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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Electromagnetics" redirects here. For the academic journal, see Electromagnetics
(journal).
"Electromagnetic force" redirects here. For the force exerted on particles by
electromagnetic fields, see Lorentz force.
For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to
electromagnetism.
"Electromagnetic" redirects here. The term may also refer to the use of
an electromagnet.

Electromagnetic interactions are responsible

for the glowing filaments in this plasma globe
 Articles about

Electromagnetism

• Electricity
• Magnetism
• Optics
• History
• Textbooks
• Phenomena

show

Electrostatics

show

Magnetostatics

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Electrodynamics

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Electrical network

show

Magnetic circuit

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Covariant formulation

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Scientists

• v
• t
• e

In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs

between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic
force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the
interactions of atoms and molecules. Electromagnetism can be thought of as a
combination of electrostatics and magnetism, which are distinct but closely intertwined
phenomena. Electromagnetic forces occur between any two charged particles. Electric
forces cause an attraction between particles with opposite charges and repulsion
between particles with the same charge, while magnetism is an interaction that occurs
between charged particles in relative motion. These two forces are described in terms of
electromagnetic fields. Macroscopic charged objects are described in terms
of Coulomb's law for electricity, Ampère's force law for magnetism; the Lorentz
force describes microscopic charged particles.

The electromagnetic force is responsible for many of the chemical and physical
phenomena observed in daily life. The electrostatic attraction between atomic
nuclei and their electrons holds atoms together. Electric forces also allow different
atoms to combine into molecules, including the macromolecules such as proteins that
form the basis of life. Meanwhile, magnetic interactions between the spin and angular
momentum magnetic moments of electrons also play a role in chemical reactivity; such
relationships are studied in spin chemistry. Electromagnetism also plays several crucial
roles in modern technology: electrical energy production, transformation and
distribution; light, heat, and sound production and detection; fiber optic and wireless
communication; sensors; computation; electrolysis; electroplating; and mechanical
motors and actuators.

Electromagnetism has been studied since ancient times. Many ancient civilizations,
including the Greeks and the Mayans, created wide-ranging theories to
explain lightning, static electricity, and the attraction between magnetized pieces of iron
ore. However, it wasn't until the late 18th century that scientists began to develop a
mathematical basis for understanding the nature of electromagnetic interactions. In the
18th and 19th centuries, prominent scientists and mathematicians such
as Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday developed namesake laws which helped to explain
the formation and interaction of electromagnetic fields. This process culminated in the
1860s with the discovery of Maxwell's equations, a set of four partial differential
equations which provide a complete description of classical electromagnetic fields.
Maxwell's equations provided a sound mathematical basis for the relationships between
electricity and magnetism that scientists had been exploring for centuries, and predicted
the existence of self-sustaining electromagnetic waves. Maxwell postulated that such
waves make up visible light, which was later shown to be true. Gamma-rays, x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible, infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves were all determined
to be electromagnetic radiation differing only in their range of frequencies.

In the modern era, scientists have continued to refine the theorem of electromagnetism
to take into account the effects of modern physics, including quantum
mechanics and relativity. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism, particularly
the establishment of the speed of light based on properties of the "medium" of
propagation (permeability and permittivity), helped inspire Einstein's theory of special
relativity in 1905. Meanwhile, the field of quantum electrodynamics (QED) has modified
Maxwell's equations to be consistent with the quantized nature of matter. In QED, the
changes in the electromagnetic field is expressed in terms of discrete excitations,
particles known as photons, the quanta of light.

History
Main article: History of electromagnetic theory
Ancient world
Investigation into electromagnetic phenomena began about 5,000 years ago. There is
evidence that the ancient Chinese,[1] Mayan,[2] and potentially even Egyptian civilizations
knew that the naturally magnetic mineral magnetite had attractive properties, and many
incorporated it into their art and architecture.[3] Ancient people were also aware
of lightning and static electricity, although they had no idea of the mechanisms behind
these phenomena. The Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus discovered around 600
B.C.E. that amber could acquire an electric charge when it was rubbed with cloth, which
allowed it to pick up light objects such as pieces of straw. Thales also experimented
with the ability of magnetic rocks to attract one other, and hypothesized that this
phenomenon might be connected to the attractive power of amber, foreshadowing the
deep connections between electricity and magnetism that would be discovered over
2,000 years later. Despite all this investigation, ancient civilizations had no
understanding of the mathematical basis of electromagnetism, and often analyzed its
impacts through the lens of religion rather than science (lightning, for instance, was
considered to be a creation of the gods in many cultures).[4]

19th century

Cover of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism

Electricity and magnetism were originally considered to be two separate forces. This
view changed with the publication of James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 A Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism[5] in which the interactions of positive and negative charges
were shown to be mediated by one force. There are four main effects resulting from
these interactions, all of which have been clearly demonstrated by experiments:

1. Electric charges attract or repel one another with a force inversely

proportional to the square of the distance between them: unlike charges
attract, like ones repel.[6]
2. Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or
repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges
and always exist as pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole.[7]
3. An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential
magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction (clockwise or counter-
clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire.[8]
4. A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved toward or away
from a magnetic field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it; the
direction of current depends on that of the movement.[8]
In April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted observed that an electrical current in a wire caused
a nearby compass needle to move. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any
satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the
phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began
more intensive investigations.[9][10] Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that
an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit
of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of
electromagnetism.[11]

His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in

electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's
developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between
current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a
unified concept of energy.

This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk
Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the
key accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics.[12] It has had far-reaching
consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Unlike what
was proposed by the electromagnetic theory of that time, light and
other electromagnetic waves are at present seen as taking the form of quantized, self-
propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons.
Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic
radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate
frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies.

Ørsted was not the only person to examine the relationship between electricity and
magnetism. In 1802, Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected a
magnetic needle using a Voltaic pile. The factual setup of the experiment is not
completely clear, nor if current flowed across the needle or not. An account of the
discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked
by the contemporary scientific community, because Romagnosi seemingly did not
belong to this community.[13]

An earlier (1735), and often neglected, connection between electricity and magnetism
was reported by a Dr. Cookson.[14] The account stated:

A tradesman at Wakefield in Yorkshire, having put up a great number of knives and

forks in a large box ... and having placed the box in the corner of a large room, there
happened a sudden storm of thunder, lightning, &c. ... The owner emptying the box on a
counter where some nails lay, the persons who took up the knives, that lay on the nails,
observed that the knives took up the nails. On this the whole number was tried, and
found to do the same, and that, to such a degree as to take up large nails, packing
needles, and other iron things of considerable weight ...
E. T. Whittaker suggested in 1910 that this particular event was responsible for lightning
to be "credited with the power of magnetizing steel; and it was doubtless this which led
Franklin in 1751 to attempt to magnetize a sewing-needle by means of the discharge of
Leyden jars."[15]

A fundamental force

Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of

circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation.
The electromagnetic force is the second strongest of the four known fundamental
forces. It operates with infinite range.[16] All other forces (e.g., friction, contact forces) are
derived from these four fundamental forces and they are known as non-fundamental
forces.[17] At high energy, the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a
single interaction called the electroweak interaction.[18]

Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be
explained by the electromagnetic force acting between the electrically charged atomic
nuclei and electrons of the atoms. Electromagnetic forces also explain how these
particles carry momentum by their movement. This includes the forces we experience in
"pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which result from the intermolecular
forces that act between the individual molecules in our bodies and those in the objects.
The electromagnetic force is also involved in all forms of chemical phenomena.

A necessary part of understanding the intra-atomic and intermolecular forces is the

effective force generated by the momentum of the electrons' movement, such that as
electrons move between interacting atoms they carry momentum with them. As a
collection of electrons becomes more confined, their minimum momentum necessarily
increases due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The behaviour of matter at the molecular
scale including its density is determined by the balance between the electromagnetic
force and the force generated by the exchange of momentum carried by the electrons
themselves.[19]

Classical electrodynamics
Main article: Classical electrodynamics
In 1600, William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnete, that electricity and magnetism,
while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct
effects.[20] Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass
needle. The link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin
Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752 were conducted on 10 May 1752 by Thomas-
François Dalibard of France using a 40-foot-tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite and he
successfully extracted electrical sparks from a cloud.[21][22]

One of the first to discover and publish a link between human-made electric current and
magnetism was Gian Romagnosi, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across
a voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle. However, the effect did not become
widely known until 1820, when Ørsted performed a similar experiment.[23] Ørsted's work
influenced Ampère to conduct further experiments, which eventually gave rise to a new
area of physics: electrodynamics. By determining a force law for the interaction between
elements of electric current, Ampère placed the subject on a solid mathematical
foundation.[24]

A theory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was developed by

several physicists during the period between 1820 and 1873, when James Clerk
Maxwell's treatise was published, which unified previous developments into a single
theory, proposing that light was an electromagnetic wave propagating in
the luminiferous ether.[25] In classical electromagnetism, the behavior of the
electromagnetic field is described by a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations,
and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force law.[26]

One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile

with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to
Maxwell's equations, the speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant that is
dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space.
This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics.
One way to reconcile the two theories (electromagnetism and classical mechanics) is to
assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the light propagates.
However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether.
After important contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, in 1905, Albert
Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaced
classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics compatible with classical
electromagnetism. (For more information, see History of special relativity.)
In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field
transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving
electric field transforms to a nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the
phenomena are two sides of the same coin. Hence the term "electromagnetism". (For
more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity and Covariant
formulation of classical electromagnetism.)

Today few problems in electromagnetism remain unsolved. These include: the lack
of magnetic monopoles, Abraham–Minkowski controversy, and the mechanism by
which some organisms can sense electric and magnetic fields.

Extension to nonlinear phenomena

The Maxwell equations are linear, in that a change in the sources (the charges and
currents) results in a proportional change of the fields. Nonlinear dynamics can occur
when electromagnetic fields couple to matter that follows nonlinear dynamical
laws.[27] This is studied, for example, in the subject of magnetohydrodynamics, which
combines Maxwell theory with the Navier–Stokes equations.[28] Another branch of
electromagnetism dealing with nonlinearity is nonlinear optics.

Quantities and units

See also: List of physical quantities and List of electromagnetism equations
Here is a list of common units related to electromagnetism:[29]

• ampere (electric current)

• coulomb (electric charge)
• farad (capacitance)
• henry (inductance)
• ohm (resistance)
• siemens (conductance)
• tesla (magnetic flux density)
• volt (electric potential)
• watt (power)
• weber (magnetic flux)
In the electromagnetic CGS system, electric current is a fundamental quantity defined
via Ampère's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative
permeability) whose value in vacuum is unity.[30] As a consequence, the square of the
speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this
system.

SI electromagnetism units

• v
• t
 • e
Symbol [31]
Name of quantity Unit name Symbol Base units
J = C⋅V =
E energy joule
W⋅s
kg⋅m2⋅s−2

Q electric charge coulomb C A⋅s

A = C/s =
I electric current ampere
W/V
A

ampere per square

J electric current density
metre
A/m2 A⋅m−2

potential
U, ΔV; Δϕ; E, ξ difference; voltage; electromotive volt V = J/C kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−1
force
electric
R ; Z; X resistance; impedance; reactance
ohm Ω = V/A kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−2

ρ resistivity ohm metre Ω⋅m kg⋅m3⋅s−3⋅A−2

P electric power watt W = V⋅A kg⋅m2⋅s−3
C capacitance farad F = C/V kg−1⋅m−2⋅A2⋅s4
ΦE electric flux volt metre V⋅m kg⋅m3⋅s−3⋅A−1
V/m =
E electric field strength volt per metre
N/C
kg⋅m⋅A−1⋅s−3

coulomb per square

D electric displacement field
metre
C/m2 A⋅s⋅m−2

ε permittivity farad per metre F/m kg−1⋅m−3⋅A2⋅s4

χe electric susceptibility (dimensionless) 1 1
p electric dipole moment coulomb metre C⋅m A⋅s⋅m
G; Y; B conductance; admittance; susceptance siemens S = Ω−1 kg−1⋅m−2⋅s3⋅A2
κ , γ, σ conductivity siemens per metre S/m kg−1⋅m−3⋅s3⋅A2
T=
magnetic flux density, magnetic
B induction
tesla Wb/m2 = kg⋅s−2⋅A−1
N⋅A−1⋅m−1
Φ, ΦM, ΦB magnetic flux weber Wb = V⋅s kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−1
H magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m A⋅m−1
A=
F magnetomotive force ampere A
Wb/H
H−1 =
R magnetic reluctance inverse henry kg−1⋅m−2⋅s2⋅A2
A/Wb
H=
P magnetic permeance henry kg⋅m2⋅s-2⋅A-2
Wb/A
 H=
L, M inductance henry Wb/A = kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−2
V⋅s/A
μ permeability henry per metre H/m kg⋅m⋅s−2⋅A−2
χ magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless) 1 1
ampere square A⋅m2 =
m magnetic dipole moment
meter J⋅T−1
A⋅m2

ampere square
σ mass magnetization
meter per kilogram
A⋅m2/kg A⋅m2⋅kg−1

Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) need to

be adjusted depending on what system of units one uses. This is because there is
no one-to-one correspondence between electromagnetic units in SI and those in CGS,
as is the case for mechanical units. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several
plausible choices of electromagnetic units, leading to different unit "sub-systems",
including Gaussian, "ESU", "EMU", and Heaviside–Lorentz. Among these choices,
Gaussian units are the most common today, and in fact the phrase "CGS units" is often
used to refer specifically to CGS-Gaussian units.[32]

Applications
The study of electromagnetism informs electric circuits and semiconductor devices'
construction.

See also
• Abraham–Lorentz force
• Aeromagnetic surveys
• Computational electromagnetics
• Double-slit experiment
• Electrodynamic droplet deformation
• Electromagnet
• Electromagnetic induction
• Electromagnetic wave equation
• Electromagnetic scattering
• Electromechanics
• Geophysics
• Introduction to electromagnetism
• Magnetostatics
• Magnetoquasistatic field
• Optics
• Relativistic electromagnetism
• Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory
References
1. ^ Meyer, Herbert (1972). A History of Electricity and Magnetism. p. 2.
2. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Learn, Joshua Rapp. "Mesoamerican Sculptures Reveal Early
Knowledge of Magnetism". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-07.
3. ^ du Trémolet de Lacheisserie, É.; Gignoux, D.; Schlenker, M. (2002), du Trémolet de
Lacheisserie, É.; Gignoux, D.; Schlenker, M. (eds.), "Magnetism, from the Dawn of
Civilization to Today", Magnetism, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 3–18, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-
23062-7_1, ISBN 978-0-387-23062-7, retrieved 2022-12-07
4. ^ Meyer, Herbert (1972). A History of Electricity and Magnetism. pp. 3–4.
5. ^ "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism". Nature. 7 (182): 478–480. 24 April
1873. Bibcode:1873Natur...7..478.. doi:10.1038/007478a0. ISSN 0028-
0836. S2CID 10178476.
6. ^ "Why Do Like Charges Repel And Opposite Charges Attract?". Science ABC. 2019-02-06.
Retrieved 2022-08-22.
7. ^ "What Makes Magnets Repel?". Sciencing. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Jim Lucas Contributions from Ashley Hamer (2022-02-18). "What Is Faraday's
Law of Induction?". livescience.com. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
9. ^ "History of the Electric Telegraph". Scientific American. 17 (425supp): 6784–6786. 1884-02-
23. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican02231884-6784supp. ISSN 0036-8733.
10. ^ Volta and the history of electricity. Fabio Bevilacqua, Enrico A. Giannetto. Milano: U. Hoepli.
2003. ISBN 88-203-3284-1. OCLC 1261807533.
11. ^ Roche, John J. (1998). The mathematics of measurement : a critical history. London:
Athlone Press. ISBN 0-485-11473-9. OCLC 40499222.
12. ^ Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0198505949.
13. ^ Martins, Roberto de Andrade. "Romagnosi and Volta's Pile: Early Difficulties in the
Interpretation of Voltaic Electricity" (PDF). In Fabio Bevilacqua; Lucio Fregonese
(eds.). Nuova Voltiana: Studies on Volta and his Times. Vol. 3. Università degli Studi di Pavia.
pp. 81–102. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-30. Retrieved 2010-12-02.
14. ^ VIII. An account of an extraordinary effect of lightning in communicating magnetism.
Communicated by Pierce Dod, M.D. F.R.S. from Dr. Cookson of Wakefield in Yorkshire. Phil.
Trans. 1735 39, 74-75, published 1 January 1735
15. ^ Whittaker, E.T. (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity from the Age of
Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century. Longmans, Green and Company.
16. ^ Rehm, Jeremy; published, Ben Biggs (2021-12-23). "The four fundamental forces of
nature". Space.com. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
17. ^ Browne, "Physics for Engineering and Science", p. 160: "Gravity is one of the fundamental
forces of nature. The other forces such as friction, tension, and the normal force are derived
from the electric force, another of the fundamental forces. Gravity is a rather weak force...
The electric force between two protons is much stronger than the gravitational force between
them."
18. ^ Salam, A.; Ward, J.C. (November 1964). "Electromagnetic and weak interactions". Physics
Letters. 13 (2): 168–171. doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5.
19. ^ Purcell, "Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Edition", p. 546: Ch 11 Section 6, "Electron Spin
and Magnetic Moment."
20. ^ Malin, Stuart; Barraclough, David (2000). "Gilbert's De Magnete: An early study of
magnetism and electricity". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 81 (21):
233. Bibcode:2000EOSTr..81..233M. doi:10.1029/00EO00163. ISSN 0096-3941.
21. ^ "Lightning! | Museum of Science, Boston".
22. ^ Tucker, Tom (2003). Bolt of fate : Benjamin Franklin and his electric kite hoax (1st ed.). New
York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-891620-70-3. OCLC 51763922.
23. ^ Stern, Dr. David P.; Peredo, Mauricio (2001-11-25). "Magnetic Fields – History". NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved 2009-11-27.
24. ^ "Andre-Marie Ampère". ETHW. 2016-01-13. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
 25. ^ Purcell, p. 436. Chapter 9.3, "Maxwell's description of the electromagnetic field was
essentially complete."
26. ^ Purcell: p. 278: Chapter 6.1, "Definition of the Magnetic Field." Lorentz force and force
equation.
27. ^ Jufriansah, Adi; Hermanto, Arief; Toifur, Moh.; Prasetyo, Erwin (2020-05-18). "Theoretical
study of Maxwell's equations in nonlinear optics". AIP Conference Proceedings. 2234 (1):
040013. Bibcode:2020AIPC.2234d0013J. doi:10.1063/5.0008179. ISSN 0094-
243X. S2CID 219451710.
28. ^ Hunt, Julian C. R. (1967-07-27). Some aspects of magnetohydrodynamics (Thesis thesis).
University of Cambridge. doi:10.17863/cam.14141.
29. ^ "Essentials of the SI: Base & derived units". physics.nist.gov. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
30. ^ "Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants, and some Mathematical
Functions". Nature. 107 (2687): 264. April
1921. Bibcode:1921Natur.107R.264.. doi:10.1038/107264c0. ISSN 1476-4687.
31. ^ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in
Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. pp. 14–
15. Electronic version.
32. ^ "Conversion of formulae and quantities between unit systems" (PDF). www.stanford.edu.
Retrieved 29 January 2022.

Further reading
Library resources about
Electromagnetism

• Resources in your library

Web sources
• Nave, R. "Electricity and magnetism". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 2013-11-
12.
• Khutoryansky, E. "Electromagnetism – Maxwell's Laws". YouTube. Retrieved 2014-12-28.

Textbooks
• G.A.G. Bennet (1974). Electricity and Modern Physics (2nd ed.). Edward Arnold (UK). ISBN 978-
0-7131-2459-0.
• Browne, Michael (2008). Physics for Engineering and Science (2nd ed.). McGraw-
Hill/Schaum. ISBN 978-0-07-161399-6.
• Dibner, Bern (2012). Oersted and the discovery of electromagnetism. Literary Licensing,
LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-33555-7.
• Durney, Carl H.; Johnson, Curtis C. (1969). Introduction to modern electromagnetics. McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-018388-9.
• Feynman, Richard P. (1970). The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol II. Addison Wesley
Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-02115-8.
• Fleisch, Daniel (2008). A Student's Guide to Maxwell's Equations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70147-1.
• I.S. Grant; W.R. Phillips; Manchester Physics (2008). Electromagnetism (2nd ed.). John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9.
• Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-
805326-0.
 • Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1.
• Moliton, André (2007). Basic electromagnetism and materials. New York: Springer-Verlag New
York. ISBN 978-0-387-30284-3. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
• Purcell, Edward M. (1985). Electricity and Magnetism Berkeley, Physics Course Volume 2 (2nd
ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-004908-6.
• Purcell, Edward M and Morin, David. (2013). Electricity and Magnetism, 820p (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press, New York. ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
• Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice
Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-948746-0.
• Rothwell, Edward J.; Cloud, Michael J. (2001). Electromagnetics. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-
1397-4.
• Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and
Magnetism (4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-57259-492-0.
• Wangsness, Roald K.; Cloud, Michael J. (1986). Electromagnetic Fields (2nd ed.).
Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-81186-2.

General coverage
• A. Beiser (1987). Concepts of Modern Physics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill (International). ISBN 978-0-
07-100144-1.
• L.H. Greenberg (1978). Physics with Modern Applications. Holt-Saunders International W.B.
Saunders and Co. ISBN 978-0-7216-4247-5.
• R.G. Lerner; G.L. Trigg (2005). Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd ed.). VHC Publishers, Hans
Warlimont, Springer. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-07-025734-4.
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External links

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