CURRICULUM STUDIES LECTURE NOTES

Definition of Curriculum
The term curriculum or plural curricula is derived from the Latin word currere, which means
"a race" or "the course of a race”. Based on this origin, some authorities have defined
curriculum as a course of study subject matter.
Other definitions of curriculum include;
 Curriculum encompasses all the learning of students which is planned by and
directed by the school to attain its educational goals. (Tyler, 1949).
 Curriculum is the planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance
of the school.’ (Wheeler, 1967).
 Curriculum all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the
educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when the
curriculum in implemented ( Print ,1993).

Curriculum can therefore be defined as all selected, organized, integrative, innovative and
evaluative educational experiences provided to learners consciously or unconsciously under
the school authority in order to achieve the designated learning outcomes for a particular
period of time.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM

The Intended Curriculum: This is what organisations develop for the learners in their
educational systems and what should be taught by the teachers in that system. The term is also
used to refer to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that curriculum developers
would like students to learn in school.
The available or supported curriculum: Curriculum which can be taught in schools through
the provision of appropriate resources, both human and material.
The Implemented or Instructional Curriculum: This is what is actually taught by teachers in
their classrooms as they and their learners interact with the intended and available curricula.
The implemented curriculum is often described in teacher’s scheme of work, lesson plans and
student’s notebooks.
Achieved or experiential curriculum: This is what learners actually learn as a result of their
interaction with the implemented curriculum. It is what the learner experiences through
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interaction with the teacher and the learning resources. The achieved curriculum includes both
the intended and unintended experiences of the learner.
Core curriculum: This is a group of subjects that all students in a certain type of school or
programme must study
Localised Curriculum: A type of curriculum which focuses on acquiring skills and knowledge
on local skills or skills found in the community around the schools. Skills taught are for
individual survival. Skills are passed from generation to generation by community member.
The Ideal or Recommended Curriculum: Curriculum proposed by scholars, researchers and
evaluators as a solution to meet the needs and consequently perceived as the most appropriate
curriculum for learners. It is what a nation aspires to achieve.
The entitlement Curriculum: It refers to what society believes learners should expect to be
exposed to as part of their learning to become effective member of that society.
Individualized curriculum: The type of curriculum tailored to meet the identified curricula needs
of a particular student or students.
 Individualization of curriculum involves;
a. Alterations in the pace at which a learner or learners grasp content or attain the
set objectives.
b. Refinement of curriculum objectives
c. Changes in curriculum content
Subject- centered curriculum: The type of curriculum which involves teaching of content aimed
at increasing child’s knowledge of a particular subject.
The hidden curriculum or covert: This is the type of learning that takes place in educational
institutions but is not explicit in curriculum documents. The hidden curriculum includes
unintended and negative outcomes from school settings, such as learning to dislike a subject.
There are many other terms and expressions which relate closely to the term ‘hidden
curriculum’ these include;
 Unwritten curriculum
 Null curriculum
The hidden curriculum consists of those learning experiences unintentionally passed on to
learners during the presentation of the intended curriculum. Learners receive hidden messages
from their participation in and outside the classroom activities.

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CURRICULUM COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS
Curriculum consists of four elements: Learning activities, intent, content and evaluation.
a) Content is the subject matter of the teaching and learning process. It includes; facts,
concepts, generalization and values.
b) Learning activities and experiences are activities which learners are engaged in
during the teaching and learning processes (what students need to do and experience in order to
attain objectives). Learning experiences are the interactions between the learner and conditions
within the external environment to which s/he can react and respond. These are activities that
are performed and experiences of the learner so as to move towards the attaining of definite
objectives.
c) Curriculum intent is Objectives (what students are expected to learn).Curriculum
intent is made up of aims, goals and objectives. Curriculum objectives are the criteria for the
selection of content, learning activities and experiences and the evaluation procedures.
d) Evaluation Techniques are ways of assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of the
development process, along with student achievement of intended outcome.
 Evaluation of the curriculum involves the judgment or worth of the quality of
curriculum materials, the teaching learning process, the implementation strategies and
the assessment procedures. It may also involve the evaluation of evaluations.

IMPORTANNCE OF CURRICULUM
a. Curriculum helps teachers and curriculum developers to formulate appropriate
objectives for learners.
b. Good curriculum plays an important of developing life-long learning competencies, as
well as social attitudes and skills.
c. Curriculum helps teachers to appreciate and understand the value of learning
experiences during the teaching and learning process.
d. Curriculum can be used as a means of providing solutions to identified social,
economic or educational challenges. For instance the demand for Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) for Sustainable Development has contributed to
the introduction of computer studies in the Zambian school curriculum.

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 e. Curriculum enables teachers to appreciate the value of evaluation a programme of
study.
f. A school’s curriculum provides a guide to teachers on the content and skills which must
be taught at each grade level.
g. A curriculum outlines for students a sequence of courses and tasks that must be
successfully completed to master a subject.
h. Curriculum is used as a means of attaining national goals through education.

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CURRICULUM THEORIES
 Curriculum theory (CT) is an academic discipline devoted to examining and shaping
educational curricula.Curriculum theories can be classified into: structure oriented,
value oriented, content oriented, knowledge centered, process oriented theory and
alternative curriculum approaches.

1. STRUCTURE-ORIENTED THEORIES: Focus on analyzing components of the

curriculum and their interrelationships. Structure-oriented theories are descriptive and
explanatory in intent.

Theories of Curriculum Development

Some of the different curriculum theories include social meliorism, John Dewey's theory, social
efficiency and developmentalism. Curriculum theories are used to shape and develop curriculum.
Since there is such a broad field of curriculum studies, there are a variety of theories used to
define the learning process of children.

 Social Meliorists Theory Those that believe that education reforms and changes society
for the better are social meliorists. This type of curriculum theory is based on the
individual student's intelligence and how to improve the intelligence by using education.
The person's future was not predetermined by his or her race or socioeconomic status but,
rather, by his or her education or lack thereof.
 John Dewey's Theory John Dewey's theory of curriculum focuses on the idea that
education should incorporate how a child views his or her world. This theory uses four
instincts to categorize a child's behavior. These instincts are expressive, constructive,
artistic and social. His theory connects the subjects that are taught to a child's everyday
life.
 Social Efficiency Theory The social efficiency theorist's goal is to educate children
according to his or her proficiency. In this educational model, each child is given an
intelligence quotient, or IQ, test. The scores from that test determine the course of
education for that child.
 Developmentalism Theory In developmentalism, children are educated according to
their emotional and behavioral qualities. Children's characteristics, rather than their IQ or
instincts, are the basis of the curriculum with this type of curriculum theory.
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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS

The ADDIE Model was first created for the U.S. Military during the 1970s by Florida State
University. ADDIE is an acronym for a five-phase course development process. The ADDIE
Model generally consists of five interrelated phases—Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation, and Evaluation. The ADDIE Model represents a flexible guideline for building
effective training and instructional materials. See each of the phases below:

Analysis
In the analysis phase of the ADDIE Model the instructional problem is identified. The
instructional goals, success metrics, and overall objectives are also established. Information
regarding the learner such as the learning environment, preferences, demographics, and existing
knowledge and skills are also identified during this phase.

Design
The design phase of the ADDIE Model nails down learning objectives, instructional methods and
activities, storyboards, content, subject matter knowledge, lesson outlines, and media assets.

Development
The development phase of the ADDIE Model is where instructional designers develop the
content and learning interactions outlined in the design phase. During this phase, content is
written and graphics, audio, and photography are also produced and assembled.

Implementation
During the implementation part of the ADDIE Model, the instructional designer delivers the
content and materials to Learning Management Systems (LMS) or directly to the trainer for live
training events. The instructional designer also provides training needed to trainers, facilitators,
SME's or instructors.

Evaluation
During the evaluation phase of the ADDIE Model, the instructional designer determines what
success will look like and how it will be measured. Often times, the evaluation consists of two
phases: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is iterative and is done throughout the
design and development processes. This occurs all throughout the ADDIE process. Summative

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evaluation consists of tests that are done after the training materials are delivered. The results
from these test help to inform the instructional designer and stake holders on whether or not the
training accomplished its original goals outlined in the analysis phase.

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CURRICULUM DESIGN
 Curriculum design is the systematic organization or arrangement of curriculum
elements in course or programme. Arrangement of elements of curriculum should
done in logical pattern.
 Curriculum design can be done based on the two dimensions of horizontal or vertical
integration.
Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

 Subject-centered design
 Learner-centered design
 Problem-centered design

Subject-centred designs
Subject-centered curriculum design focuses on a particular subject matter or discipline. Subject-
centred design focuses on body of knowledge or content of a particular subject such as
mathematics, English or computer studies unlike rather than on an individual’s needs.
Advantages
 It promotes of standardization of a particular subjects. Core curriculum is an example of a
subject-centered design.
 The subjects constitute a logical and effective method of organizing bodies of subject
matter, students can learn most economically and efficiently.
 Most teachers have been trained in subject curriculum, therefore, understand it better.
 Curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation is easier in the subject-centred design.
 The full intellectual powers of the student can be best developed through the study of
logically organized subjects matter.
 Textbooks and other curriculum packages on the education market tend to be organized to
fit the established subject categories.

Disadvantages of subject-centred design

 The design tends to fragment knowledge and therefore, the students’ understanding of the
content studied and yet knowledge exists as an integral whole.
 Due to excessive compartmentalization of information selected for inclusion in different
subjects, there are normally no relationships between subjects.
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 It puts excessive emphasis on content, and tends to ignore the interests, needs and
experiences of the students.
 The subject-centered curriculum is normally oriented towards examinations that test
memory rather than higher mental abilities.

Learner-Centred

Learner-centered curriculum design focuses on the learner or an individual’s needs interests

and educational goals.

 Learner-centered designs emphasize individual development and their approach to

organizing the curriculum emerges from the needs, abilities past experiences, interests
and purposes of students.
 Learner centered designs put into consideration the uniqueness of learners, hence does
not focuses on standardization of the curriculum but allow learners to shape their
education through choice of subjects.
 learner-centered designs leave room for variations and are not as

Advantages

 Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are not as rigid as they are in a subject-
centered curriculum design
 Learning is personalized, relevant and meaningful when student needs, interests, abilities
and experiences direct it.
 Learners are intrinsically motivated. Learners enjoy what they do, because they have
interest in activities.
 Learning becomes an active process for the students.
 Emphasis is on development of individual’s potential and interests.
 Process skills are developed. This enables learners to cope more adequately with the
demands of life.

Disadvantages
 Some critics charge that such a design does not adequately prepare learners for life since it
neglects social goals of education and the cultural heritage of the people.
 Learners experience a curriculum, which does not assure learning of useful content.

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 Learner centered designs are time consuming due to many activities that learners are
subjected to.

Problems-Centred
Problem centered design is a form of learner-centered design which focuses on teaching students
how to identify problems and come up with a solution to the problem.
 Problem-centered curriculum design seeks to provide learners with opportunities to
resolve problems that they are likely to encounter, or already are, in their life.
 Unlike the learner-centered designs, emphasis is placed on group welfare, group
activities and the group resolution of problems.
Advantages
 Helps learners develop skills that can be transferred to real-life situations.
 Putting learners in groups during problem solving enables studenst to appreciate and
develop skills of teamwork and collaboration.
 Problem centered design promotes retention and recall of information for a long period
of time, because learners are active participants in the learning process.
Disadvantages
 Problem centered designs are time consuming, in that constant monitoring by the
teacher is required. Solving of problems by students may equally consume time.
 Students subjected to problem-based learning may not perform well on standardized
tests, because they may not have adequate knowledge or content of a particular subject.

Core-Learning design is also one of the types of curriculum designs. Core learning is also
regarded as core curriculum. The design focuses on common learning (knowledge, skills and
values) that should be provided to all learners in order for them to function effectively in
society.

FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

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 1. The government
2. Religious groups
3. The community
4. Special interest groups
5. Other professionals

1. GOVERNMENT
The government has influence on curriculum development in that curriculum is seen as a means
of molding the country’s economy, ideologies and social welfare.

Government influences curriculum through:

 Educational policies, which are put in place by the central government. Educational
policies define government aims and goals.
 Funding of curriculum designs. Curriculum developers are funded by government,
especially in developing countries where education programmes are dependent on
government funding.
2. ECONOMIC FACTOR
Economics influences curriculum development.
Curriculum developed for in house training in corporations focuses on educating
employees for promotions that bring better returns in profits. Nations financing education
expect an economic return from educated students contributing to the country's economy
with global competition abilities in technical fields
Example
Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students
contributing to the country's economy with global competition abilities in technical fields
 4. Technological

2. Social factor
Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when
designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school system

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 should look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take in to account these
societal considerations.

Example
Subjects which has gender education and political economy have proved difficult to include in
the curriculum because of the resistance from some religious groups.
3
Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century.
The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level
of learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite
interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational
goals and learning experiences among students.

Example
v Undergraduate and graduate degrees in computer technology increases in popularity.
v Diversity
Curriculum development affect from diversity opens learning opportunities.

Social diversity including religion, culture and social groupings affects curriculum development
because these characteristics influence the types of topics and methods for teaching information.
Developing relevant curriculum takes into account society's expectations, accommodating group
traditions and promoting equality.

5. Environment
Environment issues affect curriculum development.

World awareness and action toward reversing and ending pollution continues affecting
curriculum development. Typical elementary classrooms teach recycling and healthy
environmental practices.

Example:
Higher education in the sciences offer environmentally-focused degrees. e.g
Environmental degree ,bio-technology etc.
6. Child psychology

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 Many students with a masters or PhD degree in developmental psychology work in educational
settings as school psychologists, which makes sense when considering the emphasis placed on
the formative years. However, there are several developmental psychology concentrations
available on which students can focus:

o Developmental Studies for Educators

o Aging
o Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence
o Lifespan Development
o Biological Bases of Development

Main Steps in Designing Curriculum

Curriculum for schools and colleges are developed at the national level by curriculum
development and research centres in most countries, while that for universities is prepared by
the institution concerned.
 Designing a curriculum can be conducted for a purpose of developing a new
curriculum or to modify an existing curriculum.
Steps that can be followed when designing:
1. Selection of educational objectives;
2. Selection of learning experiences;
3. Selection of content;
4. Organization of learning experiences and content; and
5. Evaluation.
The steps outlined may slightly differ depending on the type of curriculum development model
that is used to design the curricu
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODELS
Curriculum development models are often depicted in diagrammatic form. Graphical
models are used in curriculum development to enable curriculum developers to visualize
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 curriculum elements, their relationships, and the processes of development,
implementation and evaluation.
DEFINITIONS
 Curriculum development model is a theoretical framework for designing what students
are to learn in a particular based on desired objectives, learning experiences, teaching
techniques and evaluation procedures.
 Curriculum development model as a means of representing the components and
structure of the curriculum (Killen, 1986).
Rational /Objective Models

The objective model was first proposed by Ralph Tyler (1949) is also referred to as the
rational and classical model.
Characteristics of rational / objective models
i. The approaches stress emphasis on fixed sequence of curriculum elements, beginning
with objectives and following a sequential pattern from objectives to content, method
and finally evaluation.
ii. Objectives serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements, with evaluation indicating
the degree of achievement of those objectives.
iii. Rational models are linear in nature, starting with objectives and ending with
evaluation (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000).
iv. Two principal proponents of rational models are Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba.
Ralph Tyler’s rational model

Tyler (1949) referred to as the father of the curriculum movement argued that curriculum
development should be logical and systematic in nature. Further, he argued that to develop
any curriculum, one had to pose four fundamental questions:
1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
3. How can these educational experiences be organized effectively?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
 The four questions are a representation of the four steps which are the elements to be
considered and these are; Objectives, content, method and evaluation.

Tyler’s model of Curriculum process

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Tyler’s model has four stages, beginning with objectives followed by selection of learning
experiences, organizing of learning experiences and ending with evaluation.

Objectives What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

Selecting What educational experiences can be provided that

Of learning experiences are likely to attain these purposes?

Organizing How can these educational experiences be effectively

Learning experiences organized?

Evaluation How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Source: Tyler, 1949
 Tyler saw the task of curriculum development as a logical, sequential resolution to the
four questions posed.
 Once objectives had been determined, appropriate learning experiences could be
selected which in turn would require effective organization. The final step in Tyler’s
process was to determine whether the objectives had been achieved
Sources of objectives in education include but not limited to;
 The needs of learners
 The needs of the community and the nation
 Nature of subject matter
 Stages or processes of child development.

Hilda Taba’ Model

 Tuba was Tyler’s student and her curriculum development model was an extension of
Tyler’s model. The modification Tyler’s model was done to make the model more
representative of curriculum development.

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  Taba still maintained a linear in approach, but argued that more information input at
each stage of the curriculum process was required.
 She particularly suggested a dual consideration of content (logical organisation of the
curriculum) and the individual learner (psychological organisation of the curriculum).
 To emphasise her point, Taba claimed that all curricula are composed of fundamental
elements. ‘A curriculum usually contains some selection and organization of content.’
 Taba claimed that if curriculum development was to be a logical, orderly task, then one
needed to examine closely the order in which curriculum decisions are made and how
they were applied.
Taba’s model of the curriculum process
Step 1. Diagnosis of needs
Step 2. Formulation of objectives
Step 3. Selection of content
Step 4. Organisation of content
Step 5. Selection of learning experiences
Step 6. Organisation of learning experiences
Step 7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it
Diagnostic of needs
 Diagnostic of needs is the process of finding out the needs and challenges that people
face in the community. Diagnostic of needs helps to understand the needs of the
learners and community when developing the curriculum.
Formulation of objectives
 Objectives are formulated based on the needs of learners and the community.
Educational objectives are specific outcomes, whose functions is to Provide guidance
on what to include in the curriculum (content to be selected), what to cover and the
learning experiences to be considered.
Selection of content
 Content should be relevant to the learners and should address the needs of the
community and the nation. If content does not meet the needs of learners and
community, curriculum change or reforms is inevitable.

Organization of content

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  Curriculum content should be sequenced appropriately to enable learners grasp the
concepts easily. Content should be orderly presented and in line with the objectives.
Selection and organizing of learning experiences
 For learning to occur, learners should be exposed to activities and experiences.
Selection of content should be accompanied by learning activities and objectives.
 Learning experiences and activities should organized according to students age,
interests and abilities.
Evaluation
 Understanding the success or failure of the curriculum or programme is possible
through evaluation. Evaluation processes focus on what elements should be evaluated
and techniques to be used.
Strengths of rational models
1. Rational models are logical in nature. The sequence of developing curriculum
beginning with objectives and ending with evaluation helps curriculum developers to attach
logic to curriculum development process.
2. The logical and sequential structure of rational models helps to lessen confusion
characterized with curriculum development. Beginning with other elements, such as content or
evaluation may lead confusion in curriculum planning.
3. Emphasis the role and value of objectives in curriculum development enables
curriculum developers to think seriously about curriculum development process.

Weaknesses of rational models

1. Teaching and learning processes are unpredictable. The rational model stresses
emphasis specific objectives to be achieved, but often learning occurs beyond these objectives
due to factors that could not have been foreseen.
2. Leaving evaluation process at the end of the curriculum process may result in
irreversible damage to the learners during the learning process.
3. Overemphasis on formulating measurable outcomes may cause problems as time, being
valuable resource in learning and curriculum development process. Some curriculum
developers spend more time to formulate behavioural objectives precisely.

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CYCLICAL MODELS
Cyclical models are an extension of the rational models. Wheeler (1967), A former member of
the University of Western Australia developed and extended the ideas forwarded by Ralph Tyler and
particularly Hilda Taba.

Characteristics of cyclic model

 Cyclical model present curriculum process in a circular form.
 Cyclical models are Logical and sequential in nature.
 Cyclical models view elements of curriculum as inter-related and interdependent
 cyclical models present the curriculum process as a continuing activity, which is
constantly in a state of change as new information or practices become available
 Cyclical models incorporate elements of both the rational and dynamic models.
 Cyclical models incorporate the component of Situational Analysis an element introduced In
the 1970s in curriculum development process.

D. K. Wheeler’s cyclical model

Wheeler (1967) developed and extended the ideas forwarded by Tyler and Taba by formulating
a cyclical model with five interrelated phases in the curriculum development process. Wheeler
argued that curriculum developers should employ a cyclical process in which the elements are
related and interdependent to each other.
Wheeler’s phases of curriculum process
1. Selection of aims, goals and objectives.
2. Selection of learning experiences to help achieve these aims, goals and objectives.
3. Selection of content through which certain types of experiences may be offered.
4. Organization and integration of learning experiences and content with respect to the
teaching-learning process.
5. Evaluation of each phase and the attainment of goals.

Wheeler’s model of the curriculum process

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 2. Selection of
1. Aims, goals
learning
and objectives
experiences

3. Selection of
5. Evaluation
content

4. Organization
and integration
of learning
experiences
and content

 Wheeler’s greatest contribution to curriculum development is his emphasis on the

cyclical nature of the curriculum process and the interdependent nature of the curriculum
elements and this contribution has stood the test of time well.

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Audrey and Howard Nicholls cyclical model

In their book Developing a Curriculum: A Practical Guide (1978), Audrey and Howard
Nicholls devised a cyclical approach that covered the elements of curriculum briefly but
succinctly. The Nicholls model emphasized the logical approach to curriculum development,
particularly where the need for new curricula emerged from changed situations. They argued
that ‘ … change should be planned and introduced on a rational and valid basis according to a
logical process, and this has not been the case in the vast majority of changes that have already
taken place’ (Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978:17).

Figure 3.4 Nicholls model of the curriculum process

Situation
Evaluation
Analysis

Selection
and
organization Selection of
of methods Objectives

Selection
and
organization
of Content

Source: After A. and H. Nicholls, 1978.

They refined the work of Tyler, Taba and Wheeler by emphasizing the cyclical nature of the
curriculum process and the need for a preliminary step – a situational analysis. They further
contended that before the more obvious elements in the curriculum process are undertaken, the
context or situation in which curriculum decisions are made requires detailed and serious

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consideration. Situation analysis then is a preliminary stage upon the curriculum they are
devising. The Nicholls assets that the five interdependent stages needed in this continuous
curriculum process are:
1. Situation analysis
2. Selection of objectives
3. Selection and organization of content
4. Selection and organization of methods
5. Evaluation
The inclusion of the situation analysis phase was a deliberate move to enable curriculum
developers to be more responsive to their environment and particularly to the needs of the
learners. They also argued for a much wider and more comprehensive approach to diagnosis ,
an analysis of all the factors which make up the total situation followed by the use of
knowledge and insights derived from this analysis in curriculum planning.
1.1.1 Strengths of cyclical models
1. While cyclical models incorporate the advantages inherent in objective models, they
also overcome many of the latter’s disadvantages as well. Thus, cyclical models exhibit the
strengths derived from a logical sequential structure upon which curricula may be devised. For
example, such models, by emphasizing the role of aims, goals and objectives, require the
curriculum developer to have conceptualized the task before proceeding. This enhances
rational thinking with the probability that a more effective curriculum will result.
2. By employing situational analysis as a starting point, cyclical models provide baseline
data upon which effective objectives may be devised. Although Wheeler did not refer to
situational analyses specifically, he did examine the sources of aims and goals. Certainly
objectives cannot be phrased in a vacuum and it is the data, both quantitative and qualitative
(including intuitive), that are obtained by undertaking a situational analysis that helps
curriculum developers make effective decisions.
3. The nature of cyclical modes is such that the various elements of curriculum are seen to
be in continuous motion, able to cope with new situations and consequently reacting to
changing circumstances. The model is flexible in that as the situation changes so corresponding
changes are made to subsequent elements of the model. The model allows for, and indeed
demands, a revision of the new situation and subsequent changes to the other curriculum
elements.

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4. In countries where the curriculum is decentralized, the cyclical models being less rigid
in their application, are more relevant to school situations and hence are more appropriate to
curriculum development by teachers.

1.1.2 Weaknesses of cyclical models

Inherent weaknesses within cyclical models are more difficult to locate largely because
curriculum developers so successfully employ this approach to the curriculum process. As a
model must begin somewhere, the cyclical model commences with a situational analysis and
then proceeds through the successive elements of curriculum.
1. Once the cycle has been established it is possible that the stimulus for change may be
originated from any curriculum element. For instance where a school curriculum is in
operation the need to revise the cycle may originate with new content, a different approach to
teaching-learning being adopted from the results of an evaluation. Nevertheless, once the
stimulus for revision has been initiated within the cycle, it needs to run its course as it impacts
on subsequent elements.
2. A second weakness of this model arises for many people from its apparently logical and
sequential nature. For many, cyclical models are little different from rational models and hence
maintain the weaknesses described in the rational models.
3. Third, the manner in which the model is implemented may be construed as a weakness.
A fundamental problem in utilizing such models is the amount of time required to undertake an
effective situational analysis. In order to be well appraised of the situation, developers must
employ numerous techniques to elicit data about the learning situation. This can become
extremely time consuming.

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1.2 Dynamic or Interactive models
The interactive or dynamic models offer an alternative view of the process of the curriculum
development. Proponents of these models argue that the rational and cyclical models do not
reflect the reality of curriculum development in educational organizations. The curriculum
process, they contend does not follow a linear, sequential pattern. Rather, curriculum
development can commence with any curriculum element and proceed in any order. Indeed,
curriculum developers may move through the various elements of curriculum several times
before they are satisfied with the final curriculum product. Moreover, the needs of learners are
seen as more important in determining curriculum planning than some predetermined set of
information to be acquired.

It should be noted that the dynamic models have emerged from a more descriptive approach to
curriculum where researchers have observed the behaviour of teachers and developers as they
devise curricula. This they argue represents the essential base for formulating theory. Several
writers have produced interpretations of dynamic models of the curriculum process. However,
two significant contributions outlined in the subsequent paragraphs have been developed by
Decker Walker (1971) and Malcolm Skilbeck (1976).
1.2.1 Decker Walker
In the early 1970s Decker Walker argued that the objective or rational models of the
curriculum process were, contrary to accepted opinion in the literature, neither popular nor
successful. Walker (1971) contended that curriculum developers do not follow the prescriptive
approach of the rational sequence of curriculum elements when they devise curricula. Rather,
they proceed through three phases in their preparation of curricula as seen in figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Walker model of the curriculum process

(beliefs theories conceptions points of view aims, objectives)

Platform

Deliberations

(applying them to practical situations, arguing about,

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accepting, refusing, changing, adapting

Curriculum Design

(Making decisions about the various process components)

Source: After D. Walker, 1972.
Walker’s model was derived from his analysis of reports on curriculum projects which he
personally participated in. This analysis led him to describe what he saw as a ‘natural’ model
of the curriculum process. It is a naturalistic model in the sense that it was constructed to
represent phenomena and relations observed in actual curriculum projects as faithfully as
possible with a few terms and principles.
Walker argues that in the first stage, ‘the platform’, curriculum developers recognize
statements. These statements consist a hotchpotch of ideas, preferences, points of view, beliefs
and values that are held about the curriculum. They may not be defined clearly or even
logically, but they form the basis or platform upon which future curriculum decisions are made
by curriculum developers. Walker further suggests that ‘The platform includes an idea of what
is and a vision of what ought to be and these guide the curriculum developer in determining
what he should do to realize his vision’ (1971:52).
Once the interaction between individuals begins, they are then said to enter the deliberation
phase. During this phase individuals defend their own platform statements. Together these
events provide a situation where developers seek to clarify their ideas and reach a consensus.
From this apparently chaotic period, the deliberative phase produces considerable illumination.
The deliberation phase is not precisely laid out in a series of steps or procedures as would
occur in an objectives model. It is a complex randomized set of interactions that eventually
achieves an enormous amount of background work before the actual curriculum is designed.
The final phase of Walker’s model is what he terms ‘design’. In this phase developers make
decisions about the various process curriculum elements. Individuals reach decisions after
extended discussion and compromise. The decisions are then recorded and these become the
basis for a curriculum document or specific
curriculum materials.
To conclude, it is useful to view Walker’s model in comparison with the classical, objective
model that he condemned.
This model is primarily descriptive, whereas the classical model is prescriptive. This model is
basically postulates a beginning (the platform), an end (the design), and process (deliberation)
by means of which the beginning progresses to the end.

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In contrast, the classical model is a means-end model: it postulates a desired end (the
objectives), a means for attaining this end (the learning experience), and a process (evaluation)
for determining whether the means does indeed bring about the end. The two models differ
radically in the roles they assign to objectives and to evaluation in the process of curriculum
development. (Walker, 1971:58-9)
1.2.2 Malcolm Skilbeck
A former, director of Australia’s Curriculum Development Centre, Malcolm Skilbeck, posited
an alternative interactive or dynamic model. In a well-publicised article, Skilbeck (1976)
suggested an approach for devising curriculum at the school level. To support his argument he
provided a model by which teachers could realistically develop appropriate curricula.

Figure 3.6 Skilbeck’s model of the Curriculum process.

Situation analysis

Goal formulation

Program building

Interpretation and

Implementation

Monitoring, feedback,

Assessment, reconstruction

Source: After M. Skilbeck, 1976

Dynamic or interactive models suggest that the curriculum developer may commence
with any curriculum element and proceed in any sequence rather than the fixed sequence
advocated by the rational model. Skilbeck supports this notion, although he adds that it is
important that developers be aware of the source of their objectives. To understand these
sources, he contends, a situational analysis must be undertaken. The model claims that for

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school based curriculum development to work effectively, five steps are required in the
curriculum process.

While it is tempting to argue that the apparent logical order of the model is rational by nature,
Skilbeck warns not to fall into the trap. He suggests that curriculum developers may commence
their planning at any of the five stages and proceed in any order, perhaps even handling
different stages concurrently. Thus the model outlined does not presuppose a means-end
analysis at all; it simply encourages teams or groups of curriculum developers to take into
account different elements and aspects of the curriculum development process, to see the
process as an organic whole and to work in a moderately systematic way.
1.2.3 Strengths of interaction models
Proponents of dynamic models of the curriculum process claim that these are far more realistic
ways of handling curriculum development. By avoiding the obsession with writing
objectives, and indeed behavioural objectives at that, developers are free to be more creative.
Certainly there is substantial teacher resentment to the writing of excessive number of
objectives, particularly when they are required to be expressed in behavioural terms. Thus
interactive models are more realistic, feasible procedures for curriculum development,
especially from the viewpoint of the overworked classroom teacher.
Such models also offer developers considerable flexibility when approaching the
development task. This flexibility emerges from the suggestion that developers may
commence at any point in the curriculum process that is appropriate to their needs. Certainly
the objectives model, and to a lesser extent the cyclical model, require developers to proceed in
a rigid, sequential order. Furthermore, dynamic models allow for flexible movement within the
curriculum process so that developers may move about in any order of events, retrace their
steps and proceed in whatever way they find preferable. This lack of constraint is prized highly
by many developers of curriculum.
Finally, it can be argued that interaction models reflect the reality of curriculum development,
albeit complex and confusing. By reflecting the situation, particularly in schools, it can be
claimed that a more suitable, less dysfunctional approach is advocated to those learning the
task of curriculum development.
1.2.4 Weaknesses of interaction models
Interactive models provide little guidance to curriculum developers and this facilitates
confusion rather that clarity. A question that is often asked by opponents of interaction
models is – How do you know where you going if you pose few or no objectives? If
objectives provide guidance and direction, the argument goes, then they must be stated in order
to be effective. Although Skilbeck refers to goals, he plays down their impact, particularly in
terms of their planning capabilities. Walker also refers to aims and objectives but sees them as
only one of several factors that comprise platform statements. Thus one important weakness of

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models, some would claim, is the lack of emphasis placed on the construction and use of
objectives and the direction they can provide.

It could also be claimed that by not following a logical sequence in developing curricula,
curriculum developers waste significant amounts of time meandering around the
curriculum maze, spending time in the deliberative stage is time lost from effective
development and, in turn, this may partly account for the curriculum confusion evident in
schools.

They are numerous weaknesses with the interaction model of the curriculum process.
However, this must be tempered with the knowledge that other approaches to devising
curricula have weaknesses as well.

STRENTH

 Strengths of cyclical models ¨logical sequential structure ¨situational analysis as a starting point
¨model is flexible ¨less rigid, more relevant

 11. Weaknesses of cyclical models ¨ logical and sequential nature ¨ A fundamental problem in
utilizing such models is the amount of time required to undertake an effective situational analysis.

Secondly, cyclical models view elements of the curriculum as interrelated and

interdependent, so that the distinctions between the elements, as in the rational model are less
clear. For example a developer, who is considering content, may also suggest ideas for
teaching methodology, although the consolidation of these teaching strategies would come
later. Instead of regarding them as rigidly separate categories, cyclical models more
realistically accept a degree of interaction between the various curriculum elements.

In the 1970s a new element called situational analysis was introduced into the curriculum
process of cyclical models. Situational analysis involves the analysis of those factors which
exist in the environment where the curriculum is to be introduced. In this way the
subsequent curriculum more accurately reflects the needs of the learners for whom it is
intended. This element is integral to the dynamic models. Of the many cyclical models that are
there, two will be discussed in the following paragraphs. The two that are selected for this
study have both been influential over the past two decades.

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THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
National Curriculum Development Centres
Curriculum development processes in different countries and states are spearheaded by
National curriculum development centres or institutes of education. Curriculum Development
Centre is responsible for curriculum development in Zambia.
 National Curriculum development centers have subject panels which are composed of
teachers, teacher educators, inspectors of schools, university lecturers, religious leaders
and other interested parties that develop curriculum materials under the direction of the
staff of the curriculum development centres. The legal responsibility for curriculum
development belongs to these centres.
Main stages of the curriculum development process
Curriculum development being a continuous process require the involvement of interested
parties for substantive input from subject area specialists, teachers, inspectors of schools,
religious leaders and representatives of other relevant organizations.
 The stages in curriculum development begin with policy decisions, followed by
conceptualization, planning, and development of instructional material, piloting of new
curriculum, curriculum implementation and quality control.
Stage One: Policy Decisions
Policy decisions focuses on general education issues or proposals for development of specific
subjects. General policy includes aims and goals of education, structure of the education
system, place of technical education and curriculum areas of different levels.
 Education policies are used as guidelines by curriculum development teams. The
government through the Ministry of Education is responsible for policy making for
education.
 Government or political system should appoint or contract researchers and evaluators to
define the problems facing the country or society at large, collect data, analyse it, draw
conclusions and make recommendations on the type of education the learners should
receive, the system of education that the country should have and the most appropriate
curriculum for the education.
Stage Two: Conceptualisation
 Conceptualisation stage is when curriculum developers conduct needs assessment. The
main objective is to determine the views of students, teachers, parents, community
leader and stakeholders on exiting and intended curricula.
 Curriculum developers should also project into the needs of society in a few years time.
 After the baseline surveys, national workshops are held. The main aim of the
workshops is to define needs and problems and create a consensus. The participants

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 include educators, representatives of non-governmental organizations, religious leaders
and professionals from other fields.
 After the workshop, curriculum specialists carry out a situational analysis of the
existing curriculum to find out the extent to which the proposed content has been
included in various subjects.
 Situational analysis is followed by a study on educational theories and a survey of
educational practices in other countries. It is during this stage that the curriculum
development team identifies problems in the existing situation, the needs of the learners
and society and conceptualises the curriculum which if implemented will contribute to
the solution of the problems.

Stage Three: Planning

Planning stage is when curriculum developers strategies on development and implementation
of proposed curriculum. Issues examined include the following:
 The subjects to be taught and how much time will be allocated.
 The scope and sequence of each subject.
 Means of financing curriculum development and its implementation, including sources
of funds.
 Starting and completion period of developing new curriculum materials.
 Identification of people responsible for the construction of buildings and provision of
facilities and equipment.
 Training of teachers, standards and quality assurance officers, teacher advisory tutors
and examiners.
 Recruitment and deployment of teachers;
 Procedure for implementing curriculum (piloted or not)
 Assessment and examinations; and
 Plan of action.
Using data from baseline surveys, the situation analysis and the national workshops,
curriculum development teams develop a plan of the curriculum. It is during this stage that
curriculum designs and syllabuses are drafted and presented of the course panel and academic
board for approval.

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Stage Four: Development of Instructional Materials
 This is a stage when curriculum developer’s focus on development pupil’s books and
teacher’s guides are developed by teams of writers including teachers, teacher
educators, quality assurance and standards officers, teachers’ advisory tutors,
curriculum developers and other professionals.
Stage Five: Try out/Pilot of the New Curriculum
This the stage of trying out materials that have been developed, evaluated and modifications
made.
 Piloting of books is done in selected educational institutions. At this stage the
curriculum materials, teaching strategies and activities are tried out among a sample of
learners for whom the curriculum is being developed.
 Selecting pilot schools is done in close collaboration with provincial directors of
education and district education officers.
 Head teachers, teachers, teacher advisory tutors, quality assurance and standards
officers and educational administrators involved in the pilot project about the project
are informed about the programme.
 The Ministry also works hand in hand with the mass media and other forums to
sensitise teacher educators, parents and community about the projects.
 Orientation courses for teachers, quality assurance and standards officers, and other
people involved in the implementation of the project are conducted.
 Trial materials are distributed to schools and teachers’ advisory centres.
 Utilizing the material in pilot schools.
 Monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the project in the pilot schools.
 Curriculum material are revised on the basis of feedback from the pilot stage.
Stage Six: Curriculum Implementation
 After the new curriculum material have been thoroughly evaluated and revised, they are
implemented nationally.

Stage Seven: Quality Control

 During this stage, quality assurance and standards officers, and teacher advisory tutors
organize courses for teachers in local centres and nationally. In addition, the curriculum
is continuously monitored and evaluated to determine its effectiveness.

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Major Stages in the Curriculum Development Cycle used by most Curriculum
Development Centres in Africa

Stage 1: Policy Decision

Stage 2: Conceptualisation

1. Explore and understand the current situation

2. Conduct a needs assessment
3. Problem identification

Stage 3: Planning

1. Determine goals and objectives

2. Stage specific objectives
3. Select solutions to help achieve the goals
4. Develop action plan E
5. Develop curriculum designs and syllabuses
6. Evaluate curriculum designs and syllabuses
V
Stage 4: Developing of Instructional Materials

1. Develop learner’s books and teacher’s guides

A
2. Give evaluate pupil’s books and teacher’s guides
3. Give orientation to pilot school teachers

L
Stage 5: Try Out / Pilot

1. Trial test materials and teaching strategies in selected schools

2. Collect data for curriculum revision
U
3. Conduct summative evaluation
4. Modify curriculum materials
5. Print and publish textbooks
A

Stage 6: Curriculum Implementation

1. Create public awareness of the new curriculum T

2. Give orientation to teachers, tutors, and other implementers
3. Distribute curriculum material to schools
4. Adapt the curriculum to local situations I
5. Utilize the curriculum

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 Stage 7: Quality Control

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ADAPTING CURRICULUM
Adapting Curriculum for Learners with Special Educational Needs

Curriculum adaptation is a type of curriculum that provides special means of access to the
curriculum through special equipment, facilities or resources. A Curriculum that provides
modification of the environment and specialist teaching techniques. A curriculum which pays
particular attention to the social structure and emotional climate in which education takes place
( Brennan ,1985)

 Curriculum adaptation for exceptional learners involves modification or accommodation

of the curriculum. Modifications are changes in the curriculum to suit an individual’s
impairment for learning purposes, or age appropriate grade level expectations, where as
accommodation refer to the way students are taught to enable them to demonstrate
regular grade level expectations. It also focuses on the learning environment and
teaching techniques as well as equipment and learning resources.

Adapted curriculum for Visually Impaired Learners

 Adapted curriculum for the visually impaired learners can involve modification or
accommodation of the curriculum. Adapted curriculum for visually impaired learners
should include;
a. Orientation and mobility skills. Orientation and mobility enables an individual
with visual impairment to understand one’s location in a given environment
(orientation), coupled with the ability to physically move through the
environment safely and independently (mobility)(Kirk et al.,2006).
b. Teaching Braille. Braille is a system of touch developed by Lous Braille, a
Frenchman who was visually impaired in 1829 (Kirk et al., 2006). Adaptations in
curriculum of visually impaired learners require the use of Braille. Print materials
given to other learners must also be made available to the visually impaired
learners using Braille, at the same time to avoid gaps in learning. This will help
the curriculum or materials easily accessible to such learners, hence
accommodating them in the learning process.

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 c. Use of assistive devices: Children with visually impairment can be
accommodated and adapted to the learning environment through the use a variety
of teaching and learning equipment, depending on their severity. among the items
or equipment commonly owned by visually impaired students are ; portable
Braille embosser, tape recorder, print magnification tool, laptop computer with
speech or large print output and scanner with optical character recognition for
input of printed text to computer. (Shepherd, 2001).
d. Adjusting content. Reducing complex topics or contents to the level of easy
concept grasping by learners can be more beneficial to learners with visual
impairments. Task analysis is breaking down of complex information to easily
teachable lessons. The teacher can break down topics to allow learners with
difficulties in learning to grasp the concepts with less difficulty, hence
accommodating every learner for effective teaching and learning experiences.
e. Modification of school infrastructure: The use of door numbering system in
both Braille and print can help learners with visual impairment have easy access
to different rooms. This can help to remove barriers in their education access.
Removing barriers include attaching Braille symbols to elevators, widening doors
for wheel chair access and making buildings easily accessible (Kirk et
al.,2006)

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 Curriculum Considerations for Learners with Intellectual
Disabilities and Developmental Delay

 Consider teaching them the following

 Functional Maths : Maths for every day use

 Functional Reading: Reading basic everyday use vocabulary

 Daily living Skills: The Activities of Daily Living are a series of basic activities performed by
individuals on a daily basis necessary for independent living at home or in the community. There
are many variations on the definition of the activities of daily living, but most organizations
agree there are 5 basic categories.

 Personal hygiene: personal hygiene includes; Bathing/showering, grooming, nail care, and oral
care.
 Dressing : Skills under dressing include the ability to make appropriate clothing decisions and
physically dress/undress oneself
 Preparing meals/Eating : some learners have challenges to feed themselves. Teaching learning
table manners, feeding themselves and preparing meals is necessary .
 Maintaining continence : learners should be taught how to use a restroom, including the ability
to get on and off the toilet and cleaning oneself
 Transferring/Mobility- moving oneself from seated to standing, getting in and out of bed, and
the ability to walk independently from one location to another
 Use Of Task Analysis Method
Task analysis is breaking down of complex information to easily teachable lessons. The
teacher can break down topics to allow learners with difficulties in learning to grasp the
concepts with less difficulty, hence accommodating every learner for effective teaching
and learning experiences.

 Interactive communication

 Pre Vocational skills

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 Curriculum considerations for children with Physical Disabilities
and health impairments
 Physical impairments are dysfunctions of the musculoskeletal and/or neurological body
system, which affects the functional ability of an individual to move or co-ordinator
movement.
 Some conditions associated with physical impairments include cerebral palsy, spina
bifida, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, scoliosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, congenital
malformation of the limbs and amputations, (Estonia,2014). Health impairments means
having limited strength, vitality or alertness to environmental stimuli, due to chronic or
acute health problems such as asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, heart conditions, hemophilia,
lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, sickle cell anemia, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.

Considerations for adaptation may include;

 Classroom physical layout

 Ambulation training

 Daily Living Skills

 Adapted Physical Education

 Physiotherapy

 Involvement of physicians for those with health impairments.

Adapted curriculum for Hearing Impairments

Hearing impairment is a general term, which describes all degrees and types of hearing loss
irrespective of its cause, and the age at which it was acquired (Ashman and Elkins, 1990).
Variables such as cause, type, age of on set and degree of hearing loss combine to produce a
unique impact upon an individual’s personal, social, intellectual and educational development.

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 • Use Of Total Communication
The use of speech, signs, body language, pictures and other forms of communication is
beneficial to learners with residual hearing.
• Use Of Appropriate Sign Language
Effective use of sign language, especially Zambian sign language is necessary for
learners with hearing impairment.
• Enhancing Finger-Spelling In Learners
Encouraging learners with hearing impairments to spell out words enables them to
improve on spellings and effective communication.
• Use Of Visual Objects
Hearing impaired learners depend on sight for learner. Visual objects help learners to
grasp the concepts easily.
• Use Of Demonstration
Learner with hearing impairments can easily understand or comprehend the information
if demonstration method is used.
• Use Of Recorded Lessons/ Lectures
Lessons to can recorded on video camera and played to learners in a resource room and
this can help learners to revise on various topic and for reference purposes.
• Modification Of Tests And Examinations
Learners with hearing impairment have limited vocabulary, hence face challenges to
understand some question meant for learners who are hearing. Modifying test items to
suit learners with hearing impairments can be beneficial to the learners.

Importance of adapted curriculum for Children with Special Educational Needs

 Adapted curriculum helps to accommodate learners with special educational needs in

learning institutions and provide them with appropriate services.
 Helps learners to benefit from the use of teaching methods that suit their
impairments.

37 | P a g e
  Helps learners with impairments to have access to others services from other
professionals such as physiotherapy, speech therapy, guidance and counseling, social
services among others.
 Helps students to acquire knowledge at their own pace due to individualized
attention.
 Helps learners with impairments to acquire skills of self-reliance, skills for daily
living and pre-vocational skills.
 Adapted curriculum facilitates appropriate placement of learners with impairments in
learning institutions.
 Adapted curriculum facilitates the development of Individualized Education Plan
(IEP) for Learners with special Educational Needs.
 Adapted curriculum helps to reduce stigma and promotes positive discrimination for
learners with Special Educational Needs.

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 References
Brennan, W.K.(1985). Curriculum for Special Needs, Philadelphia: Open University
Press.
Hatlen,P.(1996) Instructional Strategies for Teaching Children and Youths with Visual
Impairments.Washington: Heldred Publication.
Hatlen,P.(2000). Instructional Strategies for Teaching Children and Youths with Visual
Impairments.Washington: Heldred Publication.
Hooper,R. (1975). The Curriculum: Context, Design and Development. Edinburgh: Open
University press.
Kalabula,M.D.(2007).Special Education in Zambia, Lusaka: Musumali Press.
Kar,C. (1992). Exceptional Children: their Psychology and Education. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers.
Kirk,S.A., Gallagher,J.J., Anastasiow,N.J.,Coleman,M.R.(2006). Education Exceptional
Children.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Miller,C.(2003). Expanded Core Curriculum for Blind and Visually Impaired Students.
Available at :http://www.tsbvi.edu/agenda.htm
Ministry of Education (1996). Educating Our Future, Lusaka: Ministry of Education
Rosenberg,M.S., Westling,D.L., and Mc Leskey (2011).Special Education For Today’s
Teachers (2nd ed) Boston: Pearson.
Shepherd, I. (2001). Providing Learning Support for Blind and Visually Impaired
Students. Available at :http: www.glos,ac.uk/gdn/disabil/blind/index.htm

1.3 Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting data for the sake
of facilitating decision making at various stages of the curriculum development and
implementation processes. Evaluation of curriculum materials, such as syllabuses, textbooks,
teacher’s guides and radio programmes, goes on all the time. Curriculum developers are
expected to systematically gather evidence during all stages of the curriculum development and
implementation processes for the purpose of improving the curriculum and reviewing aspects
of the curriculum that are too difficult for the learners to comprehend.
1.3.1 Functions of Curriculum Evaluation
The functions of curriculum evaluation are briefly described below:

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1. Identifying Educational Needs
The first function of curriculum evaluation is to identify educational needs. Before a new
curriculum is developed, it is normally necessary for curriculum specialists to carry out a needs
assessment to identify appropriate educational objectives. This is because the curriculum of
schools and colleges in any country must be a reflection of the felt needs of the community if
education is to be relevant to the needs of society.
2. Curriculum Revision
A second function of evaluation is to revise the curriculum. The process is known as formative
evaluation. It’s major aim is improvement of the curriculum that is being developed. At the
national curriculum development centres, the curriculum goes through a variety of stages
before the final product. One of these stages focuses on an evaluation of the objectives and
content of the curriculum before learning activities are created. Once the curriculum has been
implemented, the curriculum developer and evaluator visit the classroom to watch the class use
the materials and to observe the teacher and talk with him/her about the materials.
3. Determining if objectives have been achieved
A third function of curriculum evaluation is as a means of determining whether the curriculum
brings about desirable changes in learners’ knowledge, skills, values and attitudes as well as
finding out the effects of the curriculum on learners.
1.4 The role of the Teacher in Curriculum Development
It is clear that teachers participate in a multiplicity of curriculum activities at classroom and
school levels. These are the very substance of their daily teaching tasks and include such
activities as selection of specific content, selection of teaching strategies, formulation of
specific objectives, use of audio-visual teaching-learning resource and so forth. Regardless of
the country and continent in which one teaches, it has become obvious in recent years that all
teachers are participating more in curriculum decision-making at the school level. The nature
of this participation may be seen in the various roles that teachers adopt in the decision-making
process. Teachers may participate in any combinations of four curriculum decision making role
at the school level as;
a. implementers
b. adapters
c. developers
d. researchers
As ‘implementers’ or ‘receivers’, the teacher’s role is to apply curriculum developed
elsewhere. In this role the teacher has a significant responsibility and involvement in the
curriculum development phase of the curriculum process. In this phase teachers play a vital
part in implementing, monitoring, supervising and evaluating the curriculum. Thus, teachers’
support and training in curriculum change and other innovations is essential for the effective
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implementation of any curriculum. Hence it is important that teachers interpret the curriculum
correctly.

Teachers could also adopt the role of ‘adapter or modifier’. Here an externally developed
curriculum is interpreted and changed to meet the needs of a particular school population. This
modification occurs because teachers on the school’s staff perceive that the curriculum
concerned does not always meet the needs of their students. It is fair to say that most teachers,
most of the time, adapt the written curriculum they receive in some ways. Indeed some
centrally prepared curriculum documents are deliberately constructed in a way that provides
teachers with options to adapt or modify the curriculum to the school’s context.

The ‘curriculum-developer’ role involves the teacher in designing and developing, usually as
a member of a group, a curriculum to meet learner needs. Through the use of techniques such
as situational analysis and needs assessment, teachers have been able to determine the nature of
appropriate curriculum to meet those needs.

Finally, teachers may undertake the role of ‘curriculum researcher’. Here staff may be
involved in improving one’s own practice, testing curriculum materials, evaluating new
curricula, testing teaching strategies and collecting data on student records needs. In recent
years an increasing number of teachers have become involved with action research, a role
which has made them involved both with curriculum research and curriculum reflection.
Action research is a process of change aimed at the improvement of an individual’s or groups
own practice. It is not engaged in because someone else is forcing the teacher to change or
because there is evidence provided by someone else that there is need for change. It is a
process entered into by the teacher because s/he wishes to improve his/her own practice, and
understand in a more critical manner the reasons and basis for such practice and the context in
which it takes place.

THE GENERAL PROCESS OF CURRICULUM CHANGE AND

IMPROVEMENT

Change is a phenomenon, which we experience continuously. Daily, it seems, features of our

society are changing. Indeed, some changes are so frequent and substantial that we may find it
difficult to keep abreast with these developments. So it is with schooling and education;
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substantive and frequent change appears to have become something of a norm, a continuing
reality of schools. Curriculum change may be considered as a subset of educational change and
as such is affected by the same type of factors affecting change within education in general.
The past few years have witnessed the most significant and sustained period of curriculum
change that we have known. Perhaps those driving curriculum change will lessen its pace,
though probably not, given the substantially increased politicisation of education in general,
and curriculum in particular, over the past decade. In order to cope effectively with curriculum
change we must learn to understand more about the concepts and processes involved.

2 4.1. Dynamics of Curriculum change

Curriculum change invariably reflects change in the society at large and education in general.
Hence most of what we deal with in curriculum change within the school context addresses
ways of implementing change effectively. A specific curriculum innovation may lead society
in changing in a particular direction, but usually curriculum change reflects societal change.
Consequently when we consider curriculum change we need to include both the content of that
change as well as the process by which that change comes about. By content, we mean the
knowledge, skills, concept, understanding, values and so forth associated with the material
concerned. The change process refers to means by which teachers will be introduced to
that content and how they will be convinced to adopt and implement it. This requires the
use of appropriate change strategies to convince teachers of the need for the change, the value
in participating in the change and importance of developing appropriate perceptions, beliefs
and actions that accord with that change.
This is not an easy or straightforward task, nor should it be. An important beginning is for
curriculum developers, indeed all participants in the educational process, to be aware of the
generic forces of curriculum change if they are to survive effectively.

3 4.2. Change concepts

Constant and substantial change is a phenomenon of our lives that has become a feature of
post-Second World War society. Education has reflected that significant change and will,
undoubtedly, continue to do so. Therefore it is important for us to comprehend this
phenomenon and see how it may be employed effectively in understanding and implementing
curricula at school and system levels. Curriculum, being the essential heart of schooling, has
experienced enormous swings with the pendulum of change. As curriculum is concerned with
what, how, when and so what questions in teaching, it also has the scope for multidimensional
change. However, before examining the nature of that change, it is useful to distinguish the
significant terms employed in the literature.

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Change is a generic term used in education to incorporate a number of associated concepts
(innovation, adoption) in order to analyse and explain curricula phenomena. Change is, in
effect, the process of transformation of phenomena and in analysing that transformation it is
useful to consider the dimension of rate (speed), scale (size), degree (thoroughness),
significance (profoundness) and direction (orientation). It usually refers to a general concept
which describe what has happened, particularly as the result of the dissemination of an
innovation.
Much of curricula is concerned with planned change, which may be defined as: ‘a deliberate
and collaborative process involving a change agent an a client system which are brought
together to solve a problem or more generally to plan and attain an improved state of
functioning and applying valid knowledge’ (Bennis, 1966).

Innovation means either an object, idea or practice which is perceived to be new and also the
process by which that new object, idea or practice becomes adopted. This definition includes
the more recent emphasis upon viewing innovations as a process as well as particular objects
and practices. In particular innovations refer to specific objects, ideas and practices that will
result in change.

Diffusion is a process concerned with the spread of a new idea/object/practice form its point of
origin to its adopters. The term implies neutral action by the innovation’s developers or
adopters and, in effect, means the spread of an innovation by natural means such as a word of
mouth.

Dissemination means a deliberate process to spread a new idea/object/practice from its origin
to adopters. Dissemination is more specific than diffusion with an emphasis upon deliberate,
goal-directed activities carried out by change agent to facilitated the adoption of an innovation.

Change agents are significant individuals and groups involved in the process of facilitating
change through establishing communication links between developers and clients. Change
agents seek to bring about change through their effective leadership and participation in the
change process. They may be termed ‘innovators’, ‘early adopter’, ‘early majority’, ‘late
majority’, or ‘laggards’, depending upon their role in facilitating change.

Adoption refers to the initial acceptance of an innovation and its rate of acceptance
(implementation) within a system. Adoption of an innovation is the second stage in the change
process involving the sequence need, adoption, implementation and institutionalisation.

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4 4.3. Reasons for carrying out Curriculum change or reform
The following are some of the reasons for curriculum reform:
Search for relevance: Curriculum reform is carried out when the existing curriculum becomes
inadequate in addressing the needs and interests of the learners and society.

Scarcity of resources: Reforms have also been carried out when it became apparent that the
government could not provide adequate teaching-learning resources to school.

The influence of funding agencies: Some international organizations have managed to

persuade African governments to institute curriculum reform in order to include subjects they
have interests in into the school curriculum. Examples of these subjects are environmental
education, population education and health education.

Influence of evaluation studies: Evaluation studies particularly summative evaluation,

normally lead to curriculum reform in many countries.

Developments in other countries: Educational developments in developed countries have led

to curriculum changes in African countries.

Technological advancement: Technological advances create the need to reform the curriculum
in order to equip learners with the necessary knowledge and skills that will enable them to cope
with the world outside the school.

Nature of knowledge: Changes in educational thinking may call for changes in the curriculum.
This sometimes results in curriculum reform.

4.4. The Curriculum Change Process

In schools today, teachers encounter at least three levels of curriculum change at national, state
and school levels. In most countries in Africa, curriculum is centralised and so most of the
change happens at national level and then move on to the different levels of the education
system up to the school.
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A second and more profound degree of impact in curriculum change is the state or regional
level of curriculum development. In countries where curriculum development is decentralised,
each state, province or region has a curriculum and assessment agency which is responsible for
devising, implementing and assessing certain system-level curricula.
The third level of curriculum change results from initiatives at the school level (or perhaps a
group of schools), usually resulting from attempts to address the needs of diverse learners.
Contextual factors such as language background, numeracy skills, employment opportunities,
ethnic background, all these require teachers in schools to reflect upon their curriculum
offerings in order to make appropriate changes. However it should be noted that little evidence
exists of significant curriculum initiatives being undertaken by groups or clusters of schools
despite schools being encouraged to seek an individual identity through the creation of a school
‘vision’ and mission statements.
If teachers and curriculum developers are in a position to understand the nature of the change
process, they are also better served to take appropriate action. In particular typical questions
posed include:
1. Do we need this change?
2. Why has it arisen?
3. How will it affect us?
4. In which ways can we best support or oppose it?
5. Will it improve the quality of learning?
6. How can we continuance of the change?
Curriculum change, it has been said, reflects the broader changes in education and the social
system at large. But how can that change be made to be taken aboard effectively in educational
institutions? There has been extensive research in this area and most curriculum writers agree
that four basic phases of the curriculum change process may be distinguished. The figure
below depicts the readily apparent nature of the interaction between the four phases. While
these phases have been separated for analysis purposes, in reality they will merge
imperceptibly into each other and thus depict more of a continuous process.

Figure 4.1 Curriculum change process

Expressed need/problem
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Uncertainty with choices Initiation/ adoption

Diffusion/dissemination
activities
Developing confidence and expertise Implementation

Evaluation
activities
Consolidating position Institutionalisation/continuance

Source: Fullan, 1982, 1987: Miles, 1987; Print, 1988.

Need
The beginning of a curriculum change process lies in expressions of concern, dissatisfaction or
need with the current curriculum or curriculum practices. Consequently a demand or expressed
need is created for variation in the existing situation. This need may come from a variety of
sources such as teachers, learners, parents, administrators, governments, or some combination
of these sources.
Change will not occur without this need being present, although not all individuals perceive the
same need for change, while others are not aware of the need for change at all. For the change
to be successful, those that are associated with the change process should give recognition and
acceptance of the need for curriculum change by a substantial majority of those involved. If
classroom teachers for example do not recognise and accept the need for a particular
curriculum innovation they will become resistant to it and hence place the success of the
curriculum change in jeopardy.
Thus the first phase of successful curriculum change may involve those initiating the change in
the process of convincing change participants as to its value. To facilitate that process the
characteristics of innovations – relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and
communication – should be employed purposively.
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If you believe that change is necessary in schools you might pose the following questions to
yourself. Should the schools you know stay the same? Are you aware of societal pressures
indicating the need for change in schools and its subjects? What is it about your institution’s
curriculum that requires change? In answering these questions we have a starting point for the
change process.

Adoption
Adoption means the deliberate acceptance of an innovation to resolve an expressed need. After
seeking information to resolve the problem, alternatives may be examined and this process
serves as a step towards consolidation of change. From amongst the many alternatives
available, an attempted resolution or innovation is decided and accepted. At this stage,
however, the innovation is by no means secure.
Dissemination or diffusion of information about the proposed change occurs with varying
degrees of success. Among the more important factors in accounting for the successful
adoption of the change are: access to information of decision-makers; alternative innovations
in competition; central administrative support for a particular change; shared vision of the need
for change; good quality innovation/change program; funding availability to support
implementation; purposeful role and effectiveness of change agents; significant and sustained
community pressures and most importantly state government department position on the
proposed change. These factors will have a significant impact upon how willingly the change is
adopted by all stakeholders.

Implementation
The implementation phase may be considered as a continuum, stretching from the adoption of
an innovation until its complete acceptance or institutionalisation. In education/curriculum,
implementation begins with the initial attempts by educators to effect the innovation into
various schools/institutions. As this phase progresses, participants usually develop confidence
and expertise with the innovation and so it has a greater chance of success. This is a crucial
phase in the change process, for although the innovation has been adopted, few participants or
even change agents would guarantee successful implementation to the institutionalisation
phase. Indeed the innovation will succeed or fail in large measure by how effectively it is
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implemented. Implementation shows that the innovation is gaining strength but its
transformation into the fourth phase cannot yet be guaranteed. The implementation phase is a
testing procedure which will determine the innovation’s ultimate fate.

Institutionalisation
Should the innovation be used continually over time and in the process become interwoven
into an organisational structure, then it may be said that institutionalisation has occurred. This
phase must take time and change cannot be considered to have occurred successfully until
institutionalisation is evident. Indeed many innovations appear to succeed in the earlier stages
only to fail when exposed to the broader context for which they were intended.
Many innovations in curriculum receive artificial support in the form of finance, consultants
and administrative favour during the early stages of implementation. An acid test for the
success of an innovation is to gauge the effectiveness of the innovation on the removal of those
crutches. Should the innovation remain in place then the institutionalisation phase will have
occurred and change been effected. All too often in curriculum however, the removal of these
supportive factors leads to the demise of the innovation.
Facilitating the achievement of institutionalisation is a major goal of those who would bring
about planned educational change. To enhance the achievement of that goal within educational
organisations in relation to curriculum change, teachers and curriculum developers need to
consider the following factors.
- Strong administrative commitments
- Positive pressure and support from within the school and education system
- Support activities (in-service, local facilitators)
- Resource allocation to fund change
- Removal of competing practices
- Believable evaluation of innovation
- Linked with current classroom practices.

4.5.Change Strategies
Rational – empirical strategies

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The basic premise of these strategies is that people are reasonable and will therefore act in a
rational manner. Supporters of these strategies argue that, when exposed to an innovation,
people will react according to their best interests, that is, when aware of an innovation, seeing
its inherent value to themselves, people will adopt it. That, after all, is both rational and logical
action and quite a reasonable expectation for people to follow.
Strategies using a logical and rational justification rely upon the active and effective
dissemination of knowledge in order to link the innovation with potential users. Those users,
acting rationally, will then seek the innovation as a logical solution to their problem and
thereby adopt it. In this strategy the change agent plays an active role, which centres on
facilitating dissemination of knowledge about the innovation. Typically with the
implementation of a curriculum innovation, dissemination is achieved through holding
numerous workshops, seminars and demonstrations to illustrate the innovation’s inherent
value. General displays of curriculum materials, perhaps extended by the use of promotional
brochures, is a favoured way of providing information to all stakeholders especially to teachers
who then, exposed to the innovation perceive its value and adopt it.

Note:
Advantage – commitment of teachers is high; it is straightforward; consistent with nature of
teaching and success rate is high.
Disadvantages – time consuming; haphazard adoption and its costly.

Normative – re – educative strategies

Perhaps a rational, logical strategy has been ineffective in achieving planned change among
stakeholders. To overcome this problem you will require a strategy that can convince
stakeholder especially teachers that the planned change should be adopted. The underlying
premise for normative-re-educative strategies is concerned with changing people, particularly
their perceptions and attitudes and hence their subsequent behaviour.
The changing of behaviour may be viewed in two ways. First, from the perspective of a change
agent who perceives substantial resistance from participants to the proposed change in the
appropriate direction. And second, from the viewpoint of a change agent who realises that
effective change will ensue when participants are re-educated as to the benefits of the proposed
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change. The essential differences between these approaches are the degree of perceived
opposition and the consequential degree of persuasion needed to change participant attitude.
The former approach would argue for a more forceful persuasion than the latter approach
which seeks to encourage participants to perceive the value through educative strategies. Of
central importance to these strategies is knowing how clients ascertained their attitudes, values
and perceived problems. Once this has been determined then people’s attitudes, values and
perceptions may be manipulated to varying degrees towards the particular innovation. Thus the
central feature of normative-re-educative strategies is to encourage through re-education, and
even to manipulate, people to act in a manner differently from their current behaviour.
Group-work techniques such as group decision-making, workshops and training groups are
used as means of re-educating people to see things differently. To achieve this persuasive
communication of various forms are employed. Thus most forms of advertising, which
emphasise a transformational approach to attitudes and values may be considered as a
normative-re-educative strategies. Advertising is certainly a persuasive means of changing
people’s attitudes and thus their purchasing behaviour and education could do well by taking
heed of advertising strategies. Emphasis is placed upon encouraging clients to recognise,
acknowledge and adopt the innovation.
Note:
Advantage – commitment of staff; high success within groups.
Disadvantages – time consuming; group difficulties; incomplete adoption and its costly.

Power-coercive strategies
But what happens to the planned change if we can not persuade participants to alter their
behaviour? Or perhaps an educational system, aware of potential opposition, may decide on a
more ‘frontal’ approach to change from the very beginning of the process. The answer to
achieving effective change lies with the use of power-coercive strategies.
Sometimes referred to as political-administrative strategies, for they are top-down in nature,
this group of change procedures is based upon the control or rewards and punishments as a
means of regulating the behaviour of participants. Power is used as the ultimate sanction (that
is people are told to do something such as adopt an innovation, or else!) by someone in
authority. If the action is not carried out, then the threat of a sanction is applied.
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This situation however, invariably requires significant influence over subordinates by
superordinates as well as the perception of a sanction threat held by the subordinate.
With these strategies participants are forced to comply with imposed directions on the
curriculum if they want rewards or wish to avoid sanctions. In this case participants do not
relate meaningfully to the innovation and have little consequential intrinsic motivation to
ensure the innovation’s success. Consequently, such strategies are not well received by
participants. For many when the threat of the sanction is lifted, the opportunity is perceived
appropriate to revert or go back to previous behaviour.
Power-coercive strategies are usually employed where change agents want a quick response
either to achieve institutionalisation of the innovation or if it is particularly large and
complicated innovation to ensure it is well under way. Similarly, power-coercive strategies are
usually used for implementing technical changes to the curriculum such as new assessment
procedures or a new syllabus document. Innovations that require substantial changes to
teachers’ perception, practices and beliefs are unlikely to be implemented effectively through
the use of power-coercive strategies.

Note:
Advantage – Speed of change; ordered and relatively easy; relatively inexpensive; uniformity
is enhanced.
Disadvantages – Resistance to innovation; develops internal dissension; lack of commitment
by teachers.

4.6. Characteristics of Innovations

The extent to which innovations are adopted, implemented and even adapted by educators is
profoundly influenced by the very nature of those innovations, or the way those innovations
may be represented to participants in the situation where change is occurring. In other words,
the very characteristics of the new idea, object or practice may well determine how successful
it will be put into practice. There are five significant characteristics of innovations which help
explain the difference between the varying adoption rates of innovations. Where there is a high
degree of these characteristics present, the innovation has a significant chance of being
successfully adopted. Therefore if innovations are to be adopted successfully in schools and the
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entire education system they should be consistent with the following characteristics. If that is
not possible, modify the innovation so that it represent the following characteristics as closely
as possible.

Relative advantage
The extent to which an innovation is perceived to be more advantageous to the user than
existing ideas, objects or practices constitutes its relative advantage. That is if the relative
advantage of the innovation is high its chances of successful implementation are also high. At
the level of the individual, such as a classroom teacher, the relative advantage of an innovation
is an extremely significant factor in accounting for an adoption or rejection of a decision. The
key factor is the teacher’s perception that the innovation will enhance one’s teaching or
enhance learning.
Indeed, a high relative advantage may be the most significant factor in accounting for the
innovation’s success or failure. Advantages may be perceived by users in terms of greater
efficiency, cost saving, educational enhancement time saving or greater rewards such as
enhanced student learning. At the level of the individual teacher relating to a specific
curriculum innovation, it is highly unlikely that the teacher would implement an innovation
effectively if there was no perceived relative advantage.

Compatibility
Where an innovation or new idea, object or practice is perceived by those involved in the
change context to be consistent with existing values, past experiences and present needs, it is
said to have high levels of compatibility. In this situation it is also highly likely to have high
rate of adoption. Essentially this occurs because the innovation, whilst being new, does not
demand substantial changes to behaviour by participants and thus is not perceived as a threat to
individuals.
High levels of compatibility as one would expect enhance a sense of security within
individuals in the change context and hence less risk is required should the innovation be
adopted. It also implies that the innovation will not be radically different from existing ideas,
objects or practices. Thus innovations that rate highly on compatibility or at least appear to rate
highly, will experience more successful adoption and subsequent implementation.
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Complexity
Should an innovation be perceived to be unduly complex in nature, poterntial adopters will
avoid it. Nicholls defines complexity as ‘the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
relatively difficult to understand and use’ (1983:25). The emphasis again is on the perception
held by participants, rather than the actual level of difficulty. Hence those involved in the
change process, and particularly change agents should endeavour to present the innovation as a
straightforward, uncomplicated change. While this appears obvious and logical, apparently
many developers have not been aware that high levels of complexity in an innovation can be a
significant factor inhibiting adoption.
For instance, the introduction of modern computes in school is an interesting innovation of a
mixed reaction by teachers. Some teachers perceive computers as low in complexity, high in
relative advantage and reasonably compatible and consequently have implemented them
effectively into their teaching. However, quite clearly many teachers have firmly resisted
anything to do with computers, particularly as this innovation is perceived as possessing
extremely high levels of complexity. In large measure this reaction is age, subject and
technology-experience related, where older teachers particularly those with little experience
with modern technology and who do not perceive the need to use computers in their subjects,
have resisted using computers both personally and in teaching their area of the curriculum.

Trialability
There is some evidence to suggest that if an innovation can be partially implemented before
full-scale adoption is attempted, then it is more likely to succeed. It seems logical to trial an
innovation first, receive feedback from participants and then make appropriate revisions before
one attempts to implement the innovation generally. Yet many educational innovations do not
manifest this characteristic which Nicholls defines as: “…the extent to which an innovation can
be tried out on a limited basis’ (1983:25).
A relationship certainly exists between trialability and later adoptions rates, although it is not
always positive. In education, for example, there are instances where curricula and curriculum
materials have been tested only to be subsequently rejected by teachers. This may be due as
much to the other characteristics influencing the innovation’s adoption as to the early exposure
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factor. Certain curriculum materials for example are not tested before complete adoption is
attempted and, as changes are not made to meet local needs, the innovations are rejected.

Communication
When the features and benefits of an innovation are communicated effectively to others, it is
more likely that it will be adopted successfully. Logically this means that others cannot adopt
what they do not know about and thus it is incumbent upon change agents and others to ensure
that potential adopters are aware of the innovation’s existence. While this appears to be
obvious and logical, many innovations do not succeed largely because of poor levels of
communication. This can certainly be the case in schools.
The communication process is not as straightforward a task as it sounds as there are numerous
barriers within the school and the whole education system preventing effective communication.
Barriers may be found in bureaucratic educational systems, information blockages, overloaded
teachers unable or unwilling to respond ineffective commercial distributors and many others.
Any change agent planning to implement an innovation should ensure the availability of
effective communication channels.
There are countless curriculum innovations that teachers know little or nothing about and
hence cannot implement. Many curriculum innovations developed by agencies external to the
school system fall into this situation.

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