WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE: ASSESSING THE WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN

RICE AND CORN PRODUCTION IN RURAL COTABATO PROVINCE

Turiaga, Lady Ann M1., Basan, Romiel John P.1*

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Business, Development Economics and
Management, University of Southern Mindanao, Kabacan, Philippines
*
Corresponding author, rjbasan@usm.edu.ph

ABSTRACT

Rice and corn are the two primary crops grown in Cotabato province. These crops were
not only cultivated by men but also by women. It has been recognized that improving gender
equality and women’s empowerment in agriculture is seen as crucial to economic growth.
However, in the local setting, there is no account of the extent of the participation of these
women in the production of rice and corn. We address this gap using 144 corn farmers and 235
rice farmers survey data by applying descriptive statistical tools such as frequency, percentage,
and average and separate Tobit regression analyses for rice and corn production. Results showed
that there were significant differences in the level of women’s participation between rice and
corn production. Significant differences were also noted across varying production practices such
as securing good quality seeds, water management, planting, and harvesting. Tobit regression
analyses revealed that household size and education affect women’s participation in corn
production, however, no factors were observed to significantly influence women’s participation
in rice production. Nevertheless, women played a significant role in the production of very
important crops. Therefore, development programs such as skills enhancement and educational
programs for women farmers can be implemented to amplify women's empowerment and
equality. Incentive programs can also improve women’s participation as it will serve as a
motivating factor for them.

Keywords: Cotabato province, corn, rice, women’s participation

 Introduction
Women actively engage in numerous aspects of food and cash crop cultivation as well as
post-harvest activities. Despite their integral role, women often face disempowerment in terms of
participation, influence, and autonomy regarding decisions related to agricultural activities and
the income generated from crop sales. Recognizing the importance of enhancing gender equality
and empowering women in agriculture is crucial for overall economic growth (Duflo, 2012;
Census of Agriculture, 2012). This empowerment can not only improve women's and children's
health but also enhance household productivity (Anderson et al., 2021).
Cotabato province relies heavily on agriculture as its primary economic activity, with
women dedicating significant time and effort to planting, cultivating, and harvesting crops
essential for family sustenance and financial stability. While both men and women contribute to
food systems, the nature and extent of their involvement vary based on economic structures and
gender norms. It is imperative to emphasize the active participation of both male and female
farmers in diverse farming operations. In agricultural households, male members typically
engage in fieldwork, while female members undertake tasks such as seed preservation, threshing
and drying, and paddy boiling and drying. Consequently, the empowerment of women directly
correlates with agricultural productivity and household food security (Sraboni et al., 2014;
Harper et al., 2013), placing it at the forefront of agricultural research and outreach in developing
nations (Gates, 2014). Efforts to address gender disparities in agriculture are evident in the
prioritization of women as clients by donor agencies, local governments, and NGOs. Investments
are expanding to empower women and eliminate gender inequality, aligning with the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) set at the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development in Rio de Janeiro. Notably, SDG 5 aims to "Achieve gender equality and empower
all women and girls" (United Nations, 2015).
While women perform a diverse array of roles, from production and processing to
retailing and consumption, their contributions, particularly in areas such as crop production
(specifically corn and rice) in rural settings, are often neither publicly acknowledged nor
adequately valued. This paper aims to investigate women's participation in crop production and
explore the underlying factors influencing their involvement, shedding light on the need for
recognition and support in rural agricultural contexts.
Review of Literature
Two-thirds of the female labor force in developing economies are actively engaged in
agricultural work (Uzokwe, Ofuoku, and Dafe, 2017). Despite their significant role in producing
a substantial amount of the food consumed by families, women continue to face disparities in
access to knowledge, technology, credit, and land compared to men (Jiriko, 2015). Traditionally,
women have been the primary decision-makers for household tasks such as laundry, cleaning,
and cooking, overseeing about 62% of households (Brenan, 2020). However, the landscape of
women's participation in the global labor force is evolving (Islam et al., 2022), with a statistically
significant impact on economic activities (Khan and Rahman, 2016). Although women constitute
more than 50% of the world population, their contributions to production and management
activities within the household economy and the broader national economy have been
consistently underestimated and unrecognized. This oversight is rooted in the visibility of
activities performed by men, while those undertaken by women remain largely invisible (Khan et
al., 2012). Historically, women in rural areas worldwide have played vital roles, particularly
making a remarkable contribution to rice farming (Sachs, 2018). Their involvement in farming is
shaped by a complex interplay of socioeconomic factors, including ethnicity, class, religion, and
age, as well as environmental and political elements collectively referred to as "gender roles"
(Quisumbing et al., 2014; Alesina et al., 2013). Traditionally assigned roles in farming, such as
sowing, transplanting, weeding, and crop processing for women, and land preparation, plowing,
irrigation, and field leveling for men, are dynamic and subject to change over time (McGuire et
al., 2015). However, certain cultural and societal norms may still impose restrictions or
limitations on women's participation in farm households, as exemplified by the situation in
Cotabato province.
Empowering women with control over income from agricultural activities can enhance
their decision-making abilities and bargaining power, granting them a voice within the household
and the community (Njuki et al., 2016). Despite this potential, cultural beliefs often confine
women to domestic responsibilities, hindering their ability to fully contribute beyond their
family's immediate needs. While male and female farmers collaborate on various tasks (Duflo,
2012; Maertens & Verhofstadt, 2013), women might intentionally choose to cultivate crops with
lower market value (Njiraini et al., 2018) to maintain a degree of independence and prevent men
from exerting undue control.
Several studies have identified factors influencing women's participation in crop
production. Tijani & Tijjani (2019) found that formal education, farming experience, and
occupation had negative and significant effects at 10% and 5%, respectively. Challenges such as
limited access to land, capital, and credit facilities, as well as the high cost of storage equipment
and inputs, are major impediments to women's involvement in agricultural productivity. Other
studies have indicated that family income, the number of adult males in the household, and
educational level negatively impact women's participation, while age and tenurial status have
positive effects (Khan et al., 2012). Additionally, factors like extension contacts, farm income,
access to credit, landholdings, experience, family size, working hours, and livestock participation
were identified as significant influencers by Zahoor et al. (2013). Furthermore, Rasheed et al.
(2020) highlighted associations between women's participation and higher labor/land ratio,
increased land productivity, and improved technical efficiency.

Methods
The study was conducted in the rural area of Cotabato province where rice and corn are the
primary crops. Women farmers who worked on the farm were considered as the respondent of
the study. A total of 144 corn farmers and 235 rice farmers were surveyed to elicit data necessary
for the study using a survey questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools
such as frequency, percentage, and average. Separate Tobit regression analyses were employed
to analyze influential factors on the women’s level of participation in rice and corn production.
Empirically, it was estimated as:

𝑌 ∗¡ = 𝛽 ′Х + ℇ¡
𝑌 ∗¡ = 𝛽1𝑋1 + 𝛽2𝑋2 + 𝛽3𝑋3 + ⋯ ….. 𝛽7𝑋7
𝑌𝑖 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑌 ∗¡ = 0,
𝑌¡ = 𝑌 ∗ 𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝑌 ∗¡ > 0,
Where:
𝑌𝑖 = level of participation
X = is a vector of socio-economic characteristics and farm profile
𝑋1 = age
𝑋2 = sex
𝑋3 = household size
𝑋4 = marital status
𝑋5= years in schooling
𝑋6= household income
𝑋7= farm address
𝑋8= farm size
𝑋9= farm size for agricultural production
𝑋10= years of experience in farming
𝛽 = is the vector of parameters to be estimated
ℇ = is the normally and independently distributed error terms separate models for corn and rice
were analyzed.

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic Characteristics and Farm Profile

of Corn Farmers

Table 1 shows the socio-economic and farm profile of corn farmers. As shown, the
average age of the respondents was 46.10 years old. It can be observed that the youngest was 20
and the oldest was 82 years old. Married accounted for 91.7% of the respondents implying that
married women were more engaged in farming activities than single women. Based on the
results, showed women spent an average of 8.43 years in school, or they were at the high school
level. With an average household size of 5, the household income monthly was Php 9363.19.
This is lower than the provincial poverty threshold of PhP11,081.90 to be able to meet its food
and non-basic needs (PSA RSS012, 2021). The average total farm size was 2.10 ha. although
others have a 5. including land that is not being used. The area devoted to corn production was
approximately about 2 has. Where they have farmed for almost 20 years.
Socio-economic Characteristics and Farm Profile
of Rice Farmers

Table 2 shows the socio-economic and farm profile of rice farmers. As shown, the
average age of the respondents was 47.22 years old. It can be observed that the youngest was 17
and the oldest was 86 years old. Married accounted for 86.4% of the respondents and spent an
average of 9.42 years in school. With an average household size of 5, their monthly income (Php
15,464) is above the provincial poverty threshold relative to corn farmers. The average total farm
size was 2.32 although others have a 5 has. The area devoted to rice production was
approximately about 1.73. and been into rice farming for almost 20 years.

Level of Women’s Participation in Agricultural Production in Corn

Table 3 below shows that women have moderate participation in securing good quality
seeds (61.8%) while having very low participation in water management (10.4%) and pest
management (19.4%). This may indicate that these activities were greatly participated in or done
by male counterparts. However, women are active and have high participation in land
preparation (74.3%) as well as fertilization of the soil (77.1%). They have very high participation
in both planting (90.32%) and harvesting (97.2%). Results suggest that women are actively
participating from the land preparation to harvesting parallel with that of men.

Level of Women’s Participation in Agricultural Production in Rice

Table 4 below shows that women have low participation in planting (26.8 %) and in pest
management (25.5%). This may indicate that these activities were greatly participated in or done
by male counterparts. However, women are active and have high participation in securing good
quality seedlings (72.8%) as well as land preparation (66.4%). Women have high participation in
water management (68.5%), fertilization of the soil (69.8%), and harvesting (74.0%). Results
suggest that women are actively participating from securing good quality seedlings to harvesting.

Differences in Women’s Participation in Agricultural Production between different

agricultural system
 Table 5 shows the differences in the level of women’s participation between corn and rice
farming activities. Based on the results, only securing good-quality seed ( x 2= 4.980; v= 0.115),
water management ( x 2= 121.150; v=0.565), planting ( x 2= 143.92; v=-0.616) and harvesting ( x 2=
33.779; v=0.299) were found to be statistically different. The result implies that women’s
participation in rice is substantially higher than women’s participation in corn farming in those
activities. Examining the effect size, Cramer’s v showed that the difference in securing good
quality seeds was small between rice and corn farming. Hence, the correlation was weak.
Medium effects, on the other hand, can be seen in water management and harvesting, indicating
a moderate correlation. Finally, participation in planting has a large effect size which means a
strong correlation between the participation in corn and rice farming.

Factors Affecting the Women’s Participation in Rice and Corn Farming

Table 6 below shows the results assessing the women’s participation in agricultural
production under corn farming. It revealed that household size and education are the only factors
affecting women’s level of participation in corn farming. Specifically, household size is
significant at 1% but negative. This result suggests that as household size increases or an
additional family member, the expected women’s participation in corn farming will decrease by
1.7022. With the marginal effect (dy/dx) of -2.4148, it implies that a one-unit increase in
household size is associated with an average decrease of 2.4148 percentage points in women’s
participation in corn farming. The negative effect of increased household size on corn farming
can be due to the reason that larger households might have more children or elderly members
requiring care, potentially limiting women’s time available for corn farming. The result
conformed to the findings of Kinkingninhoun Medagbe et al. (2020) which revealed that larger
households tend to have lower female labor contribution to agricultural activities, potentially due
to competing responsibilities within the households. Moreover, the study by Malapit et al. (2020)
shed light that traditional gender role limits women’s participation in agricultural production.
Hence, women are traditionally seen as homemakers and therefore increasing family members
suggests more time spent caring for them.
On the other hand, education, measured in years spent in school, has a positive and
statistically significant influence on women’s participation in corn farming. This means, that on
average, women with more years of education are more likely to participate in corn farming. The
marginal effect of 1.0854 suggests that one additional year of education is associated with an
average increase of 1.0854 percentage points in women’s participation in corn farming. This
further implies a relatively strong positive influence of education on women’s engagement. The
results contradict the findings of Tijani & Tijjani (2019) and Asamu et al. (2020) revealing that
education does not influence women’s participation. Khan (2012) and Zohoor et al. (2013)
provided that education influences women’s participation in agricultural production. However, in
their findings, education negatively affects women’s participation. They argued that as women
became more educated, they had more chances for better job options and opportunities to leave
the agricultural sector. Nevertheless, more educated women can provide technical knowledge in
corn farming despite the possibility of engaging in off-farm activities.
 Meanwhile, the Tobit regression analysis in assessing the women’s participation in rice
farming showed that all variables were found to have no statistically significant effect on the
level of women’s participation in rice farming. Hence, it was not presented in this current paper.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The active involvement of women in corn and rice farming plays a pivotal role in the
strategic planning and overall development of rural Cotabato province. However, a noticeable
dearth of empirical evidence exists regarding women’s engagement in these crucial agricultural
systems within the province. This study closes the gap by employing quantitative methods to
gauge and analyze the extent of women’s participation in rural Cotabato province. The findings
underscore distinct disparities in women’s participation in corn and rice farming within the
province, revealing nuanced variations across different farming activities. Notably, the study
unveils that household size and education exert significant influences on women’s participation
in corn farming. In contrast, no discernible variables were identified as significantly affecting
women’s engagement in rice farming.
These insights are not only instrumental for understanding the dynamics of women’s
roles in the agricultural landscape but also hold paramount importance for informing regional
policies and development strategies. To enhance women’s participation in corn and rice farming
in rural Cotabato province, tailored training programs should be developed to address the
specific needs identified in the study, focusing on skill-building and resource provision.
Educational initiatives targeting women in rural areas must be established to promote literacy
and agricultural knowledge. Recognizing and addressing these variations in women’s
participation can contribute to the formulation of targeted interventions and support systems that
empower women in corn and rice farming, fostering sustainable agricultural practices and
advancing the overall progress in rural Cotabato province.

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Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics and farm profile of the corn women-respondents in
Cotabato Province.
Variable Frequency Percentage Mean Min. Max.
(n=144) (%)
Age 46.10 20 82

Household size 5.0 1 15

Marital status
Single 12 8.3
Married/widow 132 91.7

Number of years spent in 8.43 1 14

school

Monthly Income (Php) 9,363.19 1,000.00 30,000.00

Total farm size (ha) 2.10 .30 5

Farm size for corn

production (ha) 1.77 .25 4

Farming experience
(years) 19.90 1 45
Table 2. Socio-economic characteristics and farm profile of the rice women-respondents in
Cotabato Province.
Variable Frequency Percentage Mean Min. Max.
(n=235) (%)
Age 47.22 17 86

Household size 5.0 2 16

Marital status
Single 32 13.6
Married/widow 203 86.4

Number of years spent in 9.42 3 19

school

Monthly Income (Php) 15,464 1,00 35,000

0
Total farm size (ha) 2.32 .25 5

Farm size for rice production 1.73 .25 5

(ha)

Farming experience (years) 19.47 1 65

Table 3. The level of women’s participation in agricultural production in corn.

Level of Participation Percentage Description

(%)
Securing good quality seed 61.8 Moderate
 Land preparation 74.3 High
Water Management 10.4 Very Low
Fertilization of the soil 77.1 High
Planting 90.3 Very high
Pest Management 19.4 Very low
Harvesting 97.2 Very high
Legend: 0-20 Very low; 21-40 Low; 41-60 Moderate; 61-80 High; 81-100 Very High

Table 4. The level of women’s participation in the agricultural production of rice.

Level of Participation Percentage Description

(%)
Securing good quality seed 72.8 High
Land preparation 66.4 High
Water Management 68.5 High
Fertilization of the soil 69.8 High
Planting 26.8 Low
Pest Management 25.5 Low
Harvesting 74.0 High
Legend: 0-20 Very low; 21-40 Low; 41-60 Moderate; 61-80 High; 81-100 Very High

Table 5. Difference in the women’s participation in agricultural production between different

rice and corn farming.

Average Participation
rate
2
Practices x. Cramer’s Sig Interpretation
Rice Corn V Effect size
Securing good 72.8 61.8 4.980* .115 .026 small
quality seed
Land preparation 66.4 74.3 2.639ns -.083 .104 small
Water Management 68.5 10.4 121.150*** .565 .000 medium
Fertilization of the 69.8 77.1 2.387ns -.079 .122 small
soil
Planting 26.8 90.3 143.922* -.616 .000 large
Pest Management 25.5 19.4 1.856 .070 .173 small
Harvesting 74.0 97.2 33.779*** .299 .000 medium
Legend: >0.2-small; 0.2<V<0.6-medium;>0.6-large

Table 6. Factors affecting the women’s participation in corn production.

Variables Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| dy/dx
ns
Age .1688669 .1637828 1.03 0.304 .1688
Household size -1.702247*** .7088396 -3.41 0.001 -2.4148

Marital status -5.924883ns 5.951386 0.95 0.346 5.6293

Education .2332462* .5631298 1.93 0.056 1.0854
Income .0000774ns .0002262 -1.20 0.231 -.0003

Total Farm size (ha) -3.742089ns 2.389676 1.45 0.148 3.4731

Farmsize (corn) -2.168319ns 2.715154 -0.80 0.426 -2.1683

Farming Experience .2197689ns .2073079 1.06 0.291 .2198

_cons 48.53114 8.229884 5.90 0.000
***,*
- significant at 1% and 10% level; ns-not significant
LR chi2(9) = 29.2; Prob > chi2 = 0.0005; Psuedo R2 = 0.024