Periodic Classification of Elements

newlands law of octaves:

● When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass, every eighth element resembles
the first
● LIMITATIONS:
○ only possible till calcium
○ placed elements which didn't have similar properties together for eg: cobalt and
nickel were placed in the same slot as chlorine and fluorine
○ he assumed there will always be only 56 elements
mendeleev’s periodic table:
● The main credit for classifying elements goes to Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian
chemist
● 63 elements were known in his *era*
● arranged on the basis of increasing atomic masses
● Among chemical properties, Mendeléev concentrated on the compounds formed by
elements with oxygen and hydrogen. He selected hydrogen and oxygen as they are very
reactive and formed compounds with most elements. The formulae of the hydrides and
oxides formed by an element were treated as one of the basic properties of an element
for its classification.
● his way of working- He took 63 cards and on each card he wrote down the properties of
the element. He sorted out the elements with similar properties and pinned the cards
together on a wall and then arranged them
● It was also observed that there occurs a periodic recurrence of elements with similar
physical and chemical properties.
● Mendeléev’s Periodic Law, stated ‘the properties of elements are the periodic function
of their atomic masses’.
● Mendeléev predicted the existence of some elements that had not been discovered at
that time and left gaps for them, he also predicted their atomic mass, physical and
chemical properties-
○ scandium -> eka boron
○ gallium -> eka aluminium
 ○ germanium -> eka silicon
● noble gases, which were discovered later, were made a group beforehand without
disturbing the existing order of the table.
● LIMITATIONS:
○ No Fixed Position could be given to Hydrogen: Like alkali metals, hydrogen
combines with halogens, oxygen and sulphur to form compounds having similar
formulae. On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen also exists as diatomic
molecules and it combines with metals and non-metals to form covalent
compounds.
○ isotopes of all elements posed a challenge: isotopes of an element have similar
chemical properties, but different atomic masses, (they were discovered long
after Mendeleev's law) thus couldn't be assigned a fixed place.
○ it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between
two elements: atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from
one element to the next
○ placed heavier metals before lighter metals
the modern periodic table:
● In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number of an element is a more
fundamental property than its atomic mass.
● atomic number gives us the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and this
number increases by one in going from one element to the next
● Moseley’s Periodic Law, stated ‘the properties of elements are the periodic function of
their atomic numbers’.
● How Mendleev’s Limitations were Fixed?
○ hydrogen was given a unique position on top left corner due to its unique
characteristics
○ as table is based on atomic number and isotopes have same atomic number
they could all be put at same place
○ Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more precision when
elements were arranged on the basis of increasing atomic number.
● The Modern Periodic Table has 18 ‘groups’ (vertical columns) and 7 ‘periods’ (horizontal
rows). :
○ elements present in any one group have the same number of valence electrons
 ○ atoms of different elements with the same number of occupied shells are placed
in the same period
● Trends:
○ metallic and nonmetallic character

■ metallic character= electropositivity= basic nature

■ non metallic character= electronegativity= acidic nature
○ atomic size

○ valency
group- increases till 14 then decreases

Carbon and Its Compounds

covalent bonding:
 ● carbon cant gain 4 electrons and become 2,8 because nucleus has only 6 protons and it
cant handle 10 electrons
● can't lose 4 electrons
● carbon shares valence electron this is known as covalent bonding
●

How do Organisms Reproduce

introduction:
● reproduction at its most basic level will involve making copies of the blueprints of body
design.
● chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features
from parents to the next generation in the form of DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid)
molecules.
● The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins.
● If the information is changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will
eventually lead to altered body designs.
● A basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
● Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the
DNA in a reproducing cell, and they will need to be separated from each other.
● However, keeping one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply pushing the other one
out would not work, because the copy pushed out would not have any organised cellular
structure for maintaining life processes. Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the
creation of an additional cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies separate, each
with its own cellular apparatus. Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.
● It is only to be expected that the process of copying the DNA will have some variations
each time. As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be
identical to the original
fission:
● For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals
● organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place
in any plane.
 ● However, some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their bodies,
such as is seen in Leishmania, which have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell.
In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the
structure

● Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divide into
many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

Fragmentation:
● multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organisation, simple reproductive
methods can still work.
● Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation.
● These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals
Why dont all Multicellular organisms Divide Cell by Cell?
● They cannot simply divide cell-by-cell. The reason is that many multicellular organisms,
as we have seen, are not simply a random collection of cells.
● Specialised cells are organised as tissues, and tissues are organised into organs, which
then have to be placed at definite positions in the body. In such a carefully organised
situation, cell-by-cell division would be impractical.
● Multicellular organisms, therefore, need to use more complex ways of reproduction.
 ● A basic strategy used in multicellular organisms is that different cell types perform
different specialised functions. Following this general pattern, reproduction in such
organisms is also the function of a specific cell type.
Regeneration:
● Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual
organisms from their body parts.
● That is, if the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these
pieces grow into separate individuals
● Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece grows into a
complete organism.
● Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and make large
numbers of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become
various cell types and tissues.
● regeneration is not the same as reproduction, since most organisms would not normally
depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.

budding:
● Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of
budding.
● In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific
site
● These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent
body and become new independent individuals.
vegetative propogation:
● There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into new
plants under appropriate conditions
● The property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or grafting
to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes.
● ADVANTAGES:
○ Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than
those produced from seeds.
○ Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana,
orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
○ Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are
genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.
Spore Formation:
● Even in many simple multicellular organisms, specific reproductive parts can be
identified.
● The thread-like structures that developed on the bread in above are the hyphae of the
bread mould (Rhizopus) are not the reproductive organ
● the tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are involved in reproduction. The blobs are
sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually develop into new Rhizopus
individuals.
● The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come into contact
with another moist surface and can begin to grow.
Electricity
Electric current & circuit:
● Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular
area in unit time
● A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit
● If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the
current I, through the cross-section is, I= Q/t
● The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge
contained in nearly 6 × 1018 electrons, electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 ×
10–19 C
● The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), one ampere is constituted
by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second, that is, 1 A = 1 C/1 s
● An instrument called an ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is always
connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
● For flow of charges in a conducting metallic wire, the gravity, of course, has no role to
play
● We define the electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
carrying some current as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the
other- V= W/Q
● The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V)
● potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
 ● 1 volt is when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to
the other. So 1V= 1j/1C
● The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.
The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.
Resistance:
● resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
● Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek letter Ω
● R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature (resistance)
● R= V/I
● current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance
variable resistance:
● A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called
variable resistance
● a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in the circuit

FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS:

(i) on its length
(ii) on its area of cross-section
(iii) on the nature of its material.
● Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is
directly proportional to its length (l) and inversely proportional to the area of
cross-section (A)

RESISTIVITY:
 ● ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of the
material of the conductor.
● The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic property of the material.
● The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m.
They are good conductors of electricity. Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity
of the order of 1012 to 1017 Ω m.
● Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.
● Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures. For this reason, they are
commonly used in electrical heating devices
RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS:
● SERIES:
○ electric circuit in which three resistors are joined end to end. Here the resistors
are said to be connected in series.
○ In a series combination of resistors the current is the same in every part of the
circuit or the same current through each resistor.
○ the total potential difference across a combination of resistors in series is equal
to the sum of potential difference across the individual resistors
○ When several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination
equals the sum of their individual resistances, and is thus greater than any
individual resistance.
● PARALLEL:
○ shows a combination of resistors in which two or more resistors are connected
together between points between two points, they are said to be connected in
parallel.
○ It is observed that the total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate
currents through each branch of the combination.

○ the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in

parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.’

Ohm’s Law:
 ● The potential difference, V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit
is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature
remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law

● The V–I graph is a straight line that passes through the origin of the graph. Thus,
V/I is a constant ratio.
heating effects of electric current:
● the source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known
as the heating effect of electric current.
● The generation of heat in a conductor is an inevitable consequence of electric current
● the power input to the circuit by the source is

● The heating energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P × t, that is, VIt.

● This is known as Joule’s law of heating. The law implies that heat produced in a resistor
is:
(i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance
(ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, and
(iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the
resistor.
● Practical Effects:
○ The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and
electric heater
○ electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the
filament must retain as much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it
gets very hot and emits light. It must not melt at such high temperature. A
strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is
used for making bulb filaments. The filament should be thermally isolated as
 much as possible, using insulating support, etc. The bulbs are usually filled with
chemically inactive nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the life of filament.
Most of the power consumed by the filament appears as heat, but a small part
of it is in the form of light radiated.
○ Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric
circuits. The fuse is placed in series with
○ the device. It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of
appropriate melting point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. If a
current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the
temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the
circuit.
Electric power:
● the rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric circuit is
termed as electric power.(P)

● The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that
carries 1 A of current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V.

● The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, in actual practice we use a much larger unit
called ‘kilowatt’. It is equal to 1000 watts.
● Since electrical energy is the product of power and time, the unit of electric energy is,
therefore, watt hour (W h). One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of
power is used for 1 hour.
● The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as
‘unit’.

Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

OERSTED EXPERIMENT:
● Hans Christian Oersted, played a crucial role in understanding electromagnetism.
● In 1820 he accidentally discovered that a compass needle got deflected when an electric
current passed through a metallic wire placed nearby.
● Through this observation Oersted showed that electricity and magnetism were related
phenomena.
magnetic field & field lines:
● A compass needle is a small bar magnet. The ends of the compass needle point
approximately towards north and south directions.
○ The end pointing towards north is called north seeking or north pole.
○ The other end that points towards south is called south seeking or south pole.
● like poles repel, while unlike poles of magnets attract each other.
● The magnet exerts its influence in the region surrounding it. The region surrounding a
magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected, is said to have a magnetic
field.
● if you put a bar magnet on a paper and sprinkle iron filings around it and lightly tap
the paper, the lines along which the iron filings align themselves represent magnetic
field lines.
● Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude.
● The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north pole of
the compass needle moves inside it.
● Therefore it is taken by convention that the field lines emerge from north pole and
merge at the south pole
● Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to its north pole.
Thus the magnetic field lines are closed curves.
 ● The relative strength of the magnetic field is shown by the degree of closeness of the
field lines. The field is stronger, that is, the force acting on the pole of another magnet
placed is greater where the field lines are crowded
● No two field-lines are found to cross each other. If they did, it would mean that at the
point of intersection, the compass needle would point towards two directions, which is
not possible.
magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor:
● straight current carryig conductor:
○ magnetiic field lines in a straight current carrying conductor are in form of
concentric circles
○ A convenient way of finding the direction of magnetic field associated with a
current-carrying conductor is Right hand thumb Rule. Imagine that you are
holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the
thumb points towards the direction of current. Then your fingers will wrap
around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field.

○ direction of magnetic fieldine changes if direction current changes

○ amount of current flowing increases strength of magnet increases
● Current carrying conductor in form of a loop:
○ At every point of the current carrying loop, the magnetic field is in the form of
a concentric circle around it. As we move away from the wire, the circle would
become larger.
○ At the center of the loop, the field appears to be a straight line.
○ The strength of magnetic field is directly proportional to current (I) & no. of
turns (n) in wire.
solenoid:
● A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a
cylinder is called a solenoid
● one end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other behaves as
the south pole.
● The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. This
indicates that the magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. That is,
the field is uniform inside the solenoid.
● magnetic fielld lines of a solenoid are very similar to that of a bar magnet

electromagnet:
● A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of
magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so formed is
called an electromagnet.
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:
 ● Electric current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic field. The field so
produced exerts a force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the conductor.
● French scientist Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836) suggested that the magnet must
also exert an equal and opposite force on the current-carrying conductor.
● direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of current and the
direction of the magnetic field
● Experiments have shown that the magnitude of the force is the highest when the
direction of current is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
● Fleming’s left-hand rule:
○ stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left hand such that they
are mutually perpendicular
○ If the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field and the second finger
in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in the direction of motion
or the force acting on the conductor.
Electric motor:
● An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.
● An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil of insulated copper wire. The coil is
placed between the two poles of a magnetic field such that the arms are perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic field.
● The ends of the coil are connected to the two halves of a split ring. The inner sides of
these halves are insulated and attached to an axle. The external conducting edges touch
two conducting stationary brushes
● Current in the coil enters from the source battery through one conducting brush and
flows back to the battery through the other conducting brush.
● We find that the force acting on arm AB pushes it downwards while the force acting
on arm CD pushes it upwards
● Thus the coil and the axle, mounted free to turn about an axis, rotate anti-clockwise.
● At half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X and P with brush Y. Therefore
the current in the coil gets reversed and flows along the opposite path
● A device that reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a
commutator
 ● Therefore the coil and the axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction. The
reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous
rotation of the coil and to the axle.
● The commercial motors use:
(i) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet
(ii) large number of turns of the conducting wire in the current carrying coil
(iii) a soft iron core on which the coil is wound. The soft iron core, on which
the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature. This enhances the power
of the motor.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
● electric current produced in closed circuit by changing magnetic field is called an
induced current & this phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction (EMI).
● a situation in which a conductor is moving inside a magnetic field or a magnetic field is
changing around a fixed conductor.
● In 1831, Faraday made an important breakthrough by discovering how a moving
magnet can be used to generate electric currents.
● A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit.
The pointer remains at zero (the centre of the scale) for zero current flowing through
it. It can deflect either to the left or to the right of the zero mark depending on the
direction of current.
● Fleming’s Right hand rule:
○ if you stretch the thumb, index finger and middle finger of
○ your right hand such that they are mutually perpendicular, If the index finger
points in the direction of magnetic field and thumb points in direction of motion
of wire (force), then the middle finger will point in the direction of induced
current.
 ● ways to induce current:
1) By moving coil in magnetic field
2) By changing magnetic field around nearby coil

Our Environment

ecosystem:
● All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents of
the environment form an ecosystem.
○ an ecosystem consists of biotic components comprising living organisms and
abiotic components comprising physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind,
soil and minerals.
● Natural ecosystem- forests, ponds lakes
● artificial ecosystem- gardens and crop fields
biotic components:
● Producers:
○ make their own food by photosynthesis- autotrophs
○ green plants and certain chlorophyll containing bacterias
● Consumers:
○ directly or indirectly depend on producers for food
■ herbivores=> primary consumer, feed on producers directly
 ■ carnivores=> secondary or tertiary consumer, eat herbivores or
carnivores respectively
■ omnivores=> primary or secondary consumer,feed on both producers and
other animals
■ parasites=> live on host orgairm and gets nutrients from it
● decomposers:
○ feed on dead and decaying, they break down complex organic substances into
simple inorganic substances, that go into soil and are used by plants
○ example- bacteria and fungi,
food chain and webs:
● series of organisms feeding on one another. This series or organisms taking part at
various biotic levels form a food chain
● Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level.
● The length and complexity of food chains vary greatly. Each organism is generally eaten
by two or more other kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other
organisms. So instead of a straight line food chain, the relationship can be shown as a
series of branching lines called a food web
● The flow of energy is unidirectional. The energy that is captured by the autotrophs
does not revert back to the solar input and the energy which passes to the herbivores
does not come back to autotrophs. As it moves progressively through the various trophic
levels it is no longer available to the previous level.
● Why do we need food and how does food move?
○ the food we eat acts as a fuel to provide us energy to do work. Thus the
interactions among various components of the environment involves flow of
energy from one component of the system to another. As we have studied, the
autotrophs capture the energy present in sunlight and convert it into chemical
energy. This energy supports all the activities of the living world. From
autotrophs, the energy goes to the heterotrophs and decomposers.
10% law:
● When one form of energy is changed to another, some energy is lost to the environment
in forms which cannot be used again. The flow of energy between various components
of the environment has been extensively studied and it has been found that –
○ The green plants capture about 1% of the energy of sunlight that falls on their
leaves and convert it into food energy.
 ○ When green plants are eaten by primary consumers, a great deal of energy is
lost as heat to the environment, some amount goes into digestion and in doing
work and the rest goes towards growth and reproduction.
○ Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average value for the amount of organic
matter that is present at each step and reaches the next level of consumers.
● Why do food chains usually have 4-5 trophic levels?
○ Since so little energy is available for the next level of consumers, food chains
generally consist of only three or four steps. The loss of energy at each step is
so great that very little usable energy remains after four trophic levels.
○ There are generally a greater number of individuals at the lower trophic levels
of an ecosystem, the greatest number is of the producers.
bio magnification:
● Sometimes unknowingly some harmful chemicals enter our bodies through the food
chain.
● use of several pesticides and other chemicals to protect our crops from diseases and
pests. These chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into the water bodies.
From the soil, these are absorbed by the plants along with water and minerals, and
from the water bodies these are taken up by aquatic plants
● As these chemicals are not degradable, these get accumulated progressively at each
trophic level
● As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration of
these chemicals get accumulated in our bodies. This phenomenon is known as biological
magnification
ozone- boon and bane:
● Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.
● O2, (oxygen) is essential for all aerobic forms of life. Ozone, is a deadly poison
● However, at the higher levels of the atmosphere, ozone performs an essential function.
It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. This
radiation can cause harm like skin cancer in humans
● CONCERN FOR OZONE IN ATMOSPHERE
○ The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in the 1980s.
This decrease has been linked to synthetic chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.
 ○ In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in
forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels. It is now
mandatory for all the manufacturing companies to make CFC-free refrigerators
throughout the world.
GARBAGE MANAGEMENT:
● enzymes of bacteria etc released in the environment act on waste and breaks them
down into simpler substances
● Substances that are broken down by biological processes are said to be biodegradable,
example- plant and its products
● Substances that are not broken down in this manner are said to be non-biodegradable.
These substances may be inert and simply persist in the environment for a long time or
may harm the various members of the eco-system. For example: plastic and metal.