and inheritance?

A. It helps in developing genetic disorders.
B. It helps in understanding the basis of heredity.
C. It helps in understanding the environment.
D. It helps in understanding the societal impact.

2. Which of the following is not a type of gene?

A. Structural genes
B. Regulatory genes
C. Non-coding genes
D. Transcription genes

3. Which process involves the transfer of genetic information from DNA to RNA?
A. Transcription
B. Translation
C. Replication
D. Mutation

4. Which of the following is not a role of genes in protein synthesis?

A. Enzymes
B. Structural proteins
C. Hormones
D. Respiration

5. Which process involves the transfer of genetic information from RNA to protein?
A. Transcription
B. Translation
C. Replication
D. Mutation

6. What is the function of Punnett squares?

A. To determine the probability of an offspring's genotype and phenotype.
B. To determine the probability of an offspring's phenotype only.
C. To determine the probability of an offspring's genotype only.
D. To determine the probability of an offspring's chromosomal disorders.

7. What is incomplete dominance?

A. When two alleles have an equal effect on the phenotype.
B. When one allele is completely dominant over the other.

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

C. When the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the homozygous

phenotypes.
D. When there is no dominant or recessive allele.

8. Which of the following is not a type of genetic disorder?

A. Single-gene disorders
B. Chromosomal disorders
C. Multifactorial disorders
D. Behavioral disorders

9. What is the goal of genetic counseling?

A. To diagnose genetic disorders.
B. To cure genetic disorders.
C. To prevent the transmission of genetic disorders.
D. To promote genetic disorders.

10. What is the purpose of gene therapy?

A. To cure genetic disorders.
B. To diagnose genetic disorders.
C. To prevent genetic disorders.
D. To promote genetic disorders.

ACTIVITY NO. 3

Instruction: Explain in your own words the following discussion questions. Minimum of
100 words.

1. What are the practical applications of understanding the mechanisms of

inheritance?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.

2. What are some ethical considerations that arise when applying genetic knowledge
to animal breeding or human health?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber
College of Arts and Sciences Education
Environmental Studies Department
Bachelor of Science in Agroforestry

________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.

3. How does understanding gene expression help in the development of new

medical treatments?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.

4. What is the role of genetic counseling in the prevention of genetic disorders?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.

5. How do genetic disorders impact individuals and their families, and what can be
done to support them?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.

AF 122/L – Introduction to Animal Science

Prepared By: For. Rylle G. Anuber