EC6464 – UNIT I & II

4/5/2022
Passive Components
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
Diodes
Interface components

2
 Resistors
Values specified in ohms (Ω), kilo-ohms (K), or
mega-ohms (M)

Marked with value using a color code

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 5% 10%
B B ROY of Great Britain had a Very Great Wife

3 3
 Resistor ratings
Physical size of resistors
determines power handling ability

Commonly available as 1/8, 1/4,

1/2, 1,
and 2 watt components

Much higher powers available ,

usually as wirewound or ceramic
encapsulated parts

4 4
 Resistor handling and
installation
Resistors are not polarized and may be installed in
either direction.

Resistors are not generally susceptible to ESD

damage, so special precautions are not required.

Mechanical stress due to lead bending should be

minimized.

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 Capacitors
Values specified in microfarads (μF) or picofarads (pF)

Marked with actual value or a numeric code

Some varieties are +/- polarized

6 6
 Capacitor types

Ceramic disk Monolithic ceramic Dipped siver-mica Mylar Mylar

Ceramic disk

Monolithic ceramic

Dipped silvered-mica

Mylar or polyester

Aluminum electrolytic (+/-)

Tantalum (+/-)

Solid tantalum, polarized Radial aluminum electrolytic Axial aluminum electrolytic

7 7
 Capacitor ratings
Physical size of capacitors is related to voltage
handling ability – WVDC – working voltage DC

Temperature coefficient may also be important –

can be + or – or nearly zero

Temperature coefficient depends upon dielectric

material

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Capacitor handling and installation
Most capacitors are not polarized and may be installed in
either direction.

Electrolytic capacitors ARE polarized and MUST be installed

with proper polarity, else catastrophic failure!

Capacitors are not generally susceptible to ESD damage, so

special precautions are not required.

Mechanical stress due to lead bending should be minimized.

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 Inductors
Values specified in henries (H), millihenries (mH) and
microhenries (μH)

A coil of wire that may be wound on a core of air or other

non-magnetic material, or on a magnetic core such as iron
powder or ferrite.

Two coils magnetically coupled form a transformer.

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 Inductor types

Molded inductor & air-wound inductor Adjustable air-wound inductor

Ferrite core toroidal transformer Air wound inductor Iron powder toroidal inductor

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 Inductor ratings
Wire gauge and physical size of the coil determine the
current handling capacity.

Core material will have a temperature dependence. Air is

best, followed by iron powder, then ferrites.

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 Inductor handling and
installation
Inductors are not polarized and may be installed in either
direction.

Inductors are not generally susceptible to ESD damage, so

special precautions are not required.

Mechanical stress due to lead bending should be minimized.

Inductors in timing or frequency determining circuits should

be installed in a mechanically rigid fashion.

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Transformers

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 Introduction

• A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at

one voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage
level through the action of a magnetic field.
• There are two or more stationary electric circuits that are
coupled magnetically.
• It involves interchange of electric energy between two or
more electric systems
• Transformers provide much needed capability of changing
the voltage and current levels easily.
• They are used to step-up generator voltage to an appropriate
voltage level for power transfer.
• Stepping down the transmission voltage at various levels for
distribution and power utilization.

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 Transformer Classification

• In terms of number of windings

• Conventional transformer: two windings
• Autotransformer: one winding
• Others: more than two windings

• In terms of number of phases

• Single-phase transformer
• Three-phase transformer

• Depending on the voltage level at which the winding is operated

• Step-up transformer: primary winding is a low voltage (LV)
winding
• Step-down transformer : primary winding is a high voltage (HV)
winding

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Primary and Secondary Windings

A two-winding transformer consists of two windings interlinked by

a mutual magnetic field.
• Primary winding – energized by connecting it to an input
source
• Secondary winding – winding to which an electrical load is
connected and from which output energy is drawn.

Primary winding Secondary winding

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Transformer Voltage Regulation

Because a real transformer has series impedance within it, the output voltage
of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains
constant. The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load.

V no − load  − Vs  full − load 

%Voltage Re gulation = s  100

Vs full − load 

V p no − load  − V p  full − load 

  100
V p  full − load 

Referred to the primary side

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Transformer Efficiency

Power Output
=
Power Input
Power Input − Losses
=
Power Input
Losses
=1−
Power Input
Pcopper loss + Pcore loss
=1−
Pcopper loss + Pcore loss + Vs I s cos 

Usually the efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99.

The higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.

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PN JUNCTION DIODES
• What is a PN junction semiconductor and how it is formed?
• It is a combination of P-type semiconductor with N-
type semiconductor to achieve the practical utility of
both.
• It’s formed, when a P-type semiconductor is joined to
a N-type semiconductor.

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CONT…

PN JUNCTION
 SPACE CHARGE REGION
• Electrons near the junction moves to the N-type to P-type.
• This Phenomenon creates the SPACE CHARGE REGION.
• Electrons are available in P-region in the space charge region
and holes are available in N-region in space charge region
• Electric field will get created in this space charge region
because of the movement of holes and electrons. The
movement of EF is from N-type to P-type region.
CONT…
DIFFUSION CURRENT
• Some electrons move back from P to N in the space region.
• Some holes move back from N to P in the space region.
• This continues to happen till the equilibrium is reached.
• This movement of electrons and holes in space charge region
gives rise to Diffusion Current.
DRIFT CURRENT
If the voltage is applied to a
semiconductor above a
specified region, the
electrons in the N-region is
drifts through the junction
and migrate to the p region
and the holes in the P-
region drift through the
junction and migrate to the
N-region.

The current flow across the

circuit and this current is
called as drift current.
MOBILITY OF CHARGED PARTICLES
• Consider a material having large number of free electrons, subject to
external battery.
• There exists a drift current due to drifting of free electrons with a
velocity called drift velocity (velocity with which electrons drift)
denoted as v, measured in m/s.
• It ‘’ is the length of the material and V is the applied voltage then the
material gets subjected to an electric field E is given by,
• E=
• The drift velocity is proportional to the magnitude of an electric field.
• αE i.e =μE μ = units of μ are m2 / V-sec
CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
• In a pure semiconductors the number of holes is equal to
number of electrons.
• With each electron-hole pair created, two charge-carrying
particles are formed.
• One is negative which is the free electron with mobility µn.
• Other is positive i.e holes with mobility µp.
• The electrons and holes move in opposite directions in an
electric field E. The current due to each is in same direction.
THEORY OF PN JUCTION
PN JUNCTION DIODE IN EQUILIBRIUM
WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE
FORWARD BIAS CONDITION
 CONT…
• V-I Characteristics of a diode under forward bias:
• VF<V0
• When forward bias voltage (VF) less than cut in voltage (V0), the
forward current IF is almost zero because the potential barrier
prevents the holes from P-region and the electrons from N-region to
flow across the depletion region in the opposite direction.
• VF>V0
• The potential barrier at the junction completely disappear and hence,
the holes cross the junction from P-type to N-type and the electron
cross the junction in opposite direction, resulting in relatively large
current flow in the external circuit.
REVERSE BIAS
CONT…
• For large applied reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-type
moving towards the positive terminal of the battery acquire sufficient
energy to move with high velocity and knocks the valence electrons.
• Thus a large number of free electrons are produced. This lead to
breakdown of the junction leading to very large reverse current.
• The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is know
as “breakdown voltage”. This breakdown may damage the diode.
• So diode should be operate below this breakdown voltage.
 APPLICATION OF PN DIODE
i. Rectifier in dc power supplies.
ii. Clippers in wave shaping circuits.
iii. Clampers in TV receivers.
iv. Voltage doublers in CRT.
v. Switching in digital logic circuits.
vi. Diode gates.
vii. Comparators.
Zener Diode
• Zener diode operates only in the reverse-bias region.
• As the reverse voltage increases, the reverse current remains negligibly
small upto the ‘knee’ of the curve point.
• At this point, the effect of breakdown process begins.
• From the bottom of the knee, the breakdown voltage remains essentially
constant.
• This ability of the diode is called regulating ability and is an important
feature of a zener diode.
• It maintains, an essentially a constant voltage across its terminals over a
specified range of zener current values.
ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
• Under reverse bias condition, the voltage across the diode remains
almost constant even though the current through the diode increases.
• Thus the voltage across the zener diode serves as a reference voltage.
Hence the zener diode can be used as voltage regulator.

In this circuit, zener diode is

reverse biased and as long as the
input voltage does not fall below
VZ, the voltage across the diode
will be constant and hence the
load voltage will also be constant.
REGULATION CHARACTERISTICS
• Line regulation
• Load regulation
• LINE REGULATION
• For a fixed load resistance(RL), the variation of Vo with respect to Vi is
given by line regulation characteristics.
• When the input voltage is less than the breakdown voltage, the output
varies linearly with the input voltage.
• When the input voltage is above the breakdown voltage, the output
voltage Vo remains constant even though if any variation in the input
voltage.
CONT…
• LOAD REGULATION
• For a fixed input voltage, variation of Vo with respect to load resistor
gives the load regulation characteristics.
• The output voltage always remains constant even though the load
resistor value changes.
• APPLICATION
• Used as voltage regulator.
• Used in voltage clipper circuits.
• As a reference voltage in comparator circuits.
• As a standard voltage in calibrating the instruments.
 INTRODUCTION
• BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT):
• BJT is a three-terminal semiconductor device. The operation of BJT
depends on the interaction of both the majority and minority carriers
and the name bipolar.
• Advantages of BJT:
• 1. Smaller in size and light weight.
• 2. Rugged construction.
• 3. Low operation voltage.
• 4. More efficient due to low power requirement.
• APPLICATIONS:
• 1. It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits.
• 2. Used as a switch in various digital circuits.
Point-Contact Transistor –
first transistor ever made
TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION
• Structure
• The transistor is a three-layer
semiconductor device
consisting of either two n-and
one p-type layers of material
or two p- and one n-type
layers of material.

• The former is called as NPN

transistor, while later is called
as PNP transistor.

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 CONT…
• A BJT has, essentially, three region know as emitter, base and collector.
All these three regions are provided with terminals which are labelled as
E (for emitter), B (for base) and C (for collector).
• 1. Emitter: It is a region situated in one side of transistor, which supplies
charge carriers (i.e electrons & holes) to the other two regions. The
emitter is a heavily doped region.
• 2. Base: It is the middle region that forms two p-n junctions in the
transistor. The base of the transistor is thin, as compared to the emitter
and is a lightly doped region.
 CONT…
• 3. Collector: It is a region situated in the other side of transistor (i.e the
side opposite to the emitter), which collect charge carriers (i.e electrons
and holes). The doping of the collector is intermediate between the
heavy doping of emitter and the light doping of the base.
 UNBIASED BJT
• A transistor, with three terminals ( i.e emitter, base and collector) left
open, is called an unbiased transistor or an open-circuited transistor.
• Under these conditions, the diffusion of free electrons across the
junction produces two depletion layers.
• The barrier potential, for each of these layers at 25 is approximately 0.7V
for silicon transistor and 0.3V for germanium transistor.
• Since the three regions having different doping levels, therefore the
depletion layers do not have the same width. It may be noted that a
more heavily doped region has the greater concentration of ions near
the junction.
CONT…
CONT….
• An emitter-base depletion layer penetrates slightly into the emitter, as it
is a heavily doped region, whereas it penetrates deeply into the base as
it’s a lightly doped region.
• Similarly, the collector-base depletion layer penetrates more into the
base region and less into collector region.
• Emitter-base depletion layer width is smaller than that of collector base
depletion layer.
 BJT BIASING…
• The application of a suitable dc voltages, across the transistor terminals,
is called biasing. Each junction of a transistor may be forward biased or
reverse-biased independently.
• There are different way of biasing a transistor, which are also known as
mode of transistor operation.
• 1. Forward-active: In this mode, the emitter-base junction of a transistor
is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased.
• In forward active biasing the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to N-side and positive terminal to P-side. The reverse biasing
requires all the connections to be opposite to those for forward biasing.
CONT…
• 2.SATURATION: In this mode, both the emitter-base and collector-base
junctions of a transistor are forward-biased. In this mode, the transistor
has a very large value of current. The transistor is operated in this mode,
when it is used as a closed switch.
• 3.CUT-OFF: In this mode, both the emitter-base and collector-base
junctions of a transistor are reverse-biased. In this mode, the transistor
has practically zero current. This transistor is operated in this mode,
when it is used as open switch.
OPERATION OF AN NPN TRANSISTOR
 CONT…
•NPN transistor biased in forward-active mode..
• i.e the emitter-base of a transistor is forward-biased and collector-
base junction is reversed biased.
•The emitter-base is forward biased only if VEB is greater than barrier
potential which is 0.7V for silicon and 0.3 for Ge transistors.
•The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the free electrons
in the N-type emitter to flow towards the base region. This constitute the
emitter current IE.
•We know that the direction of conventional current
•is opposite to the flow of electrons.
 CONT…
• Therefore electrons after reaching the base region tends to combine
with the holes.
• These free electrons combine with holes in the base, they constitute
base current (IB).
• Most of the free electrons do not combine with holes in the base.
• Most of the electrons will diffuse to the collector region and constitute
collector current (IC).
• This collector current is also called injected current because this current
is produced due to electrons injected from the emitter region.
• There is another component is called reverse saturation current and is
quite small.
 CONT…
• NOTE: 1.The emitter current of a transistor consist of two components
namely base current and collector current. The base current is about 2%
of the emitter current, while collector current is about 98% of the
emitter current.
• From the diagram that the emitter current is the sum of the collector
and base current.
• IE=-(IC+IB)
• Since the base current is very small, therefore
• IEIC
OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR
 CONT…
• The forward bias applied to the emitter-base junction of a PNP
transistor causes a lot of holes form the emitter region to crossover to
the base region as the base is slightly doped with N-type impurity.
• The number of electrons in the base region is very small and hence the
number of holes combined with electrons in the N-type region is also
very small.
• Hence, a few holes combined with electrons to constitute a base
current IB.
• The remaining holes (more than 95%) crossover into the collector
region to constitute a collector current Ic.
 CONT…
• Thus the collector and base current when summed up gives the emitter
current i.e IE = (IC+IB).
BJT CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION
• Transistor has three terminals namely emitter(E), base (B) and
collector(C).
• When a transistor is connected in a circuit, we required four terminals
i.e., two for i/p and two for o/p.
• To overcome this difficulty we use one of the three terminal as common
terminal to the input and the output terminals.
• Depending upon the terminals, which are used as a common terminals,
the transistor can be connected in the following three different
configurations:
• Common-base (CB) configuration
• Common-emitter (CE) configuration
• Common-collector(CC) configuration
CB CONFIGURATION
• The transistor is connected with the base as a common terminal.
• The input is applied between the emitter and base terminals. The output
is taken between the collector and base terminals.
CE CONFIGURATION
• The transistor is connected with the emitter as a common terminal.
• The input is applied between the base and collector terminals. The
output is taken between the collector and emitter terminals.
CC CONFIGURATION
• The transistor is connected with the collector as a common terminal.
• The input is applied between the base and collector terminals. The
output is taken between the collector and emitter terminals.
CB CONFIGURATION
• Current Gain: The ratio of output current to the input current is called
current gain of a transistor.
• In CB configuration the IE is the input current and IC is the output current.
• Since the input current and output current may be either direct current
or alternating current, therefore we define two type of current gain
namely d.c current gain and a.c current gain.
• Common-base d.c current gain (α): It is defined as the ratio of IC to IE
and is usually designated by α, αDC or hFB.
 CONT…
• In a transistor, the collector current is always less than the emitter
current.
• Therefore current gain of a transistor in CB configuration is always less
than unity.
• For example,
• IC=9.8mA and IE = 10mA then the common-base d.c. current gain,
• α =9.8/10 = 0.98
• The above value of indicates that the (IC) is 98% of the IE. Therefore the IB
is just 2% of IE.
• The value of α is made closer to unity by making the width and doping
level of base region as small as possible.
 CONT…
• The actual value of α ranges from 0.95 to 0.998.
• The collector current IC= αIE
• We also know that the emitter current,
• IE = IB+IC
• Therefore IB = IE-IC = IE- α.IE = (1- α)IE
• Common-base a.c. current gain (α0): It is defined as the ratio of
small change in collector current () to a small change in emitter
current () for a constant collector-to-base voltage(VCB).
• α0=
• It is designated by α0, αac or hfb
4/5/2022
 CONT…
• The term α0 is also called CB short-circuit current gain or small signal
current gain.
• The difference between d.c current gain (hFB) and a.c current gain (hfb)
should be carefully noted. The values of α0 is also less than unity and
approximately the same as α.
• α= α0
• Current gain of a transistor in CB NPN is less than unity. But still it is
called as current gain.
• Output resistance of the CB transistor is much higher than the input
resistance. This produces a large voltage gain and hence the large power
gain.
 PROBLEMS
•1.In a CB connection, the emitter current is 6.28mA and the collector
current is 6.20mA. Determine the CB d.c current gain.
Given: IE=6.28mA and IC = 6.20mA
• α = IC/IE
•Ans : α = 0.987
•2. The common-base d.c. current gain of a transistor is 0.967. IF the
emitter current is 10mA, what is the value of base current?
•Given α =0.967 and IE= 10mA
•W.k.t 0.967=IC/IE = IC/10
• IC = 9.67mA
• W.k.t IE,
• 10 = IB+IC = IB+9.67
• IB =10-9.67 =0.33mA
 CONT…
• NPN transistor in the CB configuration.
• Static characteristics curves
• Input characteristics
• Output characteristics
• Input characteristics: These curves give the relationship between the
input current and input voltage for a given output voltage.
• Output characteristics: These curves give the relationship between the
output current and the output voltage for a given input current.
CONT…
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF CB
• To determine the input characteristics,
• The collector-base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero volt
• The IE is increased from zero in suitable equal steps by increasing VEB.
• This is repeated for higher fixed values of VCB.
• Knee voltage.
 CONT…
• When VCB is equal to zero and the emitter-base junction is forward
biased, the junction behaves as a forward biased diode.
• So the emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in VEB.
When VCB is increased keeping VEB constant the width of the base region
will decreases.
• This effect in an increase of IE.
• Therefore, the curve shift towards the left as VCB is increased.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF CB
• To determine the output characteristics, the IE is kept constant at a
suitable value by adjusting the VEB.
• Then VCB is increased in suitable equal steps and the collector current IC
is noted for each value of IE. This is repeated for different fixed values of
I E.
 CONT…
• From the characteristics, it is seen that for a constant value of IE, IC is
independent of VCB.
• Further IC flow even when VCB is equal to zero.
• As the emitter-base junction is forward biased, the majority carrier i.e
electrons, from the emitter are injected into base region.
• Due to the action of internal potential barrier at the reverse biased CB
junction, they flow to the collector region and give rise to IC even when
VCB is equal to zero.
EARLY EFFECT OR BASE WIDTH MODULATION
• As the collector voltage VCC is made to increase the reverse bias, the
space charge width between collector to base tends to increase, with
result that the effective width of the base decreases. This dependency of
base-width on collector-to-emitter voltage is know as the Early effect.
• This decrease in effective base-width has three consequences:
• (i) There is less chance for recombination within the base region.
Hence,α increases with increasing |VCB|.
• (ii) The charge gradient is increased within the base, and
consequently, the current of minority carriers injected across the
emitter junction increases.
 CONT…
• For extremely large voltages, the effective base-width may be reduced
to zero, causing voltage breakdown in the transistor. This phenomenon
is called the punch through.
• Transistor parameters
• The slope of the CB characteristics will give the following four transistor
parameters. They are commonly called as common base hybrid
parameters or h-parameters.
• (i) Input impedance(hib): It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input)
emitter voltage to the change in (input) emitter current with the (output)
collector voltage VCB kept constant.
CONT…
• hib = constant
• The typical value of hib ranges from 20Ω to 50Ω.
• (ii) Output admittance (hob): It is defined as the ratio of change in the
(output) collector current to the corresponding change in the (output)
collector voltage with the (input) emitter current IE kept constant.
Therefore,
• hob=
• The typical value of this parameter is of the order of 0.1 to 10μ mhos.
CONT…
• (iii) Forward current gain (hfb): It is defined as a ratio of the change in
the (output) collector current to the corresponding change in the (input)
emitter current keeping the (output) collector voltage VCB constant.
Hence,
• hfb=
• Its typical value varies from 0.9 to 1.0.
• (iv) Reverse voltage gain (hrb): It is defined as the ratio of the change in
the (input) emitter voltage and the corresponding change in (output)
collector voltage with constant (input) emitter current IE. Hence,
• hrb= typical value is of the order 10-5 to 10-4.
CE CONFIGURATION
• Current Gain: The current gain of a transistor in the CE configuration is
the ratio of IC to that of IB.
• (i) Common-emitter d.c. current gain (β): It is defined as the ratio of
collector current (IC) to base current (IB) and is designated by β, βdc, or
hFE. Mathematically, the CE d.c. current gain
• β = IC/IB , IC = (1+ β)ICB0+ βIB
• W.k.t IC of a transistor is much larger than the base current (IB).
• Therefore the value of β is much greater than unity.
• Example, if IC =5mA and IB = 0.05mA, then common-emitter d.c. current
gain,
• β =5/0.05 =100
 CONT…
• Collector current is 100 times that of base current. Typical value of β
may range from 20 to 250. Sometimes β of a transistor is also know as
large-signal CE current gain.
• (ii) Common emitter a.c. current gain (β0): It is defined as the ratio of
small change in collector current () to the small change in base current ()
for a constant collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE).
• It is designated by β0, βac or hFE. Mathematically common-emitter a.c.
current gain,
• β0=/
• β0 is also called common-emitter short circuit current gain or
small-signal CE current gain.
RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT GAIN α and
β
• W.k.t IE of a transistor is the sum of its base current (IB) and collector
current (IC). i.e.,
• IE = IB+IC
• Dividing the above equation on both side by IC,
• =
• Since IC/IE = α and IC/IB = β therefore
• = +1=
•α=
 CONT…
• From the equation of α we can get β
• α (β+1) = β
• α. β+ α = β
• α = β- α. β = β(1- α)
•β=
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
• To determine the input characteristics, the collector to emitter voltage
is kept constant at zero volt.
• Base current is increased from zero in equal steps by increasing VBE.
CONT…
• A knee voltage is exists, where the base current below knee voltage is
very small. The value of knee voltage is 0.7 and 0.3.
• Beyond the knee voltage the IB increases with increase in VBE for
constant VCE.
 CONT…
• It may be noted that the value of base current does not increases rapidly
as that of the i/p characteristics of a CB transistor.
• It mean that input resistance of a transistor in CE is higher than CB
configuration.
• As the VCE is increased above 1v, the curve shift downwards. It occur
because of the fact that as VCE is increased, the depletion width in the
base region increases. The reduces effective base width, which in turn
reduces the base current.
 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
• To determine the output characteristics, the base current IB is kept
constant at a suitable value by adjusting base-emitter voltage, VBE.
• The magnitude of collector-emitter voltage VCE is increased in suitable
equal steps from zero and the collector current IC is noted.
 CONT…
• W.k.t
• β =, for large value of VCE, due to Early effect, a very small change in α is
reflected in a very large change in β.
• For example, when α =0.98, β = 49. If α increases to 0.985, then β = 66.
• Here, a slight increase in α by about 0.5% results in an increase in β by
about 34%.
• The output characteristics have three regions, namely
• Saturation region
• Cut-off region
• Active region
 CONT…
• Saturation region: In this region, both junctions are forward biased and
an increase in the base current does not cause a corresponding large
change in IC.
• The ratio of VCE(sat) to IC in this region is called saturation resistance.
• Cut-off region: The region below the curve for IB=0 is called the cut-off
region. In this region both junctions are reverse biased.
• When the operating point for the transistor enters the cut-off region the
transistor is OFF.
• Hence the collector current almost zero and the collector voltage almost
equals VCC, the collector supply voltage.
CONT…
• (ii) Output admittance (hoe): It is defined as the ratio of change in the
(output) collector current to the corresponding change in the (output)
collector voltage with the (input) base current IB kept constant.
Therefore,
• hob=
• The typical value of this parameter is of the order of 0.1 to 10μ mhos.
 CONT…
• (iii) Forward current gain (hfe): It is defined as a ratio of the change in
the (output) collector current to the corresponding change in the (input)
base current keeping the (output) collector voltage VCE constant. Hence,
• hfe=
• Its typical value varies from 20 to 200.
• (iv) Reverse voltage gain (hrb): It is defined as the ratio of the change in
the (input) base voltage and the corresponding change in (output)
collector voltage with constant (input) base current IB. Hence,
• hre=typical value is of the order 10-5 to 10-4.
 CC CONFIGURATION
• Current gain: In a common-collector transistor circuit, the input current
is the base current (IB) and the output current is the emitter current (IE).
• Therefore the common-collector current gain is given by the relation,
•= =
• Substituting the value of α= in the above equation, CC current gain
•=
• The output current of a common-collector transistor circuit is (1+β)
times that of the input current.
• W.k.t β>>1, therefore common-collector current gain
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
• To determine the input characteristics, VEC is kept at a suitable fixed
value.
• The base-collector voltage VBC is increased in equal steps and the
corresponding increase in IB is noted.
CURRENT AMPLIFICATION FACTOR

• In a transistor amplifier with AC input signal, the ratio of change in

output current to the change in input current is know as the current
amplification factor.
• In the CB configuration the current amplification factor,
• In the CE configuration the current amplification factor,
• In the CC configuration the current amplification factor,
4/5/2022
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR-INTRODUCTION
• FET is an another semiconductor device like a BJT which can be used as
an amplifier or switch.
• Like BJT, FET is also a three terminal device; however, the principle of
operation of FET is completely different from that of BJT.
• The three terminals of FET are named as Drain (D), Source (S) and Gate
(G). Out of these three terminals gate terminal acts as a controlling
terminal.
FEATURES OF FET
• Voltage Controlled Device:
• In BJT the output current IC is controlled by the base current IB.
• Hence BJT is a current controlled device.
• In FET, voltage applied between gate and source (VGS) controls the drain
current ID.
• Therefore FET is a voltage controlled device.

• The name field effect is derived from the fact that the output current
flow is controlled by an electric field set up in the device by an externally
applied voltage between gate and source terminals.
CONT…
• Unipolar Device: We know that in BJT the current is carried by both
electrons and holes, and hence the name “bipolar” junction transistor.
• In FET, current is carried by only one type of charge particles, either
electrons or holes. Hence FET is called unipolar device.
• Like BJT, the parameter of FET are also temperature dependent.
• In FET, as temperature increases drain resistance also increases,
reducing the drain current.
• FET is more temperature stable compare to BJT.
• FET has very high input impedance. --- preferred in amplifiers where high
input impedance is required.
• Required space is less than BJT, hence preferred in IC’s.
CLASSIFICATION OF FET
The FETs are categorised as:
•Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
•Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

•JFET
• n-channel JFET
• p-channel JFET
•MOSFET
• Depletion MOSFET
• Enhancement MOSFET
CONSTRUCTION OF N-CHANNEL JFET
• A small bar of extrinsic semiconductor
material, n type is taken and at its two ends,
two ohmic contacts are made which are the
drain and source terminals of FET.
• Heavily doped electrodes of p type material
form p-n junctions on each side of the bar.
The thin region between the two p gates is
called the channel.
• Since this channel is in the n type bar, the FET
is known as n-channel JFET.
• The electrons enter the channel through the
terminal called source and leave through the
terminal called drain.
• Usually, these electrodes are connected
together and only one terminal is taken our,
which is called gate.
OPERATION OF N-CHANNEL JFET
• VDD = Drain supply voltage
• VDS = Drain to source voltage
• VGG = Gate supply voltage
• VGS = Gate to source voltage
• ID = Drain current
• IS = Source current and
• IG = Gate current
 CONT…
• First the gate has been reverse-biased by the gate voltage source VGG
and the drain supply voltage is not connected.
• We know that there exist space charge regions on either side of a
reverse biased P-N junction. Now, depletion layer located symmetrically
about the gates are formed.
CONT…
• Consider the effect of drain voltage VDD while VGG is removed.
• The voltage VDD is dropped across the N-channel resistance (say RDS)
giving rise to a drain current ID = . Due to this current flow there will be a
uniform voltage drop while going from drain to source.
CONT…
• Consider two points A and B in N-channel. Let VA and VB be potential
drop at these points. Certainly, VA>VB.
• So due to the progressive voltage drop along the length of the channel,
the reverse biasing effect on P-N junction is stronger near drain than
near source.
• Due to this reason, the penetration of depletion region at A is more than
at B.
• When both VDD and VGG are applied.
• Let no potential is applied between drain and source. Now a current ID
flow from drain to source which is maximum because the channel is
widest.
CONT…
• Let the gate is reverse-biased by applying a voltage VGG between the
gate and source.
• This gate bias, increases the depletion region and thereby decreases the
cross-section of N-channel. Since there are no current carriers available
in depletion region, its conductivity is zero.
• Due to the decrease of cross sectional area of N-channel, the drain
current ID decreases.
• When gate-bias is increased further, a stage is reached when two
depletion regions touch each other and the drain current becomes zero.
• So, according to a fixed drain to source voltage, the drain current is a
function of reverse bias voltage at gate.
CHARACTERISTICS OF N-CHANEL JFET
• Drain characteristics: The curves between drain current (ID) and drain to
source voltage (VDS) for different fixed values of gate to source voltage
(VGS) are known as drain characteristics.
• Transfer Characteristics: The curves between drain current (ID) and gate
to source voltage (VGS) for a fixed value of drain to source voltage (VDS)
and known as transfer characteristics.
CONT…
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
• In order to draw the drain characteristics set the VGS to zero.
• Now, increase VDS in small suitable steps and record the corresponding
values of ID at each step.
• VGS and VDS both = 0: When VGS = 0 the channel is entirely open. VDS = 0,
so there is no attractive force for the majority carriers (electrons in n-
channel JFET) and drain current does not flow.
• Self pinch-off at no bias (VGS = 0): At VGS = 0, in response to a small
applied voltage VDS, the n-type bar acts as a simple semiconductor
resistor, and the current ID increases linearly with VDS.
• AS VDS increases, the voltage drop along the channel also increases.
CONT…
• This increase in voltage drop increases the reverse bias on gate-source
junction and cause the depletion regions to penetrate into the channel,
reducing channel width.
• The effect of reduction in channel width provides more opposition to
increase in drain current ID.
• Thus, rate of increase in ID with respect to VDS is now reduced.
• At some value of VDS, drain current ID cannot be increase further, due to
reduction in channel width.
• Any further increase in VDS does not increase the drain current ID. ID
approaches the constant saturation value.
• The voltage VDS at which the current ID reaches to its constant saturation
level is called “Pinch-off Voltage”, Vp.
CONT…
• VGS with negative bias: When an external bias, of say -1V, is applied
between the gate to source, the gate channel junction are further
reverse biased , reducing the effective width of the channel available for
the conduction.
• Because of this, drain current will reduced and pinch off voltage is
reached at a lower drain current than when VGS=0.
• By applying several values of negative external bias voltage (VGS), it is
observed from the graph that for more negative values of VGS, the pinch-
off voltage is reached at lesser values of ID.
CONT…
• Breakdown region: If we increase value of VDS beyond pinch-off voltage,
Vp, the drain current ID remains constant, upto certain value of VDS.
• If we further exceed VDS, the voltage will be reached at which the gate-
channel junction breakdown, due to avalanche effect.
• At this point the drain current increases very rapidly and the device ma
be destroyed.
• Ohmic and Saturation regions:
• It is seen that the drain characteristics of JFET is divided into two regions:
• Ohmic region
• Saturation region
CONT…
• In the ohmic region, the drain current ID varies with VDS and the JFET is
said to behave as voltage variable resistance.
• In the saturation region, the drain current ID remains fairly constant and
does not vary with VDS.
• Cut-off : As we know, for an n-channel JFET, the more negative VGS
cause drain current to reduce and pinch-off voltage to reach at a lower
drain current.
• When VGS is made sufficiently negative, ID is reduced to 0.
• This is caused by the widening of the depletion region to a point where it
completely closes the channel. The value of VGS at the cut-off point is
designated as VGS(OFF).
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
• The relationship between the drain current ID and gate to source voltage VGS is non-linear.
• This relationship is defined by Shockley’s equation
• ID = IDSS(1-)^2
• The square term of the equation will results in a non-linear relationship between ID and VGS,
producing a curve that grows exponentially with decreasing magnitudes of VGS.
• From equation we can also write,
• VGS = VP(1-)
• In this eqn., IDSS and VP are constants, value of VGS controls ID.
CONT…
ID =0 when VGS = VGS (off)
ID = IDSS when VGS =0
COMPARISON OF BJT AND FET
PARAMETERS BJT FET
Control element Current controlled device. Voltage controlled device.
Device type Current flows due to both, majority Current flows only due to
and minority carriers and hence majority carriers and hence
bipolar device. unipolar device.
Types n-p-n and p-n-p n-channel and p-channel
Symbols
Configurations CE, CB and CC CS, CG and CD
Input resistance Less compare to JFET High compare to BJT
Size Bigger than JFET Smaller in construction than
BJT, thus making them useful
in IC.
Sensitivity High sensitivity to change in the Less sensitivity to change in
applied signal the applied voltage.
COMPARISON OF BJT AND FET
PARAMETERS BJT FET
Thermal stability Less More
Relation between Linear Non-Linear
input and output
Ratio of o/p to i/p

Thermal noise More in BJT as more charge carriers Much lower in JFET as very
cross junctions few charge carrier cross the
junction.
Gain bandwidth High low
product
 PARAMETERS BJT FET
Thermal stability Less More
Relation between input Linear Non-Linear
and output
Ratio of o/p to i/p

Thermal noise More in BJT as more charge carriers cross Much lower in JFET as very few
junctions charge carrier cross the junction.

Gain bandwidth product High low

4/5/2022
 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS OF THE JFET
• In a JFET, the drain current ID depends upon the drain voltage VDS and the gate voltage Vgs.
• As one of these variables may be fixed and the relation between the other two are determined.
• 1. Mutual conductance or transconductance, gm It is the slope of the transfer characteristic curves, and is
defined by
• gm = ) VDS = , VDS held constant.
• It is the ratio of a small change in the drain current to the corresponding small change in the gate voltage at a
constant drain voltage. Unit of conductance in mho.
CONT…
• 2. Drain resistance, rd It is the reciprocal of the slope of the drain
characteristics and is defined by
• rd = VGS = , VGS held constant.
• It is the ratio of a small change in the drain voltage to the corresponding
small change in the drain current at a constant gate voltage. It has the
unit of resistance in ohms.
• The drain resistance at Vgs=0V i.e., when the depletion region of the
channel are absent, is called as drain-source ON resistance, RDS or RDS(ON).
• The reciprocal of rd is called the drain conductance. It is denoted by gd or
gos.
 CONT…

•Amplification factor, μ It is defined by

• μ = = - , ID held constant.
•It is ratio of small change in the drain voltage to the corresponding small
change in the gate voltage at a constant drain current.
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)
• UJT is a three terminal semiconductor switching device.
• It consists of lightly doped n type silicon slab/bar to which aluminium
rod is alloyed at the one end with a p type materials, forming a p-n
junction.

• At the other end of

slab, two base
contacts B1 and B2 are
attached. The third
terminal emitter E is
taken out from
aluminium rod.
CONT…
• It has only one p-n junction hence called unijunction.
• The p-n junction can be treated as a diode D while internal resistances of
two bases are denoted as RB1 and RB2. The resistance RB1 is greater than
RB2.
• When emitter diode is not conducting, the resistance between two
bases is called interbase resistance given by RBB = RB1+RB2.
• When IE = 0, then the voltage drop across RB1 is given by,
• Therefore VRB1 = = ηVBB
• η = FOR IE=0 = typical value of η = 0.56 to 0.75
• Where η = Intrinsic stand off ratio
WORKING OF UJT
• The supply voltage VBB is
connected between B1
and B2 while variable
emitter voltage VE is
applied to emitter.
• The VE is used to forward
bias the diode. The drop
across diode is VD.
• The potential of A is
decided by η and is equal
to ηVBB.
CONT…
Case 1 : VE < VA
•As long as VE is less than VA, the p-n junction is reverse biased. Hence
emitter current IE will not flow. This UJT is said to be OFF.
Case 2 : VE > VP
•The diode drop VD is generally between 0.3 to 0.7 V. Hence we can write,
• VP = VA + VD = ηVBB +VD
•When VE become equal to or greater than VP the p-n junction becomes
forward biased and current IE flows.
•Due to this the charge carriers are injected in the RB1 region of the bar.
•Due to these additional charge carriers, the conductivity of the RB1 region
increases i.e resistance and due to which the drop across it also decreases.
CONT…
• This make the p-n junction more forward biased which further increases
the current and more charge carriers are injected.
• The current IE is increases to a value determined by the source
resistance.
• Under these conditions, the UJT is said to be ON and remains in this
condition till the input is open or the current IE gets reduced to very low
value.
UJT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Cut-off region : The emitter voltage VE is
less than VP and the p-n junction is reverse
biased. A small amount of reverse
saturation current IE0 flow through the
device, which is negligibly small of the
order of This condition remains till the
peak point.
2. Negative resistance region : when the
emitter voltage VE becomes equal to VP
the p-n junction become forward biased
and IE starts flowing. The voltage across
the device decreases in this region,
thought the current through the device
increases. Hence the region is called
negative resistance region. This decreases
the resistance RB1. This region is stable
and used in many applications.
UJT CHARACTERISTICS
3. Saturation region: Increase in IE further valley point current IV drives the
device in the saturation region. The voltage corresponding to valley point
is called valley point voltage VV. In this region, further decrease in voltage
does not take place. The characteristics is similar to that of a
semiconductor diode, in this region.
•The active region i.e. negative resistance region, the holes which are
larger in number on p-side, get injected into n-side.
•This cause increase in free electrons in the n-type slab. This increase the
conductivity i.e. decrease the resistivity. Hence the resistance RB1
decreases in this region.
•As the VBB increases, the potential VP corresponding to peak point will
increase.
APPLICATIONS
•The various applications of UJT are,
1. Triggering of other devices like SCR.
2. In a sawtooth waveform generator.
3. In a relaxation oscillator.
4. In timing circuits.
5. In automobile ignition circuits.
 UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
• For generating sawtooth waveform.
• It consists of a UJT and a capacitor C which is
discharged through R as the supply voltage VCC
or VBB is switched ON.
• The voltage across the capacitor increases
exponentially and when the capacitor voltage
reaches the peak point voltage Vp, the UJT
starts conducting and the capacitor voltage is
discharged rapidly through EB1 and R1.
• After the peak point volatge of UJT is reached, it
provides negative resistance to the discharge
path which is useful in the working of the
relaxation oscillator.
• As the capacitor voltage reaches zero, the
device then cut off and capacitor starts charge
again.
SCR / Thyristor

• Circuit Symbol and Terminal Identification

ANODE

SCR
2N3668
GATE

CATHODE
SCR / Thyristor

• Anode and Cathode terminals as

conventional pn junction diode
ANODE
• Gate terminal for a controlling
SCR
input signal
2N3668
GATE

CATHODE

132
SCR/ Thyristor

• An SCR (Thyristor) is a “controlled” rectifier (diode)

• Control the conduction under forward bias by applying a current into
the Gate terminal
• Under reverse bias, looks like conventional pn junction diode

133
SCR / Thyristor
Anode
• 4-layer (pnpn) device
• Anode, Cathode as for a
P
conventional pn junction diode

N
• Cathode Gate brought out for
controlling input Gate
P

Cathode
134
EquivalentANODE
Circuit
ANODE

Q1

N N
BJT_PNP_VIRTUAL

GATE
P Q2
P
GATE
BJT_NPN_VIRTUAL

CATHODE

CATHODE
135
Apply Biasing
Variable
50V

With the Gate terminal

OPEN, both transistors are IF
ANODE (A)
OFF. As the applied
voltage increases, there will Q1 IC2=IB1
be a “breakdown” that
BJT_PNP_VIRTUAL
causes both transistors to
conduct (saturate) making GATE (G) IC1 = IB2 Q2

IF > 0 and VAK = 0.

BJT_NPN_VIRTUAL

VBreakdown = VBR(F)
IF
CATHODE (K)

136
Volt-Ampere Characteristic

IF

Holding Current IH

VBR(F) VAK

Breakdown Voltage
137
Apply a Gate Current
For 0 < VAK < VBR(F), Variable
50V

Turn Q2 ON by applying a IF
current into the Gate ANODE (A)

Q1 IC2 = IB1
This causes Q1 to turn ON, and
BJT_PNP_VIRTUAL
eventually both transistors
SATURATE
IB2 Q2
GATE (G)
VAK = VCEsat + VBEsat
BJT_NPN_VIRTUAL
VG
If the Gate pulse is removed, IF
Q1 and Q2 still stay ON! CATHODE (K)

138
How do you turn it OFF?

• Cause the forward current to fall below the value if the “holding”
current, IH

• Reverse bias the device

139
SCR Application – Power Control
XSC1

G
T
A B When the voltage across
the capacitor reaches the
“trigger-point” voltage of
the device, the SCR turns
ON, current flows in the
R Load for the remainder of
25kOhm 60%
Key = a the positive half-cycle.
D1
Vs 2N1776
170V
120.21V_rms
60Hz Current flow stops when
0Deg
C the applied voltage goes
Rload
15ohm
0.01uF
negative.

140
Input / Output Voltages

141
Look at the LOAD Current

Conduction time → Conduction Angle = 180 - 

“Firing” time → Firing Angle () 142

Average Load Current

1 V


i =  sin td (t )

p

2 R
L ,A V E

LOA D

V
i = p
(1 + cos  )
2 R
L ,A V E

 = − t an (R C )−1

143
TRIODE AC SWITCH (TRIAC):
•The TRIAC is another important member of the thyristor family. It is
basically two parallel SCRs turned in opposite directions, with common
gate terminal.
Note: It is a bidirectional device and can conduct in both the directions.
•The TRIAC, is thus, a bidirectional thyristor with three terminals. It is
widely used for the control of power in ac circuits.
•The two main electrodes are called main terminals MT1 and MT2 while
common control terminal is called gate G. The gate terminal is near MT1.
•The traic can be turned ON by applying either a positive or negative
voltage to the gate G with respect to the main terminal MT1.

144
WORKING OF TRIAC
CONT…
• With gate open, either MT1 is positive with respect to MT2 or MT2 is
positive with respect to MT1.
• Forward blocking region: when gate is open and MT2 is positive with
respect to MT1 but the voltage is less than forward breakdown voltage
then triac does not conduct. This region is called forward blocking region.
If this voltage is increased beyond breakdown voltage, the triac
conducts in the forward direction.
• Reverse blocking region: when gate is open and MT2 is negative with
respect to MT1 but the voltage is less than breakdown voltage then triac
does not conduct. This region is called reverse blocking region. But note
that if this voltage is increased beyond the breakdown voltage, triac
conducts in reverse direction.
•In forward or reverse blocking, now if gate is made positive or negative
with respect to MT1 then also the triac conducts. This is the gate control
of triac and easy way of switching triac ON.
Note: when MT2 is positive and MT1 is negative, triac is forward biased
while when MT1 is positive and MT2 is negative, triac is reverse biased.
•Operation modes of triac: In each biased state, gate can be positive or
negative.
• Four different operating modes of triac.
•Mode 1: In this mode triac is forward biased and gate is made positive
with respect to MT1. The terminal MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 as
triac is forward biased.
•In this arrangement the breakdown occurs as a normal SCR.
•The gate current is positive and the triac is said to be operating in the first
quadrant of its V-I characteristics. Hence this mode is also called I+ mode
of operation.
Mode 2: In this mode, triac is forward biased and gate is made negative
with respect to MT1. In this arrangement also the breakdown occurs as a
normal SCR.
•The sensitivity to gate current is less in this mode. The gate current is
negative but triac still operates in first quadrant of its V-I characteristics.
•Due to negative gate, this mode is also called I- mode of operation.
• Mode 3: In this mode, triac is reverse biased i.e MT1 is positive with
respect to MT2 and the gate is made positive.
• The gate current initiates the conduction and due to regenrative action,
the triac is turned ON .
• In this mode, direction of main SCR i.e triac current reverses compared
to mode 1 and 2 and the polarities of voltage between MT1 and MT2 are
also reversed compared to mode 1 and 2 hence triac operates in third
quadrant of its V-I characteristics. But due to positive gate, it is called III+
mode.
• Mode 4: In this mode, triac is reverse biased but gate is made negative.
• In this mode, gate current is negative and due to regenerative action,
the triac starts conducting.
• Compared to III+ mode, in this mode only gate current direction is
reversed. Hence this mode is called III- mode.
• The triac operation is in the third quadrant of its V-I characteristics. In
this mode triac is more sensitive than III+ mode.
CHARCTERISTICS OF TRIAC

Similar to SCR Forward bias characteristics

 Advantages of the TRIAC:
• The TRIAC has the following advantages:
1. It conducts in both the directions hence power control in both the half
cycles is possible.
2. Triac turns off when voltage is reversed, no external circuit is required
to turn off.
3. Single gate controls the conduction in both the directions.
4. Triacs with high voltage and current ratings are available.
5. More economical than SCR.
 Disadvantages of the TRIAC:
1. Not suitable for d.c. power applications.
2. Gate has no control over the conduction when triac is on.
3. Triacs have very small switching frequencies.
4. Power rating is less than SCR.
5. The reliability is less than SCR.
6. Low dv/dt and di/dt rating than SCR hence accidental turning on due
to high dv/dt of source voltage is possible.
Applications of the TRIAC
1. Static a.c. switching of applications.
2. In a three position static switch.
3. A.C. power flashers.
4. Heater controllers or temperature controllers
5. As a triggering device for SCRs.
6. Light dimmer circuits.
7. The power control to the load.
8. Proximity detector circuit.
9. A.C. voltage stabilizers.
DIAC (DIODE AC SWITCH)
• DIAC is a three layer, two terminal
semiconductor device. MT1 and MT2
are the two main terminals which
are interchangeable.
• It acts as a bidirectional Avalanche
diode. It does not have any control
terminal.
• It has two transistor, the central layer
is free from any connection with the
terminals.
• From the characteristics of a DIAC, it
acts as a switch in both directions.
• As the doping level at the two ends
of the device is the same, the DIAC
has identical characteristics for both
positive and negative half of an AC
cycle.
• During the positive half cycle, MT1 is positive with respect to MT2
whereas MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 in the negative half cycle.
• At voltage less than the breakdown voltage, a very small amount of
current called leakage current flows through the device and the device
remains in OFF state.
• When the voltage level reaches the breakdown voltage, the device start
conducting and it exhibits negative resistance characteristics. i.e current
flowing in the device starts increasing and the voltage across it starts
decreasing.
• The DIAC is not a control device. It is used as triggering device in TRIAC
phase control circuits used for light dimming, motor speed control &
heater control.
I-V characteristics of the DIAC:
Rectifiers
introduction

 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating

current (AC), which periodically reverses direction,

to direct current (DC), which is in only one direction, a

process known as rectification.

Types of Rectifiers

• Half wave Rectifier

Full wave Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier
Half wave rectifier

 In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of

the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked.

 Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output,

it is very inefficient if used for power transfer.

Half wave rectification
Output dc voltage calculation

 The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be

calculated with the following two ideal equations

full wave rectifier

 A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform

to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.

 Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input

waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient.0

Full wave rectifier working animation
Full wave rectification

 In a circuit with a non - center tapped transformer, four

diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-

wave rectification.

 For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped,

then two diodes back-to-back (i.e. anodes-to-anode or

cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier using 4 diodes
Full wave rectifier using transformer and 2 diodes
formula

 The average and root-mean-square output voltages of

an ideal single phase full wave rectifier can be

calculated as:
Bridge rectifier

 A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge

arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification.

170
Bridge rectifier circuit