CHAPTER 3

The Straight Line

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Art. 3.1
Two equations of the first degree in x,y,z together
represent
a x b y c z  d  0  a x b y c z  d (1)
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
which is the line of intersection of the two given planes
a xb y c z d 0 (2)
1 1 1 1
and a x  b y  c z  d  0 (3)
2 2 2 2
and that the planes (2) and (3) intersect in a straight line.

Art. 3.2 Parametric equation of a straight line

Let the direction cosines of the line L be l, m, n and let
P ( x , y , z ) be a point on the line. Then L is the locus of
1 1 1 1
P( x, y, z) which is moving so that
x  x  r cos  rl , y  y  r cos   rm, and z  z  r cos  rn
1 1 1
Therefore, x  x  rl , y  y  rm, and z  z  rn (4)
1 1 1
where the parameter r represents the variable length PP .
1

If a,b,c be the direction ratios of the line L, then (4) can be

written as
x  x  at, y  y  bt, and z  z  ct (5)
1 1 1
where t does not represent the distance of the variable
length PP .
1
The equation (5) represents the coordinates of any point
on the line L by giving different values to t.
 2
Art. 3.3
Symmetrical form of a straight line in terms of
direction cosines

To find the equation of a straight line through a given point

in a given direction

Let the given point be ( x , y , z ) and the direction be

1 1 1
defined by the direction cosines l , m, n.
Let P( x, y, z) be any point on the line and let PP  r. Then
1
from Art. 3.2, we have
x  x  rl , y  y  rm, and z  z  rn
1 1 1
So that for all points P( x, y, z) on PP , we get
1
x x y y zz
1 1 1 r (6)
l m n
x x y y zz
i.e., 1 1 1 (7)
l m n
is the symmetrical form of the line.

Art. 3.4
Symmetrical form of a straight line in terms of
direction ratios

If a,b,c be the direction ratios of the line, then we have

a b c
l , m , n
a
2 a
2 a
2
Then equation (7) can be written as
x x y y zz
1 1 1 (8)
a b c
 3

Example 1
Write the line x  y  z  1  0  4 x  y  2 z  2  0 in
symmetrical form.
Solution. Given x  y  z  1  0  4 x  y  2 z  2  0 (1)
The drs of the given line are
1 1 1 1 1
4 1 –2 4 1  –3, 6, –3 or –1, 2, –1.
1 2 1
So the actual direction cosines of (1) are  , , 
6 6 6
Putting z = 0 in (1), we get two line in 2-space:
x  y  1 0 and 4 x  y  2  0
1 2 1 2
Solving them, we get x   and y   . So ( , ,0) is
3 3 3 3
the point on the given line with direction ratios –1, 2, –1.
Hence, in symmetrical form, the equations of the line are
x  (1/ 3) y  (2 / 3) z  0
 
1 2 1
x  1/ 3 y  2 / 3 z
  
1 2 1
Corollary 1
If this line is perpendicular to one of the coordinate axes,
then (8) takes the form
y y zz
(i) xx , 1 1
1 b c
(when the line is perpendicular to the x-axis)
xx zz
(ii) y  y , 1 1
1 a c
 4
(when the line is perpendicular to the y-axis)
x x y y
(iii) z  z , 1  1
1 a b
(when the line is perpendicular to the z-axis).

Art. 3.5 Line through two given points

If the coordinates of P,Q are ( x , y , z ), ( x , y , z ), then the

1 1 1 2 2 2
direction ratios of PQ are proportional to
x  x , y  y , z  z and therefore the equations of PQ are
2 1 2 1 2 1
x x y y zz
1  1  1 (9)
x x y y z z
1 2 1 2 1 2

Art. 3.6 Distance of a point from a line

Let the length of the perpendicular distance from a point
P( x , y , z ) to the line
1 1 1
xa y b z c
  (10)
l m n
be p, where A(a,b, c) be any point on the given line. If N is
the foot of the perpendicular from P on it, then
p2  {l ( y  b)  m( x  a)}2  {m( z  c)  n( y  b)}2
1 1 1 1
 {n( x  a)  l ( z  c)}2
1 1

Art. 3.7 Angle between a line and a plane

Let the equation of the line be
x x y y zz
1 1 1 (1)
l m n
and the plane be ax  by  cz  d  0 (2)
 5
Let  be an angle between the line AB and the plane (2).

Then   is the angle between the line AB and normal
2
AN to the plane (2).
Direction ratios of AN are a,b,c and direction ratios of the
line are l , m, n. Then
 al  bm  cn
cos(   ) 
2 a
2 l2
al  bm  cn
i.e. sin 
a
2 l 2
gives the angle between the line (1) and the plane (2).

Example 2
Find the angle between the line
2x  4 y  2z  3  0  4x  2 y  6z  5
and the plane 5x  4 y  3z  5  0.
Solution. The angle between the line and the plane
means the angle between the line and the normal to the
plane.
Given 2 x  4 y  2 z  3  0  4 x  2 y  6 z  5 (1)
and 5 x  4 y  3z  5  0 (2)
The drs of the line are
2 4 –2 2 4
4 –2 6 4 –2  20, –20, –20 or 1, –1, –1
and the drs of the normal to the plane (2) are 5, –4, 3.
Let  be the angle between the line and the normal to
the plane (2).
 6
(1)(5)  (1)(5)  (1)(3) 6
Then cos   
1  1  1 25  25  9 150
 6 
   cos 1 
 150 

Corollary 2
(i) If the line (1) is parallel to the plane (2), i.e., if the line
(1) is perpendicular to the normal AN to (2), then
al  bm  cn  0.

(ii) If the line (1) is perpendicular to the plane (2), i.e., if the
line (1) is parallel to the normal AN to (2), then
a b c
  .
l m n

Example 3
Show that the lines 3x  2 y  13  0  y  3z  26 and
x  4 y 1 z  3
  are perpendicular.
5 3 1
Solution. Given 3x  2 y  13  0  y  3z  26 (1)
x  4 y 1 z  3
and   (2)
5 3 1
The drs of the first line are
3 –2 0 3 –2
0 1 3 0 1
 –6, –9, 3 or 2, 3, –1 and those of (2) are 5, –3, 1.
Since (2)(5)+(3)(–3)+(–1)1 = 0, the given lines are
perpendicular.
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Example 4
Find the equation of the line perpendicular from the origin
to the line x  2 y  3z  4  0  2 x  3 y  4 z  5. Also find the
coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular.
Solution. Given x  2 y  3z  4  0  2 x  3 y  4 z  5 (1)
The drs of the given line are
1 2 3 1 2
2 3 4 2 3  –1, 2, –1 or 1, –2, 1.
Putting z = 0 in (1), we get x  2 y  4  0 and 2 x  3 y  5  0.
Solving them, we get x = 2 and y = –3. So (2, –3, 0) is a
point on the given line and it can be written in the
symmetrical form as
x2 y 3 z 0
   r , say
1 2 1
If N is any point on the line, then the coordinates of N are
(r + 2, – 2r –3, r). If N is the foot of the perpendicular from
P(0,0,0) on the given line. So the drs of PN are
r + 2–0, – 2r –3–0, r – 0, i.e., r + 2, – 2r –3, r.
Since PN and the given line are perpendicular, then
4
1(r + 2) – 2(– 2r –3)+ 1r = 0  r  
3
2 1 4
So the coordinates of N are ( , , ) and the direction
3 3 3
ratios of PN are 2, -1, -4.
 8
Thus the equations of the line perpendicular from P to the
given line are
x0 y 0 z 0
  .
2 1 4

Art. 3.8 Conditions for which a plane contains a line

Find the conditions that the line
x x y y zz
1 1 1 (1)
l m n
may lie in the plane ax  by  cz  d  0 (2)
If the line (1) lies in the plane (2), then for all values of r,
the point ( x  lr, y  mr , z  nr ) should lie in the lane (2).
1 1 1
Therefore, a( x  lr )  b( y  mr )  c( z  nr )  d  0
1 1 1
 r (al  bm  cn)  (ax  by  cz  d )  0 (3)
1 1 1
So the conditions are
al  bm  cn  0 (4)
and ax  by  cz  d  0 (5)
1 1 1
Condition (4) shows that the line is parallel to the plane
and condition (5) shows that the point ( x , y , z ) on the line
1 1 1
lies in the plane.

Note
The general equation of any plane containing the line (1) is
a( x  x )  b( y  y )  c( z  z )  0
1 1 1
where al + bm + cn = 0.

Art. 3.9 Coplanar lines

 9
Find the condition that the lines whose equations are given
in symmetrical form may intersect and determine the
equation of the plane in which they lie.
x x y y zz
Let the lines are 1  1 1 (1)
l m n
1 1 1
x x y y zz
and 2 2 2 (2)
l m n
2 2 2
The equation of the plane passing through ( x , y , z ) is
1 1 1
a( x  x )  b( y  y )  c( z  z )  0 (3)
1 1 1
where al  bm  cn  0 (4)
1 1 1
If (2) lies on (3), the point ( x , y , z ) lies on it and the line
2 2 2
is perpendicular to the normal to the plane (3). In this
case, we have
a( x  x )  b( y  y )  c( z  z )  0 (5)
2 1 2 1 2 1
where al  bm  cn  0 (6)
2 2 2
Eliminating a, b, c from (5), (4) and (6), we get
x x y y z z
2 1 2 1 2 1
l m n 0 (7)
1 1 1
l m n
2 2 2
which is the required condition of coplanarity of two lines.
Again, eliminating a, b, c from (3), (4) and (6), we get
xx y y zz
1 1 1
l m n 0 (8)
1 1 1
l m n
2 2 2
which is the equation of the plane containing (1) and (2).

Corollary 3
If the equations of the planes are
a x  b y  c z  d  0, a x b y c z  d  0
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
 10
a x  b y  c z  d  0, a xb yc z d 0
3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
then the condition of coplanarity is
a b c d
1 1 1 1
a b c d
2 2 2 2 0
a b c d
3 3 3 3
a b c c
4 4 4 4

Example 5
Show that the lines
x5 y 4 z 7
  and 3x  2 y  z  2  0  x  3 y  2 z 13
3 1 2
are coplanar. Also find the equation to the plane in which
they lie.
x5 y 4 z 7
Solution. Given   (1)
3 1 2
3x  2 y  z  2  0  x  3 y  2 z 13 (2)
Any plane passing through (2) is
3x  2 y  z  2  k ( x  3 y  2 z 13)  0
or, (3 + k)x + (2 – 3k)y + (1 + 2k)z + (–2–13k) = 0 (3)
If (1) and (3) are parallel, we have
3(3 + k) + 1(2–3k) –2(1 + 2k) = 0  k  9 / 4
Hence the equation of the plane containing the second line
and parallel to the first line is
9 27 9 117
(3  ) x  (2  ) y  (1  ) z  (2  )0
4 4 2 4
or, 21x –19y + 22z –125 = 0
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which passes through the point (–5, –4, 7) and so this
contains the first line also.
Hence the given lines are coplanar and they in the plane
21x –19y + 22z –125 = 0.

Example 6
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the lines
x 1 y 1 z  2 x  2 y 5 z 3
  and  
1 2 3 2 1 2
and passing through their intersection.
x  1 y 1 z  2
Solution. Let    r. Then
1 2 3
x  1 r , y  1  2r , z  2  3r
x  2 y 5 z 3
Again, let    R. Then
2 1 2
x  2  2R, y  5  R, z  3  2R
If the given lines meet, then
1 r  2  2R, 1 2r  5  R,  2  3r  3  2R
Solving them, we get r  1 and R  2.
Hence the coordinates of the point of intersection are
(2, 3, 1).
 12
Let l , m, n be the dcs of the required line. Then we have
l m n
l  2m  3n  0 and 2l  m  2n  0 whence   .
7 4 5
So the drs of the required line are 7, 4, –5 and the
equations of the required line are
x  2 y  3 z 1
 
7 4 5

Example 7
x y z
Suppose   be the equation of the line AB.
2 3 6
Through P(1,2,5), PN is drawn perpendicular to AB and PQ
is drawn parallel to the plane 3x  4 y  5z  0 to meet AB in
Q. Find the equation of PN and PQ.
x y z
Solution. Let    r. Then x  2r , y  3r , z  6r
2 3 6
and so the coordinates of N are (2r, –3r, 6r) and the drs of
PN are 2r –1, –3r – 2, 6r – 5.
Since PN is perpendicular to AB, we have
26
2(2r –1) –3(–3r – 2) + 6(6r – 5) = 0  r 
49
 52 78 156 
So the coordinates of N are 

, , 

 49 49 49 

Hence the equations of PN are

 13
x 1 y2 z 5
 
1  (52 / 49) 2  (78 / 49) 5  (156 / 49)
x 1 y  2 z  5
  
 3 176 89
x y z
Again, let    R . Then x  2R, y  3R, z  6R and
2 3 6
so the coordinates of Q are (2R, –3R, 6R) and the drs of
PQ are 2R –1, –3R – 2, 6R – 5.
Since PQ is parallel to 3x  4 y  5z  0, we have
3(2R –1)+4(–3R – 2)+( 6R – 5) = 0  R  3 / 2
So the coordinates of Q are (3,-9/2,9) and finally, the
equations of PQ are
x 1 y2 z 5 x 1 y  2 z  5
    
1 3 2  (9 / 2) 5  9 4 13 8
Example 8
Through the point P(-1,1,2) a line is drawn parallel to the
line of intersection of the planes x  2 y  z  3 and
x  6 y  5z  0. This line cuts the plane x  3 y  2 z  2 in Q.
Find the coordinates of Q and the equation of the line PQ.
Solution. The line of intersection of the given planes are
x  2 y  z  3  0  x  6 y  5z (1)
The drs are
1 –2 1 1 -2
1 6 –5 1 6
or 4, 6, 8 or 2, 3, 4.
 14
So the drs of the line parallel to (1) are 2, 3, 4.
The equations of the line through P(–1, 1, 2) are
x  1 y 1 z  2
   r , say (2)
2 3 4
Since (2) cuts the plane x  3 y  2 z  2, then
(2r –1) –3(3r + 1) + 2(4r + 2) = 0  r = 2
So the coordinates of Q are (3, 7, 10).
Hence the equations of PQ are
x  1 y 1 z  2 x  1 y 1 z  2
    
1 3 1 7 2 10 2 3 4
Art. 3.10 Shortest Distance
Definition
Lines which do not intersect, or equivalently, the lines
which do not lie in the same plane, are called
nonintersecting lines. The straight line which is
perpendicular to each of these lines is called the line of
shortest distance (S.D.) and the length of this line is called
the length of the line of S.D.

Art. 3.11
Find the S.D. between two given lines and also find the
equations of the line of S.D.
Here, CD = projection of PQ on the line CD = PQ cos ,
where  is the angle between PQ and CD.
Since cos  1, PQ is always greater than CD. Thus, CD
being always less than any distance between two lines is
the line of S.D.
Let the equation of the given lines be
x x y y zz
1 1 1 (1)
l m n
1 1 1
 15
x x y y zz
and 2 2 2
(2)
l m n
2 2 2
Let A( x , y , z ) be the point on line (1) and let
1 1 1
L( x , y , z ) be the point on the line (2).
2 2 2
Now suppose that  ,  , be the direction cosines of CD
which is perpendicular to both the lines. Then we have
l  m  n  0 (3)
1 1 1
and l  m  n  0 (4)
2 2 2
So that
  
 
m n  m n n l  n l l m l m
1 2 2 1 12 21 1 2 2 1
2   2  2 1
 
 (m n  m n ) sin
1 2 21
m n m n n l n l l m l m
Hence,   1 2 2 1 ,  1 2 2 1 ,1 2 2 1
sin sin sin
So, the shortest distance, S.D. = projection of the line
joining A( x , y , z ) and L( x , y , z ) on the line of S.D.
1 1 1 2 2 2
whose direction cosines are  ,  ,
Therefore, S.D.  ( x  x )  ( y  y )  ( z  z )
2 1 2 1 2 1
1
 {( x  x )(m n  m n )  ( y  y )(n l  n l ) 
sin 2 1 1 2 21 2 1 12 21
( z  z )(l m  l m )}
2 1 1 2 2 1
x x y y z z
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
 l m n
sin 1 1 1
l m n
2 2 2

Now, the equation of the plane containing (1) and parallel

to the line of S.D. is
 16
xx y y zz
1 1 1
l m n 0 (5)
1 1 1
  

Now, the equation of the plane containing (2) and parallel

to the line of S.D. is
xx y y zz
2 2 2
l m n 0 (6)
2 2 2
  

Therefore the equation of the line of S.D. is given by

xx y y zz xx y y zz

1 1 1 2 2 2
l m n 0 l m n (7)
1 1 1 2 2 2
     

Exercises
1. Find the equation of the line drawn parallel to
x y z
 
2 3 4
so as to intersect
9 x  y  z  4  0  5 x  y  3z
x  2 y  3z  3  0  2 x  5 y  3z  3.
2. Find the distance of the point (-1,-5,-10) from the point
x  2 y 1 z  2
of intersection of the line   and the
3 4 12
x  y  z  5.
3. Find the length and equation of the line of shortest
 17
x 3 y 8 z  3
distance between the lines   and
3 1 1
x3 y 7 z 6
  . Find also the points in which it meets
3 2 4
the given lines.
4. Find the length and equation of the line of shortest
x 1 y  2 z  3
distance between   and
2 3 4
x  2 y 3 z  4
  . Determine whether the lines are
3 4 5
coplanar or not.
5. Find the length and equation of the line of shortest
x  8 y  9 z 10
distance between   and
3 16 7
x 15 y  29 z  5
  .
3 8 5