Management Information Systems (MIS)
Session-13
Kushal Anjaria
Coupling
Coupling in the context of Management Information
Systems (MIS) refers to the degree of direct
knowledge that one system component has about
another, particularly regarding the other component's
methods, data, and properties. It's a concept borrowed
from computer science and software engineering,
where it's used to describe the interdependencies
between modules, classes, or components of a system.
In MIS, coupling can be understood in how business
processes, software applications, databases, and other
system components interact and depend on each other.
The idea is to manage these interactions to ensure the
system is efficient, flexible, and maintainable. There
are two primary measures of coupling in MIS:
• Tight Coupling: This occurs when system
components are highly dependent on each
other. Changes in one component, such as a
database schema or a business process, require
significant changes in others. While tight
coupling can lead to more optimised and faster
systems because components can directly
communicate and share resources, it also
makes the system more fragile and complex to
modify or maintain. Any change in one part
can have a ripple effect, necessitating changes
across many system parts.
• Loose Coupling: This is characterised by
reduced dependencies among system
components. Each component interacts with
the others through simple, standardised
interfaces without knowing the other
components' internal workings. Loose
coupling is achieved through techniques like
encapsulation, interface abstraction, and the
use of middleware. This approach increases
the flexibility and scalability of the system, as
changes in one component are less likely to
require changes in others. However, it might
lead to less optimised performance than tightly
coupled systems because of standardised
interfaces and protocols overhead.
The choice between tight and loose coupling in an MIS
depends on several factors, including:
1. Scalability Requirements: Loosely coupled
systems are typically more scalable.
2. Performance Needs: Tightly coupled systems
might perform better for certain applications
due to the direct interactions between
components.
3. Change Management: Loosely coupled
systems are easier to modify and maintain,
making them more suited to environments
where changes are frequent.
4. Integration Needs: In cases where multiple
disparate systems need to work together, loose
coupling might be preferred to facilitate easier
integration.
Effective management of coupling in MIS involves
designing systems to balance these considerations,
ensuring that the system can meet current and future
business needs while remaining maintainable and
adaptable. Techniques like Service-Oriented
Architecture (SOA), microservices, and APIs are often
used to manage coupling in modern information
systems.
Types of Coupling:
Data coupling, functional coupling, and control
coupling are concepts related to the interdependencies
between modules or components in a system, including
in Management Information Systems (MIS). These
types of coupling describe how tightly or loosely
connected different parts of the system are based on
the information they exchange or the level of their
interaction. Understanding these concepts is crucial for
designing maintainable, scalable, and efficient
systems.
Data Coupling
Data coupling occurs when components are connected
to each other through the data they exchange. This is
the simplest and least restrictive type of coupling,
indicating a low level of interdependence. In data
coupling, components share data through parameters,
data structures, or databases but do not know each
other's internal workings.
In MIS, Data coupling can be seen when different
applications or subsystems exchange data through
common formats or shared databases. For example, an
inventory management system might be data-coupled
with a sales processing system through a shared
inventory-level database. The systems interact
independently by reading from and writing to this
shared database.
Functional Coupling
Functional coupling occurs when a component calls
another component's function, indicating a higher level
of interdependence. This type of coupling implies that
one module performs a function essential for another
module's operation. The calling module is dependent
on the functionality provided by the called module.
In MIS, an example of functional coupling is a
reporting module that generates financial reports by
calling functions of an accounting module to retrieve
transaction data and perform calculations. The
reporting module is functionally coupled with the
accounting module because it relies on the specific
operations and functionalities provided by it.
Control Coupling
Control coupling happens when one module controls
the flow of another by passing it information on what
functions to execute or paths to take. This type of
coupling involves one component dictating another
component's control logic or decision-making, making
it more tightly coupled than data or functional
coupling.
In MIS, Control coupling can be observed when a
central management system sends control signals or
flags to various subsystems, dictating their operation.
For example, a central control system might signal a
production scheduling system to initiate a specific
production run based on inventory levels or order
backlogs, effectively controlling the scheduling
system's operation.
Implications in MIS
• Maintainability: Systems with lower coupling
levels (like data coupling) are generally easier
to maintain because changes in one component
are less likely to require changes in another.
High coupling levels (like control coupling)
can make maintenance more challenging.
• Flexibility: Systems with lower coupling are
more flexible and can more easily adapt to
changes, such as integrating or modifying new
components.
• Scalability: Loosely coupled systems (e.g.,
those primarily using data coupling) are
typically more scalable, as components can be
added, removed, or modified with minimal
impact on the rest of the system.
In designing MIS, the goal is often to minimise
unnecessary coupling to achieve a balance between
system integration and independence, allowing for
efficient data exchange and collaboration between
components while maintaining system flexibility and
maintainability.
Cohesion
Cohesion in the context of Management Information
Systems (MIS) refers to the degree to which the
elements inside a module or component of the system
are related to each other. It's a measure of how closely
tied or focused the responsibilities of a single module
are. High cohesion within a system's module or
component means that its tasks and functionalities are
strongly related and focused towards achieving a
single goal, leading to more understandable,
maintainable, and reliable systems. In MIS, cohesion is
an important design principle that impacts information
systems' effectiveness, efficiency, and adaptability. It
plays a crucial role in system analysis, design, and
implementation phases, influencing how data,
processes, and functions are organised and integrated
within the system. Higher cohesion within system
components is generally desirable for several reasons:
Types of Cohesion
Cohesion can be categorised into several levels,
ranging from low to high:
1. Functional Cohesion: The highest level of
cohesion where all module elements are
geared towards performing a single, well-
defined task. In MIS, an example could be a
module designed solely for generating specific
financial reports, where all its functions are
focused on this single task.
2. Procedural Cohesion: This occurs when
elements of a module are related by the
sequence of steps to be performed, often seen
in modules that handle various tasks within a
procedure. For instance, a module handling
user authentication might verify credentials,
log access attempts, and initiate user sessions.
3. Temporal Cohesion: Elements are related by
timing, meaning they are activated around the
same time but are otherwise unrelated in
function. An initialisation module that sets up
various system parameters and states during
startup is an example.
Implications of Cohesion in MIS
Maintainability: Higher cohesion makes a system
easier to maintain because changes to one module are
less likely to impact others, and the purpose and
function of each module are clearer.
• Reliability: Modules with high cohesion are
often more reliable, as the tight focus on a
 single task reduces the potential for errors and
makes testing more straightforward.
• Reusability: Highly cohesive modules are
more likely to be reusable in different parts of
the system or in different projects because they
perform specific tasks well and with little
external dependency.
• Understandability: Systems designed with high
cohesion are generally easier to understand, as
the role and function of each component are
clear and focused.
In designing MIS, striving for high cohesion within
modules or components, alongside appropriate
coupling between them, is key to creating robust,
flexible, and capable systems capable of evolving to
meet changing business needs.
Approaches of MIS Development
MIS
Development
Approaches
In-house Product off-
development the-shelf
When organizations consider acquiring a Management
Information System (MIS), they typically face a
strategic decision between developing a custom in-
house solution or purchasing an off-the-shelf product.
Both approaches have their advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice largely depends on the
specific needs, resources, and constraints of the
organization.
In-House Development
Advantages:
• Customisation: An in-house MIS can be
tailored precisely to the organisation's specific
requirements, fitting their unique processes,
workflows, and data management needs.
• Integration: A custom-built system can be
designed to integrate seamlessly with existing
systems and infrastructure, reducing
compatibility issues.
• Control: The organization retains full control
over the system's features, updates, and
security, allowing for adjustments and
improvements as business needs evolve.
• Competitive Advantage: Developing a unique
system that is closely aligned with the
company's strategic goals can provide a
competitive edge by enabling more efficient
operations or innovative capabilities not
available in commercial products.
Disadvantages:
• Cost: Developing an MIS in-house can be
significantly more expensive upfront,
considering the costs for design, development,
testing, and ongoing maintenance.
• Time: The development process can be
lengthy, delaying the benefits an MIS is
supposed to bring and potentially impacting
the organization's agility.
• Resource Allocation: In-house development
requires dedicated IT staff with the necessary
expertise, which might strain resources from
other critical projects.
• Risk: The risk of project failure or overruns in
budget and time can be higher with custom
projects due to unforeseen technical challenges
or scope creep.
Off-the-Shelf Product
Advantages:
• Cost Efficiency: Off-the-shelf MIS solutions
often come with lower initial costs compared
to custom development. The expenses are
spread across many customers, making it more
affordable for each.
• Quick Implementation: Pre-built systems can
be deployed relatively quickly since the core
development is already completed, allowing
organizations to realize benefits sooner.
• Reliability and Support: Established products
usually come with vendor support, regular
updates, and a user community that can
provide insights and troubleshooting.
• Proven Solutions: Commercial products have
been tested across diverse environments and
use cases, potentially offering more reliability
and a range of features that have been refined
over time.
Disadvantages:
• Limited Customization: While some level of
customization is usually possible, off-the-shelf
solutions may not perfectly fit the
organization's unique needs or integrate
seamlessly with existing systems.
• Dependence on Vendor: The organization
might become dependent on the vendor for
updates, support, and enhancements, which
could be discontinued or might not align with
the company's timeline or strategic direction.
 • Generic Solutions: Such systems are designed
to meet the general needs of a broad market,
which might not offer the competitive
advantage that a custom-built system could
provide.
• Additional Costs: Licensing fees, subscription
costs, and costs for additional modules or
customisations can add up, potentially making
the off-the-shelf solution more expensive over
time.
Making the Decision
The choice between in-house development and
purchasing an off-the-shelf MIS product depends on
several factors:

• Strategic Alignment: How well each option

aligns with the organisation’s long-term
strategic goals.
• Budget and Resources: The available budget
and IT resources, including staff expertise.
• Time Constraints: The urgency of MIS
implementation and the ability to wait for a
custom-built system.
• Flexibility and Scalability Needs: The system
must adapt to changing business processes and
growth.
• Risk Tolerance: Willingness to manage the
risks associated with custom development
versus dependence on external vendors.
Organisations often conduct a thorough needs
assessment and cost-benefit analysis, considering both
the short-term and long-term implications of each
approach before making a decision. Hybrid
approaches, such as customising off-the-shelf products
or using open-source platforms as a base for custom
development, can also provide a middle ground that
balances the benefits and drawbacks of both options.