KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLLEUM ENGINEERING.

NAME: OBENG CLINTON

INDEX NUMBER: 2945420
REFERENCE NUMBER: 20739670
GEOLOGICAL FIELD TRIP REPORT
6TH – 7TH JUNE, 2023.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
PURPOSE OF FIELD TRIP ........................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 4
DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................. 5
RESERVOIR ROCKS................................................................................................................. 5
SOURCE ROCK ......................................................................................................................... 6
TRAPS ........................................................................................................................................ 7
ROCK IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. 8
OBSERVING THE ROCK’S PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ......................................................... 9
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 16
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 17
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 18
 PURPOSE OF FIELD TRIP

Identification of Source Rocks: The primary purpose of the field trip is to identify and study
source rocks rich in organic matter, particularly shale, and understand the geological conditions
necessary for the formation of petroleum.

Examination of Reservoir Rocks: The field trip aims to examine reservoir rocks, specifically
focusing on their porosity, permeability, and saturation. Sandstone, as a common example, will
be studied to comprehend its suitability for fluid storage and transmission.

Investigation of Cap Rocks and Seals: The trip is designed to investigate the presence of ductile
cap rocks or seals, such as shale and salts, to understand their role in trapping fluids and
preventing upward buoyant movement in petroleum reservoirs.

Assessment of Geological Structures: The field trip includes an assessment of geological

structures in the Saltpond basin, characterized by multiple faulting. The complex arrangement of
horsts (raised fault blocks) and grabens (elongated crust blocks displaced downwards) will be
examined to enhance understanding of the basin's geological features.
 INTRODUCTION

This report discusses the outcomes of a geological field trip in Takoradi, exploring sites including
Elmina, Cape Coast, Takoradi, and New Takoradi. The primary objective of the excursion is to
understand the geological prerequisites for the formation of petroleum. This entails recognizing a
source rock abundant in organic matter, such as shale, with sufficient oxygen. Additionally, it is
crucial to identify a reservoir rock with appropriate porosity (for fluid storage), permeability (for
fluid transmission), and saturation; sandstone serves as a common illustration. The presence of a
pliable cap rock or seal, like shale and salts, is vital for trapping fluids and preventing upward
buoyant movement.

Upon encountering an outcrop (a visible rock formation), initial observations of its megascopic
features are made from a distance. Subsequently, a closer examination is conducted to evaluate
layering—whether it is thinly layered, medium, or massively layered. The color of the formation
is also documented, and a section of the rock is broken to expose its inherent color. This step is
crucial because external factors such as environmental conditions, human activities, and the
influence of fauna and flora can impact the rock's color, leading to variations on the surface.

The locations visited include the Saltpond basin, comprising a succession of rocks. The basin's
structure is characterized by multiple faulting, resulting in an intricate arrangement of horsts
(raised fault blocks) and grabens (elongated crust blocks displaced downwards between faults,
akin to a rift valley).
 DISCUSSION

RESERVOIR ROCKS
The Elmina Sandstone, a giant layer of rock spanning from Takoradi to Elmina, takes center
stage in the Sekondian formation. Deposited between the Ordovician and Cretaceous periods, it's
a chunky mix of medium-sized grains, rich in mica and feldspar, like a speckled brownie. This
"arkosic" sandstone boasts over 30% feldspar, a testament to its origin in a bare, expansive
landscape. Unlike many rocks, Elmina Sandstone keeps its feldspar, unstirred and unaltered,
hinting at a gentle deposition over a vast area. Towards its base, the grains get chunkier, while
the top layer thins and softens, almost becoming shale. This chocolate brown to purple giant,
with its consistent character and preserved minerals, tells a story of a wide-open past, where
wind and water painted the Earth with a unique sandstone layer.

Depositional Environment

The deposition environment of the Elmina Sandstone is characterized by unaltered feldspar,

suggesting that the sediments likely originated from a topographic high with minimal weathering,
possibly in an arid setting. The sandstone's somewhat reflective nature indicates the presence of
mica, alongside feldspars, influencing the rock's coloration. The chronological progression of
sedimentary formations includes the Elmina Sandstone (Late Ordovician – Early Silurian),
succeeded by the Takoradi sandstones (Devonian), Takoradi Shales (Middle Devonian – Early
Carboniferous), Efia Nkwanta beds (Late Carboniferous – Permian), Sekondi sandstone (Triassic
– Early Jurassic), and Essikado beds (Lower Cretaceous sediments), arranged from the oldest to
the most recent.

The Takoradi Sandstone is characterized by a lower section containing sandy shale, shaly
sandstone, and thin-bedded micaceous sandstone with finer grains. Above this, there is a thick-
bedded, medium-grained, well-sorted, and highly friable sandstone. This sandstone exhibits planar
to tubular cross-bedding that tilts to the southwest. Its composition is predominantly angular
quartz, accompanied by accessory minerals like zircon, apatite, magnetite, and tourmaline. The
trapping mechanisms involve both structural elements (fault-bounded blocks) and stratigraphic
features (sandstones interfingering into shales), with sealing provided by the Takoradi Shale
formation. It serves as the reservoir rock for the Saltpond field (source: ocw.tudelf.nl).

SOURCE ROCK

The Takoradi Shale is comprised of compact, hard, black, or dark gray fissile shale and sandy
shale, rich in carbonaceous matter. It exhibits Sulphur mineralization, appearing as disseminated
pyrites or spherical nodules. Discoidal nodules made of compact fine granular, gray siderite, or
clay ironstones can be found at the top of the formation. Serving as the source rock for the Saltpond
field, these shales emit gas when exposed to hydrochloric acid. They are also referred to as fissile
shales. Smaller samples from the lower section of the outcrop revealed minute clay-sized particles,
with carbon as part of the minerals.

The formation of these shales took place during the Trans-tensional movement, which marked the
separation of Africa and South America, and the opening of the Atlantic in the Albian. The
deposition of these shales occurred due to active rifting, subsidence, and other prevailing
conditions during the Cenomanian and Turonian, resulting in the formation of thick, organic-rich
shale (source: epa.gov.gh).

The suitability of the Takoradi Shales as source rocks depended on confirming the overall organic
carbon content. Verification of the source rock's nature requires knowledge of the total organic
content (TOC). Source rocks with TOC below 0.5 percent are considered poor, those with TOC
ranging from 0.5 to 1 percent are categorized as good, and those with TOC between 2% and 4%
are classified as excellent. Source rocks exceeding 4% TOC are also labeled as excellent in the
context of the Takoradi shales.

Numerous geological features, presented as planes or lines, were observed, and their characteristics
were employed to describe their orientation. These orientations are defined through strike and dip.
Analysis of the outcrop revealed evidence of tectonic forces, deviating from the law of
horizontality. Consequently, determining the rock's strike and dip became imperative. In geology,
the line resulting from the intersection of a fault, bed, or other planar feature with a horizontal
plane is denoted as the strike. The strike indicates the direction of linear structural elements such
as faults, beds, joints, and folds. The dip of a planar feature, representing its inclination to the
horizontal plane (measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the feature's strike), is essential.

The vertical angle formed between the horizontal plane and the axis or line of maximal elongation
of a feature is referred to as the plunge. Dip is measured along the limbs, while plunge is measured
along the axis of a fold. Folds can be categorized based on plunge, and the strike and dip are
valuable in indicating the direction of youngling.

Depositional environment

The Takoradi Shale's deposition environment is teeming with fossils, showcasing a diverse range
of fossilized groups. The Palynomorphs, which include trilete spores and acritarchs, hold
significant implications for the environment in its past. The recovered spores closely resemble
those found in freshwater swamps within humid climates. Despite being less abundant than the
spores, the presence of acritarchs further supports the influence of near-shore or brackish water
conditions. The identification of siderite indicates a reducing environment sustained by organic
matter, resembling settings seen in deltaic swamps or mangroves, and the sediments are attributed
to the Carboniferous age.

TRAPS

A trap is defined as the arrangement of reservoir seals or cap rock that prevents the upward buoyant
movement of hydrocarbons, putting a stop to their migration. The two primary trap types are
structural and stratigraphic. Structural traps form when bending or faulting distorts both the
reservoir rock and the overlying seal, a process that occurs over an extended geological timeframe
following sediment deposition. Trapping involves both structural elements, like fault-bounded
blocks, and stratigraphic features, where sandstones interfinger with shales. The Takoradi Shale
formation serves as a typical trap by providing sealing through both structural means (fault-
bounded rocks) and stratigraphic mechanisms (sandstones interfingering into shales), effectively
trapping the Takoradi Sandstone—a characteristic reservoir.
 ROCK IDENTIFICATION

Rock identification is the process of determining the type of rock based on its physical properties
and characteristics. Rocks are classified into three main categories based on their origin: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock, also known as
magma or lava. Igneous rocks are classified by their texture, which is determined by the size of
the crystals in the rock. Granite, for example, is a coarse-grained igneous rock with large, visible
crystals. Basalt, on the other hand, is a fine-grained igneous rock with microscopic crystals.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediments, which are
particles of rock, minerals, or organic matter. Sedimentary rocks are classified by their grain size,
which is the size of the individual particles in the rock. Sandstone, for example, is a coarse-grained
sedimentary rock with sand-sized particles. Shale, on the other hand, is a fine-grained sedimentary
rock with clay-sized particles.

Metamorphic rocks are formed from the transformation of existing rocks due to heat, pressure,
or chemically active fluids. Metamorphic rocks are classified by their texture, which is determined
by the size and shape of the mineral grains in the rock. Gneiss, for example, is a coarse-grained
metamorphic rock with elongated mineral grains. Marble, on the other hand, is a fine-grained
metamorphic rock with interlocking mineral grains.

In addition to their origin and texture, rocks can also be identified by their color, hardness, and
mineral composition. For example, granite is typically pink, red, or gray, while basalt is typically
black or dark gray. Quartz, a common mineral in sandstone, is very hard and can scratch glass,
while calcite, a common mineral in limestone, is relatively soft and can be scratched with a
fingernail.

There are a number of techniques that can be used to identify rocks, including:
Observing the rock's physical properties: This includes examining the rock's color, texture,
hardness, grain size, and luster.
Checking for diagnostic minerals: Some minerals are unique to certain types of rocks. For
example, the presence of feldspar crystals is a good indication that a rock is igneous.
Using a Mohs hardness scale: The Mohs hardness scale is a relative scale used to measure the
hardness of minerals. By scratching a rock with other minerals of known hardness, you can
estimate the rock's hardness and narrow down its possible identity.
Using a polarizing microscope: A polarizing microscope can be used to identify minerals based
on their optical properties.
Referencing a rock identification guide: There are many rocks identification guides available
that can help you identify rocks based on their physical properties and characteristics.

OBSERVING THE ROCK’S PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Observing the physical properties of rocks is a crucial step in identifying their type. By closely
examining the rock's appearance, texture, hardness, grain size, and luster, you can gather valuable
clues about its origin and composition.

Color

The color of a rock can provide a general indication of its composition. For instance, granite is
typically pink, red, or gray, while basalt is predominantly black or dark gray. Shale tends to be
shades of gray, green, or brown, while limestone is often white or cream-colored.

Texture

Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains or particles that make up
the rock. Igneous rocks are typically classified as coarse-grained, fine-grained, or glassy, based on
the size of their crystals. Sedimentary rocks are categorized as gravelly, sandy, silty, or clayey,
depending on the grain size of their constituent particles. Metamorphic rocks can exhibit a variety
of textures, ranging from coarse-grained to fine-grained and from foliated (layered) to non-
foliated.

Hardness

Hardness is a measure of a mineral's resistance to scratching. The Mohs hardness scale is a

common method for assessing hardness, ranking minerals from 1 (very soft) to 10 (very hard).
Quartz, a common mineral in sandstone, is a 7 on the Mohs scale, indicating that it can scratch
glass. Calcite, a common mineral in limestone, is only a 3 on the Mohs scale, meaning it can be
scratched by a fingernail.

Grain size

Grain size refers to the average diameter of the mineral grains or particles that make up the rock.
Sandstone, for example, is classified as a coarse-grained sedimentary rock, with individual grains
ranging from 0.0625 to 2.0 millimeters in diameter. Shale, on the other hand, is a fine-grained
sedimentary rock, with individual grains less than 0.0625 millimeters in diameter.

Lustre

Lustre refers to the way a mineral reflects light. Common types of luster include vitreous (glassy),
pearly (like mother-of-pearl), metallic (like metal), and earthy (like dull soil). Quartz typically has
a vitreous luster, while calcite has a pearly luster.

By carefully observing these physical properties, you can gain valuable insights into the type of
rock you are examining and its geological origins.

Grain shape

Grain shape refers to the overall form of the individual grains that make up the rock. Grains can
be rounded, angular, or elongated. The grain shape of a rock is typically determined by the
depositional environment in which it was formed.

• Rounded grains: Rounded grains are typically found in rocks that have been transported by
water or wind, such as sandstones and conglomerates. The rounding of grains occurs as
they are rubbed against each other during transportation.
 • Angular grains: Angular grains are typically found in rocks that have been deposited in a
more rapid manner, such as breccias and conglomerates. The angularity of grains indicates
that they have not been transported far from their source.

• Elongated grains: Elongated grains are typically found in rocks that have been deposited
in a sedimentary environment with strong currents, such as turbidites. The elongation of
grains occurs as they are rolled or dragged along the bottom of the water column.

Layering

Laminar

Laminar rocks have very thin layers, typically less than 1 millimeter thick. These layers are often
so thin that they can only be seen under a microscope. Laminar rocks are typically formed from
the deposition of very fine-grained sediments, such as clay or silt. Examples of laminar rocks
include:

Mudstone: A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay minerals

Shale: A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay minerals and silt

Thinly bedded

Thinly bedded rocks have layers that are 1 to 10 millimeters thick. These layers are visible to the
naked eye, but they are still relatively thin. Thinly bedded rocks are typically formed from the
deposition of fine-grained sediments, such as sand or silt. Examples of thinly bedded rocks include:

Siltstone: A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed primarily of silt-sized particles

Sandy shale: A sedimentary rock with a mixture of shale and sand-sized particles
Mediumly bedded

Mediumly bedded rocks have layers that are 10 to 60 millimeters thick. These layers are easily
visible to the naked eye and are often distinct from each other. Mediumly bedded rocks are
typically formed from the deposition of medium-grained sediments, such as sandstone or
conglomerate. Examples of mediumly bedded rocks include:

Sandstone: A coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed primarily of sand-sized particles

Conglomerate: A sedimentary rock composed of rounded pebbles or cobbles

Thickly bedded

Thickly bedded rocks have layers that are greater than 60 millimeters thick. These layers are very
noticeable and can be several centimeters or even meters thick. Thickly bedded rocks are typically
formed from the deposition of coarse-grained sediments, such as sandstone or conglomerate.

Examples of thickly bedded rocks include:

Breccia: A sedimentary rock composed of angular fragments of rock, minerals, or other materials

SANDSTONES

Sandstones are sedimentary rocks made up of sand-sized grains, and they are one of the most
common rock types on Earth. They are formed when sand grains, which are typically made of
quartz, feldspar, or other minerals, are compacted and cemented together under pressure and heat.

There are many different types of sandstone, each with its own unique characteristics and
formation processes. Here are some of the most common types of sandstone:
 • Arkose sandstone: This type of sandstone is rich in feldspar, which gives it a reddish or
pinkish color. Arkose sandstone is typically formed in continental environments, such as
rivers, lakes, or deserts.

Arkose sandstone

• Greywacke sandstone: This type of sandstone is dark gray or black in color and contains a
variety of grains, including quartz, feldspar, mica, and rock fragments. Greywacke
sandstone is typically formed in marine environments, such as beaches or shallow seas.

Greywacke sandstone

• Quartzite: This type of sandstone is made up of almost entirely quartz grains, which are
cemented together very tightly. Quartzite is very hard and resistant to weathering, and it
can form large, resistant rock formations.
Quartzite

• Conglomerate: This type of sandstone is made up of rounded pebbles or cobbles, instead

of sand grains. Conglomerate is typically formed in rivers, where the force of the water can
round and transport larger rocks.

Conglomerate

• Tuff: This type of sandstone is made up of volcanic ash, which is tiny fragments of volcanic
rock that have been blown into the air by an eruption. Tuff is typically very fine-grained
and porous, and it can form distinctive layers or beds.
Tuff

The type of sandstone that is found in a particular location depends on the source of the sand grains,
the depositional environment, and the subsequent geological history of the area. Sandstones are
important geological resources for construction materials, ornamental stone, and oil and gas
reservoirs.
 CONCLUSION

The geological field trip effectively fulfilled its objective of grasping the geological conditions
necessary for petroleum formation, encompassing the identification of a source rock with abundant
organic matter buried at significant depths, a reservoir rock featuring optimal porosity,
permeability, and saturation, and cap rock or seals to hinder the further migration of hydrocarbons.
Moreover, the trip played a vital role in broadening students' perspectives, enabling them to
connect theoretical concepts from courses like Basic Geology and Regional Geology with tangible
geological formations. The direct observation of geological features during the trip enhanced
students' comprehension and appreciation of geology.

The Western basin is segmented into two parts: a rift section characterized by shallow marine to
continental deposits and a thick upper Cretaceous drift layer housing basin floor fans, stratigraphic
traps, and channel systems. The roundness of rocks is influenced by factors such as their origin,
the distance traveled, and the mode of transportation. Geological structures not only convey
information about depositional settings but also offer insights into sites of mineralization.
 APPENDIX

Figure 1. Tarkoradi Shale Figure 2. Sekondian Sandstone

Figure 1. Elmina Sandstone Outcrop

 REFERENCES

• https://geology.ecu.edu/geol1501/igneous/tuff/

• https://mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals-database/conglomerate/

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartzite

• https://www.nps.gov/goga/learn/education/graywacke-sandstone-faq.htm

• Long, S. 2014. Hilwalking: The Official Handbook of the Mountain Training Walking Schemes, 3rd

Edition Mountain Training

• https: // ocw.tudelft.nl

• Carranza, E.J.M., 2008. Geochemical Anomaly and Mineral Prospectivity Mapping in GIS.

Handbook of Exploration and Environmental Geochemistry 11. Elsevier, 360 p.