Lesson 001 - General Introduction

CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of
Quezon R4A
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SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
Instructional Module in
Ethics
Preliminaries
I. Lesson Number 001
II. Lesson Title General Introduction of Ethics
III. Brief Introduction This is a course about being human. It is a reflection on what it
of the Lesson means to exists as a person, who is rational and free and seeks
to do the good.
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to
help you understand the importance of studying Ethics and Cultural
Conceptions of the Good, define and explain the term Ethics, the
Moral Act, and from the Act to the Person.
IV. Lesson Objectives At the end of this module, the learners are able to:
1. identify the importance of studying ethics and cultural
conceptions of the good;
2. define and explain the terms that are relevant to ethical
thinking;
3. evaluate the difficulties that are involved in the moral act;
4. make a reflection from the act to the person.
Lesson Proper
I. Discussion
The Study of Ethics and Cultural Conceptions of the Good
It is true that there are traditions that guide one’s actions. It is impossible for anyone not
to have grown up with some sense of good and evil, proper and improper, the ought and ought
not. People mostly think that thy now exactly their basis of the good and that it is reasonable.
However, a person’s understanding of the good hardly ever goes unquestioned, especially in
today’s world. Devoting one’s life to one’s parents’ needs seems perfectly logical until one’s
wife, who grew up in a different tradition, questions it. The contractualization of labor for greater
profit seems the most reasonable course of action until one encounters the sufferings of people
who have to face the end of their contracts every five months. The subtle harassment of
women, such as ogling and throwing lewd jokes, seems harmless until woman files a case
against an offender in Quezon City where ordinances against harassment exist.
People like to think that their traditions are already clear and unquestionable to serve as
basis for how they should act. This is because people grow up with traditions. Traditions are a
part of culture. Culture is a system of codes that gives the world meaning and shapes the
behavior of people. It also determines proper behavior. This includes what we eat and how we
prepare food, how we talk and what language we use, what we make and how we make and
utilize things, how we understanding the meaning of life and death, and how we recognize the
ultimate meaning of life. Culture is our code that shapes how we understand, what life is worth
living, and what it means to be human.
These are some of the ways culture shapes the way people act. In the province of
Pampanga, penitents line the streets during HOLY WEEK to whip themselves. For them, it is a
way to participate in Christ’s sacrifice and by doing so, they cleanse themselves of their sins and
are spared from punishment. Mostly, people are who engage in these practices come from the
more traditional communities influenced by Spanish-style Catholicism and the so-called
animistic world view. Other Catholics who are educated in more Westernized, modern systems,
do not feel the need to engage in such practices and even judge the flagellants as “backward”.
However, the flagellation is perfectly natural and acceptable to those who practice it because in
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their culture, flagellation is a way to participate in Christ’s existence and, in a way, participate in
HIS being and power.
In some cultures, engaging in sexual activities for excitement and fun in amoral. Sexual
partners may not always have serious relationship with each other and merely “hook-up” for fun,
and that is perfectly acceptable as long as contraceptives are used and partners protect
themselves against diseases. Thus, the meaning of sexual activity in these culture is not
necessarily connected to love and procreation, linage propagation, and property transmission.
In other cultures, which are more agricultural or where the transmission of property is important,
perhaps sex a leisure activity is less acceptable. Also, in cultures where monogamy is
associated with romantic love and personal flourishing, sex is often related to committed
relationships, although not always to marriage. Among these people, their system of meanings
coded by their culture shapes how they understand sex and acceptable sexual behavior. Some
people cannot even conceive of sex a leisure activity because in their culture, the idea or set of
behaviors related to it does not exist. The experience of sex as fun is not even a real experience
for them because it is not part of the experiences that their culture provides.
Wife beating is another kind of behavior that is culturally determined. In some cultures,
where the status of women is that of property or is tightly controlled because of the importance
of lineage, it is customary that women accept their husband’s authority, submit to their will, and
serve all their needs. Thus. Women can be forced to have sex with their husbands. Woman
accept the fact that they cannot move in public without a male chaperone, that they cannot own
real estate as individuals, they cannot travel without a male family member’s permission, and
they can be beaten for whatever reason their husbands deem right without recourse of any
relief. In other cultures, where women’s happiness and fulfilment are valued above those of the
clan or the community, all of the aforementioned acts are considered violence, violations of
basic rights, and crime. People from cultures whose women are more “liberated” cannot begin to
understand how women of the non- “liberated” women shape their perceptions of the
relationships between men and women, their rights and duties, and their feelings regarding the
“strictness” of their husbands, it is possible that they do not feel abused or violated.
It can, therefore, be noted that the conceptions of the good is shapes human behavior.
This could be dangerous in a way because not all cultures and their conceptions of the good
reflect the good or what ought to be. Some cultures can be destructive to human beings. For
instance, some cultures tend to encourage war and colonial plunder. Other encourage
overconsumption and exploitation of the poor for profit. Because of these people’s cultures, they
are oriented toward violent behavior and do not even realize that they do violence toward their
neighbors. Most corrupt government officials do not think that they are doing harm because they
were formed in a culture where self-interest allows for the violation of rules of governance and
the common good. Thus, one cannot rely solely on one’s culture to come to genuine
understanding of the good. There is always the possibility that one’s cultural conception of the
good can lead to destructiveness and violence.
But whose conception of the good is “the good”? Usually, the good is defined by what
has worked for people to flourish. People value cooperation over conflict because it makes
human survival easier. People value arranged marriages to build alliances. Thus, what people
usually believe to be the good is usually what is useful and effective for survival and flourishing.
But people are not only concerned about the useful and effective. People also seek to realize
what they consider to be ethical acts that lead to human flourishing. How does one know what is
actually the good that genuinely leads to human flourishing? Thus, the discipline of ethics is
important because it provides people with a basis upon which to discern their own accepted
ethical system and a basis for broadening their own conceptions of the good.
What is Ethics?
It is grounded on the experience of free persons who have to act in difficult situations. It
developed from the reality that when people act, they do not merely need to know the best way
to realize something but there are times when they need to act in a way that realizes the good.
And the good does not always mean the easiest or most expedient way. Ethical norms and the
question of good and evil arise when people need to act as free persons. But not all actions are
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inherently ethical. Actions only require ethical reflection when they are free acts that involve a
person s desire to realize the good.
Questions of the good are not questions of practicality or questions of realizing one’s
desired end. They are questions that refer to a person s freedom and ability to live according to
what he/she considers to be the good. In different ages of human civilizations, the particular
norms of the good have taken on different forms. However, at heart, these norms express the
human realization that free action is defined by an ought that is not measured by how practical
results are achieved but by how human beings act in a way that realizes their capacity to freely
and creatively respond to the order of things: whether this order is grounded on a transcendent
order or human reason. Ethical questions arise when human being. intuit that their actions must
authentically fulfill their freedom in response to a ground of authentic human existence.
Eating and breathing are not usually thought about as ethical or unethical. After all, these
are just functions of the body. However, when eating is thought of in relation to man freedom,
the ethical question comes in. For instance, eating could involve the eating of food produced by
people who are exploited. They are not paid a living wage so that the factory owners earn more.
On top of that, they source their raw materials by polluting the waters of a community. Whoever
eats that product participates in the exploitation and destruction because buying the food
supports the activity of the manufacturer. In this cases, eating, becomes an ethical question
because although eating is a bodily function, eating this exploitatively produced food is a free
choice to act in a creative or destructive way toward others. Certainly, eating canned fish could
be an easy and inexpensive way to get nutrition, but it could also be unethical.
Thus, ethics has something to do with realizing the fullest potential as free persons
acting in the world and doing right for others. It is not about being efficient or achieving goals. It
is about realizing what people intuit about existing or survival, and human actions are not just
about expediency. Somehow, human beings sense that there is this thing they call the good
which they are bound to realize to genuinely be human and to build better societies.
This course explores how philosophers have tried to explain this mysterious intuition of
the good and what they understood were the paths to realizing a life lived according to the good.
The Moral Act
Human beings are complex beings. Unlike other organisms that are simply driven by the
survival instinct, human beings experience the world in a variety of ways through a variety of
perspective capacities. Bacteria are driven solely to replicate themselves; plants seek only
nourishment and growth, and animals seek to address their hunger and reproduce themselves.
Apart from our rational capacity which allows us to reckon reality with imaginative and
calculative lenses, our feelings also play a crucial part in determining the way we navigate
through various situations that we experience. We do not simply know the world and others; we
also feel their existence and their value.
We are pleased when others compliment us for a job well done. We get angry when we
are accused of a wrongdoing we did not do. We become afraid when we are threatened by
someone, and we feel anguish and despair in moments of seemingly insurmountable hardship.
Most of the time, we act based on how we feel. This is something we share with animals to a
certain degree. We seek food when we are hungry and we wish for companionship when we are
lonely. However, unlike animals that are instinctively programmed to act in accordance with how
they feel, we have the capacity to reflexively examine a situation before proceeding to act with
respect to how we feel. In other words, although feelings provide us with an initial reckoning of a
situation, they should not be the sole basis for our motives and actions.
A person who is in a state of rage towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely

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unable to process the possible consequences of his/he actions done impulsively. Feelings seek
immediate fulfillment, and it is our reason that tempers these compulsions. Feelings without
reason are blind. Reason sets the course for making ethical and impartial decisions especially in
moral situations although it is not the sole determining factor in coming up with such decisions.
Reason and feelings must constructively complement each other whenever we are making
choices. When feelings such as anger, jealousy, and shame are out of control, hence without
the proper guidance of a reason, one’s moral capacities become short-sighted and limited.
Reason puts these emotions in their proper places seeking not to discredit their validity but
calibrating them in such a way that they do not become the primary motive in making moral
decisions.
However, it must be noted that reason in and by itself is also not a sufficient instrument
in assessing moral situations. Reason can sometimes be blinded in implementing and following
its own strict rules that it becomes incapable o! empathy for the other. While it is morally wrong
for someone to steal food out of hunger, to punish a person for doing it without even trying to
listen to his/her reasons for committing such an act may be considered cold and cruel. That is
not to say that the act is deemed right after one finds out why someone stole. It is then viewed
as a complex set, connected to a web of various circumstantial factors and motives. A person s
act of stealing my, in fact, appear to be a symptom of a greater injustice in one’s society
prompting one to do good not by simply punishing an immoral act but by proactively seeking
justice for the disadvantaged people who are pushed by poverty and societal injustice to feed
themselves by stealing. In other words, reason, while a reliable ground for moral judgment,
needs the feeling of empathy to come up not just with a moral but also a just decision.
Moral situations often involve not just one but others as well. Our decisions have
consequences and these have an effect on others. Matters of moral important need to be
analyzed with a perspective that takes the welfare and feelings of others into consideration.
What is good for one may not be mod for others.
For example, if a jeepney driver thinks it is only right for him to to get as many
passengers as he can in order to address the needs of his family of by breaking a few traffic
rules that to his mind harms nobody (he does not run anyone over or he does not bump other
vehicles on the road), his reasoning may be construed as a narrow and selfish. The
inconvenience and stress he causes other drivers by picking up and dropping off passengers
anywhere and anytime he pleases actually harms others more than he thinks. Some people
may come late for work and get fired because of this habit. Some drivers may feel too much
stress which endangers their lives and this has an effect on the people that depend on them. In
other words, if one s reasoning does not consider the interests of people that are affected by
his/her actions, then he/she is actually being prejudicial to his/her own interests. Saying that the
actions do not harm anybody is not a sufficient moral justification until one actually takes into
rational account the effects of the actions on others. Simply put, morality involves impartiality
because it ensures that all interests are accounted for, weighed rationally, and assessed without
prejudice. Prejudices make decisions impartial. Reason recognizes not only the good of oneself
but also the good of others.
One way of ensuring the rationality and impartiality of moral decisions is to follow the
seven-step moral reasoning model. These steps can serve as a guide in making choices of
moral import.
1. Stop and think. Before making any decisions, it is best to take a moment to think about
the situation itself, your place in it, and other surrounding factors Which merit
consideration, such as the people involved and the potential effects of your decisions on
them. This involves a step-back from the situation to make sure that you do not act out of
impulse.
2. Clarify goals. It is also necessary to clarify your short-term and long-term aims. One
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often decides on the basis of what he/she wants to accomplish. Sometimes, in the heat
of the moment, short-term wants eclipse long term goals. Thus, you must determine if
you are Willing to sacrifice more important life goals to achieve your short-term goals. If
you, for example, are seeking retribution for harm caused by another person, you have
to think about the long term consequence of revenge on your character in the long run.
3. Determine facts. Make sure you gather enough information before you make a choice.
An intelligent choice is one that is supported by verified facts. You must first make sure
that what you know is enough to merit action. Without verifying facts, you may regret
your choice in the future once various aspects of the situation come to light. Never make
a choice on the basis of hearsay. Make sure your sources are credible and have
integrity.
4. Develop options. Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to come up
with alternative options to exhaust all possible courses of action. Most of the time, the
pressure of a situation may make you feel you have less options than you think. Clear
your mind and try to think of other creative ways of clarifying your motives and
implementing your actions with the least ethical compromise.
5. Consider consequences. Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the
unethical choices bearing in mind both your motives and the potential consequences of
your action. Think of long term consequences and act in accordance with the principles
of justice and fairness. Consequences are historical realities that bear upon the lives of
others. A decision turns something in your mind into reality. Make sure you do not regret
the decision you have conferred reality upon.
6. Choose. Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, try consulting others who may
have knowledge or experience of your situation. Find people with a virtuous character
and compare your reasoning with your moral analysis. Once you make up your mind,
summon the will to do the right thing even if it is hard and seemingly counter-intuitive.
7. Monitor and modify. Monitor what happens after your decision and have enough
humility to modify your action or behavior as necessary. Pride may get in the way of
admitting that you might have not thought out a decision well enough. As you become
more aware of the consequences of your actions, especially on the lives of others,
summon the strength and determination to make changes to rectify any shortcomings.
Do not hesitate to revise your decisions in light of new developments in the situation.
These seven steps can help you ensure that you do not take moral decisions lightly. They
shed light on the various aspects of moral situations that you have to consider before making a
decision. An important element, though, is your will to commit to an action based on moral
principles. You must have the necessary resolve to put your choice in motion after a long
process of deliberation. Goodwill, though sufficient as a ground for morality according to some
philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, must nevertheless be enacted and applied to make a
difference in the world of practical moral affairs.
While feelings and reason set up the theoretical basis for moral action, it is the will Which
implements your decision and projects your motives into reality. It is not enough to want to do
the good, you must actually do it not only for your sake but for the benefit of those that may bear
the consequences of your decision. To a great extent, you owe it to others to do the right thing.
It shows how much you respect them that you cannot allow yourself to not do something that
may benefit them. It is only by habituating your elf to doing good that your will becomes used to
propelling your decisions into actions. The will is like a muscle that you must constantly exercise
in order to develop and strengthen.
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Moral courage is the result of a morally developed will. It is the capacity to initiate and
sustain your resolve whenever you are certain of doing the good. Many factors can derail you
from consistently standing by your moral principles, such as intimidation from others, but
remember that a person of moral courage is not afraid to stand his/her ground in matters that
involve doing what is right and just. Moral courage is what some of our heroes displayed in the
face of dictators and colonizers. Moral courage is a kind of virtue that enables one to be ethical
not just in thought but, more importantly, in deed.
From the Act to the Person

Focusing exclusively on human acts is limited. Contemporary ethicists point to the
importance of personhood. It is the human being himself/herself who gives meaning and
receives significance horn the acts that he/ she executes. While human acts and personhood
are always bound together and even inseparable, the primacy of the person cannot be
contested. Human acts are only human insofar as there is this center of identity and integrity
that ground. them. Human acts are particular actions that flow from the personhood of the
human being.
Human acts, in turn, determine the reality of the person. Though personhood rather than
particular acts is the deeper reality, the significant of the latter cannot be overlooked. Human
beings as doers of moral acts are responsible not only for what they do but for the persons they
grow into through their moral acts. Human acts are relevant to the kind of person one becomes.
It is personhood that gives actions significance. Particular moral actions shape the person that
one desires. It is, therefore, not only good moral actions that are important for ethics. Asking
students about the kind of person they want to become is more meaningful and significant in
such a study.
Students of ethics tend to think of other people as victims of a wrong decision or bad
actions of a particular moral agent. It should be noted, however, that in the relationship between
personhood and moral actions, as previously mentioned, the moral agent himself/herself is the
first victim of a bad decision or a wrong action.
However, the depth of personhood cannot be fully objectified and always escapes
conceptualization. Kant insists on this mysterious center that is in the human person that he
refuses to say that the person is inherently evil. For Kant, the human person s inexhaustible
ability to always change for the better is a source of surprise even for the moral agent. No
matter how much a human person is conditioned by culture and environment, there is within that
person a source for change and a turning towards the good. This is confirmed by the
conversions and even cultural revolutions.
II. References
Bulaong, G. et. al. (2018). Ethics Foundation of Moral Valuation. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex
Book Store, Inc.
Pasco, D. et. al. (2018). Ethics. Quezon City, Philippines: C & E Publishing Inc.
Prepared by:
ALBERT D. SARMIENTO, LPT, RGC, RPm
Instructor
Reviewed by: Approved by:

JOHN MARC R. MENDOZA, MAEd, MLIS JESS JAY M. SAJISE, DBA
Program Head, School of Teacher Education Vice President of Academic Affairs External

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CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.

SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

The Moral Act

A person who is in a state of rage towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely

From the Act to the Person

Reviewed by: Approved by:

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