Predicate Logic Exercises

Symbolizing Statements:
1. Not every marsupial is a kangaroo. (Mx: x is a marsupial; Kx: x is a kangaroo)
~(x)(Mx → Kx)
2. At least one mortal is human. (Mx: x is mortal; Hx: x is human)

(∃x)(Mx • Hx)

3. Some people are good and some people are not good. (Px: x is a person; Gx: x is good)

(∃x)(Px • Gx) • (∃x)(Px • ~Gx)

4. If neither Aristotle nor Boole is a logician, there are no logicians. (Lx: x is a logician; a:
Aristotle; b: Boole)

~(La ⋁ Lb) → ~(∃x)Lx

5. If anyone is sad, then he or she is not happy. (Sx: x is sad; Px: x is a person; Hx: x is
happy)
(x)[(Px • Sx) → ~Hx]

Finite Universe Method:

6. Test the validity of the following argument assuming a one-object universe with “a”.

(z)(Fz → ∼Gz), (∃z)(Fz • ∼Hz) ∴ (∃z)(Gz • Hz)

First substitute the variable z by a in the compound statements and remove the quantifiers
(z) and (∃z). Then put the 3 atomic statements and the premises with the conclusion in
an abbreviated truth table as follows. The hypothesis is true premises leads to a false
conclusion:

Fa Ga Ha Fa → ~Ga, Fa • ~Ha ∴ Ga • Ha
T F F T T TF T TT F F FF

Working backward, it can be shown in the abbreviated truth table above that there is an
assignment of truth values for the atomic statements (Fa, Ga, and Ha) that makes the
premises true but the conclusion false. This means the argument is invalid as
hypothesized!
7. Test the validity of the following argument assuming two-object universe with “a and b”.

(∃y)Ky → (∃y)Ly ∴ (y)(Ky → Ly)

First substitute the variable y by a and b in the compound statements and remove the
quantifier and (∃z). Then put the 4 atomic statements and the resulting premise and
conclusion in an abbreviated truth table as follows. The hypothesis is the true premise
leads to a false conclusion:

Ka Kb La Lb (Ka ⋁ Kb) → (La ⋁ Lb) ∴ (Ka → La) • (Kb → Lb)

T F F T T T F T F T T T F F F F T T

Working backward, it can be shown in the abbreviated truth table above that there is an
assignment of truth values for the atomic statements (Ka, Kb, La, and Lb) that makes the
premise true but the conclusion false. This means the argument is invalid as
hypothesized!