RF Transceiver Metrics (3)

Khaled Sharaf
Fundamental Issues in RF Transmitters
 Harmonic Distortion
 Compression
 Intermodulation

Amplitude distortion: AM-to-AM conversion

Phase distortion: AM-to-PM conversion
I/Q amplitude & phase mismatch
Carrier leakage
Adjacent Channel Power (ACP)
Phase noise in LO synthesizer
 Nonlinearity & Noise in Transmitter Chain

Carrier leakage

I/Q amplitude & phase mismatch

 Harmonic Distortion
 Compression
Phase noise in LO synthesizer  Intermodulation
Amplitude distortion:
Amplitude distortion: AM-to-AM
AM-to-AM conversion
conversion
Phase distortion:
Phase AM-to-PM
distortion: AM-to-PM conversion
conversion
Key Specifications of Cellular Transmitters
 Digital Modulation: ASK,PSK,FSK

If data = ZERO
If data = ONE

ASK

PSK

 Called “Amplitude Shift Keying”, “Phase Shift Keying”, and “Frequency Shift
Keying”
 Signal Constellation: Binary ASK, PSK and FSK
Plot the constellation of an ASK signal in the presence of amplitude noise.

Noisy

Noise corrupts the amplitude for both ZEROs and ONEs.

Plot the constellation of an PSK signal in the presence of amplitude noise.

Ideal Noisy

Plot the constellation of an FSK signal in the presence of noise.

For FSK:

Ideal
Noisy
 Quadrature Modulation

 QPSK halves the occupied bandwidth

 Pulses appear at A and B are called symbols rather than bits

 I for in-phase and Q for Quadrature

 Example of Signal Constellation
Due to circuit nonidealities, one of the carrier phases in a QPSK modulator suffers
from a small phase error (“mismatch”) of θ

Construct the signal constellation at the output of this modulator

b1 b2
Solution:

Let Ac = 1 
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation: Constellation

 Saves bandwidth
 Denser constellation: making detection more sensitive to noise
 Large envelope variation: needs highly linear PA
 EVM & SNR/BER

impact of
impact of phase noise
phase & amplitude noise

The error vector magnitude is another test to measure the signal waveform distortion due to the
amplitude and phase distortions that occur within the amplifier. The error vector magnitude test is carried
out by measuring the difference between the reference waveform and the measured waveform.

In the I-Q plane, the difference in amplitude and phase between the ideal constellation point (reference
symbol) and the measured point (measured symbol) called the error vector. The error vector magnitude is
defined, in dB, as the ratio of the mean power of the error vector to the mean power of the reference
vector. It is also defined, in percentage, as the square root of the ratio of the mean power of the error
vector to the mean power of the reference vector.

EVM SNR BER

 GMSK and GFSK Modulation
(Constant Envelope Modulation)

Tb

BTb =0.3

m = Df/fb
Df: frequency deviation
fb : bit rate = 271kb/s
 Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), modulation index m = 0.5

 Minimum envelope variation: High efficiency PA can be used with compromised linearity
 Example of GMSK Modulator Construction
Construct a GMSK modulator using a quadrature upconverter.

Solution:

F (t) F (t)

We can therefore construct the modulator as shown above, where a Gaussian filter is
followed by an integrator and two arms that compute the sine and cosine of the signal at
node A. The complexity of these operations is much more easily afforded in the digital
domain than in the analog domain.
 Direct-Conversion Transmitters: Overview
The above expression of a GMSK waveform can be generalized to any narrowband
modulated signal:

We therefore define the quadrature baseband signals as

This topology directly translates the baseband spectrum to the RF carrier by means of a
“quadrature upconverter”.
 (1) PA Nonlinear Distortion in Amplitude and Phase
- An ideal linear power amplifier (PA) is expected to have a constant power gain i.e., constant
AM-AM conversion. Increasing input power by 1dB should increase output power by 1dB.

- In reality, the output power region may show a gain compression. Gain compression leads to
an undesired AM-AM distortion.

- In Addition, It is also observed that as the output power level varies, the phase difference
between the output and input signals varies thereby causing an AM-PM conversion.

- So, PAs exhibit nonlinear distortion in amplitude and phase. For a modulated signal, both
sources of distortion are significant.

- The dominant sources are AM-to- AM and AM-to-PM.

Amplitude distortion: AM-to-AM conversion dominated by gm non-linearity
Phase distortion: AM-to-PM conversion dominated by non-linear capacitors (phase delay)

- For an input x(t) = A(t) cos(ω t + φ( t) ) AM-to-PM

AM-to- AM
The corresponding output is y(t) = G[A(t)] cos (ωt + φ(t) + ψ[A(t)] )
 Spectral Leakage @ PA Output

- The traditional way to characterize narrowband system linearity is with IM3.

- The PA may be driven into a strongly non-linear regime.

- All odd order harmonics should be taken into account to ensure that excessive spectral
leakage does not occur.
 (2) Quadrature Upconverter Issues

-The performance of RF transceivers can be seriously deteriorated by a phenomenon called

I/Q imbalance.

-I/Q imbalance is attributed to the relative amplitude and phase mismatch between I- and Q-
branches in vector-modulated RF transceivers.

- Carrier leakage
 Carrier Leakage
The analog baseband circuitry producing the quadrature signals in the transmitter exhibits
dc offsets, and so does the baseband port of each upconversion mixer.

The upconverter output therefore contains a fraction of the unmodulated carrier:

called “carrier leakage,” and is quantified as:

 Carrier Leakage will lead to two adverse effects:

- distorting the signal constellation
- making it difficult for power control.
 (3) Upconverter Linearity

 Excessive nonlinearity in the baseband port of upconversion mixers can

corrupt the signal or raise the adjacent channel power (ACP).

Consider the GMSK signal and suppose the baseband I/Q inputs experience a nonlinearity
given by α1x + α3x3. The upconverted signal assumes the form:

Pls, check it yourself!

 The second term also represents a GMSK signal but with a threefold
modulation index, thereby occupying a larger bandwidth.
 For variable-envelope signals, A3(t) appears in both terms of equation above
leading to much more corruption in ACP.
 Spectral Regrowth: Constant vs. Variable Envelope

Constant Envelope

Suppose A(t) = Ac

 Shape of the spectrum in the vicinity of ωc remains unchanged

Variable Envelope

Where xI and xQ(t) are the baseband I and Q components

 Spectrum “grows” when a variable-envelope signal passes through a nonlinear system.

 Spectral Regrowth at PA Output
Constant Envelope

Variable Envelope

 Constant Envelope: Shape of Spectrum unchanged with nonlinear PA (i.e., high efficiency)
 Variable Envelope: Spectrum grows  needs linear PA (i.e., low efficiency)
 Effect of Nonlinear Amplifier on 16-QAM Modulation
SimRF> SimRF Examples

Notice the spectrum regrowth at PA_out when the slider gain increased from 0.1 to 0.4. This
regrowth is due to the nonlinearity of the amplifier.
 Adjacent Channel Power (ACP)
GSM TX
Spectral
Mask

- The TX IM specifications are not enough since they are only based on two-tone excitation.

- Typically, actual modulation waveform needs to be tested with the PA.

-The amount of power leaking into an adjacent channel is carefully specified in each standard
( -30 dBc @ 200kHz GSM).

- Every standard has a transmit mask specification that must be met ( -60 dBc @ 400kHz GSM).

-This limits spectral regrowth, noise and inband spurious transmissions.

 Transmitter Phase Noise

LO Phase Noise

Transmitter noise is important for these reasons:

(1) Noise level should not significantly impact
the EVM/BER of the transmitter itself
( EVM =30% GSM).
(2) Phase Noise leaking into other receiving bands
may cause significant impairment in receiver BER,
thereby, TX design must meet the standard specs
(e.g., -162 dBc/Hz for GSM).
GSM: TX Specifications
 Transmitter must deliver an output of at
least 2 W in the 900-MHz band or 1 W in
the 1.8-GHz band
 Must be adjustable in steps of 2 dB from
+5 dBm to the maximum level

 The maximum noise that the TX can

emit in the receive band must be less
than -129 dBm/Hz.