1.

MATERIALS:
1.1. STARCH:
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STARCH:
Starch is a naturally occurring polysaccharide that is mostly made up of glucose units
grouped in linear (amylose) and branching (amylopectin) structures. It is abundant in tubers
and cereal grains including wheat, maize, rice, and potatoes (Bertoft, 2017).

1.1.2. FUNCTION OF STARCH:

In plants, starch serves as a molecule for storing energy.
It is a significant part of the human diet and is essential for many biological functions.
The presence of amylose and amylopectin is principally responsible for the functional charac
teristics of starch, such as gelatinization and retrogradation, which also affects its use in man
y industrial applications.

1.1.3. STARCH APPLICATION IN BIODEGRADBLE PACKAGING:

Due to its availability, biodegradability, and film-
forming capabilities, starch is a material that is much sought after for use in biodegradable p
ackaging (Kumar Sen & Raut, 2015). As prospective substitutes for conventional petroleum-
based packaging materials, starch-based films and coatings are already being developed.
To enhance their mechanical and barrier qualities, these films can be supplemented with var
ious biopolymers or fillers (Müller et al., 2017).

1.1.4. STARCH SOURCES:

Many different plant sources can be used to extract starch.
Cereal grains (such wheat, maize, and rice) and tubers (like potatoes and cassava) are the m
ain commercial sources.Various fruits and legumes are examples of less typical suppliers of s
tarch (Moorthy, 2002). We have utilized another different and unqiue source of starch to
make our innovative packaging film that is starch extracted from mango kernel.

1.2. PECTIN:
1.2.1. INTRODUCTION TO PECTIN:
Plant cell walls include a complex mixture of polysaccharides called pectin, which is
predominantly made up of galacturonic acid units.
The degree of methylation (DM), or the amount of methyl ester groups connected to the gal
acturonic acid units, determines the characteristics of pectin, including its capacity to form g
els (Voragen et al., 2009).

1.2.2. FUNCTION OF PECTIN:

Pectin helps plants maintain the stiffness and structural integrity of their cell walls.
Pectin is employed in food systems as a gelling agent, thickening, and stabiliser because of it
s capacity to create gels (Sriamornsak, 2003).
It has a significant impact on human health as well since it is a dietary fibre that may improv
e gut health and maybe modify lipid metabolism.

1.2.3. PECTIN APPLICATION IN BIODEGRADABLE PACKAGING:

Due to its biocompatibility, edibility, and capacity to form films, pectin has drawn
growing interest in the creation of biodegradable packaging (Rhim et al., 2006).
Pectin-based films offer excellent mechanical and moisture-resistance
capabilities, making them appropriate for a variety of packaging applications.

1.2.4. PECTIN SOURCES:

Apple pomace and citrus peels are the two most widely used plant sources for pectin in the
commercial world. Pectin may also be found in sugar beetroot pulp and different fruit waste
products, such as mango peels and passion fruit peels (Liew et al., 2016).Other then these
sources we have utilized another unique source which is unripe banana peel.

1.3. PLASTICIZER:
1.3.1. INTRODUCTION TO PALSTICIZER:
A plasticizer is an ingredient that, when added to a material, often a plastic, results in a
product that is flexible, robust, and simpler to handle (Phuong et al., 2016).
In order to reduce friction and increase flexibility and workability, they embed themselves b
etween the polymer chains, space them apart, and therefore reduce friction.

1.3.2. FUNCTION OF PALSTICIZER:

In order to change the physical characteristics of polymers, plasticizers are essential.
They enhance polymer flexibility, bring down the melting point, and lessen crystallisation
(Unveren et al., 2005).Additionally, they can boost the material's resistance to chemicals
and water, as well as the product's finish and longevity.

1.3.3. PLASTICIZER APLLICATION IN BIODEGRADABKE PACKAGING:

Plasticizers are used to increase the flexibility and workability of biopolymers including
starch, chitosan, and pectin in the field of biodegradable packaging. These materials may be
utilised more efficiently for packaging applications, where flexibility and robustness are
crucial qualities, thanks to the use of plasticizers (Mohammadzadeh Pakdel &
Peighambardoust, 2018).
Glycerol is a typical plasticizer used in biodegradable packaging. This is due to its ability to
decrease intermolecular pressures and increase flexibility in biopolymers while also being
non-toxic, readily accessible, and effective (Pereira et al., 2017).
1.3.4. SOURCES OF PALSTICIZER:
Both synthetic and natural materials can be used to make plasticizers. Traditional
plasticizers, like phthalates, are frequently derived from petroleum. However, biobased
plasticizers, such glycerol, citric acid, and acetic acid, are frequently utilised in the case of
biodegradable packaging because of their compatibility with biopolymers and
environmental friendliness (Li & Liu, 2018).

1.4. STARCH FROM MANGO KERNEL:

The mango kernel, which is frequently wasted during the preparation of mangoes, is an
important source of starch. Washing, drying, grinding, screening, and sedimentation are
some of the procedures involved in the extraction of starch from mango kernels (Ezeocha et
al., 2012). The method is intended to isolate starch granules from the kernel's other
elements.

1.4.1. MANGO KERNEL AND ITS COMPOSITON:

The mango kernel, which makes up 20–60% of the fruit's weight overall and is often
removed during mango processing, has important nutritional and functional elements.
These comprise diverse phytochemicals including phenolic compounds and antioxidants,
carbohydrates (mainly starch), proteins, lipids, dietary fibre, and several other
phytochemicals (Arogba, 2000).

1.4.2. STARCH EXTRACTED FROM MANGO KERNEL:

In order to separate the starch granules from the other mango kernel components, a
number of processes, including washing, drying, grinding, screening, and sedimentation, are
used to extract the starch from the mango kernel. The mango kernel starch that was
isolated contained 48–54% starch.

1.4.3. PURPOSE OF EXTRACTING STARCH FROM MANGO KERNEL:

Mango kernel starch extraction offers a useful technique to make use of what is frequently
seen as a waste product in the mango processing business. The starch that has been
extracted can be utilised as a raw material in a variety of industries, including the food and
packaging sectors. The use of mango kernel starch can also help with sustainability and
waste management ( Ojimelukwe and Okudu,2015).

1.4.4. MANGO KERNEL STARCH STRUCTURE:

The starch granules from mango kernels are mostly polygonal or irregularly spherical in
form. The granule's crystalline structure and functional characteristics are governed by both
amylose and amylopectin components. Granule size can vary greatly, which has a big
influence on the way it behaves chemically and physically (Lawal, 2004).

1.4.5. FUNCTION OF MANGO KERNEL EXTRACTED STARCH:

Mango kernel starch demonstrates qualities like gelatinization and retrogradation, which
are essential for its usefulness, as an energy storage molecule in its natural condition. In its
processed state, it can be utilised in a variety of food and non-food applications as a
thickening agent, binder, or filler (Ezeocha et al., 2012).

1.4.6. APPLICATION OF MANGO KERNEL STARCH:

The use of mango kernel starch in biodegradable packaging has showed promise. It is a
desirable material for creating more eco-friendly packaging options due to its film-forming
qualities. According to reports, these starch-based films have high mechanical
characteristics and are biodegradable, which is helpful for the packaging sector (Sanyang et
al., 2016).

1.5. PECTIN EXTRACTED FROM UNRIPE BANANA PEEL:

Unripe banana peels are a rich source of pectin, a form of polysaccharide, despite being
frequently thrown out as garbage. Washing, drying, grinding, and finally the use of heat and
acid are all phases in the extraction process that separate the pectin from the other parts of
the peel.

1.5.1. PURPOSE OF EXTRACTING PECTIN FROM UNRIPE BANANA PEEL:

Removing the pectin from unripe banana peels increases the value of a product that would
otherwise be thrown away and lessens environmental waste. Pectin is a useful
polysaccharide that is widely employed in a variety of sectors, including the food, cosmetics,
and pharmaceutical ones. As a result, using unripe banana peels to extract pectin promotes
resource efficiency and sustainability (Maran et al., 2013).

1.5.2. UNRIPE BANANA PEEL PECTIN STRUCTURE:

Pectin is a complex mixture of polysaccharides that includes D-galacturonic acid residues,
some of which have been methyl esterified. Depending on the extraction and purification
processes, pectin's structure and characteristics might change. The capacity of the pectin to
form gels, which is essential for many of its uses, is strongly impacted by the structure
(Voragen et al., 2009).

1.5.3. FUNCTION OF UNRIPE BANANA PEEL PECTIN:

Due to its ability to gel, thicken, and stabilise, pectin from unripe banana peels serves a
variety of purposes. It may bind to water, improving food applications' texture and
consistency. In pharmaceutical applications, it can also serve as a drug delivery system,
improving the bioavailability of active ingredients (Sriamornsak, 2003).
1.5.4. APPLICATION OF UNRIPE BANAN PEEL PECTIN:
For use in biodegradable packaging, pectin derived from unripe banana peel has significant
promise. It may be utilised to create environmentally friendly films for packaging
applications because of its film-forming properties.Pectin-based films with these great
mechanical and barrier qualities might significantly lessen the environmental impact of
conventional plastic packaging.

1.6. GLYCEROL:
Glycerine, commonly referred to as glycerol, is a simple polyol molecule. It is a sweet-
tasting, thick liquid that is colourless, odourless, and non-toxic. Three hydroxyl (-OH) groups
that make up the molecule's structural makeup give it a high level of solubility in water and
other organic solvents (Flickinger, 2010).

1.6.1. GLYCEROL AS PLASTICIZER:

Glycerol works as a plasticizer by enmeshing itself between polymer chains, widening the
space between them, and improving the material's flexibility and workability. Glycerol
makes a polymer more flexible by lowering the glass transition temperature and decreasing
the degree of crystallinity (Mohanty et al., 2006).

1.6.2. GLYCEROL APLLICATION IN BIODEGRADABLE PACKAGING:

Glycerol is frequently utilised as a plasticizer for biopolymers like starch and proteins in the
context of biodegradable packaging. It enhances the possibility for these materials to be
used in the packaging sector by enabling them to become more pliable and less brittle.
Biopolymer films may be made more flexible by adding glycerol, which makes them
appropriate for a range of packaging applications.
Additionally, glycerol is an excellent option for food packaging applications due to its non-
toxic properties and widespread availability. It can lengthen the shelf life of packaged food
goods by improving the biopolymer film's water resistance and reducing its permeability to
gases (Mali et al., 2006).
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