Page 1 of 3

The French Revolution

and Napoleon, 1789–1815
Previewing Main Ideas
ECONOMICS The gap between rich and poor in France was vast. The
inequalities of the economy of France were a major cause of the French
Revolution.
Geography Why do you think the royal palace at Versailles became a focal
point for the anger of the poor people of Paris during the Revolution?

REVOLUTION Driven by the example of the American Revolution and such

Enlightenment ideas as liberty, equality, and democracy, the French ousted
the government of Louis XVI and established a new political order.
Geography Why do you think some historians cite the “wind from America”
as a cause of the French Revolution?

POWER AND AUTHORITY After seizing power in 1799, Napoleon

conquered a huge empire that included much of Western Europe. His
attempt to conquer Russia, however, led to his downfall.
Geography What challenges and hazards of invading Russia might be
inferred from the map?

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215
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How would you change an

unjust government?
You are living in France in the late 1700s. Your parents are merchants who earn a
good living. However, after taxes they have hardly any money left. You know that
other people, especially the peasants in the countryside, are even worse off than
you. At the same time, the nobility lives in luxury and pays practically no taxes.
Many people in France are desperate for change. But they are uncertain how
to bring about that change. Some think that representatives of the people should
demand fair taxes and just laws. Others support violent revolution. In Paris, that
revolution seems to have begun. An angry mob has attacked and taken over the
Bastille, a royal prison. You wonder what will happen next.

One of the mob leaders

triumphantly displays
the keys to the Bastille.

Although they were in

search of gunpowder
and firearms, the
conquerors of the
Bastille took whatever
they could find.

One man drags the royal

standard behind him.

▲ The conquerors of the Bastille parade outside City Hall in Paris.

EXAM I N I NG the ISSU ES

• How would you define an unjust government?

• What, if anything, would lead you to take part in a violent
revolution?
Discuss these questions with your classmates. In your discussion,
remember what you’ve learned about the causes of revolutionary
conflicts such as the American Revolution and the English Civil
War. As you read about the French Revolution in this chapter, see
what changes take place and how these changes came about.
216 Chapter 7
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The French Revolution Begins

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

ECONOMICS Economic and Throughout history, economic • Old Regime • National

social inequalities in the Old and social inequalities have at • estate Assembly
Regime helped cause the times led peoples to revolt • Louis XVI • Tennis Court
French Revolution. against their governments. • Marie Antoinette Oath
• Estates-General • Great Fear

SETTING THE STAGE In the 1700s, France was considered the most advanced CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
country of Europe. It had a large population and a prosperous foreign trade. It 10.2.1 Compare the major ideas of philoso-
was the center of the Enlightenment, and France’s culture was widely praised phers and their effects on the democratic
revolutions in England, the United States,
and imitated by the rest of the world. However, the appearance of success was France, and Latin America (e.g., John Locke,
deceiving. There was great unrest in France, caused by bad harvests, high Charles-Louis Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, Simón Bolívar, Thomas Jefferson,
prices, high taxes, and disturbing questions raised by the Enlightenment ideas James Madison).
of Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire. CST 3 Students use a variety of maps and
documents to interpret human movement,
including major patterns of domestic and
The Old Order international migration, changing environ-
mental preferences and settlement patterns,
In the 1770s, the social and political system of France—the Old Regime— the frictions that develop between popula-
remained in place. Under this system, the people of France were divided into tion groups, and the diffusion of ideas,
technological innovations, and goods.
three large social classes, or estates.
HI 1 Students show the connections, causal
The Privileged Estates Two of the estates had privileges, including access to and otherwise, between particular histori-
cal events and larger social, economic, and
high offices and exemptions from paying taxes, that were not granted to the political trends and developments.
members of the third. The Roman Catholic Church, whose clergy formed the HI 6 Students conduct cost-benefit analyses
First Estate, owned 10 percent of the land in France. It provided education and and apply basic economic indicators to
analyze the aggregate economic behavior
relief services to the poor and contributed about 2 percent of its income to the of the U.S. economy.
government. The Second Estate was made up of rich nobles. Although they
accounted for just 2 percent of the population, the nobles owned 20 percent of
the land and paid almost no taxes. The majority of the clergy and the nobility
scorned Enlightenment ideas as radical notions that threatened their status and
power as privileged persons. TAKING NOTES
Analyzing Causes
The Third Estate About 97 percent of the people belonged to the Third Estate. The Use a web diagram to
three groups that made up this estate differed greatly in their economic conditions. identify the causes of
The first group—the bourgeoisie (BUR•zhwah•ZEE), or middle class—were the French Revolution.
bankers, factory owners, merchants, professionals, and skilled artisans. Often, they
were well educated and believed strongly in the Enlightenment ideals of liberty and
equality. Although some of the bourgeoisie were as rich as nobles, they paid high
Causes of
taxes and, like the rest of the Third Estate, lacked privileges. Many felt that their Revolution
wealth entitled them to a greater degree of social status and political power.
The workers of France’s cities formed the second, and poorest, group within
the Third Estate. These urban workers included tradespeople, apprentices, laborers,
and domestic servants. Paid low wages and frequently out of work, they often
The French Revolution and Napoleon 217
 Page 2 of 5

The Three Estates

A First Estate Population of France, 1787

• made up of clergy of
Roman Catholic Church 97% (Third Estate)
• scorned Enlightenment ideas
less than 1%
A
B Second Estate (First Estate)
B • made up of rich nobles
• held highest offices in government 2% (Second Estate)

• disagreed about Enlightenment ideas

C C Third Estate Percent of Income Paid in Taxes
• included bourgeoisie, urban
lower class, and peasant farmers 2% (First Estate)
• had no power to influence
government 0% (Second Estate)

• embraced Enlightenment ideas 50% (Third Estate)

• resented the wealthy First and
Second Estates. 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts and Political Cartoons

1. Drawing Conclusions How do the chart and the graphs help explain the
political cartoon?
2. Making Inferences Why might the First and Second Estates be opposed to
change?

went hungry. If the cost of bread rose, mobs of these workers might attack grain
carts and bread shops to steal what they needed.
Peasants formed the largest group within the Third Estate, more than 80 per-
cent of France’s 26 million people. Peasants paid about half their income in dues Vocabulary
to nobles, tithes to the Church, and taxes to the king’s agents. They even paid taxes tithe: a church tax,
on such basic staples as salt. Peasants and the urban poor resented the clergy and normally about one-
the nobles for their privileges and special treatment. The heavily taxed and discon- tenth of a family’s
income
tented Third Estate was eager for change.

The Forces of Change

In addition to the growing resentment among the lower classes, other factors
contributed to the revolutionary mood in France. New ideas about government,
serious economic problems, and weak and indecisive leadership all helped to gen-
erate a desire for change.
Enlightenment Ideas New views about power and authority in government were
spreading among the Third Estate. Members of the Third Estate were inspired by
the success of the American Revolution. They began questioning long-standing
notions about the structure of society. Quoting Rousseau and Voltaire, they began
to demand equality, liberty, and democracy. The Comte D’Antraigues, a friend of
Rousseau, best summed up their ideas on what government should be:

PRIMARY SOURCE
The Third Estate is the People and the People is the foundation of the State; it is in fact
the State itself; the . . . People is everything. Everything should be subordinated to it. . . .
It is in the People that all national power resides and for the People that all states exist.
COMTE D’ANTRAIGUES, quoted in Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution

Economic Troubles By the 1780s, France’s once prosperous economy was in

decline. This caused alarm, particularly among the merchants, factory owners, and
218 Chapter 7
 Page 3 of 5

bankers of the Third Estate. On the surface, the economy appeared to be sound,
because both production and trade were expanding rapidly. However, the heavy
burden of taxes made it almost impossible to conduct business profitably within
France. Further, the cost of living was rising sharply. In addition, bad weather in
the 1780s caused widespread crop failures, resulting in a severe shortage of grain.
The price of bread doubled in 1789, and many people faced starvation.
During the 1770s and 1780s, France’s government sank deeply into debt. Part of
the problem was the extravagant spending of Louis XVI and his queen, Marie
Antoinette. Louis also inherited a considerable debt from previous kings. And he
borrowed heavily in order to help the American revolutionaries in their war against
Great Britain, France’s chief rival. This nearly doubled the government’s debt. In
1786, when bankers refused to lend the government any more money, Louis faced
serious problems.
A Weak Leader Strong leadership might have solved these and other problems.
Louis XVI, however, was indecisive and allowed matters to drift. He paid little atten-
tion to his government advisers, and had little patience for the details of governing.
The queen only added to Louis’s problems. She often interfered in the government,
and frequently offered Louis poor advice. Further, since she was a member of the
royal family of Austria, France’s long-time enemy, Marie Antoinette had been unpop-
ular from the moment she set foot in France. Her behavior only made the situation
Vocabulary worse. As queen, she spent so much money on gowns, jewels, gambling, and gifts
deficit: debt that she became known as “Madame Deficit.”
Rather than cutting expenses, Louis put off dealing with the emergency until he
practically had no money left. His solution was to impose taxes on the nobility.
However, the Second Estate forced him to call a meeting of the Estates-General—
an assembly of representatives from all three estates—to approve this new tax. The
meeting, the first in 175 years, was held on May 5, 1789, at Versailles.

Louis XVI Marie Antoinette

1754–1793
Louis XVI’s tutors made little effort to
prepare him for his role as king—and it
showed. He was easily bored with
affairs of state, and much preferred to
spend his time in physical activities,
particularly hunting. He also loved to
work with his hands, and was skilled in
several trades, including lock-making,
metalworking, and bricklaying.
Despite these shortcomings, Louis
was well intentioned and sincerely wanted to improve the
lives of the common people. However, he lacked the
ability to make decisions and the determination to see
policies through. When he did take action, it often was
based on poor advice from ill-informed members of his
court. As one politician of the time noted, “His reign
was a succession of feeble attempts at doing good,
shows of weakness, and clear evidence of his inadequacy
as a leader.”
1755–1793
Marie Antoinette was a pretty,
lighthearted, charming woman.
However, she was unpopular with the
French because of her spending and
her involvement in controversial court
affairs. She referred to Louis as “the
poor man” and sometimes set the
clock forward an hour to be rid of
his presence.
Marie Antoinette refused to wear
the tight-fitting clothing styles of the day and introduced a
loose cotton dress for women. The elderly, who viewed the
dress as an undergarment, thought that her clothing was
scandalous. The French silk industry was equally angry.
In constant need of entertainment, Marie Antoinette often
spent hours playing cards. One year she lost the equivalent of
$1.5 million by gambling in card games.
RESEARCH LINKS For more on Louis XVI and Marie
Antoinette, go to classzone.com

The French Revolution and Napoleon 219

 Page 4 of 5

Dawn of the Revolution

The clergy and the nobles had dominated the Estates-General throughout the
Middle Ages and expected to do so in the 1789 meeting. Under the assembly’s
medieval rules, each estate’s delegates met in a separate hall to vote, and each estate
had one vote. The two privileged estates could always outvote the Third Estate.
The National Assembly The Third Estate delegates, mostly members of the bour-
geoisie whose views had been shaped by the Enlightenment, were eager to make
changes in the government. They insisted that all three estates meet together and
that each delegate have a vote. This would give the advantage to the Third Estate, Analyzing Motives
which had as many delegates as the other two estates combined. Why did the
Siding with the nobles, the king ordered the Estates-General to follow the medieval Third Estate pro-
pose a change in
rules. The delegates of the Third Estate, however, became more and more determined
the Estates-
to wield power. A leading spokesperson for their viewpoint was a clergyman sympa- General’s voting
thetic to their cause, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (syay•YEHS). In a dramatic speech, rules?
Sieyès suggested that the Third Estate delegates name themselves the National
Assembly and pass laws and reforms in the name of the French people.
After a long night of excited debate, the delegates of the Third Estate agreed to
Sieyès’s idea by an overwhelming majority. On June 17, 1789, they voted to estab-
lish the National Assembly, in effect proclaiming the end of absolute monarchy and
the beginning of representative government. This vote was the first deliberate act
of revolution.
Three days later, the Third Estate delegates found themselves locked out of
their meeting room. They broke down a door to an indoor tennis court, pledging
to stay until they had drawn up a new constitution. This pledge became known
as the Tennis Court Oath. Soon after, nobles and members of the clergy who
favored reform joined the Third Estate delegates. In response to these events, Vocabulary
Louis stationed his mercenary army of Swiss guards around Versailles. mercenary army: a
group of soldiers
▼ The attack on the Storming the Bastille In Paris, rumors flew. Some people suggested that Louis who will work for
Bastille claimed the was intent on using military force to dismiss the National Assembly. Others any country or
lives of about 100
people.
charged that the foreign troops were coming to Paris to massacre French citizens. employer that will
pay them
 Page 5 of 5

People began to gather weapons in order to defend the city

against attack. On July 14, a mob searching for gunpowder
and arms stormed the Bastille, a Paris prison. The mob over-
whelmed the guard and seized control of the building. The Bread
angry attackers hacked the prison commander and several Bread was a staple of the diet of the
guards to death, and then paraded around the streets with the common people of France. Most
families consumed three or four 4-
dead men’s heads on pikes.
pound loaves a day. And the
The fall of the Bastille became a great symbolic act of rev- purchase of bread took about half of
olution to the French people. Ever since, July 14—Bastille a worker’s wages—when times were
Day—has been a French national holiday, similar to the good. So, when the price of bread
Fourth of July in the United States. jumped dramatically, as it did in the
fall of 1789, people faced a real
threat of starvation.
A Great Fear Sweeps France On their march back from
Before long, rebellion spread from Paris into the countryside. Versailles, the women of Paris
happily sang that they were bringing
From one village to the next, wild rumors circulated that the
“the baker, the baker’s wife, and the
nobles were hiring outlaws to terrorize the peasants. A wave of baker’s lad” with them. They
senseless panic called the Great Fear rolled through France. expected the “baker”—Louis—to
The peasants soon became outlaws themselves. Armed with provide the cheap bread that they
pitchforks and other farm tools, they broke into nobles’ manor needed to live.
houses and destroyed the old legal papers that bound them to
pay feudal dues. In some cases, the peasants simply burned down the manor houses.
In October 1789, thousands of Parisian women rioted over the rising price of
bread. Brandishing knives, axes, and other weapons, the women marched on
Recognizing
Effects Versailles. First, they demanded that the National Assembly take action to provide
How did the bread. Then they turned their anger on the king and queen. They broke into the
women’s march palace, killing some of the guards. The women demanded that Louis and Marie
mark a turning Antoinette return to Paris. After some time, Louis agreed.
point in the rela-
A few hours later the king, his family, and servants left Versailles, never again
tionship between
the king and the to see the magnificent palace. Their exit signaled the change of power and radical
people? reforms about to overtake France.

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• Old Regime • estates • Louis XVI • Marie Antoinette • Estates-General • National Assembly • Tennis Court Oath • Great Fear

USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

2. Select one of the causes you
listed and explain how it
contributed to the French
Revolution. (10.2.1)
Causes of
Revolution
3. Why were members of the
Third Estate dissatisfied with life
under the Old Regime? (10.2.1)
4. How did Louis XVI’s weak
leadership contribute to the
growing crisis in France? (10.2.1)
5. How did the purpose of the
meeting of the Estates-General
in 1789 change? (10.2.1)
6. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Were changes in
the French government inevitable? Explain. (10.2.1)
7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do you think some members of
the First and Second Estates joined the National Assembly
and worked to reform the government? (10.2.1)
8. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING How were the storming
of the Bastille and the women’s march on Versailles
similar? How were they different? (10.2.1)
9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY In the role of a
Third Estate member, write a brief speech explaining why
the French political system needs to change. (Writing 2.5.a)

CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A COLLAGE

Conduct research on how Bastille Day is celebrated in France today. Use your findings to
create an annotated collage titled “Celebrating the Revolution.” (Writing 2.3.b)

The French Revolution and Napoleon 221


Revolution Brings
Reform and Terror
MAIN IDEA
REVOLUTION The revolutionary
government of France made
reforms but also used terror and
violence to retain power.
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
10.2.2 List the principles of the Magna
Carta, the English Bill of Rights (1689), the
American Declaration of Independence
(1776), the French Declaration of the Rights
of Man and the Citizen (1789), and the U.S.
Bill of Rights (1791).
10.2.4 Explain how the ideology of the
French Revolution led France to develop
from constitutional monarchy to democratic
despotism to the Napoleonic empire.
10.3.7 Describe the emergence of
Romanticism in art and literature (e.g.,
the poetry of William Blake and William
Wordsworth), social criticism (e.g., the
novels of Charles Dickens), and the move
away from Classicism in Europe.
REP 3 Students evaluate major debates
among historians concerning alternative
interpretations of the past, including an
analysis of authors’ use of evidence and the
distinctions between sound generalizations
and misleading oversimplifications.
TAKING NOTES
Recognizing Effects
Use a flow chart to
identify the major events
that followed the
creation of the
Constitution of 1791.
Assembly
Creates a
Constitution
222 Chapter 7
Page 1 of 7
2
WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES
Some governments that lack the • Legislative • guillotine
support of a majority of their Assembly • Maximilien
people still use fear to control • émigré Robespierre
their citizens. • sans-culotte • Reign of
• Jacobin Terror
SETTING THE STAGE Peasants were not the only members of French society
to feel the Great Fear. Nobles and officers of the Church were equally afraid.
Throughout France, bands of angry peasants struck out against members of the
upper classes, attacking and destroying many manor houses. In the summer of
1789, a few months before the women’s march to Versailles, some nobles and
members of clergy in the National Assembly responded to the uprisings in an
emotional late-night meeting.
The Assembly Reforms France
Throughout the night of August 4, 1789, noblemen made grand speeches, declar-
ing their love of liberty and equality. Motivated more by fear than by idealism,
they joined other members of the National Assembly in sweeping away the feu-
dal privileges of the First and Second Estates, thus making commoners equal to
the nobles and the clergy. By morning, the Old Regime was dead.
The Rights of Man Three weeks later, the National Assembly adopted a statement
of revolutionary ideals, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Reflecting the influence of the Declaration of Independence, the document stated
that “men are born and remain free and equal in rights.” These rights included
“liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.” The document also
guaranteed citizens equal justice, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion.
In keeping with these principles, revolutionary leaders adopted the expression
“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” as their slogan. Such sentiments, however, did not
apply to everyone. When writer Olympe de Gouges (aw•LIMP duh GOOZH) pub-
lished a declaration of the rights of women, her ideas were rejected. Later, in 1793,
she was declared an enemy of the Revolution and executed.
A State-Controlled Church Many of the National Assembly’s early reforms
focused on the Church. The assembly took over Church lands and declared that
Church officials and priests were to be elected and paid as state officials. Thus,
the Catholic Church lost both its lands and its political independence. The rea-
sons for the assembly’s actions were largely economic. Proceeds from the sale of
Church lands helped pay off France’s huge debt.
The assembly’s actions alarmed millions of French peasants, who were devout
Catholics. The effort to make the Church a part of the state offended them, even
 Page 2 of 7

One of the people

▲
who stopped Louis
from escaping said
that he recognized
the king from his
portrait on a French
bank note.

though it was in accord with Enlightenment philosophy. They believed that the
pope should rule over a church independent of the state. From this time on, many
peasants opposed the assembly’s reforms.
Louis Tries to Escape As the National Assembly restructured the relationship
between church and state, Louis XVI pondered his fate as a monarch. Some of his
advisers warned him that he and his family were in danger. Many supporters of the
monarchy thought France unsafe and left the country. Then, in June 1791, the royal
family tried to escape from France to the Austrian Netherlands. As they neared the
border, however, they were apprehended and returned to Paris under guard. Louis’s
attempted escape increased the influence of his radical enemies in the government
and sealed his fate.

Divisions Develop
For two years, the National Assembly argued over a new constitution for France. By
1791, the delegates had made significant changes in France’s government and society.
A Limited Monarchy In September 1791, the National Assembly completed the
new constitution, which Louis reluctantly approved. The constitution created a lim-
ited constitutional monarchy. It stripped the king of much of
his authority. It also created a new legislative body––the
Legislative Assembly. This body had the power to create
laws and to approve or reject declarations of war. However, Left, Right, and Center
the king still held the executive power to enforce laws. The terms we use today to describe
Factions Split France Despite the new government, old where people stand politically derive
problems, such as food shortages and government debt, from the factions that developed in
the Legislative Assembly in 1791.
remained. The question of how to handle these problems
• People who want to radically
caused the Legislative Assembly to split into three general change government are called left
Recognizing
groups, each of which sat in a different part of the meeting wing or are said to be on the left.
Effects hall. Radicals, who sat on the left side of the hall, opposed • People with moderate views often
How did differ- the idea of a monarchy and wanted sweeping changes in the are called centrist or are said to be
ences of opinion on way the government was run. Moderates sat in the center of in the center.
how to handle such the hall and wanted some changes in government, but not as • People who want few or no
issues as food changes in government often are
shortages and debt
many as the radicals. Conservatives sat on the right side of
called right wing or are said to be
affect the Legislative the hall. They upheld the idea of a limited monarchy and
on the right.
Assembly? wanted few changes in government.

The French Revolution and Napoleon 223

 Page 3 of 7

In addition, factions outside the Legislative Assembly wanted to influence the

direction of the government too. Émigrés (EHM•ih•GRAYZ), nobles and others
who had fled France, hoped to undo the Revolution and restore the Old Regime. In
contrast, some Parisian workers and small shopkeepers wanted the Revolution
to bring even greater changes to France. They were called sans-culottes
(SANZ kyoo•LAHTS), or “those without knee breeches.” Unlike the upper classes,
who wore fancy knee-length pants, sans-culottes wore regular trousers. Although
they did not have a role in the assembly, they soon discovered ways to exert their
power on the streets of Paris.

War and Execution

Monarchs and nobles in many European countries watched the changes taking
place in France with alarm. They feared that similar revolts might break out in their
own countries. In fact, some radicals were keen to spread their revolutionary ideas
across Europe. As a result, some countries took action. Austria and Prussia, for
example, urged the French to restore Louis to his position as an absolute monarch.
The Legislative Assembly responded by declaring war in April 1792.
France at War The war began badly for the French. By the
summer of 1792, Prussian forces were advancing on Paris.
The Prussian commander threatened to destroy Paris if the
revolutionaries harmed any member of the royal family. This
enraged the Parisians. On August 10, about 20,000 men and
women invaded the Tuileries, the palace where the royal fam-
ily was staying. The mob massacred the royal guards and
imprisoned Louis, Marie Antoinette, and their children.
Shortly after, the French troops defending Paris were sent
to reinforce the French army in the field. Rumors began to
spread that supporters of the king held in Paris prisons
planned to break out and seize control of the city. Angry and
fearful citizens responded by taking the law into their own
hands. For several days in early September, they raided the
prisons and murdered over 1,000 prisoners. Many nobles,
priests, and royalist sympathizers fell victim to the angry Analyzing Causes
Jean-Paul Marat mobs in these September Massacres. What did the
1743–1793 Under pressure from radicals in the streets and among its September
Massacres show
Marat was a thin, high-strung, sickly members, the Legislative Assembly set aside the Constitution
about the mood of
man whose revolutionary writings of 1791. It declared the king deposed, dissolved the assembly, the people?
stirred up the violent mood in Paris. and called for the election of a new legislature. This new gov-
Because he suffered from a painful
erning body, the National Convention, took office on
skin disease, he often found comfort
by relaxing in a cold bath—even
September 21. It quickly abolished the monarchy and
arranging things so that he could declared France a republic. Adult male citizens were granted
work in his bathtub! the right to vote and hold office. Despite the important part
During the summer of 1793, they had already played in the Revolution, women were not
Charlotte Corday, a supporter of a rival given the vote.
faction whose members had been
jailed, gained an audience with Marat Jacobins Take Control Most of the people involved in the
by pretending to have information governmental changes in September 1792 were members of a
about traitors. Once inside Marat’s radical political organization, the Jacobin (JAK•uh•bihn)
private chambers, she fatally stabbed Club. One of the most prominent Jacobins, as club members
him as he bathed. For her crime,
were called, was Jean-Paul Marat (mah•RAH). During the
Corday went to the guillotine.
Revolution, he edited a newspaper called L’Ami du Peuple
(Friend of the People). In his fiery editorials, Marat called for
224 Chapter 7
 Page 4 of 7

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

The Guillotine 10.2.4 Explain how the ideology of the French Revolu-
tion led France to develop from constitutional monarchy
to democratic despotism to the Napoleonic empire.
If you think the guillotine was a cruel form of capital punishment,
CST 2 Students analyze how change happens at differ-
think again. Dr. Joseph Ignace Guillotin proposed a machine that ent rates at different times; understand that some
satisfied many needs––it was efficient, humane, and aspects can change while others remain the same; and
understand that change is complicated and affects not
democratic. A physician and member of the National only technology and politics but also values and beliefs.
Assembly, Guillotin claimed that those executed with
the device “wouldn’t even feel the slightest pain.”
Once the executioner cranked the
Prior to the guillotine’s introduction in 1792, blade to the top, a mechanism
many French criminals had suffered through horrible released it. The sharp weighted
punishments in public places. Although public blade fell, severing the victim’s
punishments continued to attract large crowds, not all head from his or her body.
spectators were pleased with the new machine. Some
witnesses felt that death by the guillotine occurred Some doctors believed that a
much too quickly to be enjoyed by an audience. victim’s head retained its hearing
and eyesight for up to 15 minutes
after the blade’s deadly blow. All
RESEARCH LINKS For more on the remains were eventually gathered
guillotine, go to classzone.com and buried in simple graves.

Tricoteuses, or “woman knitters,”

were regular spectators at
executions and knitted stockings
for soldiers as they sat near the
base of the scaffold.

1. Synthesizing In what ways was the

guillotine an efficient means of
Beheading by Class
execution?
Before each execution,
More than 2,100 people were executed during the last bound victims traveled See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R21.
132 days of the Reign of Terror. The pie graph below from the prison to the
displays the breakdown of beheadings by class. scaffold in horse-drawn 2. Comparing France continued to use
carts during a one and the guillotine until 1977. Four years
one-half hour procession later, France abolished capital
First Estate punishment. Conduct research to
through city streets.
Second Estate identify countries where capital
punishment is still used. Use your
Third Estate
findings to create a map titled
“Countries Using Capital Punishment.”
225
 Page 5 of 7

the death of all those who continued to support the king. Georges Danton
(zhawrzh dahn•TAWN), a lawyer, was among the club’s most talented and passionate
speakers. He also was known for his devotion to the rights of Paris’s poor people.
The National Convention had reduced Louis XVI’s role from that of a king to
that of a common citizen and prisoner. Now, guided by radical Jacobins, it tried
Louis for treason. The Convention found him guilty, and, by a very close vote, sen-
tenced him to death. On January 21, 1793, the former king walked with calm dig-
nity up the steps of the scaffold to be beheaded by a machine called the guillotine
(GIHL•uh•TEEN). (See the Science & Technology feature on page 225.)
The War Continues The National Convention also had to contend with the con-
tinuing war with Austria and Prussia. At about the time the Convention took office,
the French army won a stunning victory against the Austrians and Prussians at the
Battle of Valmy. Early in 1793, however, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain joined
Prussia and Austria against France. Forced to contend with so many enemies, the
French suffered a string of defeats. To reinforce the French army, Jacobin leaders
in the Convention took an extreme step. At their urging, in February 1793 the
Convention ordered a draft of 300,000 French citizens between the ages of 18 and
40. By 1794, the army had grown to 800,000 and included women.

The Terror Grips France

Foreign armies were not the only enemies of the French republic. The Jacobins had
thousands of enemies within France itself. These included peasants who were hor-
rified by the king’s execution, priests who would not accept government control,
and rival leaders who were stirring up rebellion in the provinces. How to contain
and control these enemies became a central issue.
Robespierre Assumes Control In the early months of 1793, one Jacobin leader,
Maximilien Robespierre (ROHBZ•peer), slowly gained power. Robespierre and
his supporters set out to build a “republic of virtue” by wiping out every trace of
France’s past. Firm believers in reason, they changed the calendar, dividing the year
into 12 months of 30 days and renaming each month. This calendar had no Sundays
because the radicals considered religion old-fashioned and dangerous. They even
closed all churches in Paris, and cities and towns all over France soon did the same.
In July 1793, Robespierre became leader of the Committee of Public Safety. For
the next year, Robespierre governed France virtually as a dictator, and the period
of his rule became known as the Reign of Terror. The Committee of Public
Safety’s chief task was to protect the Revolution from its enemies. Under
Robespierre’s leadership, the committee often had these “enemies” tried in the
morning and guillotined in the afternoon. Robespierre justified his use of terror by
suggesting that it enabled French citizens to remain true to the ideals of the
Revolution. He also saw a connection between virtue and terror:

PRIMARY SOURCE
The first maxim of our politics ought to be to lead the people by means of reason Analyzing
and the enemies of the people by terror. If the basis of popular government in Primary Sources
time of peace is virtue, the basis of popular government in time of revolution is How did
both virtue and terror: virtue without which terror is murderous, terror without Robespierre justify
which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing else than swift, severe, indomitable the use of terror?
justice; it flows, then, from virtue.
MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE, “On the Morals and Political Principles of Domestic Policy” (1794)

The “enemies of the Revolution” who troubled Robespierre the most were fellow
radicals who challenged his leadership. In 1793 and 1794, many of those who had
led the Revolution received death sentences. Their only crime was that they were
226 Chapter 7
 Page 6 of 7

considered less radical than Robespierre. By early 1794,

even Georges Danton found himself in danger. Danton’s
friends in the National Convention, afraid to defend him,
joined in condemning him. On the scaffold, he told the exe-
cutioner, “Don’t forget to show my head to the people. It’s
well worth seeing.”
The Terror claimed not only the famous, such as Danton
and Marie Antoinette, the widowed queen. Thousands of
unknown people also were sent to their deaths, often on the
flimsiest of charges. For example, an 18-year-old youth was
sentenced to die for cutting down a tree that had been
planted as a symbol of liberty. Perhaps as many as 40,000
were executed during the Terror. About 85 percent were
peasants or members of the urban poor or middle class—
for whose benefit the Revolution had been launched.

End of the Terror ▲ At his trial,

In July 1794, fearing for their own safety, some members of the National Georges Danton
Convention turned on Robespierre. They demanded his arrest and execution. The defended himself
Reign of Terror, the radical phase of the French Revolution, ended on July 28, so skillfully that the
authorities eventu-
1794, when Robespierre went to the guillotine.
ally denied him the
French public opinion shifted dramatically after Robespierre’s death. People of right to speak.
all classes had grown weary of the Terror. They were also tired of the skyrocketing
prices for bread, salt, and other necessities of life. In 1795, moderate leaders in the
National Convention drafted a new plan of government, the third since 1789. It
placed power firmly in the hands of the upper middle class and called for a two-
house legislature and an executive body of five men, known as the Directory. These
five were moderates, not revolutionary idealists. Some of them were corrupt and
made themselves rich at the country’s expense. Even so, they gave their troubled
country a period of order. They also found the right general to command France’s
armies—Napoleon Bonaparte.

SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• Legislative Assembly • émigré • sans-culotte • Jacobin • guillotine • Maximilien Robespierre • Reign of Terror

USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

2. Do you think this chain of 3. What major reforms did the
events could have been National Assembly
changed in any way? introduce? (10.2.4)
Explain. (10.2.4) 4. What did the divisions in the
Legislative Assembly say about
Assembly the differences in French
Creates a society? (10.2.4)
Constitution
5. How did the Reign of Terror
come to an end? (10.2.4)
6. SYNTHESIZING How did the slogan “Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity” sum up the goals of the Revolution? (10.2.2)
7. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING What similarities and
differences do you see between the political factions
in the Legislative Assembly and those in the U.S.
government today? (10.2.4)
8. ANALYZING CAUSES What factors led to Robespierre
becoming a dictator? (10.2.4)
9. WRITING ACTIVITY REVOLUTION Working in small teams,
write short biographies of three revolutionary figures
mentioned in this section. (Writing 2.1.e)

INTERNET ACTIVITY
Use the Internet to conduct research on governments that use INTERNET KEYWORD
terrorism against their own people. Prepare an oral report on the human rights
methods these countries use. (Writing 2.3.b)
The French Revolution and Napoleon 227

The French Revolution
Over time, people have expressed a wide variety of opinions about the causes
and outcomes of the French Revolution. The following excerpts, dating from
the 1790s to 1859, illustrate this diversity of opinion.
A SECONDARY SOURCE
Charles Dickens
In 1859, the English writer Dickens
wrote A Tale of Two Cities, a novel
about the French Revolution for which
he did much research. In the following
scene, Charles Darnay—an aristocrat
who gave up his title because he hated
the injustices done to the people—has
returned to France and been put on trial.
His judges sat upon the bench in
feathered hats; but the rough red cap
and tricolored cockade was the
headdress otherwise prevailing.
Looking at the jury and the turbulent
audience, he might have thought that
the usual order of things was reversed,
and that the felons were trying the
honest men. The lowest, cruelest, and
worst populace of a city, never without
its quantity of low, cruel, and bad, were
the directing spirits of the scene. . . .
Charles Evrémonde, called Darnay,
was accused by the public prosecutor
as an emigrant, whose life was forfeit
to the Republic, under the
decree which banished all
emigrants on pain of Death. It
was nothing that the decree
bore date since his return to
France. There he was, and
there was the decree; he had
been taken in France, and his
head was demanded.
“Take off his head!” cried
the audience. “An enemy to
the Republic!”
▼
In this illustration from
A Tale of Two Cities, Sidney
Carton goes to the guillotine
in Darnay’s place.
228 Chapter 7
Using Primary and Secondary Sources
B PRIMARY SOURCE
Edmund Burke
Burke, a British politician, was one of
the earliest and most severe critics of
the French Revolution. In 1790, he
expressed this opinion.
[The French have rebelled] against a
mild and lawful monarch, with more
fury, outrage, and insult, than ever any
people has been known to rise against
the most illegal usurper, or the most
[bloodthirsty] tyrant. . . .
They have found their punishment
in their success. Laws overturned;
tribunals subverted; . . . the people
impoverished; a church pillaged, and
. . . civil and military anarchy made the
constitution of the kingdom. . . .
Were all these dreadful things
necessary?
Page 7 of 7
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
10.2.3 Understand the unique character of
the American Revolution, its spread to other
parts of the world, and its continuing
significance to other nations.
REP 2 Students identify bias and prejudice
in historical interpretations.
C PRIMARY SOURCE
Thomas Paine
In 1790, Paine—a strong supporter of
the American Revolution—defended
the French Revolution against Burke
and other critics.
It is no longer the paltry cause of kings
or of this or of that individual, that calls
France and her armies into action. It is
the great cause of all. It is the
establishment of a new era, that shall
blot despotism from the earth, and fix,
on the lasting principles of peace and
citizenship, the great Republic of Man.
The scene that now opens itself to
France extends far beyond the
boundaries of her own dominions.
Every nation is becoming her ally, and
every court has become her enemy. It
is now the cause of all nations, against
the cause of all courts.
1. In your own words, summarize
the attitude toward the French
Revolution expressed in each of
these excerpts.
2. Why might Edmund Burke
(Source B) be so against the
French Revolution?
3. In Source C, what is the
distinction Thomas Paine is
making between nations and
courts?
 Page 1 of 5

Napoleon Forges an Empire

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

POWER AND AUTHORITY In times of political turmoil, • Napoleon • concordat

Napoleon Bonaparte, a military military dictators often seize Bonaparte • Napoleonic
genius, seized power in France control of nations. • coup d’état Code
and made himself emperor. • plebiscite • Battle of
• lycée Trafalgar

SETTING THE STAGE Napoleon Bonaparte was quite a short man—just five CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
feet three inches tall. However, he cast a long shadow over the history of mod- 10.2.4 Explain how the ideology of the
ern times. He would come to be recognized as one of the world’s greatest mil- French Revolution led France to develop
from constitutional monarchy to democratic
itary geniuses, along with Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hannibal of despotism to the Napoleonic empire.
Carthage, and Julius Caesar of Rome. In only four years, from 1795 to 1799, 10.2.5 Discuss how nationalism spread across
Napoleon rose from a relatively obscure position as an officer in the French Europe with Napoleon but was repressed
for a generation under the Congress of
army to become master of France. Vienna and Concert of Europe until the
Revolutions of 1848.

Napoleon Seizes Power

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 on the Mediterranean island of Corsica.
When he was nine years old, his parents sent him to a military school. In 1785,
at the age of 16, he finished school and became a lieutenant in the artillery. When
the Revolution broke out, Napoleon joined the army of the new government.
Hero of the Hour In October 1795, fate handed the young officer a chance for
glory. When royalist rebels marched on the National Convention, a government
official told Napoleon to defend the delegates. Napoleon and his gunners greeted
the thousands of royalists with a cannonade. Within minutes, the attackers fled
in panic and confusion. Napoleon Bonaparte became the hero of the hour and
was hailed throughout Paris as the savior of the French republic.
In 1796, the Directory appointed Napoleon to lead a French army against the
forces of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Crossing the Alps, the young
general swept into Italy and won a series of remarkable victories. Next, in an TAKING NOTES
attempt to protect French trade interests and to disrupt British trade with India, Following Chronological
Order On a time line, note
Napoleon led an expedition to Egypt. But he was unable to repeat the successes
the events that led to
he had achieved in Europe. His army was pinned down in Egypt, and the British Napoleon’s crowning as
admiral Horatio Nelson defeated his naval forces. However, Napoleon managed emperor of France.
to keep stories about his setbacks out of the newspapers and thereby remained a
great hero to the people of France.
1789 1804
Coup d’État By 1799, the Directory had lost control of the political situation
and the confidence of the French people. When Napoleon returned from Egypt, French Napoleon
his friends urged him to seize political power. Napoleon took action in early Revolution crowned
breaks out. emperor.
November 1799. Troops under his command surrounded the national legislature
and drove out most of its members. The lawmakers who remained then voted to
The French Revolution and Napoleon 229
 Page 2 of 5

dissolve the Directory. In its place, they established a group

of three consuls, one of whom was Napoleon. Napoleon
quickly took the title of first consul and assumed the pow-
ers of a dictator. A sudden seizure of power like Napoleon’s
is known as a coup—from the French phrase coup d’état Analyzing Causes
(KOO day•TAH), or “blow to the state.” How was
At the time of Napoleon’s coup, France was still at war. Napoleon able to
become a dictator?
In 1799, Britain, Austria, and Russia joined forces with one
goal in mind, to drive Napoleon from power. Once again,
Napoleon rode from Paris at the head of his troops.
Eventually, as a result of war and diplomacy, all three
nations signed peace agreements with France. By 1802,
Napoleon Bonaparte Europe was at peace for the first time in ten years. Napoleon
1769–1821 was free to focus his energies on restoring order in France.
Because of his small stature and thick
Corsican accent, Napoleon was Napoleon Rules France
mocked by his fellow students at
military school. Haughty and proud, At first, Napoleon pretended to be the constitutionally
Napoleon refused to grace his chosen leader of a free republic. In 1800, a plebiscite
tormentors’ behavior with any kind of (PLEHB•ih•SYT), or vote of the people, was held to approve
response. He simply ignored them, a new constitution. Desperate for strong leadership, the
preferring to lose himself in his people voted overwhelmingly in favor of the constitution.
studies. He showed a particular
passion for three subjects—classical
This gave all real power to Napoleon as first consul.
history, geography, and mathematics. Restoring Order at Home Napoleon did not try to return the
In 1784, Napoleon was nation to the days of Louis XVI. Rather, he kept many of the
recommended for a career in the changes that had come with the Revolution. In general, he
army and he transferred to the Ecole
supported laws that would both strengthen the central govern-
Militaire (the French equivalent of
West Point) in Paris. There, he proved ment and achieve some of the goals of the Revolution.
to be a fairly poor soldier, except His first task was to get the economy on a solid footing.
when it came to artillery. His artillery Napoleon set up an efficient method of tax collection and
instructor quickly noticed Napoleon’s established a national banking system. In addition to ensur-
abilities: “He is most proud, ing the government a steady supply of tax money, these
ambitious, aspiring to everything. This
young man merits our attention.”
actions promoted sound financial management and better
control of the economy. Napoleon also took steps to end
corruption and inefficiency in government. He dismissed
corrupt officials and, in order to provide the government with trained officials, set
up lycées, or government-run public schools. These lycées were open to male stu-
dents of all backgrounds. Graduates were appointed to public office on the basis of
merit rather than family connections.
One area where Napoleon disregarded changes introduced by the Revolution
was religion. Both the clergy and many peasants wanted to restore the position of
the Church in France. Responding to their wishes, Napoleon signed a concordat,
or agreement, with Pope Pius VII. This established a new relationship between
church and state. The government recognized the influence of the Church, but
rejected Church control in national affairs. The concordat gained Napoleon the
support of the organized Church as well as the majority of the French people.
Napoleon thought that his greatest work was his comprehensive system of laws,
known as the Napoleonic Code. This gave the country a uniform set of laws and
eliminated many injustices. However, it actually limited liberty and promoted order
and authority over individual rights. For example, freedom of speech and of the
press, established during the Revolution, were restricted under the code. The code
also restored slavery in the French colonies of the Caribbean.

230 Chapter 7
 Page 3 of 5

Napoleon Crowned as Emperor In 1804, Napoleon decided to make himself

emperor, and the French voters supported him. On December 2, 1804, dressed in a
splendid robe of purple velvet, Napoleon walked down the long aisle of Notre
Analyzing Motives Dame Cathedral in Paris. The pope waited for him with a glittering crown. As thou-
Why do you
sands watched, the new emperor took the crown from the pope and placed it on his
think Napoleon
crowned himself own head. With this gesture, Napoleon signaled that he was more powerful than the
emperor? Church, which had traditionally crowned the rulers of France.

Napoleon Creates an Empire

Napoleon was not content simply to be master of France. He wanted to control the
rest of Europe and to reassert French power in the Americas. He envisioned his
western empire including Louisiana, Florida, French Guiana, and the French West
Indies. He knew that the key to this area was the sugar-producing colony of Saint
Domingue (now called Haiti) on the island of Hispaniola.
Loss of American Territories In 1789, when the ideas of the Revolution reached
the planters in Saint Domingue, they demanded that the National Assembly give
them the same privileges as the people of France. Eventually, enslaved Africans in
the colony demanded their rights too—in other words, their freedom. A civil war
erupted, and enslaved Africans under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture
seized control of the colony. In 1801, Napoleon decided to take back the colony
and restore its productive sugar industry. However, the French forces were devas-
tated by disease. And the rebels proved to be fierce fighters.
After the failure of the expedition to Saint Domingue, Napoleon decided to cut
his losses in the Americas. He offered to sell all of the Louisiana Territory to the
United States, and in 1803 President Jefferson’s administration agreed to purchase
the land for $15 million. Napoleon saw a twofold benefit to the sale. First, he
Recognizing
would gain money to finance operations in Europe. Second, he would punish the ▼ This painting
Effects British. “The sale assures forever the power of the United States,” he observed, by Jacques Louis
What effects “and I have given England a rival who, sooner or later, will humble her pride.” David shows
did Napoleon Napoleon in a
Conquering Europe Having abandoned his imperial ambitions heroic pose.
intend the sale of
Louisiana to have in the New World, Napoleon turned his attention to Europe. He
on France? on the had already annexed the Austrian Netherlands and parts of Italy to
United States? on France and set up a puppet government in Switzerland. Now he
Britain? looked to expand his influence further. Fearful of his ambitions,
the British persuaded Russia, Austria, and Sweden to join them
against France.
Napoleon met this challenge with his usual boldness. In a
series of brilliant battles, he crushed the opposition. (See the
map on page 232.) The commanders of the enemy armies
could never predict his next move and often took heavy
losses. After the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, Napoleon
issued a proclamation expressing his pride in his troops:

PRIMARY SOURCE
Soldiers! I am pleased with you. On the day of Austerlitz,
you justified everything that I was expecting of [you]. . . .
In less than four hours, an army of 100,000 men,
commanded by the emperors of Russia and Austria, was
cut up and dispersed. . . . 120 pieces of artillery, 20 generals, and
more than 30,000 men taken prisoner—such are the results of this day
which will forever be famous. . . . And it will be enough for you to say,
“I was at Austerlitz,” to hear the reply: “There is a brave man!”
NAPOLEON, quoted in Napoleon by André Castelot
 Page 4 of 5

War in Europe, 1805–1813

French Empire
Controlled by Napoleon
French victory
French defeat

24°E
W

8°W

16°E
16°

British blockade

0°
KINGDOM
OF KINGDOM
DENMARK OF Moscow
SWEDEN (1812)
AND Baltic Borodino
N o r t h NORWAY (1812)
UNITED KINGDOM Sea
Sea REP. OF
OF GREAT BRITAIN DANZIG
Neman R.
50°
N AND IRELAND Friedland (1807)

SSIA RUSSIAN
PRU
London Elb
eR
.
Berlin
EMPIRE
GRAND DUCHY
Brussels CONFEDERATION OF
ATLANTIC Amiens OF Leipzig (1813) WARSAW
Jena (1806)
Paris THE Austerlitz (1805)
OCEAN Versailles Seine
RHINE
R.

R.
i ne

Ulm (1805)
AUSTRIAN
Rh

Wagram (1809)
Loi

Aspern (1809)
re R
F

HELVETIC Vienna
EMPIRE
R

La Coruña (1809)
REPUBLIC
E

N
42° Milan KINGDOM
N C
H OF ITALY
IL OV d r
PR

Eb
LY IN i a

Vitoria
AL

Po R.
r E e R.
RI CE t i

(1813)
ub
UG

Marseille
o

M
AN S c S

D an Black Sea
R.

Talavera P
RT

(1809) Madrid (1808) I R

E
PO

Ta g
us R. CORSICA MONTENEGRO
Rome
ea

SPAIN Valencia KINGDOM

(1808)
Naples
OF OTTOMAN
SARDINIA
Trafalgar (1805)
NAPLES EMPIRE
Gibraltar
Mediterranean Sea
0 500 Miles
SICILY
0 1,000 Kilometers
Battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805
Battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 1805
on

British fleet
Bagrati
s
Lanne

French and
Spanish fleet French forces
Allied Russian, Prussian,
tte

British thrust and Austrian forces

Villeneuve
do

Austerlitz
rna

French thrust
t
wra
Be

Allied thrust Pratzen

lo
Kol

Nelson Plateau
Soult

NAPOLEON
Álava (About 70,000 troops)
rov

Collingwood CZAR ALEXANDER I

(About 85,000 troops)
Docto
ek
re

C
ch

0 2 Miles
Goldba
t
vou
Da

0 4 Kilometers

By drawing an Allied attack on his right flank, Napoleon was able to

split the Allied line at its center.
By dividing Villeneuve’s formation, Admiral
Nelson captured nearly two-thirds of the
enemy fleet. GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
1. Region What was the extent of the lands under Napoleon’s control?
2. Location Where was the Battle of Trafalgar fought? What tactic did
Nelson use in the battle, and why was it successful?

232 Chapter 7
 Page 5 of 5

In time, Napoleon’s battlefield successes forced the rulers of Austria, Prussia, and
Russia to sign peace treaties. These successes also enabled him to build the largest
European empire since that of the Romans. France’s only major enemy left unde-
feated was the great naval power, Britain.
The Battle of Trafalgar In his drive for a European empire, Napoleon lost only
one major battle, the Battle of Trafalgar (truh•FAL•guhr). This naval defeat, how-
ever, was more important than all of his victories on land. The battle took place in
1805 off the southwest coast of Spain. The British commander, Horatio Nelson,
was as brilliant in warfare at sea as Napoleon was in warfare on land. In a bold
maneuver, he split the larger French fleet, capturing many ships. (See the map inset
on the opposite page.)
The destruction of the French fleet had two major results. First, it ensured the
supremacy of the British navy for the next 100 years. Second, it forced Napoleon
to give up his plans of invading Britain. He had to look for another way to control
his powerful enemy across the English Channel. Eventually, Napoleon’s extrava-
gant efforts to crush Britain would lead to his own undoing.
The French Empire During the first decade of the 1800s, Napoleon’s victories
had given him mastery over most of Europe. By 1812, the only areas of Europe free
from Napoleon’s control were Britain, Portugal, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire.
In addition to the lands of the French Empire, Napoleon also controlled numerous
supposedly independent countries. (See the map on the opposite page.) These
included Spain, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and a number of German kingdoms
in Central Europe. The rulers of these countries were Napoleon’s puppets; some, in
fact, were members of his family. Furthermore, the powerful countries of Russia,
Drawing Prussia, and Austria were loosely attached to Napoleon’s empire through alliances.
Conclusions Although not totally under Napoleon’s control, they were easily manipulated by
By 1805, how threats of military action.
successful had
Napoleon been in
The French Empire was huge but unstable. Napoleon was able to maintain it at
his efforts to build its greatest extent for only five years—from 1807 to 1812. Then it quickly fell to
an empire? pieces. Its sudden collapse was caused in part by Napoleon’s actions.

SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• Napoleon Bonaparte • coup d’état • plebiscite • lycée • concordat • Napoleonic Code • Battle of Trafalgar

USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

2. Which of these events do you 3. How did Napoleon become a 6. FORMING OPINIONS In your opinion, was Napoleon the
think had the greatest impact hero in France? (10.2.4) creator or the creation of his times? (10.2.5)
on Napoleon’s rise to 4. What did Napoleon consider 7. ANALYZING ISSUES Napoleon had to deal with forces
power? (10.2.4) his greatest triumph in both inside and outside the French Empire. Which area
domestic policy? (10.2.4) do you think was more important to control? (10.2.5)
5. How was Napoleon able to 8. MAKING INFERENCES If you had been a member of the
1789 1804 control the countries bourgeoisie, would you have been satisfied with the
neighboring the French results of Napoleon’s actions? Explain. (10.2.4)
French Napoleon
Revolution crowned
Empire? (10.2.4) 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Look at the
breaks out. emperor. painting on page 231. Write a paragraph discussing why
the painter portrayed Napoleon in this way. (Writing 2.2.b)

CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A VENN DIAGRAM

Identify and conduct research on a present-day world leader who has used dictatorial powers
to rule his or her country. Use your findings to create a Venn diagram comparing this leader’s
use of power to Napoleon’s use of power. (Writing 2.3.d)

The French Revolution and Napoleon 233


Napoleon’s Empire Collapses
MAIN IDEA
POWER AND AUTHORITY
Napoleon’s conquests aroused
nationalistic feelings across
Europe and contributed to his
downfall.
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
10.2.4 Explain how the ideology of the
French Revolution led France to develop
from constitutional monarchy to democratic
despotism to the Napoleonic empire.
CST 1 Students compare the present with
the past, evaluating the consequences of
past events and decisions and determining
the lessons that were learned.
CST 3 Students use a variety of maps and
documents to interpret human movement,
including major patterns of domestic and
international migration, changing environ-
mental preferences and settlement patterns,
the frictions that develop between popula-
tion groups, and the diffusion of ideas,
technological innovations, and goods.
CST 4 Students relate current events to the
physical and human characteristics of
places and regions.
HI 1 Students show the connections, causal
and otherwise, between particular histori-
cal events and larger social, economic, and
political trends and developments.
TAKING NOTES
Recognizing Effects
Use a chart to identify
Napoleon’s three
mistakes and the
impact they had on
the French Empire.
Napoleon's Effect on
Mistakes Empire
234 Chapter 7
Page 1 of 4
WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES
In the 1990s, nationalistic • blockade • scorched-
feelings contributed to the • Continental earth policy
breakup of nations such as System • Waterloo
Yugoslavia. • guerrilla • Hundred
• Peninsular War Days
SETTING THE STAGE Napoleon worried about what would happen to his vast
empire after his death. He feared it would fall apart unless he had an undisputed
heir. His wife, Josephine, had failed to bear him a child. He, therefore, divorced
her and formed an alliance with the Austrian royal family by marrying Marie
Louise, the grandniece of Marie Antoinette. In 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to
a son, Napoleon II, whom Napoleon named king of Rome.
Napoleon’s Costly Mistakes
Napoleon’s own personality proved to be the greatest danger to the future of his
empire. His desire for power had raised him to great heights, and the same love
of power led him to his doom. In his efforts to extend the French Empire and
crush Great Britain, Napoleon made three disastrous mistakes.
The Continental System In November 1806, Napoleon set up a blockade—a
forcible closing of ports—to prevent all trade and communication between Great
Britain and other European nations. Napoleon called this policy the Continental
System as it would make continental Europe more self-sufficient. He also
intended it to destroy Great Britain’s commercial and
industrial economy.
Napoleon’s blockade, however, was not nearly tight
enough. Aided by the British, smugglers managed to
bring cargo from Britain into Europe. At times,
Napoleon’s allies also disregarded the blockade. Even
members of his family defied the policy, including his
brother, Louis, whom he had made king of Holland.
While the blockade weakened British trade, it did not
destroy it. In addition, Britain responded with its own
blockade. The stronger British navy was better able
to make their blockade work.
To enforce the blockade, the British navy
stopped neutral ships bound for the continent and
forced them to sail to a British port to be searched
and taxed. American ships were among those ▲ “Little Johnny Bull”—Great
stopped by the British navy. Angered, the U.S. Britain—waves a sword at
Napoleon as the emperor
straddles the globe.
 Page 2 of 4

Congress declared war on Britain in 1812. Even though the War of 1812 lasted two
years, it was only a minor inconvenience to Britain in its struggle with Napoleon.
The Peninsular War In 1808, Napoleon made a second costly mistake. In an
effort to get Portugal to accept the Continental System, he sent an invasion force
through Spain. The Spanish people protested this action. In response, Napoleon
removed the Spanish king and put his own brother, Joseph, on the throne. This out-
raged the Spanish people and inflamed their nationalistic feelings. The Spanish,
who were devoutly Catholic, also worried that Napoleon would attack the Church.
They had seen how the French Revolution had weakened the Catholic Church in
France, and they feared that the same thing would happen to the Church in Spain.
For six years, bands of Spanish peasant fighters, known as guerrillas, struck at
French armies in Spain. The guerrillas were not an army that Napoleon could
defeat in open battle. Rather, they worked in small groups that ambushed French
troops and then fled into hiding. The British added to the French troubles by send-
ing troops to aid the Spanish. Napoleon lost about 300,000 men during this
Peninsular War—so called because Spain lies on the Iberian Peninsula. These
losses weakened the French Empire.
In Spain and elsewhere, nationalism, or loyalty to one’s own country, was
becoming a powerful weapon against Napoleon. People who had at first welcomed
Recognizing the French as their liberators now felt abused by a foreign conqueror. Like the
Effects Spanish guerrillas, Germans and Italians and other conquered peoples turned
How could the against the French.
growing feelings of
The Invasion of Russia Napoleon’s most disastrous mistake of all came in 1812.
nationalism in
European countries Even though Alexander I had become Napoleon’s ally, the Russian czar refused to
hurt Napoleon? stop selling grain to Britain. In addition, the French and Russian rulers suspected
each other of having competing designs on Poland. Because of this breakdown in ▼ Francisco
their alliance, Napoleon decided to invade Russia. Goya’s painting
In June 1812, Napoleon and his Grand Army of more than 420,000 soldiers The Third of May,
1808 shows a
marched into Russia. As Napoleon advanced, Alexander pulled back his troops,
French firing squad
refusing to be lured into an unequal battle. On this retreat, the Russians practiced executing Spanish
a scorched-earth policy. This involved burning grain fields and slaughtering live- peasants sus-
stock so as to leave nothing for the enemy to eat. pected of being
guerrillas.

235
 Page 3 of 4

Napoleon's Russian Campaign, 1812

130,000
Sept. 7, 1812 Napoleon’s
army fights the Battle of
50,000 Borodino and suffers 30,000
Napoleon sends casualties. R.
Moscow
troops to Polotsk to 175,000 cow
West
ern M os
Dvi protect his left flank. Reduced by desertion,
na disease, starvation, .
Riv aR
er
and capture, an army Borodino Ok
of 175,000 arrives in
R U S S I A Smolensk. Another Vyazma Maloyaroslavets
422,000 30,000 die there.
Polotsk Sept. 14, 1812 Napoleon enters
June 1812
Napoleon and his Moscow to find it in ashes,
troops march across Vitebsk torched by the czar. He waits,
the Neman River Glubokoye hoping to induce the czar
Smolensk to surrender.
and into Russia.
Oct. 18, 1812 Frustrated and
Kovno Vilna starving, having waited too long

D n ieper Rive
November 1812 for the czar, the 100,000
PRUSSIA

The army returns to Smolensk survivors of the Grand Army

N em

and finds famine. The remaining begin their hellish retreat

an R

Molodechno Borisov 24,000 march on, abandoning through the cruel Russia winter.
their wounded.
iver

r
GRAND Dec. 6, 1812
Troops march for Minsk 37,000
B e r ez

DUCHY
OF the Neman River.
i na

WARSAW Only 10,000 make

it out of Russia. 0 100 Miles
Riv

28,000 The 30,000 in Polotsk

er

join the 20,000 survivors. 0 200 Kilometers

Thousands drown while
crossing the Berezina
River. GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
Advancing troops
50,000 1. Movement How long did it take the Grand Army to cover the distance between
Retreating troops
the Russian border and Moscow?
= 10,000 soldiers
2. Place Why was it a mistake for Napoleon to stay in Moscow until mid-October?
= 10,000 lost troops

On September 7, 1812, the two armies finally clashed in the Battle of Borodino.
(See the map on this page.) After several hours of indecisive fighting, the Russians
fell back, allowing Napoleon to move on Moscow. When Napoleon entered Moscow
seven days later, the city was in flames. Rather than surrender Russia’s “holy city” to
the French, Alexander had destroyed it. Napoleon stayed in the ruined city until the
middle of October, when he decided to turn back toward France.
As the snows—and the temperature—began to fall in early November, Russian
raiders mercilessly attacked Napoleon’s ragged, retreating army. Many soldiers
were killed in these clashes or died of their wounds. Still more dropped in their
tracks from exhaustion, hunger, and cold. Finally, in the middle of December, the
last survivors straggled out of Russia. The retreat from Moscow had devastated the
Grand Army—only 10,000 soldiers were left to fight.

Napoleon’s Downfall
Napoleon’s enemies were quick to take advantage of his weakness. Britain, Russia,
Prussia, and Sweden joined forces against him. Austria also declared war on
Napoleon, despite his marriage to Marie Louise. All of the main powers of Europe
were now at war with France.
Napoleon Suffers Defeat In only a few months, Napoleon managed to raise
another army. However, most of his troops were untrained and ill prepared for bat-
tle. He faced the allied armies of the European powers outside the German city of
Leipzig (LYP•sihg) in October 1813. The allied forces easily defeated his inexpe-
rienced army and French resistance crumbled quickly. By January of 1814, the
allied armies were pushing steadily toward Paris. Some two months later, King
236 Chapter 7
 Page 4 of 4

Frederick William III of Prussia and Czar Alexander I of Russia led their
troops in a triumphant parade through the French capital.
Napoleon wanted to fight on, but his generals refused. In April 1814, he
accepted the terms of surrender and gave up his throne. The victors gave Napoleon
a small pension and exiled, or banished, him to Elba, a tiny island off the Italian
coast. The allies expected no further trouble from Napoleon, but they were wrong.
The Hundred Days Louis XVI’s brother assumed the throne as Louis XVIII. (The
executed king’s son, Louis XVII, had died in prison in 1795.) However, the new
king quickly became unpopular among his subjects, especially the peasants. They
suspected him of wanting to undo the Revolution’s land reforms.
The news of Louis’s troubles was all the incentive Napoleon needed to try to
regain power. He escaped from Elba and, on March 1, 1815, landed in France. Joyous
Analyzing Motives crowds welcomed him on the march to Paris. And thousands of volunteers swelled
Why do you the ranks of his army. Within days, Napoleon was again emperor of France.
think the French In response, the European allies quickly marshaled their armies. The British
people welcomed
army, led by the Duke of Wellington, prepared for battle near the village of
back Napoleon so
eagerly? Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army
defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussian army arrived.
Together, the British and the Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later,
Napoleon’s exhausted troops gave way, and the British and Prussian forces chased
them from the field.
▲ British soldiers
This defeat ended Napoleon’s last bid for power, called the Hundred Days.
who fought at the
Taking no chances this time, the British shipped Napoleon to St. Helena, a remote battle of Waterloo
island in the South Atlantic. There, he lived in lonely exile for six years, writing his received this medal.
memoirs. He died in 1821 of a stomach ailment, perhaps cancer.
Without doubt, Napoleon was a military genius and a brilliant administrator. Yet
all his victories and other achievements must be measured against the millions of
lives that were lost in his wars. The French writer Alexis de Tocqueville summed
up Napoleon’s character by saying, “He was as great as a man can be without
virtue.” Napoleon’s defeat opened the door for the freed European countries to
establish a new order.

SECTION 4 ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• blockade • Continental System • guerrilla • Peninsular War • scorched-earth policy • Waterloo • Hundred Days

USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

2. Which of Napoleon’s mistakes 3. How did Great Britain
was the most serious? combat Napoleon’s naval
Why? (10.2.4) blockade? (10.2.4)
4. Why did Napoleon have
trouble fighting the enemy
Napoleon's Effect on
Mistakes Empire
forces in the Peninsular
War? (10.2.4)
5. Why was Napoleon’s delay of
the retreat from Moscow such
a great blunder? (10.2.4)
6. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why did some people resist
Napoleon’s efforts to build an empire? (10.2.4)
7. EVALUATING COURSES OF ACTION Napoleon had no
choice but to invade Russia. Do you agree with this
statement? Why or why not? (10.2.4)
8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you think that
Napoleon was a great leader? Explain. (10.2.4)
9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY In the role of a
volunteer in Napoleon’s army during the Hundred Days,
write a letter to a friend explaining why you are willing to
fight for the emperor. (Writing 2.4.d)

CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A MAP

Conduct research on how nationalist feelings affect world affairs today. Create a map showing
the areas of the world where nationalist movements are active. Annotate the map with
explanations of the situation in each area. (CST 3)

The French Revolution and Napoleon 237


The Congress of Vienna
MAIN IDEA
POWER AND AUTHORITY After
exiling Napoleon, European
leaders at the Congress of
Vienna tried to restore order
and reestablish peace.
CALIFORNIA STANDARDS
10.2.5 Discuss how nationalism spread across
Europe with Napoleon but was repressed
for a generation under the Congress of
Vienna and Concert of Europe until the
Revolutions of 1848.
10.9.8 Discuss the establishment and work of
the United Nations and the purposes and
functions of the Warsaw Pact, SEATO, NATO,
and the Organization of American States.
CST 1 Students compare the present with
the past, evaluating the consequences of
past events and decisions and determining
the lessons that were learned.
CST 3 Students use a variety of maps and
documents to interpret human movement,
including major patterns of domestic and
international migration, changing environ-
mental preferences and settlement patterns,
the frictions that develop between popula-
tion groups, and the diffusion of ideas,
technological innovations, and goods.
TAKING NOTES
Recognizing Effects
Use a chart to show
howw the three goals
of Metternich’s plan at
the Congress of Vienna
solved a political
problem.
Metternich's Plan
Problem Solution
238 Chapter 7
Page 1 of 4
WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES
International bodies such as the • Congress of • legitimacy
United Nations play an active Vienna • Holy Alliance
role in trying to maintain world • Klemens von • Concert of
peace and stability today. Metternich Europe
• balance of power
SETTING THE STAGE European heads of government were looking to
establish long-lasting peace and stability on the continent after the defeat of
Napoleon. They had a goal of the new European order—one of collective secu-
rity and stability for the entire continent. A series of meetings in Vienna, known
as the Congress of Vienna, were called to set up policies to achieve this goal.
Originally, the Congress of Vienna was scheduled to last for four weeks. Instead,
it went on for eight months.
Metternich’s Plan for Europe
Most of the decisions made in Vienna during the winter of 1814–1815 were
made in secret among representatives of the five “great powers”—Russia,
Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, and France. By far the most influential of these
representatives was the foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von
Metternich (MEHT•uhr•nihk).
Metternich distrusted the democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Like
most other European aristocrats, he felt that Napoleon’s behavior had been a nat-
ural outcome of experiments with democracy. Metternich wanted to keep things
as they were and remarked, “The first and greatest concern for the immense
majority of every nation is the stability of laws—never their change.” Metternich
had three goals at the Congress of Vienna. First, he wanted to prevent future
French aggression by surrounding France with strong countries. Second, he
wanted to restore a balance of power, so that no country would be a threat to
others. Third, he wanted to restore Europe’s royal families to the thrones they had
held before Napoleon’s conquests.
The Containment of France The Congress took the following steps to make
the weak countries around France stronger:
• The former Austrian Netherlands and Dutch Republic were united to form the
Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• A group of 39 German states were loosely joined as the newly created
German Confederation, dominated by Austria.
• Switzerland was recognized as an independent nation.
• The Kingdom of Sardinia in Italy was strengthened by the addition of
Genoa.
 Page 2 of 4

These changes enabled the countries of Europe to contain France and prevent it ▲ Delegates at the

from overpowering weaker nations. (See the map on page 240.) Congress of Vienna
study a map of
Balance of Power Although the leaders of Europe wanted to weaken France, they Europe.
did not want to leave it powerless. If they severely punished France, they might
encourage the French to take revenge. If they broke up France, then another coun-
try might become so strong that it would threaten them all. Thus, the victorious
powers did not exact a great price from the defeated nation. As a result, France
remained a major but diminished European power. Also, no country in Europe
could easily overpower another.
Legitimacy The great powers affirmed the principle of legitimacy—agreeing that
as many as possible of the rulers whom Napoleon had driven from their thrones be
restored to power. The ruling families of France, Spain, and several states in Italy
and Central Europe regained their thrones. The participants in the Congress of
Vienna believed that the return of the former monarchs would stabilize political
relations among the nations.
The Congress of Vienna was a political triumph in many ways. For the first time,
the nations of an entire continent had cooperated to control political affairs. The
settlements they agreed upon were fair enough that no country was left bearing a
grudge. Therefore, the Congress did not sow the seeds of future wars. In that sense,
it was more successful than many other peace meetings in history.
Drawing By agreeing to come to one another’s aid in case of threats to peace, the
Conclusions
European nations had temporarily ensured that there would be a balance of power
In what ways
was the Congress
on the continent. The Congress of Vienna, then, created a time of peace in Europe.
of Vienna a It was a lasting peace. None of the five great powers waged war on one another for
success? nearly 40 years, when Britain and France fought Russia in the Crimean War.

Political Changes Beyond Vienna

The Congress of Vienna was a victory for conservatives. Kings and princes
resumed power in country after country, in keeping with Metternich’s goals.
Nevertheless, there were important differences from one country to another.
Britain and France now had constitutional monarchies. Generally speaking, how-
ever, the governments in Eastern and Central Europe were more conservative. The
rulers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were absolute monarchs.
The French Revolution and Napoleon 239
 Page 3 of 4

Europe, 1810 Europe, 1817 KINGDOM OF

NORWAY AND

8°E
SWEDEN

32°E
KINGDOM

24°E

16°E

24°E
8°E
8°W
W
8°W
W

OF

16°

0°
16°

0°
KINGDOM OF
SWEDEN

Sea
Sea
DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM
North

16°E
AND NORWAY
UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN S e a

ti c
ti c
OF GREAT BRITAIN N o r t h l 50° AND IRELAND DENMARK l
Sea Ba N Ba
50°
N
AND IRELAND IA NETHERLANDS
SS RUSSIAN A
PRU London I
London Berlin GRAND
HANOVER
S S
DUCHY OF
EMPIRE R
U Berlin RUSSIAN
Brussels Brussels
CONFEDERATION WARSAW P EMPIRE
Amiens OF ATLANTIC Amiens SAXONY
Paris B
ATLANTIC Paris THE

AV
Versailles OCEAN Versailles
RHINE

ARIA
OCEAN AUSTRIAN AUSTRIAN
FRENCH FRANCE
Vienna SWITZ. Vienna
EMPIRE SWITZ. EMPIRE 42°
N Milan EMPIRE
42°
N Milan ITALY PARMA
AL

MODENA

AL
ILLYRIAN
UG

LUCCA

UG
PROVINCES TUSCANY PAPAL OTTOMAN
Madrid KINGDOM
RT

Madrid STATES

RT
CORSICA
PO

OF CORSICA EMPIRE
OTTOMAN SPAIN

PO
SPAIN Rome KINGDOM
SARDINIA
EMPIRE Rome Naples
SARDINIA Naples OF KINGDOM
Gibraltar Mediterranean Sea NAPLES Gibraltar Mediterranean Sea OF THE
34°N
SICILY TWO SICILIES

French Empire Small German states

Countries controlled by Napoleon
Countries allied with Napoleon
Countries at war with Napoleon
Neutral countries
0 400 Miles 0 400 Miles
Boundary of the
German Confederation
0 800 Kilometers 0 800 Kilometers

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps

1. Region What parts of Napoleon’s French Empire did France lose as a result of the
Congress of Vienna?
2. Region In what sense did the territorial changes of 1815 reflect a restoration of order
and balance?

Conservative Europe The rulers of Europe were very nervous about the legacy of
the French Revolution. They worried that the ideals of liberty, equality, and frater-
nity might encourage revolutions elsewhere. Late in 1815, Czar Alexander I,
Emperor Francis I of Austria, and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed an
agreement called the Holy Alliance. In it, they pledged to base their relations with
other nations on Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution.
Finally, a series of alliances devised by Metternich, called the Concert of Europe,
ensured that nations would help one another if any revolutions broke out.
Across Europe, conservatives held firm control of the governments, but they
could not contain the ideas that had emerged during the French Revolution. France
after 1815 was deeply divided politically. Conservatives were happy with the
monarchy of Louis XVIII and were determined to make it last. Liberals, however,
wanted the king to share more power with the legislature. And many people in the
lower classes remained committed to the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Making
Similarly, in other countries there was an explosive mixture of ideas and factions Inferences
that would contribute directly to revolutions in 1830 and 1848. What seeds of
Despite their efforts to undo the French Revolution, the leaders at the Congress of democracy had
Vienna could not turn back the clock. The Revolution had given Europe its first been sown by the
French Revolution?
experiment in democratic government. Although the experiment had failed, it had set
new political ideas in motion. The major political upheavals of the early 1800s had
their roots in the French Revolution.
Revolution in Latin America The actions of the Congress of Vienna had conse-
quences far beyond events in Europe. When Napoleon deposed the king of Spain
during the Peninsular War, liberal Creoles (colonists born in Spanish America)
240 Chapter 7
 Page 4 of 4

seized control of many colonies in the Americas. When the

Congress of Vienna restored the king to the Spanish throne,
royalist peninsulares (colonists born in Spain) tried to
regain control of these colonial governments. The Creoles, Congress of Vienna and the
United Nations
however, attempted to retain and expand their power. In
The Congress of Vienna and the
response, the Spanish king took steps to tighten control over
Concert of Europe tried to keep the
the American colonies. world safe from war. The modern
This action angered the Mexicans, who rose in revolt and equivalent of these agreements is the
successfully threw off Spain’s control. Other Spanish colonies United Nations (UN), an international
in Latin America also claimed independence. At about the organization established in 1945 and
same time, Brazil declared independence from Portugal. (See continuing today, whose purpose is
to promote world peace.
Chapter 8.)
Like the Congress of Vienna, the
Long-Term Legacy The Congress of Vienna left a legacy United Nations was formed by major
that would influence world politics for the next 100 years. powers after a war—World War II.
The continent-wide efforts to establish and maintain a bal- These powers agreed to cooperate to
reduce tensions and bring greater
ance of power diminished the size and the power of France.
harmony to international relations.
At the same time, the power of Britain and Prussia increased. Throughout its history, the United
Nationalism began to spread in Italy, Germany, Greece, Nations has used diplomacy as its
and to other areas that the Congress had put under foreign chief method of keeping the peace.
control. Eventually, the nationalistic feelings would explode
into revolutions, and new nations would be formed.
European colonies also responded to the power shift.
INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a graphic
Spanish colonies took advantage of the events in Europe to organizer to show the major agencies
Recognizing declare their independence and break away from Spain. and functions of the United Nations. Go
Effects At the same time, ideas about the basis of power and to classzone.com for your research.
How did the authority had changed permanently as a result of the French
French Revolution Revolution. More and more, people saw democracy as the best way to ensure
affect not only
Europe but also
equality and justice for all. The French Revolution, then, changed the social atti-
other areas of the tudes and assumptions that had dominated Europe for centuries. A new era
world? had begun.

SECTION 5 ASSESSMENT

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• Congress of Vienna • Klemens von Metternich • balance of power • legitimacy • Holy Alliance • Concert of Europe

USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING

2. What was the overall effect 3. What were the three points
of Metternich’s plan on of Metternich’s plan for
France? (10.2.5) Europe? (10.2.5)
4. Why was the Congress of
Metternich's Plan Vienna considered a
success? (10.2.5)
Problem Solution
5. What was the long-term
legacy of the Congress of
Vienna? (10.2.5)
6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS From France’s point of view,
were Congress of Vienna’s decisions fair? (10.2.5)
7. ANALYZING ISSUES Why did liberals and conservatives
differ over who should have power? (10.2.5)
8. MAKING INFERENCES What do you think is meant by the
statement that the French Revolution let the “genie out of
the bottle”? (10.2.5)
9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY In the role of a
newspaper editor in the early 1800s, write an editorial—
pro or con—on the Congress of Vienna and its impact on
politics in Europe. (Writing 2.6.b)

CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A SCRAPBOOK

Work in pairs to locate recent articles in newspapers and magazines on the peacekeeping
efforts of the UN. Photocopy or clip the articles and use them to create a scrapbook titled
“The UN as Peacekeeper.” (10.9.8)

The French Revolution and Napoleon 241

 Page 1 of 2

Chapter 7 Assessment
TERMS & NAMES
For each term or name below, briefly explain its connection to the French
Revolution or the rise and fall of Napoleon.
The French Revolution 1. estate 5. coup d’état
and Napoleon 2. Great Fear 6. Napoleonic Code
3. guillotine 7. Waterloo
Long-Term Causes
4. Maximilien Robespierre 8. Congress of Vienna
• Social and economic injustices of the
Old Regime
• Enlightenment ideas—liberty and equality MAIN IDEAS
• Example furnished by the American The French Revolution Begins Section 1 (pages 217–221)
Revolution 9. Why were the members of the Third Estate dissatisfied with their way
of life under the Old Regime? (10.2.4)
10. Why was the fall of the Bastille important to the French people? (10.2.4)
Immediate Causes
Revolution Brings Reform and Terror Section 2 (pages 222–228)
• Economic crisis—famine and government debt 11. What political reforms resulted from the French Revolution? (10.2.4)
• Weak leadership 12. What was the Reign of Terror, and how did it end? (10.2.4)
• Discontent of the Third Estate
Napoleon Forges an Empire Section 3 (pages 229–233)
13. What reforms did Napoleon introduce? (10.2.5)
Revolution 14. What steps did Napoleon take to create an empire in Europe? (10.2.4)
Napoleon’s Empire Collapses Section 4 (pages 234–237)
• Fall of the Bastille
15. What factors led to Napoleon’s defeat in Russia? (10.2.4)
• National Assembly
16. Why were the European allies able to defeat Napoleon in 1814 and
• Declaration of the
again in 1815? (10.2.4)
Rights of Man and
of the Citizen and The Congress of Vienna Section 5 (pages 238–241)
a new constitution 17. What were Metternich’s three goals at the Congress of Vienna? (10.2.5)
18. How did the Congress of Vienna ensure peace in Europe? (10.2.5)

CRITICAL THINKING
Immediate Effects 1. USING YOUR
al

NOTES
tion tion

• End of the Old Regime

es
ven f Na

Copy the chart of

attl

pire

• Execution of monarch
gb
Con nse o

dates and events in

em

oo
or

ar
nin

•
per

falg

terl

War with other European nations

sia
ge

Napoleon’s career
p
fe

a
Cou

Win

Rus
Em

Wa
Lar

Elb
Tra
De

• Reign of Terror into your notebook.

• Rise of Napoleon For each event, draw
an arrow up or 1795 1799 1804 1805 1805 1810 1812 1814 1815
down to show
whether Napoleon gained or lost power because of the event. (10.2.5)
Long-Term Effects
2. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
• Conservative reaction ECONOMICS How were the economic conditions in France and the American
• Decline in French power colonies before their revolutions similar? How were they different? (10.2.4)
• Spread of Enlightenment ideas
3. ANALYZING ISSUES
• Growth of nationalism REVOLUTION There is a saying: “Revolutions devour their own children.”
• Revolutions in Latin America What evidence from this chapter supports that statement? (10.2.4)

4. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS
POWER AND AUTHORITY How did the Congress of Vienna affect power and
authority in European countries after Napoleon’s defeat? Consider who held
power in the countries and the power of the countries themselves. (10.2.5)
242 Chapter 7
 Page 2 of 2

Use the excerpt—from the South American liberator Simón
Bolívar, whose country considered giving refuge to
Napoleon after Waterloo—and your knowledge of world
history to answer questions 1 and 2.
Additional Test Practice, pp. S1–S33
Use the map, which shows Great Britain and the French
Empire in 1810, and your knowledge of world history to
answer question 3.
Great Britain and France, 1810

8°E
0°
8°W
GREAT North
BRITAIN Sea
If South America is struck by the thunderbolt of 50°N London
Bonaparte’s arrival, misfortune will ever be ours if our
En g l i s h C h a n n e l Brussels
country accords him a friendly reception. His thirst for Amiens
conquest is insatiable [cannot be satisfied]; he has mowed Paris
Versailles
down the flower of European youth . . . in order to carry
ATLANTIC
out his ambitious projects. The same designs will bring
OCEAN FRENCH
him to the New World. EMPIRE
SIMÓN BOLÍVAR L P S
A
P Y
0 100 Miles R E N
E ES
1. In Bolívar’s opinion, if his country gave Napoleon a friendly
0 200 Kilometers
reception, it would (10.2.4)
Mediterranean Sea
A. be beset by misfortune.
B. become a great power in South America. 3. What geographical barrier helped to protect Britain
from an invasion by Napoleon? (10.2.4)
C. become a part of the French Empire.
A. Mediterranean Sea C. Alps
D. be attacked by the United States.
B. English Channel D. Pyrenees
2. Which of the following gives Bolívar’s view of Napoleon? (10.2.4)
A. His desire for power cannot be satisfied.
B. He is not ambitious.
TEST PRACTICE Go to classzone.com
C. He cares for the lives of others.
• Diagnostic tests • Strategies
D. He does not want to come to the New World.
• Tutorials • Additional practice

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
1. Interact with History (10.2.4)
NetExplorations: The French Revolution (Writing 2.6.b)
On page 216, you considered how to bring about change in the
French government in the late 1700s. Now that you have read Go to NetExplorations at classzone.com to learn more about
the chapter, reevaluate your thoughts on how to change an the French Revolution. Then plan a virtual field trip to sites in
unjust government. Was violent revolution justified? effective? France related to the revolution. Be sure to include sites
Would you have advised different actions? Discuss your outside Paris. Begin your research by exploring the Web sites
opinions with a small group. recommended at NetExplorations. Include the following in
your field trip plan:
2. WRITING ABOUT HISTORY (Writing 2.1.c) • a one-paragraph description of each site and the events that
Imagine that you lived in Paris throughout the French happened there
Revolution. Write journal entries on several of the major • specific buildings, statues, or other items to view at each site
events of the Revolution. Include the following events:
• documents and other readings to help visitors prepare for
• the storming of the Bastille each stop on the field trip
• the women’s march on Versailles • topics to discuss at each site
• the trial of Louis XVI • a list of Web sites used to create your virtual field trip
• the Reign of Terror
• the rise of Napoleon

The French Revolution and Napoleon 243

Unit III – The Industrial Revolution

A. The Beginning of Industrialization

B. Industrialization Spreads to Other Countries
C. The Effects of Industrial Revolution
1. Working and Living Conditions
2. New Economic Theories Develop
3. Reformers Respond to Economic and Social Problems
4. Industrialization Brings Political Change
 1. BEGINNING

INDUSTRIAL
2. SPREAD
REVOLUTION

3. EFFECTS
 WHAT IS
INDUSTRIALIZATION?
 INDUSTRIALIZATION
• Industrialization is the process of developing industries
that use machines to produce goods.
• This process not only revolutionizes a country’s
economy, it also transforms social conditions and
class structures.
 A. AGRICULTURAL
REVOLUTION
1. BEGINNING
OF THE
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
AGRICULTURAL
REVOLUTION
 ENCLOSURES

LARGER FIELDS TO CULTIVATE

MORE PRODUCTIVE SEEDING AND

HARVESTING METHODS
• Jethro Tull was one of the first of these scientific
farmers.
• He solved this problem with an invention called the
seed drill in about 1701.
• It allowed farmers to sow seeds in well-spaced rows at
specific depths. A larger share of the seeds took root,
boosting crop yields.
 A. AGRICULTURAL
REVOLUTION
1. BEGINNING
OF THE
B. ENGLAND
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
WHY IN ENGLAND?
 ADVANTAGES OF ENGLAND

LARGE POPULATION DEVELOPED BANKING

SYSTEM
 ADVANTAGES OF ENGLAND

POLITICAL STABILITY RICH NATURAL

RESOURCES
 A. AGRICULTURAL
REVOLUTION
1. BEGINNING
OF THE
B. ENGLAND
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
C. INVENTIONS
INVENTIONS
 INVENTOR INVENTION
1. John Kay Flying Shuttle
 INVENTOR INVENTION
1. John Kay Flying Shuttle
2. James Hargreaves Spinning Jenny
 INVENTOR INVENTION
1. John Kay Flying Shuttle
2. James Hargreaves Spinning Jenny
3. Richard Arkwright Water Frame
 INVENTOR INVENTION
1. John Kay Flying Shuttle
2. James Hargreaves Spinning Jenny
3. Richard Arkwright Water Frame
4. Samuel Crompton Spinning Mule
 INVENTOR INVENTION
1. John Kay Flying Shuttle
2. James Hargreaves Spinning Jenny
3. Richard Arkwright Water Frame
4. Samuel Crompton Spinning Mule
5. Edmund Cartwright Power loom
• The water frame, the spinning mule, and the power loom
were bulky and expensive machines.
• They took the work of spinning and weaving out of
the house.
• Wealthy textile merchants set up the machines in large
buildings called factories.
• Factories needed waterpower, so the first ones were
built near rivers and streams.
 INVENTOR INVENTION
6. James Watt More efficient steam
engine
7. Robert Fulton Steamboat
8. Richard Trevithick Steam-driven
locomotive
9. George Stephenson Railroad line
 George
Stephenson’s
Rocket
 RAILROADS REVOLUTIONIZED LIFE IN BRITAIN

1. a cheap way to transport materials and finished products

2. created hundreds of thousands of new jobs
3. allowed products to reach distant cities
4. encouraged country people to take distant city jobs
 1. UNITED STATES

SPREAD OF
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES

• US possessed the same resources that allowed Britain

to mechanize its industries
• Eager to keep the secrets of industrialization to itself,
Britain had forbidden engineers, mechanics, and
toolmakers to leave the country.
 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES

• In 1789, however, a young British mill worker named

Samuel Slater emigrated to the United States.
• There, Slater built a spinning machine from memory
and a partial design.
• Also followed the pattern in UK – revolutionizing the
textile industry and railroad systems.
 MILL GIRLS
• Thousands of young single women flocked from their rural
homes to work as mill girls in factory towns.
• However, to ensure proper behavior, they were watched
closely inside and outside the factory by their employers.
• The mill girls toiled more than 12 hours a day, 6 days a
week, for decent wages.
• For some, the mill job was an alternative to being a servant
and was often the only other job open to them
 RISE OF CORPORATIONS
• Building large businesses like railroads required a great
deal of money.
• To raise the money, entrepreneurs sold shares of
stock, or certain rights of ownership.
• Thus people who bought stock became part owners of
these businesses, which were called corporations.
 RISE OF CORPORATIONS
• A corporation is a business owned by stockholders
who share in its profits but are NOT personally
responsible for its debts.
• Corporations were able to raise the large amounts of
capital needed to invest in industrial equipment.
 RISE OF CORPORATIONS
• In the late 1800s, large corporations such as Standard
Oil (founded by John D. Rockefeller) and the (founded
by Andrew Carnegie) sprang up.
• In the United States as elsewhere, workers earned low
wages for laboring long hours, while stockholders
earned high profits and corporate leaders made
fortunes.
 1. UNITED STATES

SPREAD OF
INDUSTRIAL 2. BELGIUM
REVOLUTION
 SPREAD IN EUROPE
• European businesses yearned to adopt the “British
miracle,” the result of Britain’s profitable new
methods of manufacturing goods.
 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN BELGIUM
• Much like Slater, a Lancashire carpenter named William
Cockerill illegally made his way to Belgium in 1799.
• He carried secret plans for building spinning machinery.
• His son John eventually built an enormous industrial
enterprise in eastern Belgium.
• It produced a variety of mechanical equipment, including
steam engines and railway locomotives.
 1. UNITED STATES

SPREAD OF
INDUSTRIAL 2. BELGIUM
REVOLUTION
3. GERMANY
 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN GERMANY

• Beginning around 1835, Germany began to copy the

British model.
• Germany imported British equipment and engineers.
• German manufacturers also sent their children to
England to learn industrial management.
 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN GERMANY

• Germany’s economic strength spurred its ability to

develop as a military power.
• By the late 1800s, a unified, imperial Germany had
become both an industrial and a military giant.
 1. WORKING AND LIVING
CONDITIONS

EFFECTS OF
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
• For centuries, most Europeans had lived in rural areas.
• After 1800, the balance shifted toward cities.
• This shift was caused by the growth of the factory system,
where the manufacturing of goods was concentrated in a
central location.
• Most of Europe’s urban areas at least doubled in
population; some even quadrupled.
• This period was one of urbanization—city building and
the movement of people to cities.
 LIVING CONDITIONS
• Because England’s cities grew rapidly, they had NO
development plans, sanitary codes, or building codes.
• Moreover, they lacked (1) adequate housing, (2) education,
and (3) police protection for the people who poured in
from the countryside to seek jobs.
• Most of the unpaved streets had NO drains, and garbage
collected in heaps on them.
 LIVING CONDITIONS
• Workers lived in dark, dirty shelters, with whole families
crowding into one bedroom.
• Sickness was widespread. Epidemics of the deadly
disease cholera regularly swept through the slums of Great
Britain’s industrial cities.
• In 1842, a British government study showed an average life
span to be 17 years for working-class people in one large
city, compared with 38 years in a nearby rural area.
 WORKING CONDITIONS
• To increase production, factory owners wanted to keep
their machines running as many hours as possible.
• As a result, the average worker spent 14 hours a day
at the job, 6 days a week.
• Work did NOT change with the seasons, as it did on
the farm.
 WORKING CONDITIONS
• Industry also posed new dangers for workers.
• Factories were seldom well lit or clean.
• Machines injured workers.
• And there was no government program to provide aid
in case of injury.
 WORKING CONDITIONS
• The most dangerous conditions of all were found in coal
mines.
• Frequent accidents, damp conditions, and the constant
breathing of coal dust made the average miner’s life span
ten years shorter than that of other workers.
• Many women and children were employed in the mining
industry because they were the cheapest source of labor.
 1. WORKING AND LIVING
CONDITIONS

EFFECTS OF
2. NEW ECONOMIC
INDUSTRIAL THEORIES
REVOLUTION
NEW ECONOMIC THEORIES DEVELOPED
THEORY PHILOSOPHER
LAISSEZ-FAIRE (Capitalism) Adam Smith
POPULATION THEORY Thomas Malthus
LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS David Ricardo
UTILITARIANISM Jeremy Bentham
SOCIALISM Charles Fourier, et al
COMMUNISM Karl Marx, et al
 1. WORKING AND LIVING
CONDITIONS

EFFECTS OF
2. NEW ECONOMIC
INDUSTRIAL THEORIES
REVOLUTION
3. RESPONSE TO
PROBLEMS
 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS
1. Abolition of slavery
• William Wilberforce led the fight for abolition
• Parliament passed a bill to end the slave trade in the
British West Indies in 1807
• After he retired from Parliament in 1825, Wilberforce
continued his fight to free the slaves. Britain finally
abolished slavery in its empire in 1833.
 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS
1. Abolition of slavery
• In the United States the movement to fulfill the
promise of the Declaration of Independence by ending
slavery grew in the early 1800s.
• The enslavement of African people finally ended in the
United States when the Union won the Civil War in
1865.
 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS
2. The Fight for Women’s Rights
• Women factory workers usually made only one-third as
much money as men did
• In Britain, some women served as safety inspectors in
factories where other women worked.
• In the United States, college-educated women like Jane
Addams ran settlement houses. These community centers
served the poor residents of slum neighborhoods.
 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS
2. The Fight for Women’s Rights
• Women activists around the world joined to found the
International Council for Women in 1888.
• Delegates and observers from 27 countries attended
the council’s 1899 meeting
 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS
3. Free public education for all children
• initiated by Horace Mann of Massachusetts
• spent his childhood working at labor
• “If we do not prepare children to become good citizens . . . if we
do not enrich their minds with knowledge, then our republic must
go down to destruction.”
 RESPONSE TO PROBLEMS
4. Prison reform
• French writer Alexis de Tocqueville had contrasted the
brutal conditions in American prisons to the “extended
liberty” of American society.
• Those who sought to reform prisons emphasized the
goal of providing prisoners with the means to lead to
useful lives upon release
 4. POLITICAL CHANGE

EFFECTS OF
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
 Factory workers faced long hours, dirty and dangerous
working conditions, and the threat of being laid off.
By the 1800s, working people became more active in
politics. To press for reforms, workers joined together
in voluntary labor associations called unions.
• A union spoke for all the workers in a particular
trade.
• Unions engaged in collective bargaining negotiations
between workers and their employers.
• The bargained for better working conditions and
higher pay.
• If factory owners refused these demands, union
members could strike, or refuse to work.
• Skilled workers led the way in forming unions because
their special skills gave them extra bargaining power.
• Management would have trouble replacing such skilled
workers as carpenters, printers, and spinners.
• Eventually, reformers and unions forced political
leaders to look into the abuses caused by
industrialization.
• Parliament passed the Factory Act of 1833.
• The new law made it illegal to hire children under 9
years old.
• Children from the ages of 9 to 12 could not work more
than 8 hours a day.
• Young people from 13 to 17 could not work more than
12 hours.
• In 1842, the Mines Act prevented women and children
from working underground.
• The Ten Hours Act of 1847 limited the workday to
ten hours for women and children who worked in
factories
• In 1904, a group of progressive reformers organized
the National Child Labor Committee to end child
labor.
 Unit 9
Industrial Revolution

Section 1: Beginnings of Industrialization

The Industrial Revolution
• c. 1750/60- 1850/60
• The Industrial Revolution begins in Britain/England, spreads to
other countries, and has a strong impact on economics, politics,
and society
• Greatly increases output of machine-made goods

Foundation of Industrial Revolution

• The Agricultural Revolution
▫ Enclosures—large farm fields enclosed by fences or
hedges
▫ Wealthy landowners buy, enclose land once owned by
village farmers
▫ Enclosure increased farming efficiency

Agricultural Revolution
• Agricultural Revolution led to the Industrial Revolution in
three ways:
▫ Increased food supplies
▫ Contributed to population growth
▫ Caused farmers to lose land and seek other work
• Crop rotation—switching crops each year to avoid depleting
the soil
▫ Increased crop yields= increased nutrients in the soil

Industrial Revolution Begins in England

• Industrialization—move to machine production of goods
• Britain's economy positively impacted industrialization through
Britain's highly developed banking system, the availability of
loans, and climate of progress
• Britain has all the needed factors of production to support
industrialization—land, labor, capital

Inventions Spur Industrialization

• Textile industry- first area to undergo major industrialization
▫ Water frame uses water power to drive spinning wheels
▫ Power loom, spinning mule speed up production,
improve quality
Watt’s Steam Engine
• Need for cheap, convenient power spurs development of a
steam engine
• James Watt improves the steam engine by making it work
faster and more efficiently while burning less fuel, financed by
Matthew Boulton
• Boulton an entrepreneur (business investor)—organizes,
manages, takes business risks
1
Improvements in Transportation
• Water Transportation
▫ Robert Fulton builds first steamboat, the Clermont, in
1807
• Road Transportation
▫ British roads are improved; companies operate them as
toll roads
• Railroads
▫ In 1804, Richard Trevithick builds first steam-driven
locomotive
▫ In 1825, George Stephenson builds world’s first
railroad line

Railroads
• Four major effects of the invention and perfection of the
locomotive:
▫ Railroads spur industrial growth by giving
manufacturers a cheap way to transport materials and
finished products
▫ Create jobs (railroad and mine workers)
▫ Offered cheap transportation for materials and good
▫ People move to cities- travel is made easier

Section 2: Industrialization
Domestic System to Factories
• Cottage/Domestic System
▫ Before factories, the manufacture of products like
textiles was done at home and on a small scale
▫ Workers made products in their own homes with
materials supplied by entrepreneurs
▫ Problems: people tended to work in spurts, lack of
standardization
• Factory Work
▫ Factories pay more than farms, spur demand for more
expensive goods

Industrial Cities
• Urbanization—city-building and movement of people to cities
• The main cause of urbanization was industrialization
• Growing population provides work force, market for factory
goods

2
Living Conditions in the Industrial Revolution
• Sickness was widespread; epidemics, like cholera, sweep urban
slums
• Life expectancy of the average worker dropped as a result of
the Industrial Revolution
▫ Illness caused by unhealthy living conditions
contributed to the shorter life span
▫ Average age only 17 in some cities
• Cities also do not have adequate housing, education, police
protection

Population Increases
• A larger population made possible by greater agricultural
production and improved medicine provided plenty of workers
for the new industries, so many in fact that wages fell
• When one group demanded a wage hike, employers could find
others willing to work

Working Conditions
• Average work day is 14 hours for 6 days a week, year round
• Dirty, poorly lit factories injure workers
• Many coal miners killed by coal dust

Manchester Industrialization
• Factories employed young children, especially orphans
▫ Children as young as 6 work in factories; many are
injured
• 1819 Factory Act= restricts working age, hours
• Factory pollution fouls air, poisons river
• Nevertheless, Manchester produces consumer goods and
creates wealth

Class Tensions Grow

• Middle class—skilled workers, merchants, rich farmers,
professionals
▫ Emerging middle class looked down on by landowners,
aristocrats
▫ But they begin to change British society when some
members of the middle class achieved top positions in
society
• The Working Class
▫ Laborers’ lives not immediately improved; some
laborers replaced by machines
▫ Unemployment a serious problem

3
The Luddites: 1811-1816
• The Luddites were a social movement of English textile
artisans
• Protested — often by destroying textile machines — against
the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution that
threatened their livelihood

Positive Effects of the Industrial Revolution

• Immediate Benefits
▫ Creates jobs, enriches nation, encourages technological
progress and the production of goods
▫ Education expands, clothing cheaper, diet and housing
improve
• Long-Term Effects
▫ Improved living and working conditions still evident
today
▫ Governments use increased tax revenues for urban
improvements

Section 3: Industrialization Spreads

Industrial Development in the U.S.
• U.S. has natural and labor resources needed to industrialize
• Samuel Slater, English textile worker, builds first textile mill in
the U.S.
• Lowell, Massachusetts a mechanized textile center by 1820

Industrial Development in the U.S. (cont.)

• Industrialization picks up during the post-Civil War technology
boom
• Small companies merge to form larger, powerful companies
• Corporations
▫ Stock—limited ownership rights for company, sold to
raise money
▫ Corporation—company owned by stockholders, share
profits not debts

Continental Europe Struggles to Industrialize

• The rest of Europe wished to industrialize as Britain had
• However, the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
between 1789 and 1815 had:
▫ halted trade
▫ interrupted communication
▫ caused inflation which disrupted European economies
• Additionally, Britain forbade engineers, mechanics, and
toolmakers from leaving the country in order to protect their
industrial secrets
▫ However, William Cockerill illegally emigrated to
Belgium in 1799-built mills

4
Continental Europe Industrializes- Germany
• Germany was politically divided in the early 1800s
▫ Scattered resources hampered countrywide
industrialization
▫ Instead, pockets of industrialization appeared
• Germany built railroads that linked its growing manufacturing
cities
• Germany’s economic strength spurred its ability to develop as
a military power

Industrial Expansion In Europe

• In Europe, industrialization during the early 1800s proceeded
by region rather than by country
• Even in countries dominated by agriculture pockets of
industrialization arose
• Why All Europeans Did Not Industrialize:
▫ In some nations the social structure delayed the
adoption of new methods of production
▫ Geography held others back
 Austria-Hungary- mountains prevented
transportation
 Spain- lacked adequate roads and waterways for
canals

Foreign Trade
• The industrial revolution stimulated foreign trade
• As more goods were produced than could be consumed on
home markets, countries became more aggressive in finding
markets overseas
• Led to the search for formal and informal colonial holdings- a
new imperialism

Rise of Global Inequality

• Wealth gap widens; non-industrialized countries fall further
behind
• Worldwide industrialization became the driving force behind
imperialism due to need for raw materials and markets

5
Section 4: Reforming the Industrial World
Laissez-faire Economics
• Laissez faire—economic policy of the government not
interfering with businesses
▫ Owners of industry set working conditions- no gov’t
interference
• Adam Smith—defender of free markets, author of The Wealth
of Nations
• Laissez-faire economics influenced early industrialists by
arguing that a free-market economy is governed by natural
laws, not government regulations
▫ Economic natural laws—self-interest, competition,
supply and demand
• In a free-market system the government will not interfere in
either domestic or international economic matters

The Economists of Capitalism

• Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo support the concept of
laissez-faire capitalism
▫ Like Smith they believed that natural laws governed
economic life; Their ideas were the foundation of
laissez-faire capitalism
• Capitalism—system of privately owned businesses seeking
profits

Utilitarianism
• In contrast to laissez-faire philosophy
• Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism judges actions by their
usefulness
 Argued that gov’t policy should promote the
greatest good for the greatest number of people-
a gov’t was only good if it promoted this goal

Socialism
• Socialism—factors of production owned by, and operated for
the people
• Sought to offset the ill effects of industrialization
• 19th century socialists argued that gov’t should actively plan
the economy rather than depend on the free-market
Marxist Socialism
• German journalist named Karl Marx introduced the world to
his brand of socialism= Marxism
▫ Associated with Communism
• Karl Marx and Frederick Engels outlined their views in a 23-
page pamphlet called The Communist Manifesto (published in
1848)
▫ Argued that human societies have always been divided
into warring classes
▫ Long term impact: in the 1900s, Marxism inspired
revolutionaries such as Russia's Lenin
6
Marxist Socialism (cont.)
• According to Marx and Engels the Industrial Revolution had
enriched the wealthy and impoverished the poor
• Communism—society where people own, share the means of
production (pure socialism)

Capitalism vs. Socialism

Capitalism Socialism
Individuals and businesses The community or the state
own property and the means of should own property and the
production means of production

Progress results when Progress results when a

individuals follow their own
self-interest and compete for
the consumer’s money
Consumers compete to buy the
best goods at the lowest prices
community of producers
cooperate for the good of all
Socialists believe that
capitalist employers take
advantage of workers, and
capitalism creates unequal
distribution of wealth and
material goods

Unionization
• Unions—associations formed by laborers to work for change
• When the trade movement began in Britain, the strike was an
illegal action taken against owners by union workers
• Collective bargaining= carried out between employers and
employees
• Union goals were higher wages, shorter hours, improved
conditions

Reform Laws
• British, U.S. laws passed to stop worst abuses of
industrialization
• 1842 Mines Act in Britain stops women, children working
underground
• In 1847, work day for women, children limited to 10 hours in
Britain
• Other reform movements included: abolition of slavery,
women's rights, public education

7
UNIT IV – THE WORLD CONFLICT
A. World War I
1. Marching Towards War
2. The Peace Settlement
B. World War II
1. Aggression Leads to War in Europe
2. Europe Falls to Axis Powers
3. Hitler’s Lightning War
4. The Holocaust
• Nationalism can serve as a unifying force within a
country.
• However, it also can cause intense competition
among nations, with each seeking to overpower the
other
—the blitzkrieg (BLIHTS•kreeg), or “lightning
war.” It involved using fast-moving airplanes
and tanks, followed by massive infantry
forces, to take enemy defenders by surprise
and quickly overwhelm them
 Unit 12
World War I
Section 1: Introduction
World War I- Introduction
• World War I (WWI) was a military conflict from 1914 to 1918
• Began as a local European war between Austria-
Hungary and Serbia
• The immediate cause/first incident of WWI was the
assassination on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Francis
Ferdinand in the city of Sarajevo
• Eventually became a global war involving 32 nations

Nations Involved
• Allies and Associated Powers
• Included: Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United
States (Twenty-eight nations total)
• Central Powers
• Included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and
Bulgaria

Underlying Causes of World War I

• M-A-I-N= militarism, alliances, imperialism, nationalism
• Nationalism= led not to cooperation but to competition;
rivalries over colonies and trade intensified during
imperialistic expansion
• Imperialism= in the last one-third of the 19th c. Europe
began to take control of large parts of the world
• Militarism= between 1871 and 1914 the nations of
Europe were convinced that their interests were
threatened, so they maintained large standing armies;
constantly replenished these armies through peacetime
conscription
• Link between militarism and imperialism= as a
country gained colonies, its military grows to
protect them

Alliances
• A system of alliances that included all of the major powers of
Europe was a major factor leading to WWI
• Prior to 1914 the major powers of Europe formed alliances
with one another
• Triple Entente= Britain, France, and Russia
• Triple Alliance= Germany, Austria-Hungary, (and
later) Turkey (the Ottoman Empire), Italy
• A dispute between any two powers of these rival groups
could draw all the major nations of Europe into war

1
Section 2: The Great War Begins
First Incident of World War I
• Background: Bosnia and Herzegovina had been annexed by
Austria-Hungary in 1908; Serbian nationalists believed these
areas should become part of the newly independent Serbian
nation
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the nephew of the Austro-
Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef and the heir to the Austro-
Hungarian Empire
• On June 28, 1914 the Archduke and his wife were in the
Bosnian city of Sarajevo to inspect the imperial armed forces in
Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ferdinand’s Assassination
• Ferdinand and Sophie were touring Sarajevo in an open car
when a Serbian nationalist threw a bomb at their car; the
Archduke was not injured, but one of his officers + members of
the crowd were hurt
• On the way to visit the injured officer, the archduke and his
wife were shot and killed in their open car by 19-year-old
Gavrilo Princip
• Princip was a member of a Serbian nationalist group called the
Black Hand
• The direct participation of the Serbian government was
not proven but was highly likely

Impact of the Assassination

• Count Leopold von Berchtold, the foreign minister of Austria,
believed that Ferdinand’s assassination justified crushing the
anti-Austrian propaganda and terrorism coming from the Serbs
• Emperor William II of Germany assured the Austrians of his
nation’s full support
• July 23= Austro-Hungarian foreign ministry presented an
ultimatum to the Serbs
• July 25= Austro-Hungarian government announced that
Serbia's reply was not satisfactory
• The Austrian authorities immediately mobilized their
armed forces
War is Declared
• July 28= Austria declared war on Serbia
• July 29= Russia mobilized its army; Russia supported the
Serbs so Austria would not dominate the Balkans
• August 1= Germany declared war on Russia
• The Russian mobilization threatened Germany,
because in the event of war on the eastern front,
there would also be war on the western front (with
France)
• France began full mobilization of its military
• August 3= Germany declared war on France

2
War Spreads
• Schlieffen Plan= Germany planned a quick attack and defeat of
France, which could mobilize faster than Russia, then a
movement of troops to the Eastern front in order to fight
against Russia which Germany believed would be slower to
mobilize for war
• August 4= To invade France at an advantageous position,
Germany had to march through Belgium which had declared
itself a neutral country in the war; Great Britain declared war
on Germany officially over the violation of Belgian neutrality
• By August 4, 1914 all of the major powers of Europe were at
war

Section 3: Western and Eastern Fronts

“The Great War”
• World War I was at heart about the balance of power on the
European continent
• Germany and its allies were threatening the balance of
power by arming themselves and threatening the
borders of Europe
• The general attitude toward the prospect of a Europe-wide war
among the people of Europe in the summer of 1914 was one of
naïve enthusiasm for the adventure of war
• Most people believed the war would be over quickly;
every European war since 1815 had ended in a matter
of weeks

First Battle of the Marne (Sept. 6-10)

• Schlieffen Plan= called for the German army to quickly sweep
through Belgium into northern France overtaking Paris and
encircling most of the French Army
• German soldiers would then rush to the east to defeat
the Russians
• While attempting to execute the Schlieffen Plan the German
army was halted just 20 miles from Paris at the First Battle of
the Marne
• After four days of fighting, the German generals gave the order
to retreat
• The battle was a decisive event in WWI- the defeat of the
Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins
• Germany was forced to fight a two-front war

3
Trench Warfare
• After the First Battle of the Marne the war on the Western
Front settled into a stalemate with the use of trench warfare
• Trench warfare= soldiers fought each other from an
extensive system of trenches; armies traded huge losses of
human life for small land gains
• Intended purpose of trench warfare was to protect
soldiers from enemy gun fire on the front lines
• Most military leaders were under the illusion that larger
numbers of troops would allow them to get their troops
beyond the enemy trenches and gain a quick victory

Trench Warfare (cont.)

• Trenches swarmed with rats and lice
• Fresh food was nonexistent
• Sleep was nearly impossible
• Space between the trenches was called “no man’s land”

Western Front
• The Western Front (from the Swiss border to the North Sea)
became a “terrain of death”
• The death toll reached a peak in 1916
• February= Verdun- over 300,000 losses on each side;
Germans advance only four miles
• July-November= Battle of the Somme- British attempt
to relieve the French army; more than 21,000 British
soldiers killed in a single day; British gain only five
miles

Eastern Front
• Eastern Front= Battlefield along the German and Russian
border
• War in the East was more mobile than in the West
• Russians and Serbs vs. Germans and Austro-Hungarians=
Eastern front fighting
• By 1916, Russia’s war effort was near collapse
• Russia was not extensively industrialized=
shortages of food, guns, ammunition, clothes, boots,
blankets etc. for military use
• However, the Russian army had one asset= its
numbers
• August, 1914= Battle of Tannenberg; Russians are
crushed and are forced into retreat

4
Section 4: The War Widens
American Neutrality
• U.S. official policy was to remain neutral at the outset of WWI
• Germany uses unrestricted submarine warfare- policy to sink
any ship in British waters without warning
• Germany halts the policy in 1915, after the sinking of the
Lusitania angers the U.S.
• More than 100 Americans were aboard the passenger
liner

America Enters WWI

• Germany renews unrestricted submarine warfare policy in 1917
hoping to keep cargo ships from reaching Great Britain
• Zimmerman Telegram- exposed the German plan to help
Mexico regain U.S. territory
• Officials intercepted a telegram written by Germany’s
foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, stating that
Germany would help Mexico “reconquer” the land it had
lost to the United States if Mexico would ally itself with
Germany
• Renewal of unrestricted sub-warfare and the effort to enlist
Mexico angers the U.S.
• U.S. declares war against Germany in April 1917 and joins the
Allies (Woodrow Wilson is the President); by 1918 U.S. troops
had turned the tide of war
Home Front: The Impact of Total War
• The prolongation of WWI made it a total war that affected the
lives of all citizens
• Total war= the nations involved in WWI devoted all
their resources to the war
• Propaganda (one-sided information that emphasizes
emotionalism) is used by governments to build/maintain
support for the war
• Wartime gov’ts expanded their powers over economies
• Free market capitalism limited as governments
controlled: prices, wages, rent control, rationing of food
supplies/materials, regulation of imports/exports
Conscription
• Most nations were forced to rely on conscription (forced
military service) to raise the number of soldiers needed to
continue to fight WWI
• Britain had the largest volunteer army in history but
was still forced to resort to conscription by 1916
• During WWI thousands of women fill jobs previously held by
men as volunteers and conscripts were sent into war
• At the end of the war, governments moved quickly to
remove women from the jobs they had encouraged
them to take earlier

5
Unrest at Home
• As the war dragged on people at home became restless about
the war and began to voice opposition
• Defence of the Realm Act (DORA)- passed in G.B.; allowed
public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors; allowed
censorship
• France- Georges Clemenceau suspends basic liberties in 1917

Section 5: The Russian Revolution

Background to the Russian Revolution
• 1881= Alexander III becomes czar, ends reforms which
benefitted peasants
• Institutes autocratic rule, suppressing all opposition or
dissent
• Successive czars continued this autocratic rule
• Government censors written criticism; secret police
monitor schools
• Non-Russians living in Russia are treated harshly
• Jews become target of government-backed pogroms
(mob violence)
• 1894= Nicholas II becomes czar, continues autocratic ways

Russian Industrialization
• Russia lagged far behind the industrial nations of western
Europe
• 1863-1900= An effort is made at rapid industrialization;
Number of factories doubles between 1863 and 1900; Russia
still lags
• Late 1800s= new plan boosts steel production; major
railway begins
• However, living and working conditions were horrendous and
workers began to organize

Vladimir Lenin
• There was a growing popularity of Marxist ideas that the
proletariat (workers) should rule and control the economy
• Bolsheviks= Marxists who favor revolution by a small
committed group
• Vladimir Lenin becomes the Bolshevik leader and agitates for
revolution and overthrow of the czar
• Early 1900s, Lenin fled to western Europe to avoid arrest by
the czarist regime
• From there he maintained contact with other Bolsheviks

6
The 1905 Revolution
• 1904/05= Russia and Japan fought for control of Korea and
Manchuria; Russia was defeated and humiliated
• Tsar Nicholas II became even more unpopular
• Government is seen to be weak and incompetent; food
shortages and unemployment were a major problem
• “Bloody Sunday,” 1905= Thousands of workers march on the
czar’s palace to demand reform; Army open fires into the
crowd, killing many
• Massacre leads to widespread unrest; Nicholas is forced to
make reforms
• The Duma, Russia’s first parliament, meets in 1906;
Czar is unwilling to share power, and dissolves the
Duma after only 10 weeks

Russia in WWI
• Heavy losses in World War I reveal the Russian government’s
weakness
• Over 15 million men joined the army; not enough
workers in factories and farms caused shortages of food
and materials
• Nicholas goes to the war front; Czarina Alexandra runs the
government
• Czarina falls under the influence of Rasputin- corrupt
“holy man”; nobles fear Rasputin’s influence, murder
him
• Army losing effectiveness; people begin to organize and strike

Revolution (1917)
• Feb 22- 20,000 steelworkers go on strike
• Feb 26- Tsar orders troops to fire on crowds- 40 killed + closes
the Duma (legislative body)
• Feb 27- Soldiers mutiny and establish the Petrograd Soviet
with workers and soldiers (refuse to disperse the crowds any
longer)
• March 15- Tsar Nicholas II abdicates his throne (as a result of
the working class women staging a massive food march in
Petrograd)

Aftermath of the Revolution

• The Provisional Government that took power after the tsar
abdicated his throne was headed by Alexander Kerensky
• However, the P.G. faced a challenge to its authority in the form
of the soviets (councils of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies)
• soviets represented the more radical interests of the
lower classes- largely composed of socialists

7
Bolsheviks Seize Power
• Lenin had been living in Switzerland since 1900; the Germans
arranged to have Lenin transported by train back to Russia in
April, 1917
• Once back in Russia, Lenin leads the Bolshevik resistance to
the Provisional Government
• Bolshevik promises:
• an end to the war; redistribution of all land to
the peasants; the transfer of factories and
industries from capitalists to committees of
workers; take gov’t power from the Provisional
Gov’t and give it to the soviets
• Slogans: “Peace, Land, Bread,” “Worker
Control of Production,” and “All Power to the
Soviets”

Bolsheviks Seize Power (cont.)

• Peasants angry with the P.G. started to seize land
• Workers/soviets joined the Bolsheviks
• Lenin’s Bolsheviks took control of the provisional government
in an almost bloodless coup on the night of November 6, 1917
• The Bolsheviks were renamed the Communists with Lenin as
the leader
• Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which made peace
with Germany

Section 6: End of the War

End of Fighting
• The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk allowed Germany to focus all their
efforts on the Western Front
• The final German offensive of WWI was stopped on July 18,
1918 at the Second Battle of the Marne
• At the very end of the war, the allies used tanks to smash
through the trenches
• The arrival of tanks and fresh American troops to the western
front turned the tide
• On September 29, 1918 General Ludendorff of Germany
demanded that the gov’t sue for peace
Germany Surrenders
• Woodrow Wilson (U.S. President) insisted that the Kaiser
William II would have to be removed from power, so the
Weimar Republic was established when the Kaiser abdicated
• WWI war came to an end at the eleventh hour, of the eleventh
day, of the eleventh month in 1918 (November 11, 1918)
• Armistice was signed near Paris bringing an end to
WWI
• WWI killed between 10 and 13 million people, one third of
whom were civilians
• World War I drained the treasuries of many European countries

8
Peace Negotiations
• In January 1919, the delegations of twenty-seven victorious
Allied nations gathered in Paris to conclude the settlement of
WWI- the Treaty of Versailles will be produced which was the
major treaty ending WWI
• In theory, the Treaty of Versailles was to be based on the
Fourteen Points President Wilson put forward in January, 1918,
before World War I was actually over
• Wilson’s Fourteen Points were a plan for the post-WWI
world
• Major Provisions of the Fourteen Points:
• "Open covenants openly arrived at"
• Popular determinism meant letting the people decide
what form of government they wanted, where they
wanted borders drawn, etc.
• League of Nations would be created to enforce this
peace

Key Leaders at Versailles Negotiations

• Group of leaders known as the Big Four dominate peace talks:
• U.S. president Woodrow Wilson
• French ruler Georges Clemenceau
• David Lloyd George of Great Britain
• Vittorio Orlando of Italy (much less important role than
the others)
• Germany not invited; Russia does not attend due to civil war

Versailles Negotiations
Leader Position
David Lloyd-George The British Prime minister himself was a
(Great Britain) moderate, but Lloyd-George had just won
election by making a commitment to the
British people to make the Germans pay for
the war; determined to destroy the merchant
and naval power of Germany

Georges Clemenceau Wanted revenge on Germany as well as for

(France) greater security for France; wanted a
defensive border on the Rhine River and a
weak Germany

Woodrow Wilson Wilson was idealistic and had trouble

(U.S.) dealing with seasoned veterans of European
politics; did not have the support of the
American Congress which had gone
Republican in the November 1918,
elections

9
Treaty of Versailles
• Allies + Germany sign a peace accord called the Treaty of
Versailles in June 1919
• Germany was forced to assume sole responsibility
for the war under the Treaty of Versailles
• created League of Nations —international
organization to keep peace (desired by President
Wilson)
• Penalties Imposed on Germany:
• a reduction in its army to 100,000 men
• a reduction in its navy
• the demilitarization of all lands along the Rhine
• Germany is forced to pay damages to allied nations
(Article 231- “War Guilt Clause”)
• League to rule German colonies until deemed ready
for independence
• United States never signs the Treaty of Versailles or joins
the League Nations due to domestic concerns; U.S. signs a
separate peace with Germany

Impact of Treaty of Versailles

• Germany and Russia lose extensive land
• Austro-Hungarian Empire ceases to exist; Ottoman Empire
dismembered
• Impact on Germany
• War reparations totaled approximately $33 billion
which Germany could never repay; further devastated
an already destroyed German economy
• Reduction in the German military to 100,000 soldiers
put thousands of German men out of work
• Versailles left a legacy of bitterness and hatred in the
hearts of the German people

10
 Unit 14
World War II
Section 1: Introduction
Overview
• In terms of lives lost and material destruction, WWII was the most
devastating war in human history
• Began in 1939 as a European conflict between Germany and
England/France
• Widened to include most of the nations of the world
• Ended in 1945, with the U.S. and Soviet Union emerging as major world
powers

Post-WWI Problems
• France, Great Britain, and the U.S. had attained their objectives with the
Versailles Treaty which ended WWI
• Reduced Germany to a military nonentity and reorganized Europe
and the world
• However, the French and British frequently disagreed on policy in
the post-WWI period
• U.S. retreated into isolationism

Attempts at Peace
• 1920s= attempts made to stabilize peace
• 1920= establishment of the League of Nations as a forum in which nations
could settle their disputes
• 1921-22= Washington Conference, principal naval powers agreed to limit
their navies according to a fixed ratio
• 1925= Locarno Conference, produced a treaty guarantee of the German-
French boundary
• 1928= Paris Peace Pact, 63 countries, including all the great powers except
the USSR, pledged to resolve all disputes among them "by pacific means"
• The nations had agreed beforehand to exempt wars of "self-
defense"

Rise of Dictators
• 1920s-1930s= In spite of efforts at peace, worldwide economic problems
and disillusionment with western-style democratic ideas led to the rise of
totalitarian leaders in several areas of the globe
• Joseph Stalin- USSR
• Benito Mussolini- Italy
• Adolf Hitler- Germany
• Francisco Franco- Spain (took power in the late 1930s)
• Hideki Tojo (ruled in the name of Emperor Hirohito)- Japan
• Japan, Germany, and Italy would ally together to form the Axis powers in
WWII

Section 2: Mussolini’s Rise to Power

Italian Unrest
• Following WWI Italians were angry over:
• the fact that the nation did not win large territorial gains at the
1919 Paris Peace
• rising inflation and unemployment
• Many Italians believed their democratic government was helpless to deal
with the country’s problems
• In the 1920s, the wave of the political future appeared to be a form of
nationalistic, militaristic totalitarianism known by its Italian name, fascism

1
Fascism in Italy
• fascism definition= a political philosophy, movement, or regime that exalts
nation and often race above the individual; stands for a centralized
autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader, severe economic and
social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition
• fascism promoted extreme nationalism

Mussolini’s Rise to Power

• Fascism- promised to provide for the Italian people more effectively than
democracy; presented itself as the one sure defense against communism
• Communism vs. Fascism
• Communists claimed to promote a society that was without social
classes
• Fascists believed that each class had its place and function; Fascist
parties were made up of aristocrats and industrialists, war veterans,
and the lower middle class
• Fascists were nationalists, and Communists were internationalists,
hoping to unite workers worldwide
• Benito Mussolini was the earliest originator of the concept and practice of
Fascism and established the first Fascist dictatorship in Italy in 1922

Mussolini’s Rule
• Mussolini organized a paramilitary unit known as the "Black Shirts," who
terrorized political opponents and helped increase Fascist influence
• 1922- As Italy slipped into political chaos, Mussolini declared that only he
could restore order and was given authority as prime minister
• 1925- He gradually dismantled all democratic institutions and made himself
dictator, taking the title "Il Duce" ("the Leader")
• Once in power, he built up the military, creating jobs for the unemployed as
well as building the military arsenal of Italy
• Mussolini's chief ally was Adolf Hitler of Germany

Section 3: Hitler’s Rise to Power

Hitler’s Background
• Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889 in Austria
• Poor performance in school prevented him from obtaining a customary
graduation certificate
• He intended to study art in Vienna, but was twice rejected (1907 + 1908) by
the Academy of Fine Arts
• Hitler was left a small inheritance by his parents and when the money ran
out he resorted to painting and selling postcards
• 1913- Hitler moved to Munich in the hope both of evading Austrian
military service and of finding a better life in the Germany he admired so
much
• With the outbreak of WWI Hitler served as a volunteer in the
German military

Hitler After WWI

• While in the military, Hitler served as an instructor in a program for the
political indoctrination of the troops; discovered his persuasive power as a
public speaker
• After WWI Hitler was discharged from the army when the German military
was nearly disbanded with the Versailles Treaty
• Hitler's political career began when he returned to Munich in 1919- he
joined the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party
• a group of extreme nationalists and anti-Semites who in the
aftermath of the defeat of WWI attempted to persuade people that
Jews were primarily responsible for Germany's problems
• the Nazi party sought to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and
combat communism
2
Hitler in the Nazi party
• Hitler realized that the Nazi Party offered him the best chance for political
power
• Hitler developed a new system of political propaganda for the Nazi party,
that emphasized mass emotionalism and violent provocation
• July 1921- Hitler became the party chairman
• November 1923- Beer Hall Putsch- Hitler and a group of conspirators
attempted to capture the Bavarian gov’t
• Jailed for his activities- writes Mein Kampf (My Struggle)

Hitler in Government
• After being released from prison Hitler continued to grow the popularity of
the Nazi party
• 1932- Germany close to anarchy
• Hitler narrowly lost to the incumbent Paul von Hindenburg in the
presidential elections in April
• But, in the November elections the Nazi vote decreased to 33.1%
• 1933- A conservative group led by Franz von Papen arranged for Hitler to
enter the government in the appointed position of Chancellor
• President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor making Hitler
the head of the Third Reich which was used to describe the Nazi
regime in Germany from January 30, 1933, to May 8, 1945

Consolidation of Power
• The conservatives deluded themselves in thinking they could use Hitler
for their own interests
• Within four months Hitler:
• Controlled all political groups
• Destroyed the Communist party and the labor unions
• Forced right wing parties to dissolve
• Destroyed the paramilitary organizations
• Eliminated the federal structure of the republic

Enabling Act
• February 27, 1933- fire breaks out at the Reichstag building; was set by an
unstable communist supporter named Marinus van der Lubbe
• Hitler and the Nazi used the incident to claim that Germany was under
attack from a communist conspiracy
• Hitler convinced Hindenburg to issue a decree suspending all basic rights
until the “emergency” was over; gave Nazis power to arrest/imprison
anyone
• March 23, 1933- Enabling Act= allowed the gov’t to issue laws bypassing
constitutional safeguards- Hitler no longer needed the Reichstag or
Hindenburg to approve his actions and became a dictator
• Enabling Act= allowed Hitler to gain dictatorial powers by “legal”
means

Consolidation of Power
• 1934- Hitler faced challenges within the party when Hindenburg's
deteriorating health raised the question of his succession
• Hitler survived the crisis by rallying behind himself the party leaders, the
army, and Himmler 's SS (the Schutzstaffel, or Blackshirts)
• Purpose of the SS was to use terror to enforce the policies of Nazi
Germany
• August 2, 1934- Hindenburg dies, and Hitler officially assumed the title of
Fuhrer, or supreme head of Germany

3
Persecution of Jews Begins
• Nuremberg Laws of 1935- deprived Jews of their citizenship and forbade
marriages between Jews and non-Jews
• Additional restrictive laws were passed during the next few years
• Hitler's policies resulted in a large-scale emigration of Jews,
socialists, and intellectuals from Germany

Kristallnacht
• November 9-10, 1938- Kristallnacht (“Night of broken glass“); Nazi
persecution of Jews= troops attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and
synagogues
• A German official was assassinated in Paris by a Jewish teenager
• A Nazi-led rampage against the Jews in Germany followed the
assassination
• Synagogues were burned; 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed; 100 Jews
killed; 20,000 Jewish men sent to concentration camps
• Led to Jews being barred from all public buildings and prohibited from
owning, managing, or working in any retail store
• Jews “encouraged” to emigrate from Germany

Section 4: Axis Powers Threaten Peace

German Aggression Before WWII
• Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles in several key areas:
• Introduced a military draft and expanded the German army to more
than half a million men
• Remilitarized the Rhineland
• German rearmament
• Nothing was done by Italy, G.B., or France to stop the military build-up

Hitler’s Long Term Plans

• According to Hitler, the Germans, the leading group of Aryans, were
threatened from the east by a large mass of inferior people
• Germany needed Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people;
Hitler’s method for achieving this living space would be to conquer other
countries, particularly by gaining more land for Germany in East Europe
and Russia

Hitler’s Popularity
• Hitler was relatively popular among the German people for the following
reasons:
1. Alleviating economic problems caused by the Great Depression
• Hitler put people to work in armament factories and the
army, and launched a public works program similar to
Roosevelt's New Deal
• Unemployment went from 6 million in 1933 to only one
million in 1936; no other European leader could rival this
economic growth
2. His aim to restore Germany’s power among the nations of Europe
3. His threat to tear up the unpopular Versailles Treaty

Italian Aggression
• October, 1935- Italy attacked Ethiopia
• The League proved ineffectual in this conflict
• The British Mediterranean fleet could have stopped the operation
by preventing Italian soldiers from using the Suez Canal, but both
Britain and France were afraid to antagonize Mussolini
• Hitler supported the action; brought Mussolini and Hitler closer
• Ethiopian appeal to the League of Nations: "It is us today. It will
be you tomorrow."

4
Violation of the Demilitarized Zone
• March, 1936- while the Ethiopian campaign was still underway, Germany
took advantage of the confusion to march into the Rhineland, eliminating
the demilitarized zone provided for in the Treaty of Versailles
• This removed one of the most important elements of French
security and also gave Hitler a defensible frontier on the West
• Britain refused to act against Germany- viewed German occupation of
German land as reasonable

Axis Powers Form

• September, 1931- Japan seized control of Chinese held Manchuria
• League of Nations denounced the move; Japan withdraws from the
League
• By the 1930s, militants connected with the gov’t, and the armed
forces were in control of Japanese politics
• 1936- Italy and Germany jointly intervened on behalf of General Francisco
Franco in the Spanish Civil War
• October, 1936- Mussolini and Hitler sign an agreement that recognized their
common political and economic interests
• One month later Mussolini referred publicly to the Rome-Berlin
Axis
• November, 1936- Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact;
agreed to maintain a common front against communism
• 1937- Japan joined the Axis Powers to form the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis

German Aggression Increases

• 1938 - Hitler “unites” Germany and Austria
• Called the Anschluss
• by threatening Austria with invasion, Hitler coerced the Austrian
chancellor into putting Austrian Nazis in charge of the gov’t
• the new gov’t “invited” German troops to help maintain order in
Austria
• Hitler was convinced that neither the French or British would
intervene- he was right

Czechoslovakia
• 1938- Hitler next turned on Czechoslovakia, which contained three million
Germans in its Sudetenland area; these Germans resented their minority
status and voted to return to Germany
• When the Czech government refused to dismember itself, Hitler moved his
army to the border
• At the Munich conference in September, 1938, Hitler demanded the
annexation of the Sudetenland, France allowed Hitler to annex the area
• Hitler pledged this all he wanted of Czechoslovakia was the
Sudetenland area, and the other powers accepted his assurances
• March, 1939- Hitler violated the promises made at the Munich conference
and absorbed the rest of Czechoslovakia by force
• Realizing the danger, Britain and France responded with a peacetime draft
and attempt negotiations with the Soviet Union

Declaration of War
• Hitler and Stalin shocked the world by signing a non-aggression pact; the
agreement gave Germany the western half of Poland and the Soviet Union
the eastern half of Poland
• This aided Hitler’s invasion of Poland
• September 1, 1939- Germany invaded Poland; this invasion of Poland
prompted Britain and France to declare war on Germany
• Axis Powers included= Germany, Italy, Japan
• Allied Powers included= Great Britain, France, Australia, Canada, New
Zealand, India, the Soviet Union, China and the United States
5
Blitzkrieg
• A new form of warfare called the "blitzkrieg" (or lightning war) was
launched
• Blitzkrieg was a sudden attack by land and air forces
• Depended on surprise and overwhelming force
• Within a few weeks, Germany had taken control of the western half of
Poland

Section 5: The War (1939-1941)

Hitler Invades France
• When Germany invaded Poland, France and England declared war on
Germany
• However, little fighting took place for six months (the “Sitzkrieg”
or “phony war”)
• May 29-June 4, 1940- 360,000 Allied troops are forced to withdraw by sea
from the beaches of Dunkirk, France
• June 5, 1940- Germany successfully invades France over a 100 mile front
and heads to Paris
• Italy declares war on Britain and France
• June 14, 1940- Germans occupy Paris
• the southern part of the country not controlled by Germany formed
a collaborative government at Vichy under the control of Marshal
Petain

U.S. Involvement
• United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt had given British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill a pledge to support the English war efforts with
materials and munitions
• Lend-lease= the U.S. could supply the countries fighting the Axis
powers with the necessary equipment
• U.S. sent large amounts of military aid, including $50 billion worth
of trucks, planes, and other arms, to the British and Soviets
• However, the United States was not an official participant in the conflict

Battle of Britain
• July 10, 1940 – Oct 31, 1940- Battle of Britain; air campaign by the
Germans followed by a planned invasion of Britain
• the Luftwaffe (German air force) launched a major offensive of
bombing against the military infrastructure of Britain in
preparation for an invasion
• September- Hitler attempts to break the morale of the British
people through massive bombings of British cities
• Allowed the British time to rebuild their air force; by the
end of Sept/Oct Germany has lost the battle of Britain

Hitler Invades the Soviets

• Hitler became convinced that Britain was remaining in the war only because
it expected Soviet support- decided to go back on his pact with Stalin and
invade the Soviet Union
• Hitler planned this invasion of the USSR so that he could acquire living
space and resources for the German people
• Hitler was sure the USSR could be defeated quickly
• Although the invasion of the Soviet Union was scheduled for spring 1941,
the attack was delayed because of problems in the Balkans

6
Soviet Union Invasion
• June, 1941- Germany invades Russia (operation Barbarossa); believes they
can be defeated before winter
• Italy, Hungary, Finland and Romania (cooperating politically with
Germany) declare war on Russia
• Russian Guerrilla warfare slowed the German advance; Russia
used a “scorched earth policy”
• Early winter devastated the Germans
• Soviet counter offensive drove Germans back from the outskirts of Moscow
and Leningrad in late 1941
• German defeat in Russia represented a similarity in the careers of Napoleon
and Hitler

U.S. Enters WWII

• In conjunction with the German invasion of Russia, Japan moved against
Thailand
• U.S. and Great Britain protested
• December 7, 1941- Japan, without a formal declaration of war, bombed the
U.S. Pacific Fleet home port of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii
• December 8- United States declares war on Japan
• December 9- China declares war on Japan, Germany and Italy
• December 11- Germany and Italy declare war on the U.S.; the United States
then declares war on Germany and Italy

Japanese-American Internment
• Roosevelt ordered 110,000 Japanese Americans into “relocation camps” or
internment camps beginning in 1942
• Many of Japanese descent were falsely labeled as enemies
• Like prisons, fenced in with barbed wire
• Soldiers guarded the camps with guns
• Had to sell their homes, businesses, and belongings

Section 6: The Holocaust

The Holocaust Overview
• Jews were living in every country in Europe before the Nazis came into
power in 1933
• The Holocaust ultimately killed approximately two-thirds of Europe’s
Jewish population
• Approximately 6 million Jews were killed
• Poland and the Soviet Union had the largest populations

Anti-Semitism
• Jews had faced prejudice and discrimination for over 2,000 years
• Jews had been scapegoated for many problems
• For example, people blamed Jews for the “Black Death” that killed
thousands in Europe during the Middle Ages
• Political leaders who used anti-Semitism as a tool relied on the ideas of
racial science to portray Jews as inferior
• Nazi teachers began to apply the “principles” of racial science by measuring
skull size and nose length and recording students’ eye color and hair to
determine whether students belonged to the “Aryan race”

Nazi Plan for the “Jewish Question”

• The Nazi plan for dealing with the “Jewish Question” evolved in three
steps:
1. Expulsion: Drive Jews out of Germany
2. Containment: Put Jews together in one place called ghettos
3. “Final Solution”: Hitler’s plan to commit genocide against people the
Nazis considered inferior
7
Evian Conference
• The Evian Conference took place in the summer of 1938 in Evian, France
• Thirty-two countries met to discuss what to do about the Jewish refugees
who were trying to leave Germany and Austria
• Despite voicing feelings of sympathy, most countries made excuses for not
accepting more refugees
• U.S. Response to Jewish Refugees
• The SS St. Louis, carrying Jewish refugees with Cuban visas, were
denied admittance both in Cuba and in Florida
• After being turned back to Europe, most of the passengers perished
in the Holocaust

Containment
• By October, 1939 the Nazis aimed to contain and separate the Jewish
population by forcing them to live in areas that were designated for Jews
only, called ghettos
• Ghettos were established across all of Nazi occupied Europe, especially in
areas where there was already a large Jewish population
• Many ghettos were closed off by barbed wire or walls and were guarded by
SS or local police
• Life in the ghettos was difficult: food was rationed; several families often
shared a small space; disease spread rapidly; heating, ventilation, and
sanitation were limited

Concentration Camps
• 1933 -1945 - Nazi Germany and its allies established more than 40,000
camps and other incarceration sites
• Most prisoners in the early concentration camps were Jews,
German Communists, Socialists, Social Democrats, Roma
(Gypsies), Jehovah's Witnesses, and political dissidents
• 1939- Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing squads made up of Nazi (SS)
units and police
• They killed Jews/camp prisoners in mass shooting actions
throughout eastern Poland and the western Soviet Union

Final Solution
• In an attempt to increase the efficiency of the killing squads mass murder
activities were moved to fixed death/extermination camps
• Death camps were the means the Nazis used to achieve the “Final
Solution”
• There were six extermination camps: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka,
Chelmno, Sobibor, Majdanek, and Belzec
• Each used gas chambers to murder the Jews; at Auschwitz prisoners were
told the gas chambers were “showers”
• Many prisoners were also shot to death
• 6 million Jews died in concentration camps; approximately 1 million died at
Auschwitz alone

Liberation
• Soviet soldiers were the first to liberate camp prisoners on July 23, 1944, at
Maidanek in Poland
• British, Canadian, American, and French troops also liberated camp
prisoners
• Troops were shocked at what they saw

8
Nuremberg Trials
• Trials held for Nazi war crimes and crimes against humanity-held after
WWII
• Brought some of those responsible for the Holocaust to justice
• There were 22 Nazi criminals tried by the Allies in the International
Military Tribunal
• 12 prominent Nazis were sentenced to death
• Most claimed that they were only following orders, which was judged to be
an invalid defense

Section 7: The War (1942-1945)

War in the Pacific
• June 4- Battle of Midway Island
• American carrier planes destroyed all four of the attacking
Japanese aircraft carriers; turned the war in the Pacific against the
Japanese
• Fall 1942- “Island Hopping”
• U.S. general Douglas MacArthur begins an offensive of “island
hopping” from southern China to Burma through the Dutch East
Indies; the islands that were chosen for attack were the least
heavily defended by Japan
• Aug – Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) invaded by U.S.
• Sept – U.S. and Australia invade New Guinea

Soviet Union
• By 1943 German forces found themselves unable to gain any more land In
the Soviet Union
• However, Hitler ordered his troops to hold on to every mile of
territory they had taken
• The Soviet forces counterattacked at Stalingrad and wiped out
several German battalions
• By the end of 1943, the Soviets had begun their drive to force Germany out
of the Soviet Union

Tehran Meeting
• November, 1943- Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill met at Tehran (the
capital of Iran) to decide the future course of the war
• At this meeting of the “Big Three” the Allies decided to partition
postwar Germany, until it could be cleared of Nazi influence

Air War
• The main action against Germany during the fall of 1944 was in the air
• U.S. bombers hit industrial targets by day, while the German cities
crumbled under British bombing by night
• iron and steel output dropped by half between September and
December
• continued bombing of Axis oil plants severely limited the fuel that
would be available for the tanks and planes coming off the
assembly lines

Normandy
• June 6, 1944 (D-Day)- Allies land at Normandy (on the French channel
coast)
• Code name of the D-Day landing was “Operation Overlord”
• Commanders- Dwight D. Eisenhower was the Supreme Allied Commander
in charge of all forces involved in Operation Overlord; General Omar N.
Bradley (U.S.); General Miles C. Dempsey (G.B.)

9
Normandy (Cont.)
• Hitler was convinced that the Normandy landings were a diversion, and the
main assault would come north of the Seine River
• He refused to release the divisions he had there and insisted on
drawing in reinforcements from more distant areas
• The D-Day invasion was successful, and by the end of June, Eisenhower
had 850,000 men and 150,000 vehicles ashore in Normandy
• After the breakout at Normandy, Allied troops moved south and east and
liberated Paris by the end of August
• Continued to advance into Germany- by the end of April 1945 linked up
with the Soviet Union
• After Normandy, Allied troops moved south and east and liberated Paris by
the end of August; they continued to advance into Germany

Death of Hitler and Mussolini

• In January 1945 Hitler moved into a bunker 55 feet under Berlin to direct
the final stages of the war
• Blamed the Jews for the war until the end
• April 28, 1945- Mussolini was shot and killed by Italian forces
• April 30, 1945- Hitler committed suicide

War Ends in Europe

• Caught in the giant pincher consisting of Allied forces pushing westward
from France, northward from Italy, and eastward from Russia, Germany
was forced to surrender
• The war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day)

Section 8: End of WWII

War in the Pacific
• The war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945, however the Japanese continued
to fight
• Although Japan's position was hopeless by early 1945, an early end to the
war was not in sight
• Japanese resorted to kamikaze (Japanese, "divine wind") attacks,
or suicide air attacks, during the fighting for Luzon in the
Philippines
• January 4-13, 1945- quickly trained kamikaze pilots flying
obsolete planes sunk 17 U.S. ships and damaged 50 more

Atomic Bomb
• Throughout the war, the U.S. government and the British, believing
Germany was doing the same, had maintained a massive scientific and
industrial project to develop an atomic weapon
• The chief ingredients, uranium and plutonium, had not been available in
sufficient quantity before the war in Europe ended
• The first atomic bomb was exploded in a test at Alamogordo, New Mexico,
on July 16, 1945

The Bomb
• Two more bombs had been built, and the possibility arose of using them to
convince the Japanese to surrender
• President Harry S. Truman decided to allow the bombs to be dropped
because, he said, it might save thousands of American lives by bringing the
war to the quickest possible end
• Therefore, aerial bombing of wartime Japan included the first use of an
atomic bomb
• One was dropped over Hiroshima (“Little Boy”) on August 6,
1945 the other over Nagasaki (“Fat Man”) on August 9, 1945

10
Damage
• Nagasaki and Hiroshima had not previously been bombed, and thus the
bombs' damage could be accurately assessed
• U.S. estimates put the number killed in Hiroshima at 66,000 to 78,000 and
in Nagasaki at 39,000
• Japanese estimates gave a combined total of 240,000

Japanese Surrender
• WWII was finally brought to an end by the dropping of the nuclear
bombs
• August 14, 1945- Japan announced its surrender
• the formal signing took place on September 2 in Tokyo Bay aboard
the battleship Missouri
• The Allied delegation was headed by General MacArthur, who became the
military governor of occupied Japan

Aftermath of the War

• Before the war ended Roosevelt locked the Big Three into a postwar
international organization called the United Nations
• First meeting of the U.N. was April 1945 in San Francisco
• However, the total victory of the Allies in WWII was not followed by a real
peace but by the beginning of a new conflict known as the Cold War, which
dominated world politics until the end of the 1980s
• Cold War= the state of political hostility that existed between the
Soviet bloc countries and the US-led Western powers from 1945 to
1990
• Many in the West began to interpret Soviet policy as part of a worldwide
Communist conspiracy
• The Soviets viewed Western, especially U.S., policy as nothing less than
global capitalist expansionism or, in Leninist terms, economic imperialism

11
 Unit 15
Cold War-Present

Section 1: Introduction
Cold War Definition
• A cold war in general is a state of political hostility between
countries characterized by threats, propaganda, and other
measures short of open warfare
• Cold War= the state of political hostility that existed between
the Soviet bloc countries and the US-led Western powers from
1945 to 1991

Allies Become Enemies

• Yalta Conference: A Postwar Plan
• Yalta was the major WWII wartime allied conference;
it dealt mainly with the settlement of post-war Europe
• February, 1945- British, American, Soviet leaders meet
at Yalta
• They agree to divide Germany into zones of occupation
when WWII ends
• Soviet leader Stalin agrees to allow free elections in
Eastern Europe
• Creation of the United Nations
• June 1945- Fifty nations form the United Nations=
international organization
• All members represented in the General Assembly; 11
on the Security Council
• Five permanent members have Security Council veto
power

Differing U.S. and Soviet Goals

• U.S. and Soviets split sharply after WWII ends
• U.S. is the world’s richest and most powerful country after
WWII
• Soviets are recovering from high war casualties, many
destroyed cities

1
Eastern Europe’s Iron Curtain
• Soviets Build a Buffer
• Soviets control Eastern European countries after World
War II
• Stalin installs Communist governments in several
countries
• Truman urges free elections; Stalin refuses
• In 1946, Stalin says capitalism and communism cannot
exist in the same world
• An Iron Curtain Divides East and West
• Germany divided; East Germany is Communist, West
Germany is Democratic
• Iron Curtain—Winston Churchill’s name for the
division of Europe; areas "behind the iron curtain"
include the Soviet Union and its satellite nations

Section 2: U.S. Response to Communism

US Response to Communism
• Containment= U.S. plan to stop the spread of
communism
• The Truman Doctrine= an open-ended commitment to
use U.S. power anywhere and anytime to oppose the
threat of Soviet communism
• 1945- USSR pressured Turkey, demanding a
cession of several districts on the Soviet border
frontier
• Therefore, Congress approves Truman’s
request for aid to Greece, Turkey
• The Marshall Plan
• Much of Western Europe lay in ruins after
World War II
• Marshall Plan—revive "a working economy in
the world so as to permit the emergence of
political and social conditions in which free
institutions can exist”
• Any European country that needed aid could
receive aid under the Marshall Plan
• Congress approves the plan after the
Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia

2
Berlin Airlift
• 1948- U.S., Britain, France withdraw forces from West
Germany
• Their former occupation zones form one country, the Soviets
oppose this and stop land and water traffic into West Berlin
• West Berlin, located in the Soviet occupation zone, faces
starvation
• U.S., Britain (the West) fly in supplies for the 2,100,000 Berlin
residents; Airlift last for 11 months until the blockade ends

Cold War Landmarks

• 1949- U.S., Canada, West European countries form North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as a defensive military
alliance
• North Atlantic Treaty= the first peacetime military
alliance for the U.S. since the Treaty of Amity and
Commerce in 1778 with France
• With the passage of the NATO treaty, the U.S. accepted
the principle of collective security
• 1955- Soviets, Eastern European nations sign Warsaw Pact
alliance
• 1961- Soviets build Berlin Wall to separate East and West
Berlin

Threat of Nuclear War

• Soviet Union explodes its first atomic bomb in 1949, U.S. and
Soviet Union both develop a more powerful hydrogen bomb
• Brinkmanship- policy of willingness to go to the edge of
nuclear war
• Nuclear arms race- increasing tensions lead to nuclear and
military buildup the by the U.S. and Soviets; basic premise of
the nuclear arms race was that only superior weapons would
avert a strike by the opposing side
• 1957- Soviets launch Sputnik, first unmanned satellite; U.S.
increases spending on education and technology after the
launch of Sputnik
• 1960- Soviets shoot down American spy plane, increasing
tensions

Communists vs. Nationalists in China

• Nationalist and Communist Chinese resume civil war after
WWII ends
• Mao Zedong—leads Chinese Communists against Japanese
invaders
• Economic problems cause Nationalist soldiers to desert to the
Communists
• Mao’s troops take control of China’s major cities
• 1949- People’s Republic of China is created; Nationalists flee
to Taiwan

3
Superpowers React to China
• U.S. supports Nationalist state in Taiwan, called Republic of
China
• Soviets and China agree to help each other in the event of
attack; U.S. tries to stop Soviet expansion and spread of
communism in Asia
• The existence of two Chinas intensified the Cold War between
the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the following ways:
• The People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union
pledged to defend each other should the need arise
• The U.S. and the Soviet Union fought to enlarge their
spheres of influence in Asia, creating a divided Korea
• The U.S. actively supported the Republic of China, and
the Soviets did the same for the People's Republic of
China
• China takes control of Tibet and southern Mongolia
• Mao takes property from landowners and divides it among
peasants
• Government seizes private companies and plans production
increase

Communists Transform China

• Red Guards—militia units formed to enforce strict communism
in China
• Cultural Revolution—movement to build a society of peasants,
workers
• During the Cultural Revolution, peasants were the "new
heroes" of China
• Red Guards close schools and execute or imprison many
intellectuals
• Eventually, China and the Soviet Union clash over leadership
of the Communist movement

Section 3: Korea and Vietnam

Korea
• Korea was divided along the 38th parallel into North Korea and
South Korea
• 1950- North Koreans invade South Korea with Soviet support,
South Korea requests UN assistance; 15 nations send troops
• Douglas MacArthur leads UN forces against North Koreans
• North Koreans control most of the peninsula when MacArthur
attacks
• Half of the North’s army surrenders, the rest retreat

4
Korea (cont.)
• UN troops push North Koreans almost to the Chinese border
• Chinese send 300,000 troops against UN forces and capture the
city of Seoul
• MacArthur calls for a nuclear attack and is removed from
command
• 1953- cease fire is signed and a border established at the 38th
parallel
• Aftermath
• North Korea builds collective farms, heavy industry,
nuclear weapons
• South Korea establishes democracy, growing economy
with U.S. aid

War Breaks Out in Vietnam

• 1954- French surrender to the Vietnamese after a major defeat
• A Vietnamese nationalist and communist named Ho Chi Minh
takes control of North Vietnam
• U.S. is concerned with communism in Vietnam because of the
domino theory
• domino theory= if one nation went communist, those
nations bordering it would soon be communist as well
• this U.S. domino theory of Communist expansion in
Southeast Asia was a major justification for U.S.
foreign policy during the Cold War era

Vietnam Divided
• An international peace conference agrees on a divided Vietnam
• Ngo Dinh Diem- leads anti-Communist government in South
Vietnam
• Ho Chi Minh leads North Vietnam
• Vietcong- pro-Communist South Vietnamese guerillas
fighting against Diem

U.S. Gets Involved in Vietnam

• 1964- U.S. sends troops to fight the Viet Cong and North
Vietnamese
• However, the Vietcong gains support from Ho Chi Minh,
China, and the Soviet Union
• War grows unpopular in the U.S.; in 1969, Nixon starts
withdrawing troops
• Vietnamization- Nixon’s plan to gradually withdraw the
U.S. from war
• 1973-Last U.S. troops leave Vietnam
• 1975- South Vietnam falls to communism

5
Postwar Southeast Asia
• Cambodia
• Khmer Rouge= Communist rebels who take control of
Cambodia in 1975; they slaughter 2 million people
• 1993- Cambodia adopts democracy, holds elections
with UN help
• Vietnam
• Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City; Vietnam united as
a Communist nation
• about 1.5 million people flee Vietnam, some settling in
the U.S. and Canada
• 1995- United States normalizes relations with Vietnam

Section 4: Cold War Divides the World

Cuba
• Fidel Castro- leads a revolt in Cuba against the dictator
• By 1959, Castro is in power, nationalizes economy
taking U.S. property
• 1961- Bay of Pigs was a failed attempt to overthrow Fidel
Castro, Castro’s forces defeat U.S.-trained Cuban exiles at the
Bay of Pigs
• Cuban Missile Crisis (Soviet leader= Nikita Khrushchev vs.
U.S. President= John F. Kennedy)
• As a result of the Bay of Pigs failure Khrushchev
believed the U.S. was too weak to oppose Soviet
expansion into Cuba; helped lead to the Cuban Missile
Crisis
• 1962= U.S. demands removal of Soviet missiles in
Cuba
• Soviets withdraw missiles; U.S. promises not to invade
Cuba
• Cuban economy is left dependent on Soviet support

Nicaragua
• Anastasio Somoza- Nicaraguan dictator supported by the U.S.
• Daniel Ortega- leads Sandinista rebels who take power in
Nicaragua
• U.S. and Soviet Union both initially support the Sandinistas
• Sandinistas aid Communist rebels in El Salvador
• Therefore, the U.S. helps anti-Communist Contras in
Nicaragua to assist El Salvador
• 1990- Nicaragua holds first free elections; Sandinistas lose

6
Iran
• Shah Reza Pahlavi embraces Western governments, oil
companies
• Iranian nationalists overthrow shah, seize British oil company
• U.S. restores shah to power, fearing Soviet encroachment
• Shah Reza Pahlavi westernizes Iran with U.S. support
• Ayatollah Khomeini- Iranian Muslim leader; lives in exile
• 1978- Khomeini sparks riots in Iran; shah flees
• Islamic revolutionaries hold American hostages in Tehran
(1979–1980)
• Muslim radicals take control in Iran, increasing tensions with
Iraq
• Iran, Iraq fight 8-year war; U.S. aids both sides, Soviets help
Iraq

Afghanistan
• Soviets invade Afghanistan in order to help Communists
reestablish the Communist regime in Afghanistan
• Muslim rebels fight guerilla war against Soviets with U.S.
weapons
• U.S. stops grain shipments to Soviet Union; Soviets withdraw
in 1989

Section 5: End of the Cold War

Soviet Policy in Eastern Europe
• Nikita Khrushchev- leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin dies
(1953)
• Khrushchev condemns Stalin; believes that the Soviets
and the West can peacefully co-exist
• Citizens of Soviet-controlled governments begin protesting
communism; Khrushchev sends the Soviet military to put down
Hungarian protesters
• Leonid Brezhnev- Soviet leader after Khrushchev; represses
dissent in 1968, Warsaw Pact nations invade Czechoslovakia

Soviet-Chinese Split
• 1950- Mao and Stalin sign friendship treaty, but tensions grow
• Chinese and Soviets each want to lead world communism
• Khrushchev ends economic aid and refuses to share nuclear
secrets with the Chinese
• Soviets and Chinese fight small skirmishes across the border

7
Brinkmanship to Détente
• Brinkmanship (policy of the willingness to go to the edge of nuclear
war) causes repeated crises; nuclear war was a constant threat
• Vietnam-era turmoil fuels the desire for a less confrontational policy
• Détente= was intended to reduce Cold War tensions to avoid armed
conflicts
• Richard M. Nixon is the U.S. president who launches détente
• Détente grows out of the philosophy known as realpolitik
“realistic politics”; recognizes the need to be practical and
flexible
• Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit China; visits
Communist China and the Soviet Union, signs SALT I Treaty
• SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)= limit nuclear
weapons

Easing of Cold War Tensions

• Nixon and Gerald Ford improve relations with the Soviets and China
• Jimmy Carter has concerns about Soviet policies but signs SALT II
• Congress will not ratify SALT II due to the Soviet invasion
of Afghanistan
• Ronald Reagan- anti-Communist U.S. president takes office in 1981
• Increases military spending, proposes a missile defense
program
• 1985- Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the
Communist Party and allows easing of Cold War tensions

Cold War Ends

• Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev encouraged policies of glasnost
and perestroika in Eastern Europe, which contributed to the
dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War
• In Poland, free elections came to replace Communist rule. A union
alliance called Solidarity had a large role in this conversion
• On 11/9/89, East Germany began allowing travel to and from West
Germany
• Germans smashed the Berlin Wall, the most potent symbol
of the Cold War; a year later, East and West Germany
reunited

End of the Soviet Union

• 1990- Gorbachev elected as the first president of the Soviet Union
• August, 1991- conservative Communists in the Soviet Union staged
a coup which they hoped would force Gorbachev to resign.
Although the attempt failed, the Soviet Union’s 15 republics sensed
weakness in the central gov’t and began to move toward
independence
• December 25, 1991- Gorbachev resigned the presidency of the
Soviet Union on. A week later, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. It
was replaced with a loose alliance of former Soviet republics called
the Commonwealth of Independent States