Early history of animation

For the history of animation after the development of

celluloid film, see history of animation.

The early history of animation covers the period up to

1888, when celluloid film base was developed, a
technology that would become the foundation for over a
century of film. Humans have probably attempted to
depict motion long before the development of
cinematography. Much later, shadow play and the magic
lantern (since circa 1659) offered popular shows with
projected images on a screen, moving as the result of
manipulation by hand and/or minor mechanics. In 1833,
the stroboscopic disc (better known as the
phenakistiscope) introduced the stroboscopic principles
of modern animation, which decades later would also
provide the basis for cinematography.
Early approaches to motion in art

There are several examples of early sequential images

that may seem similar to series of animation drawings.
Most of these examples would only allow an extremely
low frame rate when they are animated, resulting in short
and crude animations that are not very lifelike. However,
it's very unlikely that these images were intended to be
somehow viewed as an animation. It is possible to
imagine technology that could have been used in the
periods of their creation, but no conclusive evidence has
been found (neither in artifacts nor in written sources). It
is sometimes argued that these early series of images are
too easily interpreted as "pre-cinema" by minds
accustomed to films, comic books and other modern
sequential images, while it is uncertain that the creators
of these images envisioned anything like it.[1] Fluid
animation needs a proper breakdown of a motion into the
separate images of very short instances, which could
hardly be imagined before modern times.[2] The notion of
fractions of a second was underdeveloped until the
nineteenth century, when photography and more precise
measuring instruments were introduced, and
philosophers started to replace the "mechanical"
concepts of the Scientific Revolution with theories about
"microtime".[3] Animation historian Giannalberto Bendazzi
wrote that most of the productions from before the 19th
century that may look like animation are anecdotal; they
lack "a cause-and-effect connection to what we now call
animation" and are "thus useless to our historical
discourse.[4]

Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon

of motion into a still drawing can be recognised in
paleolithic cave paintings, for instance in the Cave of
Altamira, where animals are sometimes depicted with
multiple legs in superimposed positions.[5] It has been
claimed that such superimposed figures were intended to
be animated with the flickering light of a fire or of a
passing torch, alternately illuminating different parts of
the painted rock wall and thus revealing different parts of
the motion.[6][7] Changing one's viewing position can also
cause an animated effect in the legs, necks and heads of
many examples, due to specific anamorphic distortions
that mimick squash and stretch principles observed in
real moving animals.[8]

Copy of a prehistoric painting of the

Lascaux cave, Musée d'Aquitaine
Five paintings of the head of a deer in the cave of
Lascaux have been interpreted as the depiction of one
moving animal in different positions.[9]

Archaeological finds of small paleolithic discs with a hole

in the middle and drawings on both sides have been
claimed to be a kind of prehistoric thaumatropes that
show motion when spun on a string.[6][10]

A roll-out view of the five images on

the circumference of a goblet found
at Shahr-e Sukhteh, estimated to be
4000 to 4500 years old

A pottery bowl dated to 2500 to 2000 BCE[11] and

discovered at the archaeological site of Shahr-e Sukhteh
in Iran (associated with the Helmand culture), has five
images painted around it that have been interpreted as
consecutive phases of a goat leaping up to nip at a tree.
[12][13]

Drawing of an Egyptian burial

chamber mural, approximately 4000
years old, showing wrestlers in action.

An Egyptian mural approximately 4000 years old, found in

the tomb of Khnumhotep at the Beni Hassan cemetery,
features a very long series of images that apparently
depict the sequence of events in a wrestling match.[14]

The Parthenon Frieze (circa 400 BCE) has been described

as displaying analysis of motion and representing phases
of movement, structured rhythmic and melodically with
counterpoints like a symphony. It has been claimed that
parts actually form a coherent animation if the figures are
shot frame by frame.[15] Although the structure follows a
unique time-space continuum, it has narrative
strategies.[16]

The Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius (c. 99 BCE –

c. 55 BCE) wrote in his poem De rerum natura a few lines
that come close to the basic principles of animation:
"...when the first image perishes and a second is then
produced in another position, the former seems to have
altered its pose. Of course, this must be supposed to take
place very swiftly: so great is their velocity, so great the
store of particles in any single moment of sensation, to
enable the supply to come up." This was in the context of
dream images, rather than images produced by an actual
or imagined technology.[17][18]

The medieval codex Sigenot (circa 1470) has sequential

illuminations with relatively short intervals between
different phases of action. Each page has a picture inside
a frame above the text, with great consistency in size and
position throughout the book (with a consistent
difference in size for the recto and verso sides of each
page).[19]

A page of drawings[20] by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)

show anatomical studies with four different angles of the
muscles of shoulder, arm and neck of a man. The four
drawings can be read as a rotating movement.

Ancient Chinese records contain several mentions of

devices, including one made by the inventor Ding Huan,
said to "give an impression of movement" to a series of
human or animal figures on them,[21] but these accounts
are unclear and may only refer to the actual movement of
the figures through space.[22]

Since before 1000 CE, the Chinese had a revolving lantern

that had silhouettes projected on its thin paper sides that
appeared to chase each other. This was called the
走馬燈] as it would typically depict
"trotting horse lamp" [
horses and horse-riders. The cut-out silhouettes were
attached inside the lantern to a shaft with a paper vane
impeller on top, rotated by heated air rising from a lamp.
Some versions added extra motion with jointed heads,
feet or hands of figures triggered by a transversely
connected iron wire.[23]

Volvelles have moving parts, but these and other paper

materials that can be manipulated into motion are usually
not regarded as animation.

Shadow play

Shadow play figures, circa 1780.

Shadow play has much in common with animation:

people watching moving figures on a screen as a popular
form of entertainment, usually a story with dialogue,
sounds and music. The figures could be very detailed and
very articulated.

The earliest projection of images was most likely done in

primitive shadowgraphy dating back to prehistory. It
evolved into more refined forms of shadow puppetry,
mostly with flat jointed cut-out figures which are held
between a source of light and a translucent screen. The
shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent
color or other types of detailing. The history of shadow
puppetry is uncertain, but seems to have originated in
Asia, possibly in the 1st millennium BCE. Clearer records
seem to go back to around 900 CE. It later spread to the
Ottoman empire and seems not to have reached Europe
before the 17th century. It became popular in France at
the end of the 18th century. François Dominique Séraphin
started his elaborate shadow shows in 1771 and
performed them until his death in 1800. His heirs
continued until their theatre closed in 1870. Séraphin
sometimes used clockwork mechanisms to automate the
show.

Around the time cinematography was developed, several

theaters in Montmartre showed elaborate, successful
"Ombres Chinoises" shows. The famous Le Chat Noir
produced 45 different shows between 1885 and 1896.

The Magic Lantern

Christiaan Huygens' 1659 sketches

for a projection of Death taking off his
head
 Slide with a fantoccini trapeze artist
and a chromatrope border design
(circa 1880)

Moving images were possibly projected with the magic

lantern since its invention by Christiaan Huygens in 1659.
His sketches for magic lantern slides have been dated to
that year and are the oldest known document concerning
the magic lantern.[24] One encircled sketch depicts Death
raising his arm from his toes to his head, another shows
him moving his right arm up and down from his elbow
and yet another taking his skull off his neck and placing it
back. Dotted lines indicate the intended movements.

Techniques to add motion to painted glass slides for the

magic lantern were described since circa 1700. These
usually involved parts (for instance, limbs) painted on one
or more extra pieces of glass moved by hand or small
mechanisms across a stationary slide which showed the
rest of the picture.[25] Popular subjects for mechanical
slides included the sails of a windmill turning, a
procession of figures, a drinking man lowering and raising
his glass to his mouth, a head with moving eyes, a nose
growing very long, rats jumping in the mouth of a sleeping
man. A more complex 19th century rackwork slide
showed the then known eight planets and their satellites
orbiting around the sun.[26] Two layers of painted waves
on glass could create a convincing illusion of a calm sea
turning into a stormy sea tossing some boats about by
increasing the speed of the manipulation of the different
parts.

In 1770 Edmé-Gilles Guyot detailed how to project a

magic lantern image on smoke to create a transparent,
shimmering image of a hovering ghost. This technique
was used in the phantasmagoria shows that became
popular in several parts of Europe between 1790 and the
1830s. Other techniques were developed to produce
convincing ghost experiences. The lantern was handheld
to move the projection across the screen (which was
usually an almost invisible transparent screen behind
which the lanternist operated hidden in the dark). A ghost
could seem to approach the audience or grow larger by
moving the lantern away from the screen, sometimes with
the lantern on a trolley on rails. Multiple lanterns made
ghosts move independently and were occasionally used
for superimposition in the composition of complicated
scenes.[27]
Dissolving views became a popular magic lantern show,
especially in England in the 1830s and 1840s.[27] These
typically had a landscape changing from a winter version
to a spring or summer variation by slowly diminishing the
light from one version while introducing the aligned
projection of the other slide.[28] Another use showed the
gradual change of, for instance, groves into cathedrals.[29]

Between the 1840s and 1870s several abstract magic

lantern effects were developed. This included the
chromatrope which projected dazzling colorful
geometrical patterns by rotating two painted glass discs
in opposite directions.[30]

Occasionally small shadow puppets had been used in

phantasmagoria shows.[27] Magic lantern slides with
jointed figures set in motion by levers, thin rods, or cams
and worm wheels were also produced commercially and
patented in 1891. A popular version of these "Fantoccini
slides" had a somersaulting monkey with arms attached
to mechanism that made it tumble with dangling feet.
Fantoccini slides are named after the Italian word for
puppets like marionettes or jumping jacks.[31]
19th century devices

Numerous devices that successfully displayed animated

images were introduced well before the 1888 advent of
celluloid film and the motion picture. These devices were
used to entertain, amaze, and sometimes even frighten
people. The majority of these devices didn't project their
images, and could only be viewed by a one or a few
persons at a time. They were largely considered optical
toys at the time. Many of these devices are still built by
and for film students learning the basic principles of
animation.

Prelude

Illustrations of Michael Faraday's

experiments with rotating wheels with
cogs or spokes (1831)

An article in the Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature,

and The Arts (1821)[32] raised interest in optical illusions
of curved spokes in rotating wheels seen through vertical
apertures. In 1824, Peter Mark Roget provided
mathematical details about the appearing curvatures and
added the observation that the spokes appeared
motionless. Roget claimed that the illusion is due to the
fact "that an impression made by a pencil of rays on the
retina, if sufficiently vivid, will remain for a certain time
after the cause has ceased."[33] This was later seen as the
basis for the theory of "persistence of vision" as the
principle of how we see film as motion rather than the
successive stream of still images actually presented to
the eye. This theory has been discarded as the (sole)
principle of the effect since 1912, but remains in many
film history explanations. However, Roget's experiments
and explanation did inspire further research by Michael
Faraday and by Joseph Plateau that eventually brought
about the invention of animation.

Thaumatrope (1825)

In April 1825 the first thaumatrope was published by W.

Phillips (in anonymous association with John Ayrton
Paris) and became a popular toy.[34] The pictures on
either side of a small cardboard disc seem to blend into
one combined image when it is twirled quickly by the
attached strings. This is often used as an illustration of
what has often been called "persistence of vision",
presumably referring to the effect in which the impression
of a single image persists although in reality two different
images are presented with interruptions. It is unclear how
much of the effect relates to positive afterimages.
Although a thaumatrope can also be used for two-phase
animation, no examples are known to have been
produced with this effect until long after the
phénakisticope had established the principle of
animation.

Phénakistiscope (1833)

Prof. Stampfers Stroboscopische

Scheibe No. X (1833)

The phénakisticope (better known by the misspelling

phenakistiscope or phenakistoscope) was the first
animation device using rapid successive substitution of
sequential pictures. The pictures are evenly spaced
radially around a disc, with small rectangular apertures at
the rim of the disc. The animation could be viewed
through the slits of the spinning disc in front of a mirror. It
was invented in November or December 1832 by the
Belgian Joseph Plateau and almost simultaneously by the
Austrian Simon von Stampfer. Plateau first published
about his invention in January 1833. The publication
included an illustration plate of a fantascope with 16
frames depicting a pirouetting dancer. The
phénakisticope was successful as a novelty toy and
within a year many sets of stroboscopic discs were
published across Europe, with almost as many different
names for the device - including Fantascope (Plateau),
The Stroboscope (Stampfer) and Phénakisticope (Parisian
publisher Giroux & Cie). Plateau also proposed that 16
plaster models could be used for the purpose of
animation, an early example of stop motion.[35]
Unfortunately, the plan was never executed, possibly
because Plateau was almost completely blind by this
time.

Zoetrope (1833/1866)

In July 1833, Simon Stampfer described the possibility of

using the stroboscope principle in a cylinder (as well as
on looped strips) in a pamphlet accompanying the
second edition of his version of the phénakisticope.[36]
British mathematician William George Horner suggested
a cylindrical variation of Plateau's phénakisticope in
January 1834. Horner planned to publish this Dædaleum
with optician King, Jr in Bristol but it "met with some
impediment probably in the sketching of the figures".[37]

In 1865, William Ensign Lincoln invented the definitive

zoetrope with easily replaceable strips of images. It also
had an illustrated paper disc on the base, which was not
always exploited on the commercially produced
versions.[38] Lincoln licensed his invention to Milton
Bradley and Co. who first advertised it on December 15,
1866.[39]

In 1887, Étienne-Jules Marey created a large zoetrope

with a series of plaster models based on his
chronophotographs of birds in flight.[40]

Flip book (kineograph) (1868)

illustration of the Kineograph in

Linnett's 1868 patent
John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as
the kineograph.[41][42] A flip book is a small book with
relatively springy pages, each having one in a series of
animation images located near its unbound edge. The
user bends all of the pages back, normally with the
thumb, then by a gradual motion of the hand allows them
to spring free one at a time. As with the phenakistoscope,
zoetrope and praxinoscope, the illusion of motion is
created by the apparent sudden replacement of each
image by the next in the series, but unlike those other
inventions, no view-interrupting shutter or assembly of
mirrors is required and no viewing device other than the
user's hand is absolutely necessary. Early film animators
cited flip books as their inspiration more often than the
earlier devices, which did not reach as wide an
audience.[43]

The older devices by their nature severely limit the

number of images that can be included in a sequence
without making the device very large or the images
impractically small. The book format still imposes a
physical limit, but many dozens of images of ample size
can easily be accommodated. Inventors stretched even
that limit with the mutoscope, patented in 1894 and
sometimes still found in amusement arcades. It consists
of a large circularly-bound flip book in a housing, with a
viewing lens and a crank handle that drives a mechanism
that slowly rotates the assembly of images past a catch,
sized to match the running time of an entire reel of film.

0:09

Le singe musicien (1878)

praxinoscope animation

Praxinoscope (1877)

French inventor Charles-Émile Reynaud developed the

praxinoscope in 1876 and patented it in 1877.[44] It is
similar to the zoetrope but instead of the slits in the
cylinder it has twelve rectangular mirrors placed evenly
around the center of the cylinder. Each mirror reflects
another image of the picture strip placed opposite on the
inner wall of the cylinder. When rotating the praxinoscope
shows the sequential images one by one, resulting in fluid
animation. The praxinoscope allowed a much clearer view
of the moving image compared to the zoetrope, since the
zoetrope's images were actually mostly obscured by the
spaces in between its slits. In 1879, Reynaud registered a
modification to the praxinoscope patent to include the
Praxinoscope Théâtre, which utilized the Pepper's ghost
effect to present the animated figures in an exchangeable
background. Later improvements included the
"Praxinoscope à projection" (marketed since 1882) which
used a double magic lantern to project the animated
figures over a still projection of a background.[45]

Zoopraxiscope (1879)

Eadweard Muybridge had circa 70 of his famous

chronophotographic sequences painted on glass discs
for the zoopraxiscope projector that he used in his
popular lectures between 1880 and 1895. In the 1880s
the images were painted onto the glass in dark contours.
Later discs made between 1892 and 1894 had outlines
drawn by Erwin F. Faber that were photographically
printed on the disc and then coloured by hand, but these
were probably never used in the lectures. The painted
figures were largely transposed from the photographs, but
many fanciful combinations were made and sometimes
imaginary elements were added.[46][47]

After 1888

The development of flexible waxed paper or celluloid

photographic film around 1885 turned out to be a very
welcome medium for experimenters who hoped to create
motion pictures. Le Prince was possibly the first to record
motion on such rolls of film around 1888, followed by
William K. L. Dickson/Edison's Kinetoscope (eventually
introduced in 1893) and Lumière's Cinematograph.[48]
Since the photographic detail and the realism of the
images were among the best appreciated features of
motion pictures, animation did not immediately find its
place on the silver screen.[49] When it eventually did, it
soon gained enormous successes and was there to stay.

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