Unit I

Salem Sowdeswari College, Self-Financing Courses Wing
UNIT I
1.1 Industraial fuels
1.1.1 classification of fuels
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it
releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally
applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also
been applied to other sources of heat energy, such as nuclear energy (via nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion).
The heat energy released by reactions of fuels can be converted into mechanical
energy via a heat engine. Other times, the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or
industrial processes, as well as the illumination that accompanies combustion.
Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular
respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable
energy. Hydrocarbons and related organic molecules are by far the most common
source of fuel used by humans, but other substances, including radioactive metals, are
also utilized.
Fuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such
as those that directly release electrical energy (such as batteries and capacitors) or
mechanical energy
Renewable source of energy: one which is inexhaustible. Example: Solar energy.
Non-renewable source of energy: one which is exhaustible. Example: Fossil Fuels
1.1.2 Fuels can be generally classified on the basis of two factors:
A.) On the basis of their fuels state:
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 Solid Fuels
 Liquid Fuels
 Gaseous Fuels
B.) On the basis of their occurrence:
 Natural Fuels
 Artificial Fuels
C.) properties of ideal fuel:
 An ideal fuel is readily available.
 An ideal fuel is cheap.
 An ideal fuel burns easily in the air at a moderate rate.
 It releases a large amount of energy.
 It should not leave behind any undesirable substances which can be harmful to
us.
 It should not affect the environment adversely.
CalorifIc value
Calorific value is the amount of heat energy present in food or fuel and which is
determined by the complete combustion of specified quantity at constant pressure and
in normal conditions. It is also called calorific power. The unit of calorific value is
kilojoule per kilogram i.e. KJ/Kg.
Water vapour is generated in the combustion process and the heat should be
recovered by using certain techniques. If the heat contained in the water vapour could
be recovered then it has high calorific value. If heat contained in the water vapor could
not be recovered when it has low calorific value.
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Calorific Value of Fuel
Here is the detailed list of fuels and their calorific values:
Fuel Calorific Value Of Fuel( Approximately)
Cow Dung 8000
Wood 22000
Coal 33000
Biogas 40000
Diesel 45000
kerosene 45000
Petrol 45000
Methane 50000
LPG 55000
The calorific value of food indicates the total amount of energy, a human body could
generate during its metabolism which is expressed in Kilojoules per 100 grams or 100
ml. The calorific value of food is generally expressed in kilocalories i.e. kcal.
The below table shows the type of food and

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Calorific value (Approximately)

Category of food Quantity(Grams)
Kilojoules(KJ) Kilocalories(Kcal)
Dietary fibre 1 8 2
Polyhydric Alcohols 1 10 2.4
Alcohols 1 29 7
Carbohydrates 1 17 4
Protein 1 17 4
Fats 1 37 9
Fats have more calorific value when compared to carbohydrates, protein,

alcohols, roughage and other biomolecules involved in the maintenance and metabolic
processess
1.1.3 Solid fuel
Solid fuel refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to release
energy, providing heat and light through the process of combustion. Solid fuels can be
contrasted with liquid fuels and gaseous fuels. Common examples of solid fuels
include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, , dry dung, wood pellets, corn, wheat, rye, and
other grains. Solid fuels are extensively used in rocketry as solid propellants.
Solid fuels have been used throughout human history to create fire and solid fuel is
still in widespread use throughout the world in the present day.
a.) Formation of Coal
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Coal is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, moisture, and

incombustible mineral matter (i.e., ash). Fluorinated gases are not formed by coal
combustion. Coals are formed from the accumulation of vegetable debris in specialized
environments
Obtaining coal from the mines is a difficult job. First, the dirt above the coal deposit is
removed. When the coal is exposed, explosives are used to break it into smaller pieces.
The coal thus collected is loaded into wagons and lifted to the surface. The mines enter
and leave the mine by an elevator through a vertical space called the shaft. Coal mines
can easily catch fire and it is very difficult to bring the fire under control
b.) Properities and Uses of Coal
Coal is a typical conventional solid fuel that has been exploited as an important
source of fuel by humankind for thousands of years.
The main use of coal is as fuel for electric power plants for which more than 50% of
the coal produced in the world is used.
The simplest use of coal is to burn it for heat. Coal was once used as a household
heating and cooking fuel in Western nations.
Other uses of coal that may be increasingly important in the future are in the
production of liquid fuel by direct or indirect liquefaction to replace fuels made from
petroleum, production of methanol a possible substitute for gasoline and production of
synthetic gases.
1.Types of coal
a.).Lignite
Lignite or brown coal is brown in colour and the lowest quality of coal. The carbon
content of lignite ranges from 65-70%, [4] therefore, compared to other types of coal it
contains the greatest amount of compounds other than carbon—such as sulfur
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and mercury.[6] Lignite is the youngest fossil fuel produced, with an age of
approximately 60 million years. Its relatively short lifespan means it exhibits quite a
low energy density at 18 MJ/kg.[4] Lignite's high moisture content and lower carbon
content results in more carbon dioxide emissions than harder black coals.
b.) Sub-Bituminous
Sub-bituminous coal or black lignite is a grey-black or dark brown coal. It

ranges from hard to soft as it represents an intermediate stage between low
quality lignite and higher quality bituminous coal. The carbon content of sub-
bituminous coal varies from 70-76%. Sub-bituminous coals are among the younger coals
geologically—approximately 251 million years old. Therefore, the longer burial time
compared to lignite increases it's energy density ranges from 18-23 MJ/kg. This type of
coal is the most commonly used, with 30% of coal resources being sub-bituminous.
c.) Bituminous
Bituminous coal is the second highest quality of coal, with a carbon content that
ranges from 76-86%.[11] It is the most abundant type, and one of the longest buried fossil
fuels—with an age of approximately 300 million years old. Therefore, its energy
density is relatively high at 27 MJ/kg.[4] The high carbon and low moisture content of
this particular type of coal makes it ideal in the production of steel and cement, as well
as in electricity generation and coke production.
d.) Anthracite
Anthracite is a dark black form of coal and the highest quality coal. It is very hard,
has a low moisture content, and a carbon content of nearly 95%.]When burned,
anthracite can reach a very high temperature. In addition, anthracite is usually the
oldest type of coal, having formed from biomass that was buried 350 million years ago.
Its prolonged burial time means it exhibits a very high energy density of 33 MJ/kg—the
highest of any type of coal. Since so much energy is released when burned, this fuel is
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exceptional at heating up quickly and burning very hot. Anthracite is used for space
heating as it is one of the cleanest types of coal to burn—producing less smoke than
other types. Its clean burning properties allows anthracite to burn longer than wood.
e.) Cooking and Non cooking coal
Metallurgical coal or coking coal is a grade of coal that can be used to produce good-
quality coke. Coke is an essential fuel and reactant in the blast furnace process for
primary steelmaking. The demand for metallurgical coal is highly coupled to the
demand for steel. Primary steelmaking companies often have a division that produces
coal for coking, to ensure a stable and low-cost supply.
Metallurgical coal comes mainly from Canada, the United States, and Australia, with
Australia exporting 58% of seaborne trade, mostly going to China. In the United States,
the electric power sector used "93% of total U.S. coal consumption between 2007 and
2018"; only 7% of the total was metallurgical coal and coal for other uses such as
heating.
1.1.4 Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed

to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the
shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid fuels that are flammable instead of the
fluid. Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from fossil fuels; however, there
are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, and biodiesel,
which are also categorized as a liquid fuel. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in
transportation and the economy..
1.) properties
a.) Petroleum fuels
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Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable
of these is gasoline. Scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the
fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the
Earth's crust.
b.) Gasoline
Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it is known in United
States and Canada, or petrol virtually everywhere else, is made
of hydrocarbon molecules (compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only)
forming aliphatic compounds, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached.
However, many aromatic compounds (carbon chains forming rings) such
as benzene are found naturally in gasoline and cause the health risks associated with
prolonged exposure to the fuel.
Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation of crude oil. The desirable liquid

is separated from the crude oil in refineries. Crude oil is extracted from the ground in
several processes, the most commonly seen may be beam pumps. To create
gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil.
c.) Diesel
Conventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of aliphatic

hydrocarbons extracted from petroleum. Diesel may cost more or less than gasoline, but
generally costs less to produce because the extraction processes used are simpler. Some
countries (particularly Canada, India and Italy) also have lower tax rates on diesel fuels.
After distillation, the diesel fraction is normally processed to reduce the amount
of sulfur in the fuel. Sulfur causes corrosion in vehicles, acid rain and higher emissions
of soot from the tail pipe (exhaust pipe). Historically, in Europe lower sulfur levels than
in the United States were legally required. However, recent US legislation reduced the
maximum sulfur content of diesel from 3,000 ppm to 500 ppm in 2007, and 15 ppm by
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2010. Similar changes are also underway in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and
several Asian countries. See also Ultra-low-sulfur diesel.
d.) Kerosene
Kerosene is used in kerosene lamps and as a fuel for cooking, heating, and small
engines. It displaced whale oil for lighting use. Jet fuel for jet engines is made in several
grades (Avtur, Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B, JP-4, JP-5, JP-7 or JP-8) that are kerosene-type
mixtures. One form of the fuel known as RP-1 is burned with liquid oxygen as rocket
fuel. These fuel grade kerosenes meet specifications for smoke points and freeze points.
2.) Hydrodesulfurization
Hydrodesulfurization (HDs) alsocalled hydrotreatment or hydrotreating is

a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur (S) from natural gas and
from refined petroleum products, such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel
fuel, and fuel oils.[1][2][3] The purpose of removing the sulfur, and creating products such
as ultra-low-sulfur diesel, is to reduce the sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions that result
from using those fuels in automotive vehicles, aircraft, railroad locomotives, ships, gas
or oil burning power plants, residential and industrial furnaces, and other forms of
fuel combustion.
Another important reason for removing sulfur from the naphtha streams within
a petroleum refinery is that sulfur, even in extremely low
concentrations, poisons the noble metal catalysts (platinum and rhenium) in
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the catalytic reforming units that are subsequently used to upgrade the octane rating of
the naphtha streams.
The industrial hydrodesulfurization processes include facilities for the capture and
removal of the resulting hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas. In petroleum refineries, the
hydrogen sulfide gas is then subsequently converted into byproduct, sulfur (S)
or sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur
produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from refineries and other
hydrocarbon processing plants.[4][5]
An HDS unit in the petroleum refining industry is also often referred to as a hydrotreater.
2 .) Craking And thermal catalytic
cracking is the process of breaking down large hydrocarbons into smaller

hydrocarbons. This is often done in order to produce more valuable products, such as
gasoline and diesel fuel. Cracking is accomplished by heating a hydrocarbon until it
breaks down into smaller molecules.
Types of Cracking
There are a few types of cracking that can occur in concrete:
• Thermal cracking: This type of cracking is caused by the expansion and

contraction of the concrete as it warms and cools. It typically occurs near the edges of
the concrete slab.
• Chemical cracking: This type of cracking is caused by the reaction of the

concrete with certain chemicals, such as sulfates or chlorides. It can cause the concrete
to deteriorate and even fall apart.
a.) Thermal Cracking
Thermal cracking is a chemical process used to convert large hydrocarbons into

smaller molecules, or to break down a large molecule into smaller molecules. Thermal
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cracking is used to produce gasoline, diesel fuel, and other petroleum products. The
process involves heating a petroleum product to a high temperature in the presence of a
catalyst. The catalyst causes the large molecules to break down into smaller molecules.
b.) Catalytic Cracking
Catalytic cracking is a refinery process that breaks down large, complex

molecules into smaller, more useful molecules. It does this by using a catalyst, which is
a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
In catalytic cracking, a reactor is heated to a very high temperature. The catalyst is

then added, and the reaction begins. The large molecules are broken down into smaller
molecules, including gasoline, diesel fuel, and other products.
1.1.5 Gasues fuels

Gaseous fuels are considered to be better fuels in comparison to solid and liquid
fuels. The main elements of gaseous fuels are carbon and hydrogen. Apart from this,
there are traces of oxygen and nitrogen.
Gas fuels have the special property of being cold and clean. Their calorific value at
normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P.) varies from 4 MI/m to 63 MJ/m3.
Gas fuels are mainly used in IC Engines, boiler furnaces, domestic and industrial
uses etc. They are carried to the place of use through pipelines.
They are also carried from one place to another place, filled in cylinders. The use of
gaseous fuels is costlier than the other fuels for the same heat energy.
a.) Components of Gaseous fuels-
Gaseous fuels have two components:
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Combustible Gaseous Fuels: Combustible fuels are composed of gases like Carbon
Monoxide (CO), Hydrogen (H). Methane(CH), Ethane (C, H). Propane (C, H), Butane
(C, H) etc.
Non-combustible Gaseous Fuels: Non-combustible gaseous fuel materials are

Carbon-dioxide (CO) and Nitrogen (N).
b.) Classification of Gaseous Fuels-
Gaseous fuels can be classified on the basis of their Availability and Calorific Value
and they are-
On the basis of Availability-
On the basis of availability, gaseous fuels are of the following two types:
Natural gaseous fuels
Artificial gaseous fuels
1. Natural Gaseous Fuel-
Natural gaseous fuels are gaseous fuels which are found in nature freely and used
in their original form in which they exist in nature. Such natural gases are propene
and butene etc. Which are found with petroleum and coal underneath the
earth’s surface.
2. Artificial Gaseous Fuel-
Artificial gaseous fuels are gaseous fuels which are produced in the artificial form
in industrial establishments under various processes in their original form or as by-
products.
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For example- Water-gas, blast furnaces, gas coke-oven gas etc.
c.) On the basis of calorific value-
On the basis of calorific value, the gaseous fuels are of the following two types-
 High calorific value gaseous fuels
 Low calorific value gaseous fuels
1. High calorific value gaseous fuels–
Among the high calorific value gaseous fuels, coke gas, coke oven gas and natural gas
are prominent fuel gases which emit high heat during combustion.
2. Low calorific value gaseous fuels–
Among the low calorific value gaseous fuels, blast furnace gas, producer gas etc, are
prominent fuel gases which emit comparatively low heat during combustion.
D .) Examples of Gaseous Fuels-
1.Natural Gas
2. Liquified Petroleum Gas Fuel
3.Coke-oven gas and coal gas
1. Natural Gas-
 Natural gas is obtained in its natural form beneath the earth’s surface at a
high pressure of 30 to 200 atmospheric pressure where it is available in
abundance.
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 Natural gas is taken out by digging deep wells (about 3 to 4 km) by means of
pipelines. It is then treated to reduce moisture in it and sent to the place of
use through pipes.
 Natural gas is also obtained during the extraction of petroleum from beneath
the earth. The gas thus obtained is purified and filled in cylinders for use.
 Natural gas is also obtained from coal mines but it is not used in commercial
form.
 Natural gas is colourless and odourless. Normally it is free from sulphur,
clean and pure. It is non-toxic too. It is lighter than air and its specific gravity
is 0.57 to 0.7. Its thermal value is 26 to 35 MJ/m.
2. Liquified Petroleum Gas Fuel-
It is a liquified mixture of hydro-carbon stored under pressure. The composition
of this gas consists of ethylene, propane, propylene, butane, Isobutane and butylene.
From the commercial point of view, it is classified as propane, propane-butane

mixture and butane. Its transportation, storage and uses are very simple.
It is colourless, odourless and non-toxic in nature. It is obtained by refining the

gas available with petroleum. These gases are used for domestic purposes, industrial
purposes and commercially for making artificial gas.
3. Coke-oven gas and coal gas-
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When coke coal is heated in a coke oven, coke is obtained as the basic product and
coke-oven gas is obtained as a by-product. When coal is heated in horizontal or vertical
retorts, coal gas is produced as a basic product. Coal gas is also called illuminating gas.
Both these gases are similar. They are obtained by fractional distillation of
bituminous coal at a high temperature (about 990°C). These gases are mostly used in
steel furnaces, power production and heating purpose in industries
Advantages of Gaseous Fuel-
 The advantages or benefits of gaseous fuels over solid and liquid fuels are
given below:
 Transportation and storage of gaseous fuels are easy to be carried out.

Within the plant, these can be carried from one place to other through
pipelines. Outside the plant, they are carried in large tankers or cylinders.
 High heat energy is obtained. Their quantity and temperature are easy to
control.
 The combustion process of gaseous fuels can be carried out with a

minimum of pieces of equipment. It can be made fully automatic.
 During the combustion process and after, deposition of ash, soot, smoke,
dust etc does not take place. Thus atmospheric pollution is prevented.
Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuel-
 Here are some of the limitations of gaseous fuel-
 They are highly inflammable and prone to explosion.
 High storage capacity is required.
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1.1.6 Gober electric cell
The Grove cell was an early electric primary cell named after its
inventor, Welsh physical scientist William Robert Grove, and consisted of
a zinc anode in dilute sulfuric acid and a platinum cathode in concentrated nitric acid,
the two separated by a porous ceramic pot
Cell details
The Grove cell voltage is about 1.9 volts and arises from the following reaction:
Zn + H2SO4 + 2 HNO3 ⇌ ZnSO4 + 2 H2O + 2 NO2↑
Use
The Grove cell was the favored power source of the early
American telegraph system in the period 1840 – 1860 because it offered a high current
output and higher voltage than the earlier Daniell cell (at 1.9 volts and 1.1 volts,
respectively).
Disadvantages
By the time of the American Civil War, as telegraph traffic increased, the Grove cell's
tendency to discharge poisonous nitrogen dioxide (NO2) fumes proved increasingly
hazardous to health, and as telegraphs became more complex, the need for constant
voltage became critical. The Grove cell was limited in this respect, because as the cell
discharged, voltage reduced. Eventually, Grove cells were replaced in use by Daniell
cells.
Electrical cell
Electrochemical cell, a device which produces electricity through chemical reactions,
commonly referred to as a battery
Solar cell, a device which produces electricity from sunlight
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Electrolytic cell, a device which decomposes chemical compounds through

electrolysis
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UNIT-II
2.1 Water treatment
2.1.1 Introduction of water
Water is one of the natural resources, which are found in an adequate amount. It is
an essential source for the existence of life on the planet earth. It is widely used for
various purposes such as drinking, washing, bathing, cleaning, cooking, irrigation, and
other industrial and domestic uses.
Sources of Water
There are various sources of water. About 97% of the water on the Earth’s surface is
covered with water. The three main sources of water are:
 Rainwater.
 Groundwater – This includes water bodies like Wells and Springs.
 Surface water – This includes different water bodies like Reservoirs, Rivers,
Streams, Ponds, Lakes and Tanks.
 Water never stops moving. The
water cycle
mainly describes the process of the continuous movement of water from the
surface of the earth and it is usually carried out in four different stages. The
entire cycle is controlled by the sun and is also known as the hydrological cycle
 Evaporation: In this stage, the heat from the sun heats up the water from oceans
and other water bodies and evaporates the water in the form of vapours which
rises up and form clouds.
 Condensation: The water vapour’s in the clouds cools down.
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 Precipitation: The cooled water vapours in the clouds form droplets and
released in the form of Precipitation back to the earth surface in the form of rain
or snow.
 Collection: The rainwater runs off to the ground and gets collected into the river,
ponds, well, and back to the sea.
 As mentioned above, about 97% of the water on the Earth’s surface is covered
with water. Only 2 to 3% is available and safe for drinking. Rest of the water is
saltwater and other two-thirds of the Earth’s freshwater is frozen in glaciers and
these water resources are mostly inaccessible for human use.
A.) Hardness of water or Carbonate hardness
Hard water has high mineral content. It is formed when water percolates through the
deposits of chalk and limestone, which are made up of magnesium and calcium
carbonates. It does not lather with soap, so it is not suitable for laundry purposes.
The hardness of water is harmful to the boilers as the deposition of salts occurs, which
reduces the efficiency of the boiler. Hard water is safe to drink, but using it over a long
interval of time can lead to many problems like:
 Strains in skin
 Water appliances work harder, resulting in higher water bills
 Spots appear on clothes and linens
Water can be classified as hard water and soft water.
 Soft water: It lathers with soap. Water which is obtained from the rains is soft
water. This water is suitable for household purposes, for example, laundry and
cleaning.
 Hard water: It is known as hard water because of the presence of calcium and
magnesium salts. Hard water does not lather with soap but instead forms a
precipitate.
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B.) Types of Hardness of Water
Hardness of water can be classified into two types:
 Temporary Hardness
 Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness of Water
The presence of magnesium and calcium carbonates in water makes it temporarily

hard. In this case, the hardness in water can be removed by boiling the water.
When we boil water, the soluble salts of Mg(HCO 3)2 are converted to Mg(OH)2, which is
insoluble, and hence gets precipitated and is removed. After filtration, the water we get
is soft water.
Permanent Hardness of Water
When the soluble salts of magnesium and calcium are present in the form of chlorides
and sulphides in water, we call it permanent hardness because this hardness cannot be
removed by boiling.
We can remove this hardness by treating the water with washing soda. Insoluble
carbonates are formed when washing soda reacts with the sulphide and chloride salts of
magnesium and calcium, and thus, hard water is converted to soft water.
Disadvantages of Hardness
 Wastage of soap
 Wastage of fuel
Formation of scales on metallic boilers.
d.) Ion Exchange Resin Method:
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In this method, the permanent hardness of water is removed by using resins. Ca ++/Mg+
+
ions are exchanged with Cl–, and SO4-2 ions are exchanged with anion exchange resin
(RNH2OH). Demineralised water is formed in this process
2RCOOH + Ca++ → (RCOO)2Ca + 2H+
⇒ RNH2OH + Cl– → RNH2Cl + OH–
⇒ H+ + OH– → H2O
Permanent Hardness of Water
Gan’s Permutit Method:
In this method, sodium aluminium ortho silicate, known as permutit or zeolite, is used
to remove the permanent hardness of the water.
Reaction: Na2 Al2 Si2 O8.KH2O + Ca++→ 2Na+ + Ca Al2 Si2 O8.xH2O
Calgon’s Process:
In this method, sodium-hexa-meta-phosphate (NaPO3)6, known as Calgon, is used. The

hardness in water is removed by the adsorption of Ca++ and Mg++ ions.
Disadvantages of hardness
Hard water has several advantages to the human body, like strengthening bones and
teeth, reducing constipation, and improving gut health. But hard water being a problem
is a long list to explain.
1.Soap scum
When two substances react, their atoms and molecules react with each other and
form a product. When hard water and soap react, magnesium or calcium ions in hard
water react with soap molecules and form a precipitate. Precipitation is a type of
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chemical reaction where the product is solid. Here, soap scum is the precipitate, which
is insoluble. It may look more like soap molecules, but it doesn’t lather.
2.Stains
Hard water leaves stains everywhere. Due to dissolved minerals, cloudy stains will be
present in tubs, dishes, and pipes. Over time, because of continuous deposition, these
stains become hard to remove.
3.Dry skin and hair
We have sebaceous glands and sweat to keep our skin hydrated and not flaky. When
we use hard water, magnesium and calcium ions clog our pores. It leads to flaky,
irritable dry skin and hair.
4.Faded and brittle laundry
As we mentioned earlier, soap and detergents react with hard water forming soap scum
and less lather. Because of this, hard water does not clean laundry properly and also
leaves behind scum in clothes, which becomes hard on drying. As a result, clothes
appear faded and brittle.
2.1.2 Estimation of EDTA
ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS
The estimation of hardness of water is of great importance for the chemical industry
in general. There are various methods available for estimating the hardness of water.
Some of them are
1.Soap titration method
2. Alkali titration method
3. DTA method
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Here, let us discuss the determination of hardness of water is Ethylene Di-amine Tetra
Acetic acid. The structure of EDTA
Principle
The amount of hardness causing ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) can be estimated by titrating
the water sample against EDTA using Eriochrome-Black-T indicator (EBT) at a pH of 8-
10. In order tomaintain the pH, buffer solution (NH4Cl − NH4OH mixture) is added.
Only at this pH such a complexation is possible. When the EBT indicator is added to the
water sample, it forms wine red coloured weak complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
[Ca2+ Mg2+] + EBT [Ca Mg EBT] complex
When this solution is titrated against EDTA, it replaces the indicator from the weak
complex form stable EDTA complex. When all the hardness causing ions are complexed
by EDTA,the indicator is set free. The color of the free indicator is steel blue. Thus the
end point is the changeof color from wine red to steel blue. Ca Mg EBT] complex +
EDTA [Ca Mg EDTA]+ EBT Wine red colored weak complex Stable complex Steel blue
Preparation of solutions EDTA Solution
It is prepared by dissolving 4 gms of EDTA in 1000 ml of distilled water.
Standard hard water
1 gm of pure CaCO3 is dissolved in minimum quantity of HCl and then made up to

1000 ml using distilled water. ∴ 1 ml of standard hard water ≡ 1 mg of CaCO3
equivalent hardness
. EBT indicator
0.5 gms of EBT is dissolved in 100 ml of alcohol.
Buffer solution
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67.5 gms of NH4Cl and 570 ml of NH3 are dissolved and the solution is made up to
1000 mlusing distilled water.
Experimental procedure Standardization of EDTA
Pipette out 50 ml of standard hard water into a clean conical flask. Add 10 ml of buffer
solution and 4-5 drops of EBT indicator and titrate it against EDTA solution taken in the
burette. The end point is the change of colour from wine red to steeblue Let the volume
of EDTA consumed be V1 ml
Estimation of total hardness of water
sample Pipette out 50 ml of the given hard water sample into a clean conical flask and
titrate it against EDTA as before. Let the volume of EDTA consumed be V2 ml
Estimation of permanent hardness of water sample
Take 100 ml of the same hard water sample in a 250 ml beaker. Boil it for 15 minutes.
During boiling temporary hardness gets removed. Cool and filter the solution and make
up to 100 ml in a standard flask by adding distilled water
. Pipette out 50 ml of the made up solution into a clean conical flask and titrate it against
EDTA as before.
Let the volume of EDTA consumed be V3 ml.
Calculations Standardization of EDTA 1 ml of Std.
hard water = 1 mg of CaCO3 50 ml of Std.
hard water = 50 mgs of CaCO3 50 ml of Std.
hard water consumes = V1 ml of EDTA
V1 ml of EDTA ≡ 50 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness (or)
1 ml of EDTA ≡ 50 V1 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
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Estimation of EDTA of structure
2.1.3 Water softening methods
Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other

metal cations in hard water. The resulting soft water requires less soap for the same
cleaning effort, as soap is not wasted bonding with calcium ions.
Soft water also extends the lifetime of plumbing by reducing or eliminating scale build-
up in pipes and fittings. Water softening is usually achieved using lime
softening or ion-exchange resins but is increasingly being accomplished
using nanofiltration] or reverse osmosis membranes.
The most common means for removing water hardness rely on ion-exchange
resin or reverse osmosis. Other approaches include precipitation methods and
sequestration by the addition of chelating agents. Distillation and reverse osmosis are
the most widely used two non-chemical methods of water softening.
Ion-exchange resin method
25
Conventional water-softening appliances intended for household use depend on an ion-

exchange resin in which "hardness ions"—mainly Ca2+ and Mg2+—are exchanged
for sodium ions.[6] As described by NSF/ANSI Standard 44,[7] ion-exchange devices
reduce the hardness by replacing magnesium and calcium (Mg 2+ and Ca2+) with sodium
or potassium ions (Na+ and K+)."
Ion-exchange resins are organic polymers containing anionic functional groups to

which the divalent cations (Ca2+) bind more strongly than monovalent cations (Na+).
Inorganic materials called zeolites also exhibit ion-exchange properties. These minerals
are widely used in laundry detergents. Resins are also available to remove the
carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate ions that are absorbed and hydroxide ions that are
released from the resin. [8]
When all the available Na+ ions have been replaced with calcium or magnesium ions,
the resin must be recharged by eluting the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions using a solution
of sodium chloride or sodium hydroxide, depending on the type of resin used.[9] For
anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of sodium hydroxide (lye) or
potassium hydroxide. The waste waters eluted from the ion-exchange column
containing the unwanted calcium and magnesium salts are typically discharged to
the sewage system.
Recharge typically takes the following steps:
Backwash: Water is directed through the resin in the direction opposite to that of
normal flow, and the output is sent to a drain for disposal. This ten-minute process
flushes out solids, and expands the resin bed.
26
Brine draw: Water is directed through a jet pump, which pulls salt water from
the brine tank, before the water and brine pass through the resin bed in the normal
direction, if co-current, or in the reverse direction, if counter-current.[11] The output of
this typically thirty-minute process is discarded through the drain hose.
Rinse: Brine draw stops, but water continues to flow from the inlet to the outlet,
gradually flushing the brine out of the resin bed. The flushing water flows slowly
for several minutes, then at a faster rate for as long as an hour. At some point, the
brine reservoir is refilled with fresh water.
a.)Lime softening
Lime softening is the process in which lime is added to hard water to make it softer.
It has several advantagesover the ion-exchange method but is mainly suited to
commercial treatment applications.
b.)Chelating agents
Chelators are used in chemical analysis, as water softeners, and are ingredients in
many commercial products such as shampoos and food preservatives. Citric acid is
used to soften water in soaps, personal care products and laundry detergents. A
commonly used synthetic chelator is ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), which
may exist as a tetrasodium or disodium salt. Due to environmental and aquatic
toxicity concerns regarding widespread use of EDTA in household and personal care
products, alternatives such as sodium phytate/phytic acid, tetrasodium glutamate
diacetate and trisodium ethylenediamine disuccinate are finding more prevalent usage.
Washing soda method[edit]
In this method, water is treated with a calculated amount of washing soda (Na2CO3),
which converts the chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium into their
respective carbonates, which get precipitated.
c.) Distillation and rain water

27
Since Ca2+ and Mg2+ exist as nonvolatile salts, they can be removed by distilling the
water. Distillation is too expensive in most cases. Rainwater is soft because it is
naturally distilled during the water cycle of evaporation, condensation and
precipitation.
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis uses an applied pressure gradient across a semipermeable

membrane to overcome osmotic pressure and remove water molecules from the
solution with hardness ions. The membrane has pores large enough to admit water
molecules for passage; hardness ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ will not fit through the
pores. The resulting soft water supply is free of hardness ions without any other ions
being added. Membranes are a type of water filter requiring regular cleaning or
replacement maintenance.
1.) Lime soda process
Lime soda process is one of the water softener systems. In this system calcium
hydroxide and soda ash are used as reagents. By this process soluble magnesium and
calcium salts are removed as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide
precipitated. After removal of this precipitated, we obtain soft water. Both temporary
water hardness and permanent water hardness are removed by this lime softening
water softener systems. Before water treatment calculate the amount of temporary and
permanent water hardness, and then estimate the amount of lime and soda ash and
added control with careful. In case of temporary water hardness the following reactions
are take places:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
28
In case of permanent water hardness the following reactions are take

places:
CaSO4 + Na2CO3→ CaCO3 + Na2SO4
MgSO4 + Na2CO3→ MgCO3 + Na2SO4
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
There are two type lime-soda process; cold lime soda process and hot
lime soda process.
Zeolite Softening Process
Zeolite Softening Process is the process of removing permanent as well as

temporary hardness of the water. Zeolite Softening occurs when magnesium (Mg) and
calcium (Ca) zeolites (insoluble) in water get precipitated. In this zeolite softening
process, zeolite works as a catalyst which helps in exchanging ions from Ca 2+ or
Mg2+ with sodium ions.
Certain complex inorganic salts possess the property of exchanging calcium and
magnesium ions present in hard water for Na 2+ ions. An important salt of this type is
sodium aluminium orthosilicate or sodium zeolite (Na 2Al2Si2O8.xH2O), commonly
known as permutit (artificially synthesized zeolite). This sodium zeolite salt belongs to
a family of complex salts known as zeolites.
Zeolite Softening Process of Water
When hard water containing magnesium and calcium ions passes through a zeolite bed
of sodium, then sodium (Na2+) ions get displaced or replaced by the ions of Mg 2+ and
Ca2+ and when the replacement is complete i.e. all the sodium ions get replaced by
Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions then the zeolite get inactivated. This zeolite then gets regenerated by
passing brine solution through the inactive zeolite bed. This process of softening water
is mainly used in laundry.
Reactions involved;
29
Ca2+ + Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O → CaAl2Si2O8.xH2O + 2Na+

Mg2+ + Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O → MgAl2Si2O8.xH2O + 2Na+
Limitations
In case of turbid water supply, the suspended matter has to be removed by processes
like coagulation, filtration or others before its administration to the zeolite bed as it may
cause clogging.
The presence of large quantities of Mn2+ or Fe2+ coloured ions has to be removed from
water as they may produce their own zeolites.
Soda acid must neutralise the mineral acids as they may destroy the bed of zeolites.
ION EXCHANGE METHOD
 Ion exchange is a reversible interchange of one kind of ion present in an insoluble

solid with another of like charge present in a solution surrounding the solid with the
reaction being used especially for softening or making water demineralised, the
purification of chemicals and separation of substances.
 Ion exchange usually describes a process of purification of aqueous solutions using
solid polymeric ion-exchange resin. More precisely, the term encompasses a large
variety of processes where ions are exchanged between two electrolytes.[1] Aside
from its use to purify drinking water, the technique is widely applied for
purification and separation of a variety of industrially and medicinally important
chemicals. Although the term usually refers to applications of synthetic (human-
made) resins, it can include many other materials such as soil.
Ion exchangers can have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions,
depending on the physical properties and chemical structure of both the ion exchanger
and ion. This can be dependent on the size, charge, or structure of the ions. Common
examples of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are:
applications
30
In soil science, cation-exchange capacity is the ion-exchange capacity of soil for

positively charged ions. Soils can be considered as natural weak cation exchangers.
In pollution remediation and geotechnical engineering, ion-exchange capacity

determines the swelling capacity of swelling or expansive clay such
as montmorillonite, which can be used to "capture" pollutants and charged ions.
In planar waveguide manufacturing, ion exchange is used to create the guiding

layer of higher index of refraction.
Dealkalization, removal of alkali ions from a glass surface.
Chemically strengthened glass, produced by exchanging K+ for Na+ in soda

glass surfaces using KNO3 melts.
Waste water produced by resin regeneration
Most ion-exchange systems use columns of ion-exchange resin that are operated on a
cyclic basis.
During the filtration process, water flows through the resin column until the resin is
considered exhausted. That happens only when water leaving the column contains
more than the maximal desired concentration of the ions being removed. Resin is then
regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated
suspended solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with a concentrated solution of
replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. Production of
backwash, flushing, and rinsing wastewater during regeneration of ion-exchange media
limits the usefulness of ion exchange for wastewater treatment.[6]
Water softeners are usually regenerated with brine containing 10% sodium
chloride. Aside from the soluble chloride salts of divalent cations removed from the
softened water, softener regeneration wastewater contains the unused 50–70% of the
sodium chloride regeneration flushing brine required to reverse ion-exchange resin
31
equilibria. Deionizing resin regeneration with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide is
approximately 20–40% efficient. Neutralized deionizer regeneration wastewater
contains all of the removed ions plus 2.5–5 times their equivalent
concentration as sodium sulfate.
2.1.4 Ion Exchange or Deionisation or Demineralization Process
Dimeralised water is soft water but soft water is not demineralised water Deionisation
process removes all the anions and cations present in the hard water. TDS is as low as
10 ppm and the water can be used even in high pressure boilers Demineralisation of
water is done in an ion exchanger. Ion Exchange resins are insoluble cross linked long
chain macro polymer with micro porous structure and the functional groups attached to
the chains are responsible for the ion exchanging properties. The equipment contains a
cation exchanger and an anion exchanger.
Demineralization & Deionization. Demineralization and deionization are frequently

accomplished with in-plant deionizers that consume caustic and acid. The deionizers
regenerate automatically at pre-established intervals and discharge highly concentrated
amounts of caustic and acid into the waste stream
 Ion Exchange ( Cation- Anion- Mixed Bed) Treatment

 Membrane Filtration (Like Reverse Osmosis followed by MB )
 Electro DeIonisation (EDI)- RO+ EDI
 Distillation / Evaporation
32
Cation Exchanger: Resins containing acidic functional group (▬ COOH, ▬SO3H) are
capable of exchanging their H + ions with other cations of hard water. Cation exchange
resin is represented as RH +
Anion Exchanger: Resins containing basic functional groups (▬ NH2 ) or quaternary

ammonium groups are capable of exchanging their OH▬ ions with other anions of
hard water. Anion exchange resin is represented as ROH
Process:
The hard water is first passed through a cation exchange column, which removes all
the cations like Calcium, Magnesium from it and equivalent amount of H+ ions are
released.
2RH+ + Ca2+ ▬▬▬► R2Ca2+ + 2H+
2RH+ + Mg2+ ▬▬▬► R2Mg2+ + 2H+
33
Advantages of ion exchange process: Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated
The water obtained will have very low TDS (< 5ppm)
Disadvantages of ion exchange process:
The equipment is costly Resins are expensive Turbid water cannot be used because it
reduces the efficiency of the process Water containing Fe / Mn cannot be treated since
it forms stable compound with the resin and regeneration of such resins failS
Removel of susbended process
A total suspended solids removal process using dissolved air flotation is carried out in
five stages:
First, a coagulation process is carried out, which consists of adding chemicals

such as alumina sulfate or ferric chloride to the wastewater to destabilize
suspended solids and precipitate them.
The next step is a flocculation process in which polyelectrolytes aggregate

destabilized solids to form larger particles called flocs.
Dissolved air flotation is carried out in the DAF system, where wastewater is
introduced into a tank where air is dissolved under pressure. Air bubbles adhere
to the flocs, causing them to rise to the surface.
Skimming is the next stage. During this process, the surface layer of water
containing the floating solids is removed with a device consisting of a surface
sweeping system, so that the amount of water carried away is much less than
that collected from a settling system.
DAF systems are particularly effective in removing total suspended solids in

wastewater that are difficult to treat by other methods, such as oily or greasy
wastewater, or wastewater containing very fine particles.
34
2.1.5 removel of micro organisim
Microbial removal is not very effective for food preservation, but it may help reduce the
number of microbes under special conditions. Removal can be done by centrifugation,
filtration, trimming, and washing. The main purpose of cleaning is to remove dirt, dirt
particles, and contaminants on the surface and remove pesticide residues, fertilisers,
and chemicals used during the manufacturing process and reduce the load of
microorganisms and improve the product’s appearance. Cleaning reduces the number
of microorganisms from the cleaned area.
Principles of food preservation
Food preservation is the process of dealing and processing food to prevent or delay
spoilage (deterioration of quality, edibility, nutritional value) caused or accelerated by
microorganisms. In order to maintain its value as a food, it is important to maintain or
create its nutritional value, texture and flavour.
Prevent or delay microbial degradation of food
While keeping microorganisms away (asepsis)
By removing microorganisms (filtration)
By inhibiting the growth as well as activity of microorganisms (using low

temperatures, implementing anaerobic conditions, by applying chemicals).
By killing microorganisms (by heat or radiation).
Prevent or delay food autolysis
By destroying or inactivating food enzymes (balancing or cooking)
By preventing or delaying pure chemical chain reactions (using antioxidants

preventing oxidation).
35
Prevent damage caused by insects, different animals, or even mechanical influences

(applying fumigants, fillings, packaging, etc.).
article aims to emphasise on prevention of microbial degradation of food mainly by

the removal of microorganisms.
Preventing of microbial decomposition
Asepsis refers to keeping microorganisms away from food by using a natural cover or
by placing an artificial cover outside the food. Therefore, the natural barriers to food
include nutshells (almonds, walnuts, and pecans), fruit and vegetable skins (bananas,
mangoes, citrus fruits, ash gourds, etc.), eggshells or fats in meat. Packaging also
prevents the invasion of microorganisms into a food. For example, peaches and
mushrooms sealed in cans and clean bottles in a hygienic environment help keep
microorganisms away and prevent milk spoilage during processing and collection.
Bacterial proof filters are widely used to transfer microorganisms from liquid
foodproducts. A variety of materials, including asbestos pads, diatomaceous earth, as
well as unglazed porcelain, are used to filter fluid food products already when they
enter the human body. As a result of the way liquid foods operate. Centrifugation,
trimming, cleaning, etc., can also be used, but they are not good enough. By inhibiting
the growth or activity of microorganisms
Chlorinaaation
A common and relatively inexpensive method of disinfecting water is chlorination,

where a solution of chlorine or hypochlorite is added to the water. The method kills
disease-causing microorganisms including bacteria and certain viruses but does not
kill the protozoa Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and some others. The process also
removes some bad odors,
Water can be chlorinated in two ways:

36
1. Shock chlorination is when a strong chlorine solution is added into a well or

pumped through the plumbing system to kill microorganisms on a one-time basis.
Shock chlorination is usually recommended when a well is constructed, repaired, or
a new pump is installed to kill bacteria that may be present on the pipes or
installation equipment. It is also recommended if a well is contaminated due to a
faulty well cap or seal.
Reverse osmis
Reverse osmosis is one of the oldest and most popular separation techniques used mainly for
the purification of water. The process was mainly adopted for the desalination of seawater
in the year 1950 when the whole process was relatively slow and limited to certain
laboratories. However, after a lot of research and advancements in technology, there
were significant developments, especially in the field of polymers and the production of
efficient membranes.
Today, this technique is extensively used by many around the world to purify water for
industrial, residential, commercial and scientific purposes. While reverse osmosis
technology is one of humanity’s important scientific innovations we will develop a
basic understanding of the whole process here on this page.
An easy experiment can be conducted by taking some freshwater and a concentrated

aqueous solution. The solutions should be kept on opposite sides with a semipermeable
membrane placed in between to separate the two solutions. Pressure should be applied
on the side with the concentrated solution. Now this will result in water molecules
moving through the membrane to the freshwater side. This basically sums up the
process of reverse osmosis.
Advantages of Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis has several advantages, including the following:
37
Bacteria, viruses and pyrogen materials are rejected by the intact membrane. In
this respect, RO water approaches distilled water in quality.
Available units are relatively compact and require little space. They are well
suited to home dialysis.
In average use, the membrane has a life of a little more than one to two years
before replacement is necessary.
Periodic complete sterilization of the RO system with formalin or other sterilant

is practical.
Disadvantages of Reverse Osmosis
The disadvantages of RO systems include the following;
 Cellulose acetate membranes have limited pH tolerance. They degrade at

temperatures greater than 35oC. They are vulnerable to bacteria. They eventually
hydrolyze.
 Polyamide membranes are intolerant of temperatures greater than 35oC. They

have poor tolerance for free chlorine.
 Thin-film composites are intolerant of chlorine. High flux polysulfones require

softening or deionization of feed water to function properly.
desalmition
Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water. More
generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target
substance,[1] as in soil desalination, which is an issue for
agriculture. Saltwater (especially sea water) is desalinated to produce water suitable
for human consumption or irrigation. The by-product of the desalination process
is brine.[2] Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the
modern interest in desalination is focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for
38
human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-
independent water resources
Distillation
1 Solar distillatio
Solar distillation mimics the natural water cycle, in which the sun heats sea water
enough for evaporation to occur.[44] After evaporation, the water vapor is condensed
onto a cool surface.[44] There are two types of solar desalination. The first type uses
photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy to electrical energy to power desalination. The
second type converts solar energy to heat, and is known as solar thermal powered
desalination.
2 Natural evaporation
Water can evaporate through several other physical effects besides solar irradiation.
These effects have been included in a multidisciplinary desalination methodology in
the IBTS Greenhouse. The IBTS is an industrial desalination (power)plant on one side
and a greenhouse operating with the natural water cycle (scaled down 1:10) on the
other side. The various processes of evaporation and condensation are hosted in low-
tech utilities, partly underground and the architectural shape of the building itself. This
integrated biotectural system is most suitable for large scale desert greening as it has a
km2 footprint for the water distillation and the same for landscape transformation in
desert greening, respectively the regeneration of natural fresh water cycles.[citation needed]
3.Vacuum distillation[
In vacuum distillation atmospheric pressure is reduced, thus lowering the temperature

required to evaporate the water. Liquids boil when the vapor pressure equals the
ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Effectively, liquids
boil at a lower temperature, when the ambient atmospheric pressure is less than usual
atmospheric pressure. Thus, because of the reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste"
heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be employed.
39
4.Multi-stage flash distillation
Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through multi-stage flash
distillation, which is a series of flash evaporations. Each subsequent flash process
utilizes energy released from the condensation of the water vapor from the previous
step.
5.Multiple-effect distillation[
Multiple-effect distillation (MED) works through a series of steps called

"effects".] Incoming water is sprayed onto pipes which are then heated to generate
steam. The steam is then used to heat the next batch of incoming sea water. [ To increase
efficiency, the steam used to heat the sea water can be taken from nearby power
plants. Although this method is the most thermodynamically efficient among methods
powered by heat,] a few limitations exist such as a max temperature and max number of
effects.
40

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Salem Sowdeswari College, Self-Financing Courses Wing

1.1 Industraial fuels

1.1.1 classification of fuels

Renewable source of energy: one which is inexhaustible. Example: Solar energy.

Non-renewable source of energy: one which is exhaustible. Example: Fossil Fuels

1.1.2 Fuels can be generally classified on the basis of two factors:

A.) On the basis of their fuels state:

B.) On the basis of their occurrence:

C.) properties of ideal fuel:

 An ideal fuel is readily available.

 An ideal fuel is cheap.

 An ideal fuel burns easily in the air at a moderate rate.

 It releases a large amount of energy.

 It should not affect the environment adversely.

Calorific Value of Fuel

Here is the detailed list of fuels and their calorific values:

Fuel Calorific Value Of Fuel( Approximately)

Cow Dung 8000

The below table shows the type of food and

Calorific value (Approximately)

Polyhydric Alcohols 1 10 2.4

Fats have more calorific value when compared to carbohydrates, protein,

1.1.3 Solid fuel

a.) Formation of Coal

Coal is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, moisture, and

b.) Properities and Uses of Coal

Sub-bituminous coal or black lignite is a grey-black or dark brown coal. It

e.) Cooking and Non cooking coal

1.1.4 Liquid fuels

Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed

a.) Petroleum fuels

Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation of crude oil. The desirable liquid

Conventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of aliphatic

Hydrodesulfurization (HDs) alsocalled hydrotreatment or hydrotreating is

2 .) Craking And thermal catalytic

cracking is the process of breaking down large hydrocarbons into smaller

There are a few types of cracking that can occur in concrete:

• Thermal cracking: This type of cracking is caused by the expansion and

• Chemical cracking: This type of cracking is caused by the reaction of the

a.) Thermal Cracking

Thermal cracking is a chemical process used to convert large hydrocarbons into

b.) Catalytic Cracking

Catalytic cracking is a refinery process that breaks down large, complex

In catalytic cracking, a reactor is heated to a very high temperature. The catalyst is

1.1.5 Gasues fuels

a.) Components of Gaseous fuels-

Gaseous fuels have two components:

Non-combustible Gaseous Fuels: Non-combustible gaseous fuel materials are

b.) Classification of Gaseous Fuels-

On the basis of Availability-

Natural gaseous fuels

Artificial gaseous fuels

1. Natural Gaseous Fuel-

2. Artificial Gaseous Fuel-

For example- Water-gas, blast furnaces, gas coke-oven gas etc.

c.) On the basis of calorific value-

 High calorific value gaseous fuels

 Low calorific value gaseous fuels

1. High calorific value gaseous fuels–

2. Low calorific value gaseous fuels–

D .) Examples of Gaseous Fuels-

2. Liquified Petroleum Gas Fuel