Cooling experiment

Conditions that needs to be constant fro a coming experiment

• Room temperature
• Draught
• Type of insulation
• Volume of water
• Initial temperature

Additional experiment
Experiment without controlling independent factors . Compare control experiment to the
original experiment and see effectiveness of a factor with the results

Initial temperature of water affects rate of cooling also. If the initial temperature is high
then the cooling is rapid . Compare the temperature during the initial times and the end
time to explain the effect of initial temperature on the rate of cooling . Metal can , lower
room temperature , large wide beaker , and more draught can also increase the rate of
cooling .

Source of inaccuracy
Heat loss , thermometer reading not stabilised , temperature of the waters not same

Increasing accuracy
Insulation , same room temperature , same starting temperature

Reading thermometer
Read the thermometer perpendicular to the eyesight , had when the reading has
stabilised , stir before reading

Reading measuring cylinders

Read perpendicular and read from the bottom of the meniscus / mercury is an exception

Moments

Placing the mass accurately

• Add half width of mass to the mark at the edge of the mass
• Calculate mean value of marks at both edges

Large values have less effect from errors and provides more accurate results

The mass should have a regular shape (such as cube ) and have small contact with the
rule to find the distance easily .

To find point of balance , move one to one on side until it just tips and the move it to the
other side until it just tips back the other . Find the mean of the distance and obtain he
middle reading . To balance a rule , place the rule on a pivot and then move the rule
across the plot until you find the point in which it balances
Experiments on extensions

Factors to control - length of wire , coil spacing , thickness and material

Precautions
Clamp the retort , use small loads , don’t use loads that outstretch the springs , apply
force slowly when adding weights , repeat and take average , do trial experiments to
know what loads to use

Pendulam
Time taken for the oscillation of more than one is taken . Reduces the effect of errors
when starting and stoping the stop watch

Factors affecting the pendulum - amplitude of the swing , length of the pendulum , mass
of the pendulum bob , shape of the pendulum bob ,

Precautions

Use a reference point to aid counting of the oscillations

Viewing the rule at right angles to avoid any parallax error and correct use of a set square
along the rule .

Density - sources of inaccuracy

Difficult to brim and pour out water without losing some water , mass of the instrument
used for the measurement (measuring cylinder) is neglected in calculations . Formula
used for the volumes of the shape is not the exact formula for the shape ( either no
formula exists so hard to obtain exact values by a formula )

Light chapter

Refraction questions

Precautions - pin seperations must be at least 5cm apart . Ensure the pin is vertical and is
perpendicular to the paper , use thin lines or pins

Lens questions / any questions that involves a image forming on the screen

Precautions - conduct the experiment in a darkened room , fix the rule in position in the
bench , move the screen back and forth to find the best position of the image , mark the
centre of lens on its holder and illuminated image , screen and lens perpendicular to the
bench

Special cases -
if the experiment is to find the focal length , use different distances from the lens and find
the average for the focal length values
Also sometimes it is hard for people to recognise the best possible image that form on
the screen while moving the lens back and forth . This affect is called chromatic
aberration

When measuring the size of the image on the screen , our hand or the ruler can cut a
shadow on the screen by blocking the light from the source . A solution is to use a
translucent screen so that we can measure the image from back of the screen without
blocking out the screen

Precautions for the experiments including the screen can help to form clear , sharp , and
focused image

Reflection.-

Precautions

Point on the reflected ray must be as far as possible from the point of contact in mirror by
the incident ray . Inaccuracy affects smaller angles more

Electricity

Lesser the current = lesser the heating affect

Investigating resistance wires
Inaccuracy - difficult to judge the position of the crocodile clip , difficult to measure the
length of the wire to the nearest mm , difficult to interpolate readings in the ammeter and
the voltmeter , contact between the the wire and the crocodile clip not precise