Human Anatomy

Lec. 2/ Dr. Mortadha Sami

The Basic structures

Skin
The skin is a multifunctional organ, it helps in the protection of the body from microbes
and harmful external influences, regulation of body temperature, maintain the moisture
and sensation. It is divided into two main layers :
I. The epidermis: Is the superficial layer of stratified squamous epithelium. This layer
consists of many special cells, including keratinocytes cells that make keratin a
protein that provides strength to skin, hair, and nails and melanocytes cells which
produce melanin (a pigment giving the color of skin).
II. The dermis: Is the deep layer of the skin. It is a thick layer made up of connective
tissues containing many blood vessels (which supply nutrients to the different layers
of the skin), lymphatic vessels and nerves.
The dermis also contains a number of specialized structures known as appendages,
these include: ①hair follicles, ②sweat glands, ③sebaceous glands (produce
sebum which helps lubricate skin & hair), and ④nails.

1
The Fascia
Is a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, lies beneath the skin around
muscles, groups of muscles, bones, nerves, blood vessels, organs and cells. Attaches,
stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs, and allows the
muscles to move freely alongside other structures and reduces friction.
The fascia of the body can be divided into two types:

I. The superficial fascia: or subcutaneous tissue is the loose connective tissue layer
that lies deep to the dermis of the skin consists of: blood vessels, nerves,
lymphatics, variable amount of fat. In palm and sole, the superficial fascia is quite
thick and contains dense connective tissue.
II. The deep fascia: is a membranous layer of connective tissue that invests the
muscles and other deep structures. In the neck, it forms well-defined layers. In the
thorax and abdomen, it is a thin film of areolar tissue covering the muscles. In the
limbs, it forms a definite sheath around the muscles and other structures, holding
them in place.

9
The Muscles
There are three types of muscles in the body:
1. Skeletal muscles (striated).
2. Smooth or visceral muscles (non-striated).
3. Cardiac muscles.

1. Skeletal Muscles
 Also known as voluntary muscles. These muscles are made up of bundles of muscle
fibers with special property of contraction.
 Each skeletal muscle has at least two attachments:
1. The origin of the muscle is usually the proximal and more fixed attachment of the
muscle.
2. The insertion of the muscle is usually the distal and relatively mobile attachment of
the muscle.

9
 The main part of the muscle between the two attachments is called muscle belly.
 Tendons are dense regularly arranged collagen fiber bundles, that attach the muscle
fibers towards the insertion point of the muscle to bones or cartilage.
 Aponeurosis is a type of deep fascia, in the form of a sheet of fibrous tissue continuous
with external tendons to join muscles and the body parts they act upon (whether they
were bones or other muscles). They are supplied with blood vessels and nerves.

9
 A raphe is a fibrous structure, formed by the inter - digitation of muscle fibers of the
two sides.
 The nerve supply of the skeletal muscle is mixed nerve, about 60% motor nerve fibers
and 40% is sensory nerve fibers.

The skeletal muscles are classified according to their actions:

1. The prime movers: are the main muscles responsible for a particular movement at a
joint. Example: Biceps, is a prime flexor of the elbow joint.
2. The antagonists: are the muscles that are just opposite in action to the prime
movers. Examples: Triceps, is antagonist to the biceps.
3. The synergists: are the muscles which help in the action of the prime movers by
stabilizing the joints or preventing unwanted movements.
4. The fixators: are those muscles which contract isometrically to stabilize the
attachment of the prime movers, so that they may contract more effectively.
Example: Scapular muscles fix the scapula, so that the deltoid muscle can abduct the
shoulder joint.

9
2. Smooth Muscles
 Smooth muscle (non-striated) consists of elongated or spindle-shaped fibers capable
of slow and sustained contractions.
 Smooth muscle is not under voluntary control; thus, it is called involuntary muscle.
 It is found in the walls of blood vessels, associated with hair follicles in the skin, and
found in the walls of various structures associated with the gastrointestinal, respiratory,
genitourinary.
 Smooth muscle is innervated by visceral motor nerves.
 The triggers for smooth muscle contraction include hormones, neural stimulation and
local factors, such as the walls of visceral organs, stretching the muscle can trigger its
contraction (the stretch-relaxation response).

3. Cardiac Muscle
 Cardiac muscle is a striated, involuntary muscle found only in the walls of the heart
(myocardium) and in some of the large vessels close to where they join the heart.
 It consists of a branching network of individual cells linked electrically and
mechanically to work as a unit.
 Its contractions are less powerful than those of skeletal muscle and it is resistant to
fatigue. Cardiac muscle is innervated by visceral motor nerves.

9
The Joints
The joints are formed, where two or more than two bones meet and get united. The joints
can be classified broadly into three groups:
① The fibrous joints: are immovable or hardly movable joints. Example: the sutures of
the vault of the skull.

② The cartilaginous joints: may allow a limited movement. These joints can be further
divided into two types:
a. The primary cartilaginous joint: is a joint, where two bones are joined together by
hyaline cartilage plate. No movement is possible in these joints: Example: the union
between the 1st rib and the sternum, union between epiphysis and diaphysis of growing
bone.

9
b. The secondary cartilaginous joint: is a joint, where the two bones are covered by
hyaline articular cartilage and united by a plate of fibro-cartilage. Example: the joints
between the vertebral bodies, small movement is possible.

③ The synovial joints: permits relatively free movements. The articular surfaces are
covered by hyaline articular cartilage, that can withstand pressure. The joint is surrounded
by a fibrous articular capsule, that keeps the bones together, and prevents their
separation during movements of the joint. The joint cavity has synovial membrane,
which lines the inner surface of the fibrous capsule, and also covers all intra-articular
structures. The synovial membrane produces the synovial fluid to lubricate the articular
surface.

9
The Synovial Bursa
Is a small fluid-filled sac lined by synovial membrane filled with synovial fluid (similar in
consistency to that of a raw egg white). It provides a cushion between bones and tendons
and muscles around a joint. This helps to reduce friction between the bones and allows
free movement.

The Ligaments
Are cord-like or strap-like structures made up of dense connective tissue. The ligaments
firmly connect the bones forming the joints. Most of the ligaments are composed of thick
bundles of collagen fibers, and are stretchable. Such ligaments contribute to the stability
of the joint. A few ligaments are composed of elastic fibers and therefore, can be stretched
normally.