Fundamentals of Nuclear Reaction

Structure of atom

A A
Z X or X Z
•X is the symbol, Z is the atomic number (no of protons), A is the mass
number (no of protons and neutrons)
•The radius of a nucleus is of the order 10-16 m and that of an atom is 10-11
m.
•Neutron mass 1.674×10-27 kg, proton mass 1.673×10-27 kg and electron
mass 9.109×10-31 kg

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 2

Terminologies

• Atoms with nuclei having the same number of protons have

similar chemical and physical properties and differ mainly in
their masses. They are called isotopes.
• Natural Uranium is composed of 99.282% U238, 0.712%
U235, and 0.006% U234, atomic number 92.
• Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, called heavy hydrogen.
Hydrogen produce water when combined with oxygen and
Deuterium produces heavy water D2O.
• Positron is a positively charged electron, symbols e+, +1e0, or
β+. Symbol of electron e-, -1e0, or β-
• Neutrino is a tiny neutral particle ejected during nuclear
fission carries 5% of the total energy produced in fission.

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 3

Chemical and nuclear reactions

• Atoms are combined or separated in a chemical reaction,

C+O2 = CO2
Here, atoms participates as a whole and retain identity,
only the valence electrons are shared or exchanged.
The nuclei do not change.
The number of atoms in the products equals the number in
the reactants.

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 4

Nuclear reactions

• The products do not have the reactants nuclei but some other
nuclei
• The number of nucleons in the products are the same as
those in the reactants.

Z1 A A1
 Z2 B A2
 Z3 C A3
 Z4 D A4

where, Z1  Z 2  Z 3  Z 4 and A1  A2  A3  A4

• Sometimes EM radiations (γ rays) and neutrino (ν) emitted

but do not affect the balance given above, since they carry
only energy and have zero Z and A.

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 5

Binding energy

• The sum of masses of protons and neutrons that comprises

the nucleus exceeds the mass of the atomic nucleus, this
difference in mass is called mass defect. It is converted to
energy according to

E  m.C 2
• The energy associated with the mass defects is called
binding energy of the nucleus.
• 1g of mass is equivalent to 9×1013J and 1 amu equals
14.94×10-11J = 9.31×108 eV = 931 MeV.

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 6

Radioactive decay and half life
• Most isotopes that occur in nature is stable, isotopes of heavier
elements e.g. polonium are not stable, the binding energy per
nucleon being small, and emits radiation until a more stable
nucleus is reached.
• This spontaneous disintegration process is called radioactive
decay.
• The resulting nucleus is called the daughter and the original is
called the parent.
• The daughter may be stable or radioactive
• Radioactive isotopes both natural and man made are called
radioisotopes.
• Radioactivity is always accompanied by a decrease of mass or
liberation of energy.
• The energy emits in the form of KE of the emitted particles and as
EM radiation.

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 7

Radioactive half life
If N be the number of radioactive atoms of one species at any
time t, the rate of decay
dN
  N
dt
Where λ is decay constant. By integrating we get

N  N 0 e  t
Where, N0 is the radioactive atoms at time t=0 and N is the
radioactive atoms at time t.

N 1 ln 2 0.6931
  e t1 / 2 t1/ 2  
N0 2  

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 8

Half life of some radioisotopes
isotopes t1/2 Activity
Uranium 233 1.65×105 yr β and γ
Uranium 235 7.1×108 yr α and γ
Uranium 238 4.51×109 yr α and γ
Plutonium 239 2.44×104 yr α and γ
Thorium 232 1.41×1010 yr β
Thorium 233 22.1 min α and γ
Radium 223 11.43 days α and γ

The unit of radioactivity is curie (Ci) equal 3.615× 1010 dis/s, SI unit is becquerel
(Bq) equals 1 dis/s

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 9

Emissions from isotopes

• Alpha decay- alpha particles are helium nuclei, alpha decay

accompanied by γ radiation

94 Pu
239
 92 U 235  2 He 4

• Beta decay- emission of an electron and raises the atomic

number by one while the mass number remains the same.

82 Pb
214
 83 Bi 214  1 e 0  

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 10

Emissions from isotopes
• Gamma radiation- em radiation of short wavelength and high
energy, it originates from the nucleus while X-rays originate
from the atom as the orbital electrons changing energy labels
or shells.
 Z
A *
X A
Z X 
• Positron decay- when a radioactive nucleus contains an
excess of protons, positron (positive beta) decay occurs,
converting a proton into a neutron.
15 P 30
14 Si 30
 1 e 0

• Daughter nucleus has one less proton, to maintain charge

neutrality one orbital electron has to be released.
1 e 0
 1 e 0


2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 11

Emission from isotopes

• K Capture- when a nucleus has an excess of proton but does not have the
threshold energy to emit a positron, it captures an orbital electron from
the K shell. A proton in the nucleus changes into a neutron by K capture.
The vacancy in the k shell is filled by another electron falling from the
higher orbit.
• K capture is accompanied by x ray emission from the atom.

29 Cu  1 e  28 Ni
64 0 64

• Neutron emission- If a nucleus possesses an extremely high excitation

energy it may emit a neutron.

54 Xe 54 Xe  0 n
137 136 1

2/7/2024 Professor Dr S M Abdur Razzak, EEE, RUET 12