Global Journal of Research in Agriculture and Life Sciences

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Review Article

Biochemistry and Nutrition of Carbohydrates

*Chinaza Godswill Awuchi1, 2 and Ikechukwu Otuosorochi Amagwula2, 3
1
Department of Biochemistry, Kampala International University, Bushenyi, Uganda
2
School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda
3
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

| Received: 27.06.2021 | Accepted: 29.06.2021 | Published: 30.06.2021

*Corresponding author:

Abstract
The research focused on the biochemistry and nutrition of carbohydrates, with more emphasis on the recent research
developments and discoveries. A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). The carbohydrates are technically hydrates of
carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as aldoses and ketoses. Saccharide, a group that
includes sugars, starch, and cellulose, are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharaides, disaccharides,
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharaides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are commonly
referred to as sugars. While the polysaccharides are commonly referred to as complex carbohydrates. They are found in a
wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes,
and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table
sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which
occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honeys are often added to drinks and
many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms.
Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy (e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g. cellulose in
plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the
backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA; deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Cellulose, a polysaccharide
found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber helps
to maintain a healthy digestive system by easing defecation. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber
include resistant starch and inulin. Some cells, such as the brain cells, require glucose as fuel. If there is insufficient
dietary carbohydrate, glucose synthesis depends on breakdown of amino acids derived from the body protein, dietary
protein, and the glycerol, which is derived from fat. The process is called gluconeogenesis, and occurs mostly in the liver.
Long-term carbohydrate insufficiency results in a condition known as ketosis (increased production of some organic
compounds called ketones), which imparts a distinct sweet odor to the breath.
Keywords: Carbohydrates, monosaccharaides, disaccharides, polysaccharides, carbohydrates biochemistry,
carbohydrates nutrition and metabolism.
Copyright © 2021 The Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original
author and source are credited.

INTRODUCTION:
A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a
hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may be
different from n). This formula holds true for monosaccharaides. Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a
sugar component of DNA [1], has the empirical formula C5H10O4 (National Institute of Standards and
Technology, 2011). The carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them
as aldoses and ketoses.
The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch,
and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharaides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides. Monosaccharaides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are
commonly referred to as sugars [2]. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning
"sugar" [3]. While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharaides and

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disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose, as in the monosaccharides fructose (fruit sugar) and glucose (starch sugar)
and the disaccharides sucrose (cane or beet sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).
They are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods, including flours where they have some functional
and nutritional properties [4]; [5]. Starch is a polysaccharide. It is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and
processed food based on cereal flour [4]; [5], such as bread, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table
sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which
occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey are often added to drinks and
many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Some industrial byproducts containing carbohydrates are recycled
for use in making many industrial products, as a means of waste management; recycling [6].
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the storage
of energy (e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g. cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The
5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone
of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their
derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization,
preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.
Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble dietary
fiber. Although it is not digestible, insoluble dietary fiber helps to maintain a healthy digestive system by
easing defecation. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include resistant starch and inulin, which feed some
bacteria in the microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized by these bacteria to yield short-chain fatty acids [7].
Under some circumstances, there is no total and complete dietary requirement for carbohydrates; complex
carbohydrates such as starches, simple sugars, and the indigestible carbohydrates called dietary fiber. Some cells, such as
the brain cells, require glucose as fuel. If there is insufficient dietary carbohydrate, glucose synthesis depends on
breakdown of amino acids derived from the body protein, dietary protein, and the glycerol, which is derived from fat [8].
The process is called gluconeogenesis, and occurs mostly in the liver. Long-term carbohydrate insufficiency results in a
condition known as ketosis (increased production of some organic compounds called ketones), which imparts a distinct
sweet odor to the breath. Ketosis and some other untoward effects of very-low-carbohydrate diet are prevented by daily
consumption of 50 g to 100 g of carbohydrate; though, obtaining at least half of daily energy intake from carbohydrate is
recommended and is characteristic of human diet, corresponding to at least 250 g of carbohydrate (1,000 calories in
2,000-calorie diet). A variation of diet containing fruits, legumes, whole-grain cereals, and vegetables, which are all rich
in carbohydrates, also provides desirable dietary fiber intake. Obesity can be avoided by substituting diet soda made with
some sugar alcohols [5]; [6], aspartame, and other sugar substitutes which contribute little or no calories.

Chemistry and Nutrition

Structure
Formerly the name "carbohydrate" was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm (H2O)n. Following
this definition, some chemists considered formaldehyde (CH2O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed
that title for glycol aldehyde [9]. Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes
compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula.
For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates,
ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this. For example, carbohydrates often display chemical
groups such as: N-acetyl (e.g. chitin), sulphate (e.g. glycosaminoglycans), carboxylic acid (e.g. sialic acid) and deoxy
modifications (e.g. fucose and sialic acid).
Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharaides with general formula
(CH2O)n where n is three or more. A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH)x(C=O)–(CHOH)y–H, that is,
an aldehyde or ketone with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the
aldehyde or ketone functional group. Examples of monosaccharaides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehydes.
However, some biological substances commonly called "monosaccharaides" do not conform to this formula (e.g. uronic
acids and deoxy-sugars such as fucose) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not
considered to be monosaccharides (e.g. formaldehyde CH 2O and inositol (CH2O)6).
The open-chain form of a monosaccharide often coexists with a closed ring form where
the aldehyde/ketone carbonyl group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a hemiacetal with a new C–
O–C bridge.
Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides) in a large variety
of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups
replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is
composed of repeating units of N-acetyl glucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose.

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