Section A

1. Discuss the meaning and aspects of creativity. Explain the Investment and Confluence theory of
creativity

Meaning and Aspects of Creativity

Creativity is about coming up with uncommon solutions, responses and concepts for specific
problems, situations in hand. Creativity is not a product of just intelligence, behaviour are specific
cognitive functions, but a complex mix of situation, motivation, context, magnitude of the
problem/challenge etc. It cannot be defined with straightforward mental processes that Intelligence
can be defined with and hence is a parallel construct to intelligence

Creative thinking is goal or result directed, unique, and practical thinking. It often involves doing a
great deal of good to the human societies and civilizations, as well as to the individual lives. When we
look back at the human history, we can see below examples of creative ideas and innovations that
changed our lives

1) Invention of Wheel: Probably the first and foremost creative idea that changed the fate of
humans and often called to be mother of all inventions
2) Law of motions is the creative way of describing how things on earth are related to each
other and how universe operates
3) Invention of Computers, is modern day creation that was imagined and developed to match
human intelligence

While its presence and significance are obvious, scholars have found it extremely challenging to
describe creativity, and is being worked out for an explanation.

Four criteria have been used by Newell, Shaw, and Simon (1963) to describe the nature of creativity:

a) Originality and utility

a) Repudiates previously approved concepts

c) Necessitates a high level of drive and perseverance

d) Comes from structuring the ambiguous circumstance in a novel, cogent, and understandable
manner.

According to Sternberg (2006), there are five similarities in the studies on creativity. These are the
following:

1) Thinking that strives to generate concepts or outcomes that are somewhat original and captivating
in some way is a necessary component of creativity.

2) While there are aspects of creativity that are both domain-specific and domain-general in that
they require specialized knowledge, there are other aspects of creativity that are universal.

3) To a certain degree, creativity may be quantified.

4) One may cultivate creativity

Research in cognitive psychology has endeavoured to comprehend the mechanism of imaginative
thought. These studies made the assumption that creativity is merely the exceptional outcome of
commonplace procedures (Smith, Ward, & Finke 1995). The creative process is believed to possess
the following four qualities:

1) Since it involves using imagination to create something fresh, it is imaginative.

2) It is intentional; in other words, creativity is imagination applied to a goal.

3) It results in something novel when compared to one's own prior work, the work of their peers, or
the prior output of anybody else in the same subject.

When you look at the two types of creativity, we understand in what forms they manifest and what
exactly is the impact of them

(i) little-c (or everyday) creativity and

(ii) BigC (or eminent) creativity.

The latter two forms of creativity rely on interpersonal and historical judgments of novelty,
appropriateness, and lasting impact

Investment and Confluence Theory of Creativity

In order to comprehend creativity, Sternberg (2006) suggested the investment and confluence
theories. The investment idea states that innovation necessitates the convergence of six different but
connected resources: intellectual abilities, knowledge, styles of thinking, personality, motivation, and
environment.

While varying quantities of these resources can contribute to individual variations, using a resource
or not is frequently a more significant factor.

intellectual abilities: Three cognitive abilities are very crucial: (a) the ability to think creatively and
break free from the constraints of traditional thinking; (b) the analytical ability to determine which of
one's ideas are worth pursuing and which are not, and (c) the contextual and practical ability to
convince others of the merits of one's beliefs.

The combination of these three abilities is also crucial. When analytical abilities are employed
without the other two, strong critical thinking is produced, but not creative thinking. When synthetic
skill is employed in place of the other two abilities, new concepts are generated without the
necessary examination to make them better and functional.

Knowledge: Awareness or know-how of the field plays a major role in creative thinking, as it gives
premises under which a problem in hand is to be solved. This can also hinder the creative thinking by
limiting the innovative thoughts because of too much bias

Thinking styles are favoured approaches of using one's abilities. These are essentially choices
regarding how to use the abilities that an individual has at their disposal.

In terms of thought processes, a legislative style is crucial for

creativity is the choice to think differently and to think in different ways.

It's important to separate this inclination from creative thinking skills since some people enjoy
thinking creatively but struggle with it, or vice versa.

Personality: Several studies have confirmed the significance of specific personality traits for creative
functioning. These qualities consist of, but are not restricted to, the capacity to overcome challenges,
the readiness to accept

reasonable risks, a capacity for uncertainty, and self-assurance. Specifically, buying low and selling
high usually entails going against the grain, thus thinking and acting outside the box is necessary if
one want to be innovative. People that are innovative frequently look for resistance.

Motivation : A person chooses what motivates them, and motivation is not something that is innate
in them. People who are required to work in a field that they are not really interested in will
frequently determine that they had to find a method to make it interesting to them given the need of
working in that field. Next, they'll search for a way to approach the task at hand that will pique their
interest rather than dull it.

Confluence: With regard to the intersection of these six elements, it is postulated that creativity
entails more than the total of an individual's proficiency in each area. First, some components (like
knowledge) could have thresholds.

This, regardless of the levels on other components, prevents creativity. Second, there's a chance of
partial compensation, when a deficit in one area (like motivation) is balanced by a strength in
another (like surroundings).

Environment: Lastly, one needs a setting that encourages and rewards original thought. Even if
someone had all the necessary internal resources to think creatively, without external support—like
a venue for suggesting

certain concepts), a person may never show off their inherent inventiveness.
2. Explain Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Jeffrey Sternberg is an American psychologist and psychometrician. Sternberg’s triarchic

theory is considered “a complete theory of intelligence because it considers social and contextual
factors in addition to human capacities”. Like Gardner’s, his theory considers creative or musical
intelligence as well. As for the other six intelligences in Gardner’s theorem, Sternberg divides them
into two distinct types of intelligence: “analytic” (or “academic”) and “practical”.

These two types of intelligence differ from each other in the following ways:
Analytic problems tend to have been formulated by others, are well-defined, contain all the
information needed to solve the problem, have only one right answer, can be reached by
only one method, are disconnected from ordinary experience, have little intrinsic interest,
and are poorly defined.
Practical problems tend to have problem recognition and formulation, have various
acceptable solutions, are embedded in and required prior everyday experience, require
motivation, and involve personal involvement.

Three facets, or sub theories, make up Sternberg's triarchic theory:

Componential sub theory: The capacity for academic problem-solving is recognized as componential
or analytical intelligence. These kinds of tasks typically pose clearly defined issues with a single right
response. According to Sternberg, this illustrates how a person interacts with his inner world. The
combined functions of intelligence's meta components, performance components, and knowledge
acquisition components provide the base of analytical intelligence, or academic problem-solving
abilities.
 Meta components: These are the executive functions to order and organise performance and
knowledge acquisition components. They are used to analyse problems and pick a strategy
for solving them.
 Performance components: The strategies developed by the metacomponents are carried
out by the performance components. These are the fundamental processes that go into any
cognitive act. These are the mental processes that allow us to cognitively compa33re various
inputs, encode stimuli, store information in short-term memory, compute, and retrieve
information from long-term memory.
 The methods by which new information is acquired and stored, or the learning ability, are
known as knowledge acquisition components. The methods you employ to aid with
memorization serve as excellent examples of the procedures that fit within this group.

Example : A puzzle like sudoku has a definite answer. Different people have different strategies for
solving it. First you pick strategy, you are going to solve it block wise or column wise or row wise. This
333333is the metacomponent function. The way you execute out the strategy and solve the puzzle is
the performance part. As you do them often, you learn to do them and you can face similar
problems. This is the knowledge part of it.

Creative Intelligence: The capacity to effectively navigate novel and unusual circumstances by
33333leveraging pre-existing knowledge and abilities is known as experiential or creative
intelligence. Insights, synthesis, and the capacity to respond to novel stimuli and circumstances are
all components of creative intelligence. Because it reflects how a person makes the connection
between their internal world and the outside world, Sternberg views it as an experienced part of
intelligence. Therefore, the experiential element primarily addresses performance in relation to
familiarity with a task. Sternberg divides experience into two categories: automation and novelty.
  Novelty: Something that you have never encountered before is considered novel. Those who
are skilled at handling unfamiliar circumstances can take on the challenge and come up with
fresh solutions that most people would miss.1997).
 Automation: A process that has been automated has been performed multiple times and
can now be done with little or no extra thought. Once a process is automated, it can operate
concurrently with other or identical operations.

Being proficient in one area does not guarantee proficiency in the other when it comes to originality
and automation.

For ex: Artists are creative. Art, be it painting, singing, dancing or acting are creative jobs as you
think, visualize and create something that is non-existent there at that moment. He is presenting the
thought process and emotions he had internally to the external world in an understandable manner.

Practical Intelligence: Sternberg’s third subtheory of intelligence, called practical or contextual, “deals
with the mental activity involved in attaining fit to context”. It is the capacity to adjust to lifestyle by
drawing on existing knowledge and skills. Practical intelligence empowers an individual to get it what
has to be done in a particular setting. Through the three processes of adaptation, shaping, and
selection, a person can become a perfect fit to the environment and such a person is called a "street
smart".

 Adaptation is when one changes himself in order to adjust to society. The best example is
“survival of the fittest” explained by charles darwin. Man kept changing himself to survive on
this planet. Adaptation is the core to survival.
 Shaping occurs when one changes their environment to better suit one’s needs. Humans
have been molding the environment around him for his survival. We chose what we wanted
to eat. We raised those crops, cross breeded them, and made new food for us.
 The process of selection is undertaken when a completely new alternate environment is
found to replace the previous, unsatisfying environment to meet
the individual’s goals. We keep moving from one place to another for a better life and lifestyle. A lot
of them move to cities which provide them better opportunities.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence tells that intelligent behaviour arises from a balance
between analytical, creative and practical abilities, and that these abilities function collectively to
allow individuals to achieve success within particular socio-cultural contexts
3. Discuss critically the Innateness theory of language acquisition

This is theory emerges from a fundamental concept that children have the natural ability to pick up
human language from birth. Criticizing the behaviourist theory, Noam Chomsky gave the innateness
theory and says children imitate adults. He focused particularly on the little language input children
receive. Children have the natural ability to pick up human language from birth. It is inevitable for
humans to converse. Based on their own innate grammar, children learn the grammar of the
language they speak.

This proposed theory comes from the idea that the cognitive structure of the human mind
predetermines some aspects of language structure. This explains certain very fundamental universal
aspects of language structure, such as the fact that vowels, consonants, and nouns/verbs are present
in all languages. It is believed that children are hardwired, or preprogrammed, to acquire these kinds
of things. Each language has a lot of subtle differences that speakers aren't even conscious of, making
it incredibly complex. However, regardless of their other abilities and general mental capacity,
children master their native language in 5 or 6 years. Even severely retarded kids will be able to
acquire a native language without the need for specialized training, indicating that acquisition must
involve more than just imitation and is unlikely to be dependent on overall intellect levels.

Chomsky came to the conclusion that language acquisition in childhood must be an innate ability.
This idea holds that the process is biologically determined since the brains of humans are evolved to
contain linguistic information from birth. Hearing speech awakens a child's inherent drive to acquire
language, and the child's brain is ready to process and analyse what it hears based on the
fundamental ideas or structures it already possesses. Some innate feature of the mind must be
responsible for the universally rapid and natural acquisition of language by any young child exposed
to speech

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is the term given to this natural skill.

It is important to understand here is that a child is not born with the knowledge of his native
language, for that matter any language. Instead, it means that all the languages follow similar
principles. All the language structures boil down to the same principles on which they are built. For
example, every language, in its sentence, has a noun(thing). verb(action). A verb is joined with some
specific ending based on its tense, present future or past. These rules are the same for any language.
To establish the link between the specific language s/he hears to these underlying principles is the
child’s task. LAD has the concept of verb tense. By listening to such forms as “worked”, “played” and
“patted”, the child will form the hypothesis that the past tense of verbs is formed by adding the
sound /d/,/ed etc. In this process, children, of course, make errors. They take the past tense of ‘write’
to be ‘writed’ instead of ‘wrote’. It is correct as per their logic. This logic is obviously based on the
cognitive abilities that human brain is designed naturally.

Evidence to Support Innateness Theory:

There are some evidences that support the theory of Chomsky

1) Slobin has pointed out that human anatomy is peculiarly adapted to the production of
speech. We have developed from our nearest relatives, the apes, by developing a vocal tract
which allows the precise articulation of a wide range of vocal sounds.

2) Neuro-science has also identified specific areas of the brain with distinctly linguistic
functions, notably Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. Stroke victims provide valuable data:
depending on the site of brain damage, they may suffer a range of language dysfunction,
 from problems with finding words to an inability to interpret syntax. There are also practical
and real life examples wherein some people loose the ability to speak certain languages but
fluently speak others even after the damage to these areas

Diagram of Brocas and Wernicke’s

3) Experiments aimed at teaching chimpanzees to communicate using plastic symbols or manual

gestures have proved controversial. It seems likely that our ape cousins, while able to learn individual
“words”, have little or no grammatical competence.

The emergence of creole variations of English is the reason for LAD at work. Derek Bickerton is a
linguist who has researched how Dutch-based creoles develop in Surinam. slaves who lived together
but were from diverse language groups were compelled to converse in their very limited Dutch. The
limited language known as a pidgin was the outcome. The adult speakers had acquired Dutch as a
foreign language and under unfavourable circumstances, therefore they were past the age at which
they could acquire a new language fluently. Remarkably, the descendants of these enslaved people
transformed the pidgin into a complete language, which linguists refer to as a creole. They most likely
had no idea of the evolution, but the result was a range of languages that follows.

Chomsky was mainly interested in grammar. Most of his work was based on language, its structure,
grammar and aspects. His work on language was completely theoretical. He didn’t practically work
with children. He communicated neither with children nor with their closely related people. He did
not explain the reasons why a child might want to speak, the functions of language though the
theory relies on children being exposed to language.

In 1977, Bard and Sachs published a study of a child known as Jim, the hearing
son of deaf parents. Jim’s parents wanted their son to learn speech rather than
the sign language they used between themselves. He watched a lot of television
and listened to the radio, therefore receiving frequent language input. However,
his progress was limited until a speech therapist was enlisted to work with him.
Simply being exposed to language was not enough. Without the associated
interaction, it meant little to him.
Section A

1)
Section B

1) Describe the various types of intelligence tests

The necessity of intelligence tests originated for variety of reasons, such as academic classification,
occupational counselling and personnel selection. These are the tests to measure cognitive ability in
persons.

The tests are generally based on sevral theories and developed accordingly. The major classifications
are as follows.

i) Testing in groups and individually (Target)

ii) Tests, both verbal and nonverbal

Tests for Individuals and Groups

The way in which these examinations are administered determines which category they fall into: solo
and group assessments. According to Simon-Binet, an individual exam is one that can only be given
to one person at a time. Such exams were unable to meet the demands of the army during World
War I, which called for the bulk and speedy categorization of soldiers. As a result, group intelligence
tests (Army Alpha and Army Beta) were created that could be given to a number of people at once.

Tests, both verbal and nonverbal

Verbal/paper-pencil tests and non-verbal/performance tests are two other categories of intelligence
tests depending on the format and substance of the test items. Oral

Examinees must be literate as written language is used in the test items. Performance test items are
manipulative in nature and do not employ any language at all. Examinees must manipulate the
objects in a certain way that is intended. Therefore, these exams may also be successfully used on
youngsters, the deaf, and illiterate people. Certain performance tests desire to be referred to as
"cross-cultural," "culture-free," "fair," or "culture-reduced" tests because they assert that they are
appropriate for use with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.

A brief on some of the tests below

Stanford-Binet TestIn terms of theoretical framework, the most recent edition of the test, the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales–Fifth Edition (SB5), deviates somewhat from the SB4 since it more
closely follows the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) cognitive theory., and a less stringent psychometric
design is followed by the SB4.

The WAIS-IV, the test's latest iteration, was introduced in 2008 and consists of five additional
subtests in addition to 10 core subtests that together make up the Full Scale IQ.

The performance subscales from the prior iteration were substituted with new ones.

In 1993, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman created the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult
intellect Test (KAIT), a test of intellect that is given one-on-one to people ages 11 to over 85. Its solid
theoretical foundation integrates Piaget's construct of formal operational thought, Luria and
Golden's concept of frontal lobe planning capacity, and Horn and Cattell's concept of fluid and
crystallized intelligence. The exam consists of two parts: the fluid scale, which measures problem-
solving abilities, and the crystallized scale, which measures concepts learned via education and
acculturation.

2) Explain algorithms and heuristics as strategies of problem solving

Problem solving involves two basic steps. While first one is to understand the problems itself, second
one is the strategies that we take to solve the problem

One can do this by applying prior knowledge, available resources, and crucial problem-solving
techniques. The challenges can be resolved using a variety of techniques. A few

Although procedures take a lot of time, they will provide a result. While less time is wasted, other
approaches might not result in a solution. These tactics are covered in a different portion of the
lesson.

Algorithms

Think about anagram issues, where we attempt to restructure letter groupings into words. Random
search methods, both systematic and unsystematic, are examples of algorithms. Unsystematic
random search entails experimenting with a variety of potential solutions, but we don't try to seek
methodically or maintain a log of our earlier efforts. Consequently, we could respond again that has
previously been shown to be incorrect. Using a predetermined system, we explore every potential
solution in a systematic random search. When there are several possible solutions, this approach is
far more time-consuming even though it is somewhat more effective than unsystematic random
search. If you are instructed to unscramble the three-letter anagram YBO, use a systematic random

Heuristics

Using this approach, a person selects the most pertinent options rather than attempting to solve
every difficulty. This is a somewhat brevity rule that takes less time, but success is not guaranteed.
Heuristics are general guidelines that assist us in problem-solving and simplification.

Heuristics do not ensure that a problem will be solved correctly, but when they do, they enable
quicker solutions. One way to solve the anagram issue heuristically would be to search for letter
combinations that you are familiar with. For example, how many words can you construct using the
DWARG letter pool? We can recognize the common combinations gr and dr in this anagram. Then,
we could locate draw, drag, and grad with ease. The disadvantage of this approach,

3) Describe the goals and research methods in cognitive psychology.

Understanding the objectives of cognitive psychology research is essential to comprehending the

particular techniques employed by cognitive psychologists. These objectives include, in brief, the
collection and analysis of data, the creation of theories and hypotheses, testing of hypotheses, and
maybe even applicability to contexts outside of the laboratory. But most cognitive psychologists are
interested in more than just cognition. They also aim to comprehend the what, how, and why of
thought. In other words, in addition to describing cognition, researchers also try to understand it.
Cognitive psychologists must make the jump from what is directly observed to what may be inferred
from observations in order to get beyond descriptions.

Cognitive psychologists’ study human thought processes using a variety of techniques. Among these
techniques are (i) controlled experiments in a lab or other setting, (ii) psychological research, (iii) self-
reports, case studies, and naturalistic observation.

and (iv) artificial intelligence and computer simulations. Every approach has unique benefits and
drawbacks.

i) Human behavior experiments: An experimenter carries out research using controlled

experimental designs, usually in a lab environment. As many elements of the
experimental setup as feasible are within the experimenter's control.

Psychobiological Research: Researchers examine the connection between brain processes and
settings and cognitive performance through psychobiological research. The several specialized
methods employed in the

Psychobiological studies may be broadly classified into three types. The first category consists of
methods for researching a person's brain after death, connecting the person's cognitive abilities
before passing away to visible aspects of the brain. The second category consists of methods for
examining pictures that depict the functions or anatomical features of a person's brain that is known
to have a certain cognitive impairment. The third is methods for learning about cerebral processes
that occur while a cognitive activity is normally performed (e.g. by employing brain imaging
techniques)

Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation: Individual tests and psychobiological
research frequently concentrate on the accurate characterization of distinct cognitive functions in
different people. To acquire Researchers may employ case studies, which are in-depth examinations
of individuals, self-reports, which provide richly nuanced information about how specific individuals
think in a variety of contexts, and naturalistic observation, which provides comprehensive
examinations of cognitive performance in non-laboratory settings.

Artificial Intelligence and Computer Simulations: Digital computers were crucial to the development
of cognitive psychology as a field of study. One type of impact occurs indirectly through human
model

cognition grounded in computer processing model theory. Direct communication, which involves
computer simulations and artificial intelligence, is another type.

Researchers program computers to mimic specific human functions or processes using computer
simulations.
 4) Describe the functions of language

Language knowledge is one type of knowledge that all human civilizations share. The primary
method by which humans learn and communicate information is through language.

Language could be told as the basic means of communication. That itself is the most important
function of language too. Language serves many functions, which are all related to the fundamental
process of communication. Of it, the most important is that it conveys a meaning. Hence it is part of
any and all social interactions.

Language conveys intentions, motives, feelings, and beliefs. Language, here need not be spoken
language alone. It could be written, sign, any of it, they help in conveying information, ask, get
answers etc. They help us describe something, not of present. They act as a tool in describing
abstract ideas, such as beauty and justice, as well as concrete objects of everyday experience.
Be it any form of language, written, spoken or sign, there are three elements that play a role in the
speaker-listener (sender-receiver) communication:

 Speech acts: speaker, or the person who is sending the information wants the receiver to
recognize his intentions and if not, the communication could not go smooth or be
misunderstood. Speech-act theory classifies information given as to the type of speech
act they represent. For ex: something that has “could you please...” could be taken as a
request, “what are....?” could be a question, “i insist...” could be a command. Some
speeches could be indirect. The intention might not be what it sounds like. For ex: If
mom says you live in a barn. That literally doesn’t mean she is asking if the place we are
living is a barn. That is an indirect speech act. So speech acts could be contextual too.
 Propositional Content: It is the content we build around the information we convey. This
content helps us to get some context and better understanding on waht we are expected
to receive or understand. Ex: She has the speed of light. Here there are two things we
must know. One, the speed of light is very high. She has the speed of light says she is
very fast. So the speed of light acts as a preposition here which makes the speech more
effective.
 Thematic Structure: For effective communication, speaker must pay attention to his
listener. speaker must be able to make a judgement of the current level of understanding
of the listener and make progress accordingly. Anyone, who is considered a good
speaker, be it a teacher, counsellor, story teller has this in him/her.
5) Explain the various speech disorders.

The vocal expression of language is called speech. Speech disorders are identified by a
difficulty in producing speech patterns. Children learn to speak in multiple stages as they
develop their communication skills. Child of a certain age may have a typical speech pattern,
whereas for an older child it might be the sign of a problem. and it is regarded as having
three fundamental disorders:

 Voice disorders: To make recognizable sounds, the voice uses the synchronized actions of
the larynx, vocal chords, lungs, and nasal passage. Therefore, if voice is phonated or
resonated wrongly, it might be classified as a voice disordered. The aspects to consider
here is volume, pitch, quality and rate
 Speech/sound disorders: These involve difficulty in producing specific speech sounds.
These are of two types:
 Articulation disorder: It is the difficulty in learning to physically produce sounds. Utilizing
the tongue, lips, teeth, and mouth to create recognizable speech sounds is known as
articulation. When sounds are added, removed, replaced, or altered, articulation is
considered disordered. A cleft lip or palate, missing teeth, or other structural anomalies
can all contribute to articulation problems. This might also lead to disturbing a person by
putting down their confidence.
 Phonematic disorders: speech disorders in which individuals have trouble physically
producing certain sounds. Usually, individuals with phonemic disorders have trouble
distinguishing the sounds made by certain letters so that some letters, for example all ‘r’s
with ‘l’s and ‘k’s with ‘t’s.
 Fluency disorder: Fluency involves appropriate pauses and hesitations to keep speech
sounds recognisable.
 Apraxia of speech: verbal apraxia or dyspraxia, is a speech disorder in which a person has
trouble saying what he or she wants to say correctly and consistently. They have difficulty
putting sounds and syllables together in the correct order to form words. There are two
type:
 Acquired apraxia of speech can affect a person at any age. It is caused by damage to the
parts of the brain that are involved in speaking, and involves the loss or impairment of
existing speech abilities. The disorder may result from a stroke, head injury etc.
 Developmental apraxia of speech (DAS) occurs in children and is present from birth.
 Dysprosody: It is characterised by alterations in intensity, in the timing of utterance
segments, and in rhythm, cadence, and intonation of words. The cause of dysprosody is
usually associated with neurological pathologies such as brain vascular accidents.
 Dysarthria: It is a motor speech disorder. It is a weakness or paralysis of speech muscles
caused by damage to the nerves and/or brain. They may have “slurred” speech, rapid
rate of speech with a “mumbling” quality etc. They are evaluated by the movement of
lip, tongue, face etc.

Section C

1) Simultaneous and Successive processing

Humans process and arrange information primarily in two ways: simultaneously and successively.
The brain organizes or processes information in two ways: simultaneously and successively. The
inputs we see are often arranged in one of two ways: either in a simultaneous array or in a certain
serial sequence, where the order must be maintained. It is also possible to refer to stimuli that exist
simultaneously as being arranged spatially. In processing and ordering, visual, spatial, and
simultaneous are really used more or less interchangeably. Likewise, the terms successive and
sequential are interchangeable when discussing ordered processing.

2) Concept Of IQ

Intelligence Quotient is the full name of the IQ test. The total score derived from a battery of
standardized assessments or subtests intended to gauge a person's intelligence is known as IQ. The
German term Intelligenzquotient, which psychologist William Stern suggested in a book published in
1912 for a grading system for IQ exams at the University of Breslau, became the abbreviation "IQ."

IQs might change depending on the situation. There are several ways to measure IQ. An individual's
relative intellect is represented by a number obtained from an IQ test. One of the various
standardized test designs available for gathering data on people can be used to determine an
individual's IQ. One way to define the standardizing IQ sample is as IQ 100. The up-and-down

3) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

The term "learning with the hands" or "physical learning" is frequently used to describe the bodily-
kinaesthetic learning method. It involves having the ability to use one's entire body or specific body
parts to solve issues. It's the capacity to synchronize physical actions with mental processes.
Theoretically, those with bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence ought to learn more effectively by.

Actors, craftsmen, sportsmen, inventors, dancers, and surgeons are among the professions that
frequently exhibit bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, one of the nine learning styles that comprise this
idea.

4) Single-system and dual-system hypotheses in multilingualism

Applying the knowledge gained from cognitive-psychological research to real-world issues pertaining
to language acquisition facilitation is one method of handling multilingualism. An other strategy is to
study multilingualism.

people to see how being bilingual might provide insight into the human psyche. For instance, some
cognitive psychologists are curious to know how multilingual people's minds reflect the many
languages. According to the single-system hypothesis, two or more languages are represented in a
single system or brain area (for evidence in favor of this theory in early multilinguals, see Hernandez
& colleagues, 2001).

On the other hand, the dual-system hypothesis postulates that two or more languages are somehow
represented in distinct mental systems (De Houwer, 1995; Paradis, 1981). For example, might data in
the German language be kept in a

Aphasia

Damage to the left hemisphere of the brain results in aphasia, a disorder that impairs language
performance (Garrett, 2003; Hillis & Caramazza, 2003). There are other varieties of aphasias, such as
Wernicke's and Broca's. Aphasia is a disorder that affects how you communicate. It can impact your
speech, as well as the way you write and understand both spoken and written language.

Aphasia usually happens suddenly after a stroke or a head injury. But it can also come on gradually
from a slow-growing brain tumor or a disease that causes progressive, permanent damage
(degenerative). The severity of aphasia depends on a number of things, including the cause and the
extent of the brain damage.

Functional fixedness

Of the different cognitive biases, functional fixedness restricts a person's usage of an object to its
customary uses. Gestalt psychology is an emphasised psychological movement that gave rise to the
idea of functional fixedness. Functional fixedness was described by Karl Duncker as a conceptual
obstacle against using an object in a novel way when doing so is necessary to solve a problem.[1]
This "block" makes it more difficult for someone to use the resources provided to them to do a task
since they are limited to their intended use.

For instance, if someone just has a hammer and requires a paperweight, they might not realize that
the hammer can also be used for that purpose.

Cultural blocks to problem solving

Cultural blocks arise from our societal upbringing of adhering to norms and expectations. Most of the
time, thinking out of the box gives solutions but a lot would not be able to do that as they are
conditioned to ‘normal’. These include:

 Unquestioning acceptance of the status quo: We never question why things are the way they
are and just accept them.
 Dislike of change: We are resistant to any form of change.
 Fantasy and humour are not productive: There is a misconception that fantasy has no place
in the serious space. In fact, fantasy and humor are creative and give us innovative solutions
 Feelings, intuition and subjective judgements are unreliable: Feelings, intuition and
subjective judgements, which cannot be measured or communicated as effectively, are seen
as unrealiable and are mistrusted.
 Over-emphasis on competition or cooperation: In a cooperative and competitive world, we
don’t risk to do or think new or do we take the competitor’s views under consideration.
 Taboos: We don’t tend to break rules. But breaking them could give new paths to solutions
for the problems.
Problem space hypothesis

The process of defining and addressing an issue incorporates elements found in the problem space.
Within the field of social science problem-solving lies the notion of issue space theory. The problem
space is meant to assist people or organizations in identifying issues and developing solutions from
the inside out.

Example : When cooking a meal, individuals must create a mental representation of the problem
space, including the initial state (the ingredients and equipment on hand), the goal state (a finished,
tasty meal), and the possible operators (chopping, sautéing, baking, etc.)

Characteristics of difficult problems

These are a few characteristics of a difficult problem. Resolving direct problems requires us
to deal with these factors of a difficult problem.
 Transparency (lack of clarity of the situation)
 Commencement opacity. (confusion regarding how to start stating the problem)
 Continuation opacity (Continuing confusion in regard to the problem as there is no
clarity)
 Polytely (The problem has multiple goals and so reaching and selecting a particular
goal is difficult)
 Inexpressiveness (inability to express the problem clearly)
 Opposition
 Transience (the problem keeps changing)
 Complexity (The problem is in large numbers of items, too many interrelationships
and decisions)

Luchin’s water jar problem

It is an experiment which demonstrates that repeating a specific method of problem solving

repeatedly doesn’t let us think in new, innovative ways.
Luchin said that when we solve a problem, we tend to get into a certain path of solving it on
doing it repeatedly. In this problem, B-A-2C is the solution for first three problems. We tend
to follow the same for rest. If we observe the last one, it could be simply done as A-C, but we
tend to do B-A-2C, which is also the right answer.