LETRATURE REVIWU

1,Long, A. C. (Ed.). (2005). Design and manufacture of textile composites. CRC Press,
Wood head publishing Ltd, Cambridge, England

Design and manufacture of textile composites covers a broad range of polymer composite materials with
textile reinforcements, from woven and non-crimp fabric to three-dimensional textiles. The book focuses
on modelling textile structures, manufacturing methods, and component performance, as well as
covering applications in transportation, sports construction, and medical fields. It provides a practical
guide for manufacturers, end-users, designers, researchers, and textile manufacturers, offering new
areas to investigate and potential markets.

2,Khatkar V, Behera BK, Manjunath RN. Textile structural composites for automotive
leaf spring application. Compos B Eng 2020;182:107662

Textile structural composites reinforced with various fiber architecture were analyzed for their
Mechanical, damping and wear properties. Tensile strength of UD composite was highest and
for chopped composite it was lowest. Strength of 2D and 3D reinforced composites remains
between these two in the order of disposition of the percentage of fibers in their respective
direction. Similar trend was observed for their flexural and impact strength. Flexural strength in
3D WF (weft direction) was

Khatkar V, Vijayalakshmi AGS, Manjunath RN, Olhan S, Behera BK. Experimental

investigation into the mechanical behavior of textile composites with various fiber
reinforcement architectures. Mech Compos Mater 2020;56(3):367–78.

The role of fiber reinforcement architecture in adjusting the mechanical properties of glass-fiber-reinforced
epoxy composite materials is studied. Fibrous E-glass unidirectional (UD) and 3-dimensional (3D) samples
with an identical fiber volume fraction were prepared. The UD composites displayed excellent properties along
the fiber direction, but the 3D ones showed excellent properties in all three directions. The high delamination
and impact resistances were additional advantages of 3D-reinforced composites to choose them as reliable
materials for structural applications.
4,Mallick PK. Fiber-reinforced composites: materials, manufacturing, and
+design. CRC Press; 2007
5,Mishra R, Militky J, Behera BK, Banthia V. Modelling and simulation of 3D
orthogonal fabrics for composite applications. J Text Inst 2012;103(11):1255–61.

The present paper focuses on geometric and micromechanical modelling of 3D orthogonal fabrics for
composite applications and employs meso-finite element (FE) modelling for it. FE modelling of textile
composites is a powerful tool for the homogenisation of mechanical properties, study of stress–strain fields
inside the unit cell, determination of damage initiation conditions and sites and simulation of damage
development and associated deterioration of the homogenised mechanical properties of the composite. Meso-
FE can be considered as a part of the micro-meso–macro-multi-level modelling process, with micromodels
(fibres in the matrix) providing material properties for homogenised impregnated yarns and fibrous plies, and
macromodel (structural analysis) using results of meso-homogenisation.

6,Mishra R, Baheti V, Behera BK, Militky J. Novelties of 3-D woven composites and
nanocomposites. J Text Inst 2014;105(1):84–92

This research investigates the mechanical behavior of 3-D woven fabrics compared to 2-D
woven fabrics and their suitability for composite applications. It found higher strength,
improved breaking load, and energy absorption in 3-D fabrics compared to 2-D fabrics. The
study also explored the applicability of 2-D and 3-D glass woven fabrics for composites,
including the incorporation of fly ash nanoparticles. The results showed superior breaking
load and total energy in 3-D woven glass fabric/epoxy composites.
7,Subramanian C, Senthilvelan S. Fatigue performance of discontinuous fibrereinforced thermoplastic leaf spring. Proc IMechE 2010;224(3):93–100

The present work investigates the fatigue performance of fibre-reinforced injection-moulded leaf
springs. Twenty per cent discontinuous long, short glass fibre-reinforced polypropylene (SFPP) and
unreinforced polypropylene (UFPP) materials are used for manufacturing constant-thickness, varying-
width, mono leaf spring. Fatigue tests are performed on moulded leaf springs at various alternating loads
under the pulsating compression mode at 0.5Hz frequency with the aid of in-house developed fixtures
integrated with the servo-hydraulic fatigue machine. During fatigue testing, cyclic load—deflection of the
test leaf spring of each and every cycle is measured; the energy dissipation ratio and spring rate of the
test leaf springs are reported as an index for the accumulated damage at various stages of its life. Test
leaf springs are subjected to fatigue load up to 2×105 cycles or failure, whichever is earlier. SFPP and
UFPP leaf springs exhibited drops in the spring rate, whereas long glass fibre-reinforced polypropylene
exhibited fracture as leaf spring failure. Fatigue performance as well as failure morphology of the leaf
springs confirmed the role of reinforced fibre length in the thermoplastic composite leaf spring.
8,Weibull W. Fatigue testing and analysis of results. New York, USA: Pergamon
Press; 2013

Fatigue Testing and Analysis of Results is a book that explains the fundamental concepts of fatigue
testing and results analysis. It covers various fatigue testing methods, including routine tests, short-life
and long-life tests, cumulative-damage tests, and accelerated tests. The book also discusses factors
affecting test results, including material, stressing types, test machine, environment, and testing
technique. The main purpose of fatigue tests is to determine the endurance and applied stress range.
9, Kumar MS, Vijayarangan S. Analytical and experimental studies on fatigue life
prediction of steel and composite multi-leaf spring for light passenger vehicles
using life data analysis. Mater Sci 2007;13(2):141–6.

Design and experimental fatigue analysis of composite multi leaf spring using glass fibre reinforced
polymer are carried out using life data analysis. Compared to steel spring, the composite leaf spring is
found to have 67.35 % lesser stress, 64.95 % higher stiffness and 126.98 % higher natural frequency than
that of existing steel leaf spring. The conventional multi leaf spring weighs about 13.5 kg whereas the E-
glass/Epoxy multi leaf spring weighs only 4.3 kg. Thus the weight reduction of 68.15 % is achieved.
Besides the reduction of weight, the fatigue life of composite leaf spring is predicted to be higher than
that of steel leaf spring. Life data analysis is found to be a tool to predict the fatigue life of composite
multi leaf spring. It is found that the life of composite leaf spring is much higher than that of steel leaf
spring.

This paper analyzes the static and fatigue properties of steel leaf springs and composite multi leaf springs
made of glass fibre reinforced polymer. The conventional steel leaf spring is compared with the
composite multi leaf spring, which has a lower stress, stiffness, and natural frequency. The composite
leaf spring achieves a weight reduction of 68.15% and a longer fatigue life than the steel leaf spring,
indicating its potential for use in various applications.
10,Mini KM, Lakshmanan M, Mathew L, Mukundan M. Effect of fibre volume fraction
on fatigue behaviour of glass fibre reinforced composite. FatigFract Eng Mater
Struct 2012;35(12):1160–6.

The aim of this paper is to study the fatigue behavior of GFRP composites manufactured by vacuum
bagging process by varying the volume fraction. Constant‐amplitude flexural fatigue tests were
performed at zero mean stress, i.e. a cyclic stress ratio R=−1 by varying the frequency of the testing
machine. The relationship between stiffness degradation rate and fibre volume fraction, was observed,
and the influence of volume fraction on the tensile strength was also investigated. The results show that,
as the volume fraction increases the stiffness degradation rate initially decreases and then increases
after reaching a certain limit for the volume fraction. Graph between volume fraction and Young's
modulus shows that as the volume fraction increases Young's modulus also increases and reaches a limit
and then it decreases with further increase in volume fraction, due to the increase in fibre content which
changes the material properties of the composite material. The obtained results are in agreement with
the available results.
11,Mahdi E, Alkoles OMS, Hamouda AMS, Sahari BB, Yonus R, Goudah G. Light
composite elliptic springs for vehicle suspension. Compos Struct 2006;75(1-
4):24–8.

In this paper E-glass/epoxy fully elliptic spring elements were analytically modeled based on classical
laminate theory (CLT) and strain energy methods. The mid-plane symmetric laminated spring element
has amajor axis/minor axis ratio (a/b ratio) of 1.5. The mechanical properties such as spring rate, point of
contraflexure, stress and strain distributions under uniaxial loading have been computed and
analyzed.The effect of variables such as a/b ratio, width, thickness, volume fraction of fibres (Vf) and
laminate configuration on the spring stiffness have been studied. In the experimental part spring
elements of various configurations were fabricated using filament winding technique. The spring
elements were loaded along the minor axis using an Universal Testing Machine. It was found to exhibit
linear stiffness in the desired range of deflection. A close matching between theoretical and
experimental values was observed. Based on these studies, the geometric parameters and laminate
configuration of the spring element were optimized.

12,Chevali VS, Dean DR, Janowski GM. Flexural creep behavior of discontinuous
thermoplastic composites: non-linear viscoelastic modeling and
time–temperature–stress superposition. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 2009;40(6-
7):870–7.

Flexural creep behavior of nylon 6/6, polypropylene and high-density polyethylene long fiber
thermoplastic (LFT) composites was studied according to ASTM D-2990. Neat polymers were tested for
baseline data and compared with the 40 wt.% E-glass reinforced LFTs, all processed by compression
molding. All materials exhibited non-linear viscoelasticity and showed a succession in creep resistance
consistent with static flexural yield strength. A four parameter empirical model used for short fiber
thermoplastics (SFT), proposed by Hadid et al., was found to provide an excellent fit to the experimental
data. Time-compliance data from flexural creep and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) were combined
to utilize short-term flexural creep tests to predict lifetime of the composites. A time–temperature–
stress superposition (TTSSP) procedure was used, where stress-based vertical shifts were applied in
addition to horizontal shifts used in a traditional time–temperature superposition (TTSP). Master curves
obtained by this method projected the long-term creep properties, the order of creep resistance being
consistent with the flexural creep data.

13,Chevali VS, Janowski GM. Flexural creep of long fiber-reinforced thermoplastic

composites: Effect of processing-dependent fiber variables on creep response.
Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 2010;41(9):1253–62.

Flexural creep properties were studied as a function of fiber weight fraction and processing-induced fiber
alignment in extrusion/compression-molded, long fiber-reinforced thermoplastic (LFT) nylon
6/6, polypropylene, and high-density polyethylene and their 10 wt.% and 40 wt.% E-glass fiber
reinforced LFT composites. The residual fiber lengths and probability distribution parameters were near-
equal, regardless of the initial fiber length and processing. Creep compliances decreased with increasing
fiber weight fraction, and clear influence of fiber alignment was found in model parameters. Processing-
induced fiber alignment imaged using X-ray radiography, was correlated with the creep compliances of
strategically sectioned specimens, and tested as per ASTM D-2990. Longitudinal fibers aided in lowering
the creep compliance, and the range in compliance decreased with lower preferential fiber alignment.
Creep compliances from flexural creep tests and dynamic mechanical analysis/static creep tests were
combined using time–temperature–stress superposition (TTSSP) to construct long-term master curves
that correlated closely with long-term tests.

14,Greco A, Musardo C, Maffezzoli A. Flexural creep behaviour of PP matrix woven

composite. Compos Sci Technol 2007;67(6):1148–58.

In this work the flexural creep behaviour of polypropylene and glass fibre commingled woven composite
(Twintex®) sheets has been studied. Test samples were obtained in a compression moulding apparatus at
different plate temperatures. Short-term flexural creep tests were run at multiple stress levels. Varying the
applied stress level and using the Boltzmann superposition principle the linearity of creep behaviour was
tested. In the linear viscoelastic region, creep tests were performed at different temperatures, ranging between
303 and 425 K. Time–temperature superposition principle was applied to build master curve, to predict the
creep behaviour of the composite at a single reference temperature and long time scales. The obtained results
indicate that higher temperatures of the plates lead to a composite with a lower creep compliance, which was
related to the crystalline structure developed in the polymer matrix during cooling, and to a better fibre
impregnation. An increase of the temperature of the mould resulted in higher degree of crystallinity of the
polymer matrix, and lower final void fraction of the composite, as evidenced by results obtained from density
tests, X-ray and DSC analysis. In turn, the higher crystalline fraction and lamellar thickness of crystallites were
found to decrease the ductility of the composite, as evidenced from Charpy impact tests.

15,Subramanian C, Senthilvelan S. Short-term flexural creep behavior and model

analysis of a glass-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composite leaf spring. J Appl
Polym Sci 2011;120(6):3679–86.

Present work investigated the short-term flexural creep performance of fiber reinforced thermoplastic
injection molded leaf springs. Unreinforced polypropylene, 20 wt % short and 20 wt % long glass fiber
reinforced polypropylene materials were injection-molded into constant thickness varying width mono
leaf spring. Short-term flexural creep tests were performed on molded leaf springs at various stress
levels with the aid of in-house developed fixture integrated with the servo-hydraulic fatigue machine.
Spring rate reduction is reported as an index for the accumulated damage. Experimental creep
performance of molded leaf springs for 2 h was utilized to predict the creep performance with the aid of
four parameter HRZ model and compared with 24-h experimental creep data. Test results revealed that
HRZ model is sufficient enough to predict short-time flexural creep performance of engineering products
over wide range of stress. Test results also confirmed the suitability of long fiber reinforced
thermoplastic material for creep application over other considered materials. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals,
Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011
16,Almeida Jr JHS, Ornaghi Jr HL, Lorandi NP, Bregolin BP, Amico SC. Creep and
interfacial behavior of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy filament wound laminates.
Polym Compos 2018;39(S4):E2199–206

The study examines the interfacial and creep characteristics of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy laminates
at various fiber orientations. The laminates were manufactured using dry-filament winding and cured
under hot compression. Short-beam testing and dynamic mechanical analysis revealed that fiber
orientation significantly influenced short beam strength and creep behavior. The storage modulus was
found to be dependent on the ply angle. The creep strain increased with fiber orientation and
temperature.

The study evaluated the interfacial behavior of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy laminates made by
filament winding. It found that a 30° change in fiber orientation led to a drop in short beam strength,
with the mechanical response more dependent on the matrix system and interface. Post-mortem
analyses confirmed that specimens oriented at 0° fail primarily by interlaminar shear. The viscoelastic
behavior and creep performance were also dependent on fiber orientation. Burger's and Findley's
models were suitable for predicting creep behavior, but Burger's did not adjust as well as Findley's.
17,Xu Y, Wu Q, Lei Y, Yao F. Creep behavior of bagasse fiber reinforced polymer
composites. Bioresour Technol 2010;101(9):3280–6.

The creep behavior of bagasse-based composites with virgin and recycled polyvinyl chloride (B/PVC) and
high density polyethylene (B/HDPE) as well as a commercial wood and HDPE composite decking material
was investigated. The instantaneous deformation and creep rate of all composites at the same loading
level increased at higher temperatures. At a constant load level, B/PVC composites had better creep
resistance than B/HDPE systems at low temperatures. However, B/PVC composites showed greater
temperature-dependence. Several creep models (i.e., Burgers model, Findley's power law model, and a
simpler two-parameter power law model) were used to fit the measured creep data. Time-temperature
superposition (TTS) was attempted for long-term creep prediction. The four-element Burgers model and
the two-parameter power law model fitted creep curves of the composites well. The TTS principle more
accurately predicted the creep response of the PVC composites compared to the HDPE composites.
18,Subramanian C, Al Mamari AKH, Senthilvelan S. Effect of fiber length on the shorttermflexural creep behavior of polypropylene. Int J Stud Res Technol Manage
2014;2(5):157–62

Discontinuous fiber reinforced polypropylene composites were injection molded and its short term
flexural creep performance is investigated. Due to the extensive time requirement for the creep
performance evaluation, HRZ model was used in this work. Creep performance of the molded specimens
was experimentally evaluated for 2 h and short term creep performance (24 h) was predicted with the
aid of HRZ model over wide range of stress. The predicted performance was compared with 24 h
experimental results and found to be satisfactory. From the present investigation, HRZ model was found
to be useful in predicting the short-term creep performance of viscoelastic engineering material.
Experimental results confirmed that long fiber reinforced thermoplastics possessed enhanced creep
retention characteristic. HRZ model parameters were also utilized to correlate investigated material
characteristics.
Injection molded long fiber thermoplastic components are being used in recent days as a viable
replacement for metals in many applications .Present work focus on the effect of fiber length on the
short-term flexural creep performance of fiber reinforced thermoplastic polypropylene. Unreinforced
polypropylene, 20 wt % short and 20 wt % long glass fiber reinforced polypropylene materials was
injection-molded into flexural test specimens. Short-term flexural creep tests were performed for 2 h
duration on molded specimen at various stress levels with the aid of in-house developed flexural creep
fixture. Experimental creep performance of polypropylene composites for 2 h is utilized to predict the
creep performance with the aid of four parameter HRZ model and compared with 24 h experimental
creep data. Creep strain was found to be increased with respect to time for all the test materials and
found to be sensitive with respect to the stress level. Test results also revealed that long fiber reinforced
thermoplastic material possessed enhanced creep resistance over their counter parts and HRZ model is
sufficient enough to predict creep performance of polypropylene composites over wide range of stress.

19,Topal S, Baiocchi L, Crocombe AD, Ogin SL, Potluri P, Withers PJ, et al. Late-stage
fatigue damage in a 3D orthogonal non-crimp woven composite: An experimental
and numerical study. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf2015;79:155–63.

Late-stage fatigue damage of an E-glass/epoxy 3D orthogonal non-crimp textile composite

loaded in the warp direction has been investigated using a combination of mechanical testing,
X-ray micro computed tomography (μCT), optical microscopy and finite element modelling.
Stiffness reduction and energy dissipated per cycle were found to be complementary
measurements of damage accumulation, occurring in three stages: a first stage characterised by
rapid changes, a more quiescent second stage, followed by a third stage where the (decreasing)
stiffness and (increasing) energy dissipation change irregularly and then rapidly, to failure.
Microscopy of specimens cycled into the transition between the second and third stages showed
macroscopic accumulations of fibre fractures in sections of warp tows which lying adjacent to
the surface weft tows which are crowned-over by the Z-tows. At these locations, the warp tow
fibres are subjected to stress concentrations both from transverse weft tow matrix cracks and
resin pocket cracks.

20,Carvelli V, Gramellini G, Lomov SV, Bogdanovich AE, Mungalov DD, Verpoest I.

Fatigue behavior of non-crimp 3D orthogonal weave and multi-layer plain weave
E-glass reinforced composites. Compos Sci Technol 2010;70(14):2068–76.

The paper studies tension-tension fatigue behavior of a single-ply non-crimp 3D orthogonal weave Eglass
composite and of a laminated composite reinforced with four plies of a standard plain weave fabric. Both
composites have same total thickness and very close fiber volume fraction. The paper presents the
description of the materials, the results of quasi-static tensile and of tension-tension fatigue tests,
including the damage development during fatigue tensile loading. The non-crimp 3D woven fabric
composite, loaded in both principal in-plane directions (warp and fill), shows the best quasi-static tensile
properties and, when loaded in the fill direction, exhibits much longer fatigue life than its laminated
plain weave counterpart. During both quasi-static and fatigue loading, the latest damage initiation is
observed for the 3D woven composite in both in-plane directions. The PW laminate develops
delamination between the plies for each maximum stress in the cycle considered. Contrary to that, the
3D composite is not affected by delamination neither under quasi-static nor under fatigue loading
conditions.

The study examined the fatigue tensile mechanical response of a single-ply non-crimp 3D orthogonal
weave E-glass composite and a laminated composite reinforced with four plies of plain weave fabric.
Results showed that the PW composite had significantly worse fatigue performance than the 3D
composite in fill direction for all stress levels, except for the σ5m stress level. The 3D composite had
longer fatigue life in fill direction than in warp direction for all stress levels. The 3D composite had
slightly longer fatigue life for low-cycle fatigue stress range but shorter for high-cycle fatigue stress range.
The study also found that the 3D composite had a stronger positive effect on the fatigue behavior of the
non-crimp 3D woven fabric composite in the fill-directional loading case.

21,Khatkar V, Behera BK. Experimental investigation of composite leaf spring

reinforced with various fiber architecture. Adv Compos Mater 2020;29(2):129–45.

Fiber-reinforced composites are the materials of choice in numerous advanced applications in the fields
such as automotive, aerospace, and marine as compared to conventional engineering materials. In this
context, the influence of reinforcement architecture on the static mechanical performance of composite
leaf spring was investigated. Reinforcement in the form of E-Glass chopped fibers, uni-directional (UD),
bi-directional (2D) woven, and 3D orthogonal woven preforms were used to prepare composite leaf
spring with identical fiber volume fraction and composite processing conditions. Composite leaf springs
were analyzed for tensile properties, load-deflection behavior, strain rate sensitivity, hysteresis behavior
(Damping), and relaxation behavior. Performance of 3D woven-based composite leaf spring was
significantly better than chopped, UD, and 2D counterparts in terms of energy absorption, strain rate
sensitivity, hysteresis damping (energy dissipation), and relaxation behavior. Overall 3D composite leaf
spring shows a high potential for leaf spring application

22,Gao X, Tao N, Yang X, Wang C, Xu F. Quasi-static three-point bending and fatigue

behavior of 3-D orthogonal woven composites. Compos B Eng 2019;159:173–83

3-D orthogonal woven composites (3DOWC) are popular in industrial and civil fields due to their unique
mechanical properties, particularly in fatigue behavior. An experimental study was conducted on quasi-
static three-point bending and fatigue behavior of 3DOWC reinforced with epoxy resin using Vacuum
Assisted Resin Transfer Molding. The study analyzed the damage process, critical load levels, and failure
process of composite specimens, providing valuable insights for real-world applications.

23,Saleh MN, Yudhanto A, Potluri P, Lubineau G, Soutis C. Characterizing the loading

direction sensitivity of 3D woven composites: Effect of z-binder architecture.
Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 2016;90:577–88.

Different architectures of 3D woven composites (orthogonal, ORT; layer-to-layer, LTL; angle interlock, AI)
were characterised in terms of on-axis and off-axis mechanical properties and the influence of z-binder.
Several remarks can be made from present investigation. The z-binder increases void content in 3D
woven composites since the amount of resin flowing between warp and weft tows is partly inhibited by
the binders; in this case, orthogonal architecture induces the highest amount of void in
Three 3D carbon fibre woven composites were tested in quasi-static uniaxial tension, focusing on loading
direction sensitivity. The z-binder architecture affected void content, fibre volume fraction, mechanical
properties, failure mechanisms, energy absorption, and fibre rotation angle. ORT architecture
demonstrated superior behavior, especially in 45° off-axis direction, with high strain to failure and
translaminar energy absorption.
24,Dash AK, Behera BK. Role of weave design on the mechanical properties of 3D
woven fabrics as reinforcements for structural composites. J Text Inst 2018;109
(7):952–60

3D fabrics as reinforcement can be manipulated in discrete numbers of weave designs in order to earn
maximum gain so that the desired mechanical properties of the composites can be achieved eventually
for particular end use. Thus interest has been focused to investigate tensile, impact and knife
penetration properties of 3D orthogonal and interlock structures of different weave designs by varying
their binder interlacement patterns keeping stuffer binder ratio constant. The tensile properties were
effectively influenced by the linear densities as well as crimp of load bearing tows, which were
determined by the weave design of the fabric. The compact structure generated from regular weave
pattern in case of 1 × 1 plain orthogonal and 1 × 1 plain interlock fabrics exhibited better impact energy
absorption. Owing to higher values of peak energy in the knife penetration test, it is revealed that more
is the number of fibres in the in-plane direction better is the protection.

25,Castaneda N, Wisner B, Cuadra J, Amini S, Kontsos A. Investigation of the Z-binder

role in progressive damage of 3D woven composites. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf
2017;98:76–89.

This article explores the use of 3D woven composites containing z-binders to enhance damage tolerance
in 2D laminated composites. It uses an experimental mechanics approach and a multiphysics
nondestructive evaluation methodology, including Digital Image Correlation, Acoustic Emission, and X-ray
micro-computed tomography, to investigate the role of z-binders in the 3D composite's damage process.

An experimental mechanics approach coupled with multiphysics nondestructive evaluation was

implemented to investigate the role of the z-binder in 3D woven composites in their damage behavior.
Specifically, both uniaxial monotonic tension and fatigue experiments were performed in a test setup
coupled with digital image correlation and acoustic emission monitoring systems. This sensing method
allowed the identification of time intervals during which significant in plane surface strain

26,Behera BK, Dash BP. Mechanical behavior of 3D woven composites. Mater Des
2015;67:261–71.

This paper presents a comprehensive experimental study of in-plane tensile, compressive, bending,
impact resistance, knife penetration and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) of unidirectional (UD), two
dimensional (2D), three dimensional (3D) orthogonal, 3D angle-interlock and 3D warp interlock multi-
layer E-glass tow based woven constructions reinforced composites. Optimization of resin %, hardener %
and curing pressure has been carried out using Box and Behnken design for getting maximum possible
impact resistance. The results depict that the 3D woven composites have considerably superior impact
resistance, knife penetration resistance and DMA behavior as compared to UD and 2D counterparts.

ARTICLE SUMMARY
Introduction
Experimental investigation of textile structure reinforced composite leaf springs for
their cyclic flexural and creep behavior is the name of the study conducted by Vikas
Khatkar and B.K. Behera. Research investigates towards 3D-woven orthogonal textile leaf
springs for use in automobiles .In this research, the effects of textile structure reinforcement
architecture on leaf spring applications in automobiles are investigated This research investigates
the creep behavior of fiber-reinforced composite leaf springs for fatigue analysis and ride
comfort. It focuses on experimental creep behavior of developed composite leaf springs . textile
structure reinforced composites offer lightweight, advanced, load-bearing properties, with 3D
woven textile structures offering improved mold ability, formability, stability, and thermal
resistance.

Materials and methodology

The study investigates the fabrication of multifilament E-glass tows, unidirectional fabrics, and
2D fabrics for reinforced composites. The researchers developed 4 layer orthogonal fabrics with
4 beams for stuffer layers and one dedicated beam for binder warp yarns. They also developed
3D solid orthogonal fabrics with varying binder percentages using a modified rigid rapier
weaving machine. The researchers fabricated E-glass/epoxy composite leaf springs with different
textile structures, including chopped fiber, unidirectional weaves, bidirectional plain woven, 3D
woven orthogonal, and 3D woven interlock solid structures. The leaf springs were tested using
an INSTRON machine and were tested using a vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding
(VARTM) process. A house fixture was used to test composite leaf springs in accordance with
SAE standard SAEJ 1528. They experienced flexural loading, pulsing compression, and
continuous deflection. Measurements of strength deterioration and spring stiffness were made,
and the effectiveness of short-term flexural creep was examined.
Results and discussions
The curve shows that the first cyclic flexural strength of the UD composite leaf spring was 95
Mpa at the 100th cycle, while the initial cyclic flexural strength of the chopped leaf spring was
45 Mpa. This was probably because chopped fiber composite fibers are randomly distributed in
multiple directions, which creates the least resistance to bending load and thus offers lower initial
cyclic flexural strength, whereas all fibers in unidirectional composites are present in one
direction, which creates the maximum resistance to bending load applied during the test.