Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292

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Technological Forecasting & Social Change

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techfore

Perceived emotional intelligence of university professors based on the T

nature of the subject taught
M. Botey , M. Vaquero-Diego, F.J. Sastre
⁎

Business & Marketing School ESIC, Madrid, Spain

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) promotes coexistence and self-well-being. Every professor can improve
Emotions their PEI throughout life by generating benefits for themselves, for the institution where they work, and espe-
University Professors cially for the student.
Science Education This study focuses on identifying the characteristics of perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) between two
Humanities Education
groups of university professors. One group of professors teaches humanistic and sociological subjects while the
Qualitative Analysis
Quantitative Analysis
other group teaches subjects traditionally called sciences. These results provide useful information to create
innovative PEI training plans tailored to each group. Therefore, the development of the professors may have
important impacts on the students.
The Trait-Meta Mood Scale (TMMS-24) instrument is used to evaluate teachers’ PEI, and two methodologies
are applied: Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and Fuzzy-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA).
The results indicate the existence of significant relationships between PEI dimensions and the type of subject
taught, and they also give “sufficient pathways” to identify the membership in each group of teachers (huma-
nities or sciences).

PEI Perceived Emotional Intelligence.
TMMS-24 The Trait-Meta Mood Scale
SEM Structural Equation Modelling
QCA Qualitative Comparative Analysis
fsQCA Fuzzy-Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis.
1. Introduction
Teacher emotional education is a key factor in conflict resolution
programs since it helps to identify the feelings of the interlocutor, one's
own feelings, and the feelings of others. The simplification of academic
situations that can be managed from an emotional balance is an im-
portant and key objective in education (Bisquerra et al., 2015;
Garaigordobil and Oñederra, 2010; Vaquero-Diego et al., 2020). Fur-
thermore, emotional intelligence (EI) facilitates teamwork since it is
positively related to team planning and the feeling of belonging to the
team (Lin 2015)
Despite numerous allusions by previous authors to the need for
teacher training in education, very few studies have focused specifically
on studying the emotional competence of teachers and none has fo-
cused on the differences in EI according to the subject matter taught.
There are different theoretical models of perceived emotional
intelligence (PEI) (Bisquerra et al., 2015). amongst these models, the
model with the greatest scientific sustenance is the model of Mayer &
Salovey (1997). This model is conceptualized using capacities that are
organized into a pyramidal structure in which these capacities are in-
terrelated and organized hierarchically (perception, facilitation of
thought, understanding and regulation). The pyramid structure in-
dicates that to be able to regulate emotions, one must necessarily begin
by knowing how to identify and understand emotional states (Pérez-
González, 2010).
The objective of this research is to use empirical data to identify the
need, or lack of a need, to develop emotional capacities in university
teachers. The research problem is therefore formulated as follows: Is the
EI profile of university humanities teachers different from that of sci-
ence teachers? Which EI dimensions should be the focus of training in
each group? The further practical use of this research is related to how
it can contribute to teaching methodology in order to get the best from
students.
To measure the perceived EI of each teacher, we have used the
TMMS-24 self-reporting instrument designed for the assessment of re-
flective aspects of the emotional experience. This reduced version
contains 24 items and evaluates three PEI dimensions (attention, clarity
and repair). Previous studies indicate that this instrument has adequate

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: maria.botey@esic.edu (M. Botey).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120292
Received 17 June 2020; Received in revised form 26 August 2020; Accepted 1 September 2020
Available online 09 September 2020
0040-1625/ © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
M. Botey, et al.
psychometric behaviour in terms of its internal consistency and validity
(Marin et al., 2019). It has been used within the organizational context
(Argoti et al., 2015), as well as in the context of university teachers
(Rincón and Rodríguez, 2018), both of which are corroborated by the
instrument's reliability and validity.
Research confirms that PEI is a predictor of a person's performance
in the workplace, although EI has been found to have a partial and
limited effect on individual performance in less skilled jobs
(Boyatzis and Saatcioglu, 2008; Sastre Castillo and Danvila del
Valle, 2017). It is understood that all kinds of social organizations, in
this case the university centre, value the presence of people who have
the skills to relate socially and with their environment, to manage their
emotions in the service of the work entrusted to them and to regulate
them according to each of the work situations that arise (Argoti et al.,
2015).
There are few studies on the differences in the emotional profiles of
adults depending on whether their knowledge or activity is more re-
lated to the humanistic or sociological realm or what we would tradi-
tionally call science even though the ‘collective knowledge’ considers
that there are differences in the perception of emotions and in the way
these two groups act. We believe that this study provides evidence that
fills in the gap in this type of research since there are few works on this
subject (the EI profiles of university professors).
Some studies (Takeuchi et al., 2015) show that the brain structure of
those who favour ‘sciences’ has a greater amount of grey matter related
to their emotional and behavioural control being systematic, rational
and unemotional; meanwhile, the brain structure of those who favour
‘humanities’ has a greater density of white matter traditionally asso-
ciated with memory and emotions and with a greater ability to em-
pathize with others. All this leads to the consideration that there may be
differences in the PEI profiles of the teachers of these two subjects.
In addition to this introduction, this document is organized as fol-
lows. In the following section, the theoretical background of emotional
intelligence is presented and the related hypotheses. Section 3 in-
troduces the methodology used in this study, and Section 4 presents the
analysis of the data and the results obtained. The document concludes
with a discussion of the results and limitations, as well as a series of
theoretical implications.
2. Theoretical framework
Traditionally, the study of cognition has been focused on the use of
the intelligence quotient (IQ). However, it is becoming increasingly
clear that IQ scores are not always good predictors of academic or
professional success (Goleman, 1998). After the systematic review of
the variables carried out by Bar-on, which were considered to be re-
sponsible for success (Bar-On, 1997), the need to include new concepts
in the study of intelligence became evident.
A main objective of education is to form complete persons; there-
fore, it is necessary to attend to people's emotional, social and moral
development in addition to their cognitive development. Emotional
education is a continuous and permanent training process that intends
to promote the development of emotional competencies as an essential
element of human development in order to improve one's life and in-
crease personal and social well-being (Bisquerra, 2000, p. 243).
Following the skill-ability model, PEI is defined as a set of skills
necessary to perceive, access, understand and regulate emotions with
the aim of promoting emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997). Other authors consider and order the dimensions in the
PEI according to their psychoevolutionary formation (Cazalla-Luna and
Molero 2016; MacCann et al., 2003; Mestre et al., 2008).
It is important to keep in mind that PEI as understood using the
concept of abilities has the possibility to promote learning, develop-
ment and training (Fernández-Berrocal and Extremera 2006).
The studies of Yin et al. (2013) showed the beneficial role of EI in
teachers’ well-being and the effectiveness of different emotional work
2
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292
strategies, as well as in the training of teachers to manage the class-
room.
The works of Takeuchi et al. (2015) allow us to assume that there
are relationships between the variables under study and different pro-
files of PEI dimensions according to the type of matter taught.
The research of Salas & García (2010) shows that careers considered
to be ‘scientific’ (e.g., architecture, urban planning, production en-
gineering and electrical engineering) show a common PEI pattern and
the ‘clarity’ dimension is the least valued amongst the three dimensions
of PEI.
According to Fernandez-Berrocal & Extremera (2006), emotional
intelligence can evolve over time. For example, Charles et al. (2003)
indicate that with age people give less importance to their feelings,
mainly negative ones, producing decreased and skewed results in the
attention dimension; however, some studies support that EI improves
with age (Goleman, 1998; Bar-On, 2006).
Takeuchi et al. (2015) expresses that ‘humanities’ teachers have a
greater capacity to empathize with others, which leads us to assume
that people who teach subjects related to sociology or humanities have
better scores in PEI dimensions.
Therefore, the hypotheses to be tested with this study are as follows:
H1. There is a relationship between the type of subject taught and the
PEI dimensions of teachers. Some studies of engineering students
(Salas and García, 2010) support the certain characteristics of
technological profiles; however, this study does not provide a
comparison with humanistic profiles and the sample is formed by
students and not teachers.
H2. The attention dimension is affected by age, and attention may
diminish with age. Some studies support the theory that EI evolves over
a lifetime (Fernandez-Berrocal and Extremera, 2006). However, not all
of these changes positively affect our EI; according to Charles (2003),
there may be certain changes that decrease the level of attention.
H3. People who teach sociological and humanities subjects have better
PEI characteristics than those who teach sciences. This hypothesis is
supported by studies (Takeuchi et al., 2015) that indicate a greater
capacity for empathy in people with a humanities profile, and empathy
is a characteristic that greatly positive influences EI (Goleman 2005).
This hypothesis is also proposed following the studies by Salas &
García (2010), which indicate certain deficiencies in clarity in the
profiles of students in technological careers.
3. Methodology
3.1. Variables involved in this study
The study is based on the answers of the test completed by the
participants. It consists of two ‘income’ sociometric variables (age and
gender), one variable of teaching activity (main subject taught) and 24
questions to measure emotional intelligence factors (attention, clarity
and repair) with the TMMS-24 instrument.
It is not always easy to classify the subjects between humanities and
sciences; therefore, a selection of ESIC Business & marketing School
subjects that form very different groups was carried out, creating two
groups of teachers that we will refer to as the group that teaches type A
subjects and the group that teaches type B subjects.
The set of type A subjects consists of degree subjects clearly of a
humanistic and sociological nature that have to do with the behaviours
and conditions of human beings and being able to influence their cri-
tical thinking. These subjects include the following: HR Management,
Professional Ethics, Politics and Communication, History of Economics
and Marketing, Sociology of the Company, Marketing and Interpersonal
Communication Techniques and Critical Thinking.
The set of type B subjects consists of subjects that have traditionally
been called sciences and where judgement and subjective appreciation
M. Botey, et al.
Table 1
Assessment of the PEI dimensions according to the TMMS-24 instrument (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004) and the values of variables AT021, CL081 and RE081.
Dimension Man
ATTENTION= sum of the variables from 1 to 8 ≤ 21
22 - 32
≥ 33
CLARITY= sum of the variables from 9 to 16 ≤25
26 - 35
≥36
REPAIR= sum of the variables from 17 to 24 ≤ 23
24 - 35
≥ 35
have less space for development and advocacy. These subjects include
the following: Mathematics Applied to Marketing, Microeconomics,
Financial Calculation, Econometrics, Market Research, Sales Analysis
and Forecasting, and Computer Science.
The TMMS-24 is a self-assessment test consisting of 24 items or
questions, and each item or question has five options for different levels
according to that item (Likert scale). This is not a test where there are
right or wrong questions, but rather the respondent answers according
to their preferences. What is asked for is sincerity and agility when it
comes to answering each of the questions.
These 24 items are grouped into three variables called PEI dimen-
sions. From these groups (8 items per dimension), the sum of the items
of each dimension is calculated, three new variables are created
(AT021, CL081, & RE081), and the results are classified according to
the sum of the items and the gender of the individual in Table 1
(Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004) .
For later use in the SEM methodology and in fsQCA, these new
variables have been assigned values of 0, 0.2, 0.8,or 1 depending on
whether the valuation is ‘suitable’ (0.8), ‘excellent’ (1) or ‘should im-
prove’ (0). In the case of the variable AT021, it is assigned a value 0.2
when Attention takes high values. The reason for these scores is set out
in Section 4.2.3.1 (variable calibration).
Regarding age, a new variable age50 is calculated. This takes a
value of 0 age is less than 50 years and 1 if the age is equal to or greater
than 50. The age of 50 years has been selected as a limit for the fol-
lowing reasons: it is the average age point of the sample (49.8 years),
and Levinson (1986) also says that “the 50-year transition generally
implies a new modification of the emotional structure, however, the
end of adulthood (55–60 years) becomes a consolidated phase.” This
modification of the structure could be linked to the studies of
Charles et al. (2003) discussed above.
3.2. Participants (population and sample)
The sample is constituted by a group of 47 university professors in
bachelor's degree programs in Marketing from ESIC University. It is
considered a representative sample for these teachers based on the
different types of subject matter taught. The questionnaire was sent to a
semi-random group of 93 teachers from the departments involved
(Market Analysis, Economics and Finance, Computer Science,
Humanities and Law, and Business Management) who teach the type A
and type B subjects.
A response rate of 51% was obtained with balanced results in terms
of the proportions of participants according to gender (54% male and
46% female), age (less than 50 years 45% and over 50 years 55%) and
subject type (54% of teachers in group A and 46% of teachers in group
B).
3.3. Instrument
The TMMS-24 instrument or Metaknowledge Trait Scale on
Emotional States was used to carry out the research. It is based on the
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292
Woman Rating Value Variable name
≤ 24 Low, should improve 0 AT021
25 - 35 Suitable, medium 1
≥ 36 High, should improve 0.2
≤ 23 Low, should improve 0 CL081
24 - 34 Suitable, medium 0.8
≥35 High, excellent 1
≤ 23 Low, should improve 0 RE081
24 - 35 Suitable, medium 0.8
≥ 35 High, excellent 1
Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) of Salovey and Mayer's research group.
TMMS-24 measures skills that allow us to be aware of our own
emotions and our ability to regulate them. It contains 24 items and
three subscales or dimensions of PEI with eight items each: emotional
attention (I am able to feel and express feelings properly), clarity of
feelings (I understand my emotional states well), and emotional repair
(I am able to regulate emotional states correctly).
3.4. Procedure
The questionnaire was administered online to 93 teachers in the
subject area (52% of the population = 180), and a semi-random sam-
pling methodology was applied to obtain a representative sample of the
teachers in each of the subjects. A response of 51% was obtained (47
questionnaires completed).
Regarding data privacy protection laws, an anonymous personal
identification system was created for the teachers who participated in
the study in order not to repeat elements in the sample. The corre-
sponding permission to access potential participants was requested
from the department directors. The professors were informed about the
objectives of the research and provided authorization to for their data
to be used in the research and testing.
3.5. Development stages of the method
Initially, an inferential descriptive study of the sample looking for
relations between the type of subject, gender and age with PEI di-
mensions was conducted carried out with SPSS 23.0 using the chi-
square test and Cramer's V (effect size).
Next, the reliability of the scale was obtained through the
Cronbach's α coefficient for each of the IEP dimensions. Factorial
analysis was also conducted to study the consistency and dimension-
ality of the questionnaire.
Once the questionnaire was validated, the SEM methodology was
applied using the AMOS 23.0 program and the modelling of a ‘path
diagram’ in order to select the relevant relationships between the fac-
tors and dismiss those hypotheses not supported by the empirical evi-
dence.
The structural equation models are based on the correlations be-
tween variables, which are symmetrical in their calculation. Therefore,
when you use a correlation to test a connection between a cause and an
effect, it also tests a connection between the absence of the cause and
the absence of the effect; nevertheless, it does not support asymmetric
analysis. However, the diagram it provides is very intuitive and easy to
construct from the theoretical assumptions of the problem.
The theoretical analysis of sets offers an analytical system that
adapts to the formulations of verbal assumptions. The fsQCA tool can
perform set analysis that allows asymmetrical relationships to be es-
tablished between individuals by identifying common elements, as re-
quired by qualitative analysis.
This second analysis also begins after accepting the validity of the
test and the instrument. The analysis focuses on identifying complex
3
M. Botey, et al.
causal patterns between the ‘outcome’ or target variable (type of subject
taught) and the ‘income’ variables (gender, age and PEI dimensions of
the participants). It was performed using the fsQCA 2.0 statistical
package, which uses the fuzzy set QCA method. This methodology
constitutes a mixed alternative in terms of quantitative and qualitative
treatment; it is a particularly appropriate method for studies with
medium-low sized samples (Berg-Schlosser et al., 2009). This analysis
allows us to identify different combinations of causal variables that
obtain the same result, and this is called multiple causality. In our
study, the analysis provides several possible “recipes” or characteristics
of sets of variables that allow us to “consistently” identify membership
in a target group (humanities group-A or sciences group-B).
3.5.1. Notable features of the sem methodology
From the beginning of the 20th century until 1970, researchers
contributed knowledge on the creation of such models. Then, Jöreskog
presented the first formulation of a precursor model of structural
equation models. This technique combines factor analysis with a linear
regression to test the degree of fit of observed data to a hypothesized
model expressed by a path diagram. As a result, SEMs can provide the
values belonging to each relationship, and some statistics express the
degree to which the data fit the proposed model, confirming its validity.
The SEM models incorporate abstract and unobservable constructs
(latent variables and unobserved theoretical variables) and model the
relationships between multiple predictor variables (independent or
exogenous) and criterion variables (dependant or endogenous). Within
the same model, variables that are independent in one relationship may
be dependant in others.
SEMs allow both confirmatory modelling (generally starting with a
previous hypothesis that is represented as a causal model) and ex-
ploratory modelling (the structure of the data is not known a priori),
meaning that this technique is useful both for testing existing theories
(confirmatory) and for developing new theories (exploratory).
These models require some preconditions on the variables: no col-
linearity between the variables and, depending on the method of ad-
justment (maximum likelihood), univariate normality of each variable
and multivariate normality of the joint variable. Other methods (least
squares) present more relaxed conditions with respect to the normality
of variables.
In order to obtain the model, a first specification phase is carried out
in which the researcher establishes the hypothetical relationship be-
tween the latent and observed variables. Then, the covariances are
analysed to determine if there are possible algebraic expressions that
relate to it, and the parameters and respective measurement errors are
estimated (in our case using the AMOS-SPSS v23 package). Finally, the
goodness of fit is evaluated. In case a good fit is not completely ob-
tained, a respecification of the model is made (always with the corre-
sponding justifications). Once a model with a good fit is obtained, the
results are interpreted.
There are several indicators that evaluate the goodness of fit, each
one measuring different aspects of the model: absolute, incremental,
and parsimony indicators. The most commonly used are described in
Table 2.
Table 2
Most frequently used goodness of fit indexes (Byrne, 2016).
Classification Fitting Index
Discrepancy rates Chi-square (χ2)
p-value (not necessary, but sufficient)
df=degrees of freedom
Incremental adjustment goodness index CFI (Comparative Fit Index)
Index based on population discrepancy RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation)
Residual Goodness of Fit Ratios RMR (Root Mean Square Residual)
Overall Goodness of Fit Indices GFI (Goodness of Fit Index)
AGFI (Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index)
4
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292
In our problem, a confirmatory factorial analysis of the structure of
the TMMS-24 has been carried out to validate this tool. Once validated,
due to the small sample size, a simple SEM model has been proposed in
which these constructs were considered to be ‘income’ variables, as
categorized by Table 1. This obtains the variables AT021, CL081 and
RE081 that participate in the model as exogenous variables that may
affect the type of subject variable.
3.5.2. Notable features of the fsQCA methodology
Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) was developed by the so-
ciologists Charles & Ragin. Firstly, before 1990, they developed the
technique called crisp set QCA (relative to Boolean Logic) and later the
fuzzy set version (fsQCA). Currently, fsQCA is a methodological tool for
social science research that allows results to be obtained that are
complementary to those obtained with more traditional techniques,
such as SEM (commented on in the previous section), designed to work
for asymptotic properties.
The fsQCA methodology could be included within the techniques of
Artificial Intelligence (AI) that deal with reasoning through formal logic
or human abstract thinking, but instead use its “fuzzy” version. The
fuzzy methodology facilitates the incorporation of imprecise evalua-
tions that in many cases obtain asymmetrical relations, that is, that
causes and consequences can be detected without necessarily producing
equivalence relations.
Unlike other techniques, with fsQCA, it is not necessary to assume
that the types of relationships between the explanatory variables and
those explained are known a priori.
The initial step to apply fsQCA is to determine the problem and
choose the appropriate data. Next, the variables are discretised by as-
signing values from 0 to 1 that indicate the degree to which each case
belongs to each class of the “outcome” variable to each individual, thus
converting the variables into “fuzzy characteristics”. This operation is
known as “calibration”.
The calibration (or adjustment) process, which can be done in
“binary” or “fuzzy” form, consists of estimating the degree of belonging
of each case to the group. This is often the most subjective point in the
analysis since the researcher sets where 20%, 50% and 80% of the
membership distribution lies, and sometimes there may be no clear and
objective criteria for setting these limits.
From the previous step, it is possible to establish the configuration
table or “truth table” that provides the configurations or groups of
variables linked with the conjunctions “or” or “and” (for binary vari-
ables ther are K^2 configurations, where K is the number of income
variables). The number of configurations must be reduced by elim-
inating the infrequent configurations and defining the “frequency cut”
parameter.
There are two key concepts related to QCA: consistency and cov-
erage. Consistency refers to the percentage of causal configurations
with similar compositions that result in the same outcome value. If the
consistency of a configuration is low, it is not supported by empirical
evidence. Therefore, it should be considered less relevant than other
configurations with higher consistency. Coverage refers to the number
of cases for which a configuration is valid. Unlike consistency, the fact
Excellent Fit Suitable Fit
0 <= χ2 <= 2df 2df < χ2 <= 3df
0.05 < p <= 1.00 0.01 < p <= 0.05
0.97 <= CFI <= 1.00 0.95 <= CFI < 0.97
0 <= RMSEA <= 0.05 0.05 < RMSEA <=0.08
0 <= RMR <= 0.08 0.08 < RMR <= 0.10
0.95 <= GFI <= 1.00 0.90 <= GFI < 0.95
0.90 <= AGFI <= 1.00 0.85 <= AGFI < 0.90
M. Botey, et al.
that configuration coverage is low does not imply less relevance. In the
cases where a result occurs through multiple causal configurations, a
single configuration can have low coverage but can nevertheless be
useful to explain a set that causes a particular outcome (Woodside and
Zhang, 2012). In fsQCA, consistency and coverage are not percentages
since elements that take intermediate values (from 0 to 1) are also in-
cluded in the calculation; however, the interpretation is similar.
In addition, a consistency threshold is specified to select the con-
figurations reliably associated with the result. The selected threshold
usually corresponds to an observed break in the distribution of the
consistency scores (Schneider et al., 2010).
Once the fsQCA analysis is applied, three types of solutions can be
obtained. The easiest are those usually called “parsimonious”, the
second are “intermediate”, and the last are called “complex”.
Finally, the researcher must select the appropriate rules to draw the
relevant conclusions and interpret them. Configurations with values of
“coherence or consistency” greater than 0.75 and “coverage” from 0.25
to 0.65 are generally accepted (Ragin 2008).
4. Results
4.1. Sample descriptions and study of the proportions of pei dimensions by
gender, age50 and type of subject taught
This sample contains balanced proportions in terms of the groups
obtained by gender (51% men and 49% women), age50 (44% younger
than 50 and 56% 50 or older) and type of subject taught (53% type A
subjects and 47% type B subjects), which generate good behaviour of
the statistical estimators.
The average age of the sample is 49.4 years with a maximum of 64
and a minimum of 32; the most frequent range is from 50 to 59 years
old (38.3%).
According to the chi-square variable test, AT021 and CT081 are
related to the type of subject taught, presenting p-values = 0.01 and
0.035 (significant at 0.05), respectively; and the variable RE081 is not
significant. According to Cohen J. (1988) and the results of the Cramer's
V, the effect size for the attention (0.53) and clarity dimension (0.38) is
high (>0.35) and those for repair dimension (0.23) are medium (from
0.21 to 0.35), that is, the relation of the variable type of subject taught
with the repair dimension must also be taken into account.
In the dimension, group A stands out with 24% of teachers having
‘Suitable’ Attention compared to 68.2% for group B or the sciences
group. In the case of the clarity dimension, Group A has 92% of teachers
with ‘Suitable’ or ‘Excellent’ clarity compared to 63.6% for the sciences
group (Table 3).
According to the chi-square test (p>0.05) and the size of the effect
(Cramer<0.2), the differences in the proportions of men and women in
the different type of subject taught are not significant. Similarly, gender
is not related to the type of subject taught or the dimensions At021,
Cl081 and Re081. These results match the results obtained for the bi-
variate correlations, which only have significance in the relationships of
Table 3
Chi-square test and size effect of the dimensions of PEI with type of subject taught.
Type of subject taught
Humanities or So- ciology (Group A)
Count % Count
AT021 Atten-tion Should-improve 14 52.0
Should-improve 6 24.0
Suitable 5 24.0
CL081 Clarity Should-improve 2 8.0
Suitable 22 88.0
Excellent 1 4.0
RE081 Repair Should improve 2 8,0
Suitable 17 68.0
Excellent 6 24.0
5
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292
At021 with the type of subject (Spearman's correlation coefficient of
S = 0.34 and p-value=0.017), CL081 – type of subject (S = 0.25 and p-
value=0.091), and CL081-RE081 (S = 0.48 and p-value=0.001). We
are using Spearman's correlation coefficient instead of Pearson's cor-
relation coefficient because we are studying categorical variables.
4.2. Analysis of the suitability of TMMS-24 in the teaching sample and
obtaining the ‘path diagram’ using sem methodology
4.2.1. Reliability of the scale and validity of the TMMS-24 instrument for
this sample
For a measuring instrument, such as a questionnaire, two important
factors must be taken into account: reliability and validity.
The reliability checks that the measuring instrument is accurate and
returns consistent results. It is measured using Cronbach's alpha statistic
(Table 4) and it is considered correct as long as it is greater than 0.80
and less than 0.95 (Hulin et al., 2001). In the case of the present re-
search, the Cronbach's alphas are greater than 0.844; therefore, it can
be stated that the sample has scale reliability since all factors show
values greater than 0.8. Furthermore, all items have a ‘Cronbach's alpha
if item deleted’ value less than the Cronbach's alpha factor, and so the
TMMS-24 is applicable to ESIC's professors.
The validity indicates the degree to which the test actually measures
the constructs for which it has been defined. It is checked by conducting
factorial analysis for the sample to see if the grouping of elements into
factors matches the constructs associated with the TMMS-24.
These items, according to TMMS-24, should be grouped into three
PEI constructs or dimensions (attention, clarity, and repair), each
consisting of eight items. To validate this structure, factorial analysis
has been conducted using the main components method with three-
factor extraction and varimax rotation, obtaining three factors that
account for 55% of the total variance. Table 4 shows the composition of
each of these factors.
It is noted that factors 1 and 2 fully coincide with the clarity and
attention constructs defined in TMMS-24, with some distortion in factor
1 involving also some variables that should be represented only in
factor 3. As for the repair construct (factor 3), it is noted that it would
be defined by factors 3 and 1 since several of its items also participate in
factor 1, although in smaller proportions.
The KMO tests (0.706) and Bartlett's sphericity were calculated (chi-
square 796.36 and p-value 0.000), indicating the feasibility of per-
forming factorial analysis of the scale (Lloret Segura et al., 2014).
This situation indicates that the structure of the sample matches the
structure proposed by the TMMS-24 model, although there are some
deficiencies in the repair dimension. Questions may have been mis-
interpreted; therefore, in future research, the meanings of items in this
dimension will be explained in more detail.
4.2.2. Study of the relationships between the variables obtained: PEI,
gender, age and type of subject taught. path diagram (SEM)
Once the constructs have been identified and validated according to
Chi-square Pearson Size effect Cramer's V
Sciences (Group B)
% Value
7 31.8 Chi-squared 13.196
0 0.0 df 2
15 68,2 Sig. 0.001 0.53
8 36.4 Chi-squared 6.71
12 54.5 df 2
2 9.1 Sig. 0.035 0.38
4 18.2 Chi-squared 2.51
16 72.7 df 2
2 9.1 Sig. 0.284 0.23
M. Botey, et al. Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292

Table 4
Descriptive statistics of the test variables of EI, the associated Cronbach's alphas and factorial analysis factors.
Dimensions & Descriptive statistics Reliability Analysis Factorial Analysis (Minimum Square, Varimax Rotation)
Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Minimum Maximum Average Standard Cronbach's alpha if Factors Cronbach's Explained Explained Explained
deviation item deleted alpha variance 23.4% variance 20.5% variance 11.3%

Attention 0.905
P1 2 5 3.77 .914 .894 0.711
P2 2 5 3.57 .927 .893 0.720
P3 1 5 3.30 1.061 .895 0.723
P4 2 5 3.81 .992 .898 0.688
P5 1 5 2.96 1.021 .905 0.621
P6 1 5 2.21 1.020 .894 0.712
P7 1 5 2.77 .960 .879 0.896
P8 1 5 2.83 1.090 .881 0.846
Clarity 0.901
P9 2 5 3.28 .852 .876 0.859
P10 2 5 3.43 .927 .887 0.658
P11 1 5 3.28 1.057 .879 0.793
P12 2 5 3.55 .802 .893 0.688
P13 1 5 3.53 .856 .897 0.578
P14 1 5 3.15 1.042 .890 0.760
P15 1 5 3.38 .874 .899 0.605
P16 2 5 3.40 .825 .887 0.754
Repair 0.844
P17 2 5 3.62 .990 .815 0.222 0.499
P18 1 5 3.47 .997 .815 0.787
P19 1 5 3.09 1.120 .837 0.684
P20 2 5 3.55 .928 .805 0.813
P21 1 5 3.43 1.098 .842 0.399
P22 2 5 3.68 .810 .823 0.360
P23 2 5 4.30 .749 .850
P24 1 5 3.47 1.060 .814 0.523

the TMMS-24 model, it is possible to model a ‘Path diagram’ that de-

scribes the relationships of the PEI dimensions (categorized according
to Table 1) with the gender, age and type of subject taught.
For this purpose, some assumptions necessary for SEM models must
be met, including noncollinearity between variables. If all bivariate
correlations are less than 0.5, the assumption of noncollinearity is
considered to be met.
The normality of each variable and multivariate normality of the
joint variable are also necessary; however, the variables of this model
are categorical (with two or three categories), and so we do not check
normality. Nevertheless, we apply the least squares method (for cate-
gorical variables) instead of the maximum likelihood method (for
continuous variables).
Initially, a model is proposed in which the age and gender variables
were related to each other and also to the repair variable. This model
provides five estimators of the relationships between the variables
AT021, CL081, RE081, Age50, gender and type of subject taught. The
meanings of the relationships correspond to the relationships proposed
in the hypotheses and are orientated to the differentiation of the groups
of teachers according to the type of subject taught. Three of the re-
lationships are significant, the other two are not significant and the
power of the test is very low (less than 0.3); therefore, the relationships
and associated variables are eliminated. Fig. 1 shows the new ‘path
Fig. 1. Path diagram of the relationships of the PEI dimensions with type of
diagram’ obtained.
subject taught.
In this diagram, the following relationships are highlighted:

1 AT021 and CL081 are related to the type of subject taught since
have standardized estimators of 0.41 and −0.32, respectively, and
are significant at the 0.05 level. The post-hoc power test calculated
according to Soper (2019) found that the power of the type of
subject taught variable is 85% (significance=0.05, number of pre-
dictors=2, observed R2=0.27 and sample size=47). Therefore,
teachers who have ‘Suitable’ values of attention teach type B sub-
jects (sciences), and those who have ‘Suitable’ values in clarity teach
type A subjects (humanities). The symmetry of the relationship also
implies that teachers who 'should improve' their attention dimen-
sion teach type A subjects and those who have 'should improve' their
clarity dimension, teach type B subjects.
2 The CL081-RE081 ratio achieves a standardized estimator of 0.47
that is significant at the 0.05 level. The power observed for the type
of subject taught variable is 95% (p = 0.05, predictors=1, observed
R2=0.23 and sample size=0.47). Its interpretation indicates that
‘Suitable’ and ‘Excellent’ values for repair involve ‘Suitable’ and
‘Excellent’ values for clarity.

6
M. Botey, et al.
Fig. 2. Causal configurations leading to teachers with different types of taught subject.
Finally, it can be said that the model provides a post-hoc power
greater than 85% in each of the estimated parameters (Cumming G.,
2013; Dattalo, 2008), and so the sample size is considered sufficient. In
addition, RMSEA=0.05 indicates a good fit (Lee et al., 2012). Together
with the goodness of fit indicators (RMR=0.002, CFI=1, GFI=0.999,
and AGFI-0.996; according to Table 2, they are in the ‘good fit margin’),
it can be inferred that the obtained ‘path diagram’ model well fits the
sample.
4.2.3. Case relationship study (fsQCA) of the type of subject taught variable
and the gender, age50 and pei dimension variables
The main interest in this study is to identify whether there are ne-
cessary or sufficient conditions in the PEI dimensions, in the gender
variable and in the age variable that can identify the membership of the
group defined by the target variable or ‘outcome’ in each study.
In this case, the variable under study is the type of subject taught,
which is defined by the subjects of group A (humanities and social
sciences) and the subjects of group B (sciences) with case A assigned a
value of 0 and case B assigned a value of 1.
The process of transforming a continuous variable into a fuzzy ca-
tegory variable requires prior calibration of the variable according to
external standards (Rihoux, 2013).
4.2.3.1. Variable calibration. This analysis calibrates the attention,
clarity and repair variables taking into account the studies of
Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2004), which divide these variables into
three segments (Table 1). These studies also provide each segment with
a rating (should improve, suitable and excellent).
Taking these ratings into account, the clarity and repair variables
assign a value of 0 to ‘Should improve’, 0.8 to ‘Suitable’ and 1 to
‘Excellent’. For the attention variable, a value of 0 is assigned to ‘must
improve’, 1 to ‘appropriate’ and 0.2 to ‘must improve’ with a high at-
tention value because they are closer in rating to low attention scores
with a value of 0. Something similar happens with the intermediate
scores of clarity and repair (0.8), which are closer to the assessment of
high scores (1). Values of 0 and 1 correspond to extreme valuations.
The sociological variables used in the study are gender and age. The
gender variable is already a dichotomous variable in the test (0=man
7
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292
and 1=woman). As for the variable age, it is categorized into two
segments: those aged less than 50 years (value of 0) and the rest have a
value of 1, as indicated in Section 3.1.
The ‘outcome’ variable of this study is defined by the type of subject
taught by teachers. It takes a value of 0 for teachers who teach subjects
of a humanistic and sociological nature (type A subject defined in 2.1)
and 1 for teachers who teach subjects traditionally called sciences (type
B subject defined in 2.1).
4.2.3.2. Application of diffuse causal analysis (fsQCA method). In this
study, the variables that can achieve sufficient causal configurations to
lead to the identification of the type of subject taught are the variables
associated with the PEI dimension, gender (0 for a man and 1 for a
woman) and age50 (0=age is less than 50 and 1=age is equal or
greater than 50 years). The codes and categorizations of the different
variables involved are provided in the table of values that serve as the
input to initiate the causal study with the fsQCA method. The software
used to conduct this analysis is fsQCA 2.5
The values of the variables AT021, CL081 and RE081 have been
defined after a variable calibration process according to the external
standards defined with the TMMS-24 instrument (Table 1).
First, the ‘paths’ or combinations that can cause membership in the
group of teachers who teach Type A subjects (humanities or sociology)
are studied; this analysis leads us to a “truth table” with all logically
possible combinations. Those configurations for which there are no
cases in the treated sample (called residues or counterfactuals) and
those with less than 2 cases (frequency cut-off: 2) are identified and
eliminated. In addition, a consistency threshold (in this case “con-
sistency cut-off” = 0.69) is specified to select the configurations re-
liably associated with the type A result. The selected threshold corre-
sponds to an observed break (from 0.61 to 0.69) in the distribution of
the consistency scores. The calculation of the possible configurations
provides two ‘paths’ or solutions A1 and A2.
Similarly, the fsQCA method is applied to the case of the Type B
group (sciences teachers). The parameters used are a frequency cut-off
of 2 and a consistency cut-off of 0.74 (jump from 0.5 to 0.74). The
results obtained by calculating the causal configurations provides three
‘paths’ or solutions B1, B2 and B3.
M. Botey, et al.
These solutions are shown in Fig. 2, where the full circles indicate
the presence of a causal condition, the circles with a cross-out indicate
its negation, the large circles indicate core conditions, the small circles
indicate peripheral conditions, and the blank spaces indicate that a
causal condition does not matter in a configuration.
In view of these results, it follows that there are different ways of
characterizing the group of teachers based on the type of subject taught
being A (humanistic and sociological); however, solution A1 solution is
the most consistent:
• Solution A1: Female teachers with attention = ‘Should improve’
provides a coverage of 0.41 (from 0.25 to 0.65) and a consistency
rate of 0.91 (greater than 0.75), which is a ‘generally sufficient so-
lution’ and a good result to consider (Ragin, 2008).
As for the teachers who teach type B or science subjects, three
possible ‘roads’ are obtained that lead to this group. Solutions B1 and
B3 stand out:
• Solution B1: Men with attention=‘Suitable’ have a consistency of
0.86 (greater than 0.75) and a coverage of 0.5 (from 0.25 to 0.65).
Therefore, this is a ‘generally sufficient solution’.
• Solution B3: Teachers who are 50 years of age or older and have
clarity =‘Should improve’ have a consistency of 0.71 (greater than
0.75) and a coverage of 0.24 (not from 0.25 to 0.65). This is a not
consistent solution, but it should be considered because it presents a
high consistency rate.
5. Discussion and conclusion
5.1. Theoretical ei model and identifying the research focus
At a theoretical level, the research is based on a conceptual deli-
mitation of self-perceived emotional intelligence according to the
model of Mayer & Salovey (1997). In the development of the theoretical
framework, we have followed the EI capabilities model developed by
these authors, which defines EI as a set of cognitive skills for the pro-
cessing of emotional information and understanding that there is po-
tential in individuals to develop these skills.
A teacher's emotional education is a key factor in conflict resolution
programs since it helps to identify the feelings of the interlocutor, one's
own feelings and the feelings of others. The simplification of academic
situations that can be managed from an emotional balance is an im-
portant and key objective in education (Bisquerra et al., 2015;
Garaigordobil and Oñederra 2010).
According to some authors (Weinberger, 2009; Sastre & Danvila,
2017), EI has been identified as a crucial element necessary for effective
professional leadership. Having emotional intelligence skills has im-
portant beneficial effects for teachers at a preventive level since the
skills involve the development of emotional regulation processes that
help moderate and prevent the negative effects of teaching stress.
Despite the numerous allusions of the authors to the need for tea-
cher training in education, very few studies have focused specifically on
the study of teachers’ emotional competence or on the differences in EI
profiles according to the subject matter taught. Therefore, this study
covers a gap in the literature and can provide great benefits in defining
the training actions to improve the EI of two large groups of teachers.
This study focuses on identifying the characteristics of the Perceived
Emotional Intelligence (PEI) of two groups of university teachers. One
group of teachers teaches humanistic and sociological subjects while
the other group teaches subjects traditionally called sciences.
Regarding the discussion of the theoretical framework, there are
different models of Perceived Emotional Intelligence (PEI)
(Bisquerra et al., 2015). amongst them, the model with the greatest
scientific support is the model of Mayer & Salovey (1997). This model is
conceptualized on the basis of EI abilities and understands that there is
8
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 161 (2020) 120292
potential in individuals to develop these abilities.
These are ordered in a pyramidal structure in which the capacities
are interrelated and organized hierarchically (perception, thought fa-
cilitation, understanding and regulation). This structure indicates that
in order to regulate emotions, we must necessarily begin by knowing
how to identify and understand emotional states (Pérez-
González, 2010).
5.2. Instrument to measure ei and the techniques applied to analysis
The instrument selected to measure teachers’ EI is TMMS-24. It
measures three dimensions of EI: attention, clarity and emotional re-
pair. This instrument has been selected due to its consistency and ease
of application and for the numerous studies that support it.
Several analysis techniques have been applied: descriptive techni-
ques on each variable, bivariate correlations, and multivariate analysis
with Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and fuzzy set qualitative
comparative analysis (fsQCA). These latter two multivariate analysis
techniques provide compatible and complementary results in this study.
The SEM methodology presents certain advantages with respect to
fsQCA. It provides a diagram that clearly reflects the relationships that
arise from the theoretical approach. Then, after a theoretical discussion,
only those relationships that are significant are retained. For example,
in the final SEM diagram, the relationship of the type of subject with
age is not significant and thus it is not reflected, even though there are
studies that support the improvement of EI with age (Goleman, 1998;
Bar-On, 2006) and others that find that age results in a certain loss of
attention (Charles C. et al., 2003). There are also disadvantages to this
technique, such as the requirements of noncollinearity between vari-
ables, variables that possess normality, linearity and symmetry in the
relationships and a sample size conditioned by the complexity of the
model.
As for the fsQCA methodology, it does not present restrictions on the
variables and is more appropriate for the sample available. It allows for
reflection on the nonlinear, asymmetric relationships and several “re-
cipes” to obtain that lead to the same result. The result does not con-
tradict the conclusions obtained from the SEM model; however, it adds
nuances such as certain relationships with age or gender that are not
incorporated in the SEM model, perhaps due to nonlinearity or lack of
symmetry in the relationship.
5.3. Main results and contributions
The results show the need for a planned and conscious educational
process aimed at intervening in the emotional and life education of
their teaching professionals and therefore their students to be in-
corporated into the strategy of each institution. They also provide es-
sential information for designing EI training plans adapted to each
group. Specifically, the results obtained indicate the following.
The EI profiles of teachers are closely related to the type of subject
taught. In particular, there are two remarkable relationships, both ob-
tained with the two methods used, although fsQCA provides more de-
tails on these relationships, which reinforce and refine the findings of
the SEM analysis (Mikalef and Pateli, 2017).
Firstly, the teachers of group A (humanities) possess attention that
“Should improve”. This contribution is new since there are no studies in
this sense. Furthermore, we should add that thanks to the fsQCA, we
identify that the group of men mainly possesses this characteristic.
The second outstanding relationship is possessed by the teachers of
group B (sciences) who have clarity that “must improve”. As com-
mented in Section 2, the study by Salas & García (2010) supports this
characteristic for engineering students, although in students and not
teachers, since there are no studies on this subject. In this study, neither
sex nor age show any influence on this characteristic. Regarding the
influence of age on the dimensions of EI, the results of more traditional
methods do not show any significance for the relationship; this is due to
M. Botey, et al.
the asymmetry of this relationship. However, the fsQCA results show a
slight relationship of age with attention (less age-> more attention).
This result does not contradict the expected loss of attention with age
(Charles et al., 2003). amongst the science teachers (group B), there are
two groups of people: one with all the “should improve” dimensions
and another with all the “suitable or excellent” dimensions. Therefore,
it cannot be argued that humanities teachers have a better or worse EI
profile than science teachers since the best and the worst are in the
same group.
This is a characteristic that was not expected because the empathy
detected in the groups of humanities (Takeuchi et al., 2015) and its
influence on EI (Goleman, 2005). make us suppose that humanities
teachers present better Emotional Intelligent profile.
The importance of developing training plans linked to teacher
training (López et al., 2010) leads us to propose the application of
training actions to the group of university teachers aimed at improving
the deficiencies identified in each group. The training should promote
the attention dimension in the humanities teachers and with more in-
tensity in the men of this group promote the clarity dimension in the
group of "science" teachers.
The improvement of the PIE generates benefits in the teacher him-
self (Lee et al., 2013), in the institution in which he develops his activity
(Argoti et al., 2015), and especially in the students by improving his
professional and personal performance aptitudes (Martínez-
Otero, 2006)
5.4. Some limitations and future lines of action
amongst the limitations of the study, it should be noted that the type
of sample used, which was semiprobabilistic, scarce and local (teachers
from the ESIC business school, a teaching centre with specific char-
acteristics that cannot be extrapolated to other universities), makes it
difficult to generalize the results. However, it is intuited that the dif-
ferences in PEI profiles of adult scientifics and adult humanistics gen-
erally exist in every professional group and not only in teachers. These
results would make it possible to carry out EI training in any area where
good emotional skills are required of adults in their working environ-
ment, whether in business or in academia.
Therefore, in the future, this study will be extended to other where
the samples are made up of adults from any field (professional or
teaching) with a marked training or professional development profile in
science or humanities.
In addition, the use of self-perceived measures has some limitations
(Joseph and Newman, 2010). For example, they may be susceptible
providing socially desirable responses. To avoid these potential biases,
it would be beneficial to use an additional behavioural-based measure
of Emotional Intelligence that provides measures of other dimensions
essential for effective teaching, such as the factors necessary for moti-
vation and empathy, in the testing in future research.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the Research Group: Ethics, Marketing and Innovation in
the Knowledge Society of ESIC Business & Marketing University for
their support and to the collaborators' professors for their help.
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120292.
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Maria Botey Fullat PhD from ETSI Agronomists of the Polytechnic University of Madrid
Executive MBA Instituto de Empresa
(2009) and given in Mathematical Sciences by the Complutense University of Madrid
(1985) in Operational Research.
Bachelor in Business Administration Alcalá de Henares University
Extensive experience in the business field, where he has worked in the management of
automation projects of national and international scope (ENTEL, TELETTRA, ALCATEL).
Academic Director Postgraduate and Executive Education ESIC Business and Marketing
He has carried out activities in the area of innovation aimed at the international pro-
School.
motion of transfer University-Company.

Professor of Strategic Management at EMBA

She has published a book and articles in scientific, always related to mathematics ap-
plied to different areas of knowledge .

Professor of the University Area and Business School ESIC in several Degrees (BBAM,
Marketing, Digital Business, etc.) and subjects (Strategy, Organization, Finance, etc.).
She is currently a professor of ESIC in the departments: Market Research, Economics
and Finance and Computer Science.

Visiting professor at several international schools

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