Programs In Learning Operating Techniques An Introduction to Compression 1051WB,Program developed for API by: Howell Training Company 13831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 Programers: J. J. Stadtherr Shirley Ball Program Supervisor: John Ball, Ph.D. Artists: Robert Culp, James Carraway, Peter Jorgensen, Paul Grabiel ‘API Author and Content Specialist: R. S. Ridgway Standard Oil of California Chairman, API Committee on Training: R. W. Dorman Mobil Oil Corp. Vice Chairman for Teaching Learning: D. S. Turner Standard Oil Co. (Ohio) Validation provided through ‘the cooperation of: Imperial Oil Company British American Oil Co. Pure Oil Company This text has been validated by the Committee on Training, Division of Refining, American Petroleum Institute, 1968. PILOT D PROFIT © Program Press 1968 Reprinted January 1995 Duplication or modification of this copyrighted material or any part thereof. is deel fian of Feceral Law. Violation of this copyright law may resuft in severe Ce penalties and criminal conviction. The Federal Bureau of investigation Tivestigates all allegations of criminal copyright infringementAn Introduction to COMPRESSION Section 1 The Behavior of GasesIn the petroleum industry, gas is compressed for the purpose of transporting it to consuming markets, and for many pur- poses in refining processes. This program is about the con- struction and operation of such gas compressors. In Unit One, you will learn the basic laws of gas behavior and the units of gas measurement. You will learn the nature of compression, including the compression ratio, the heat effects of compression, and the factors affecting compressor horse- power requirements. In Unit Two, you will learn the construction, principal parts, and operation of reciprocating compressors and the types of rotary compressors. In Unit Three, you will learn about the construction, principal parts, and operation of centrifugal and axial compressors. ‘Through 2 general understanding of the major types of com- pressors, their operation and control, you will be better able to handle compressors of all types safely and efficiently.INSTRUCTIONS ‘This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in 2 series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it, Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very __ differences in size. ‘Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word ‘that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. ‘The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL Hue THIMBLE SPINDLE RATCHET CAP FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the and the contact the object to be measured. small anvil; spindle‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just don Read the frame. ‘Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Now, go on to Page 8 and begin. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down ‘and go through the other pages. spindleSECTION 1 THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES Exhibits 1 through 3 are placed in the center of the book so that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now so that you will have them available when needed. GAS MEASUREMENTS Pressure 1. All gases are made up of tiny particles called molecules. ‘These gas molecules move rapidly in (one direction/all directions) . all directions 2. As they move, gas molecules exert a force on everything they touch. We call this force pressure. Gas pressure is caused by the motion of gas. molecules 8. Since molecules move in all directions, gas pressure is exerted in (one direction/all directions). all directions 4. Pressure is the amount of force exerted on a unit of area. 1 POUND TIN ee TIN A L-pound weight sitting on a one-inch square pushes on the square with a force of one pound5. Pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch (PSD: A gas exerting a pound of force on one square inch has pressure of one pound per 6. At 1 PSI, a gas acting on a 8 square-inch surface exerts a total force of. pounds. 7. Pressure in PSI (is/is not) the total force in a container of gas. 8. The total force of compressed gas is the PSI times the number of that the pres- sure is acting on. 9. Although PSI is the most common measure of pressure in this country, pressure may be measured in other units of force and other units of area. Many countries use the metric system, with centimeters, grams, and seconds as units of measurement, The CGS system is another name for the system of measurement. 10. In the list below, check the units that can be used to ‘measure pressure, Kilograms per square centimeter (kg/cm*) ——— Barrels per hour (Bbl./hr.) ——— Gallons per minute (GPM) Grams per square centimeter (g/em*) —— Pounds per square inch (PSI) 11. The air around us—the atmosphere —is a mixture of Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the around us. square inches kg/em? g/cm? PSI air, or atmosphere12. 13. 16. 1. The weight of a column of air that extends to the top of the atmosphere and rests on 1 square inch is about 14.7 pounds at sea level. ‘Thus, at sea level, atmospheric pressure is about PSI. At higher altitudes, there is less air above and so the atmosphere exerts (more/less) weight on each square inch it touches. Atmospheric pressure (increases/decreases) as elevation rises above sea level. Atmospheric pressure is normally measured with a ba- rometer. VACUUM 30 INCHES MERCURY A barometer measures pressure by indicating how high atmospheric pressure will raise 2 column of liquid At sea level, atmospheric pressure will raise a column of mercury in a barometer approximately inches. Thus, a pressure of $0 inches of mercury is approximately equal to a pressure of. PSI. 147 decreases 30 14718. 19. 21. 24. 28. . Any pressure below 0 PSIG is a partial ‘The chemical symbol for mercury is Hg. The abbreviation, in. Hg, stands for of On a barometer, 30 in. Hg is the average pressure of the at sea level. ‘Most pressure gages show pressures either above or below atmospheric pressure; this is known as gage pressure. If you test a tire-pressure gage on open air, it registers (0/14.7) PSIG. PSIG is an abbreviation for pounds per square inch ‘Most gages show only pressure that is more or less than pressure. Pressures that are less than atmospheric pressure are measured with 2 vacuum gage or with a mercury ma- nometer. A vacuum gage is calibrated to read from 0 to 14.7 PSI Vacuum, or from 0 to__________in. Hg Vacuum, or both. On a pressure-vacuum gage, 0 indicates normal atmos- pherie pressure. 14.7 PSI Vacuum and 80 in. Hg Vacuum would indicate a perfect. i It is practically impossible to obtain a perfect vacuum. Any process vacuum is (2 total/less than a total) vacuum. In a complete vacuum, a vacuum-pressure (compound) gage would read 14.7 PSI Vacuum. ‘The gage would be indicating a pressure that is 14.7 PSI (more/less) than the pressure of the atmosphere. Suppose a gage on a compressed air cylinder reads 10 PSIG. ‘The gage is showing a pressure that is 10 PSI (more/less) than the pressure of the atmosphere. Absolute pressure is gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure. At sea level, absolute pressure is gage pressure plus PSI. inches mercury atmospheric 30 vacuum, less than a total vacuum more 14730. 31. 32. 36. 87. A pressure gage at sea level reads 100 PSIG. ‘The absolute pressure it is measuring is 100 PSI plus PSI, or PSIA. PSIA is an abbreviation for pounds per square inch At sea level, 0 PSIG is. PSIA. 20 PSIG is PSIA; or, PSIA is PSIG (plus/minus) 14.7; and PSIG is PSIA (plus/minus) 14.7. Atmospheric pressure is ss Silkenasir Downes om the earth’s surface, depending on the elevation. When the atmospheric pressure in 2 mountainous area is 18.9 PSIA, a gage reading of 10 PSIG indicates an absolute pressure of 10 PSI plus (14.7/18.9) PSI, or PSIA. To change PSIG to PSIA, you must add the pressure of ‘the atmosphere (at sea level/in your area) to the gage reading. . Pressures are sometimes expressed in units of atmos- pheres instead of PSIA. A pressure of 14.7 PSIA is defined as one A pressure of 147 PSIA is a pressure of atmospheres. In terms of PSIA, a pressure of 5 atmospheres is: PSIA. Temperature 38. 39. 40. 41. ‘Temperature is caused by the heat motion of molecules. Molecules move faster at (60°F/100°F), ‘Temperature is usually measured on a Fahrenheit scale, abbreviated Absolute zero on a temperature scale is a point where there is absolutely no heat. At absolute zero, molecules (would/would not) move. Molecules are in motion at 0°F. O°F (is/is not) an absolute zero. 14.7 absolute 147 84.7 plus minus 13.9 23.9 in your area atmosphere 10 78.5, or 14.7 x 5 100: °F would not is notEXHIBIT 1 TEMPERATURE SCALES DEGREES ae FAHRENHEIT °F DEGREES o RANKINE °R 800 700 = WATER BOILSEXHIBIT 2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY (AIR=1.0) La 12 Lo 0.8 06 — AVERAGE COMP. TEMP. (°F)| [100 igo 200 300 ASSUME 150° Unuess ave ‘Eup. is KNOWN ha 12 13 n FACTOREXHIBIT 3 RATIO OF COMPRESSION (Ro) 200 DISCHARGE TEMP. -°F act VALUES OF Rg * a 12 1a RS Hy. AT. a Lag) as U7 RS + | [ ro (7D+460) = (TS+460) Ro st a WHERE: TD= DISCHARGE TEMP. (°F) « i TS = SUCTION TEMP. (°F) oo A = POLYTROPIC EXPONENT I [ nN MN EMPERATURE RISE DUE TO COMPRESSION OF GASLook at Exhibit 1. 42. Exhibit 1 shows two temperature scales. ‘The scale on the right is for absolute temperature in de- grees abbreviated or some- times ‘abs. 48. Compare the Rankine and Fahrenheit scales. 0° on the Rankine seale (or “abs.) is 44. Absolute zero is —460°F. Va 45. The (Fahrenheit/Rankine) scale is an absolute tempera- ture scale. 46. Absolute zero is zero degrees 47. Look at the boiling point of water. Water boils at 212°F. It boils at. cB. 48. Exhibit 1 is used to convert temperature from °F to °R (Cabs.), or from °R to. 49. Both the Rankine degree and the Fahrenheit degree meas- ure the same amount of temperature increase. But temperature in degrees Rankine is always 460° (more/less) than temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. 50. Conversions between °F and °R (*abs.) may be made by addition and subtraction. To convert *F to °R (°abs.), add________* to the Fahrenheit reading. 51. To convert °R (*abs.) to °F, (add 460° to/subtract 460° from) the Rankine (absolute) temperature. 52. A natural gas line has a temperature of 98°F. Its temperature in °R is: 58. In °F, a temperature of 920°R is: Rankine; *R zero, or 0 Rankine Rankine, or R, or abs. 672 °F subtract 460° from 568, 460Volume 54. The volume of a substance is the space it occupies. ‘The volume of this cube is one cubic foot 55. The cube is filled with gas. ‘The gas occupies all the ___________in the cube. volume, or space So, the volume of the gas in the container is one __ cubic foot 87. A gas always occupies all the space available to it. ‘The actual volume of gas in any container is always the same as the ___of the inside of the container. volume, or space 58. Both these cylinders hold 10 cubic feet (CF) of the same gas at 60°F. 50 PSIG 200 PSIG A B Pressure is higher in cylinder (A/B). B59. There are actually more pounds of gas in eylinder (A/B). 60. One of the factors you must know to caleulate how much gas is present is the_________of the gas being measured. 61. Gas volume is also affected by gas temperature. In an open container, gas (expands/contracts) when it is heated. 62. This drawing shows a section of a pipeline with the shaded Portion representing one cubic foot. At 100°F there are (fewer/more) gas molecules in each cubic foot. 63. When you reduce the temperature, the distance between the molecules is —__. 64. And the amount of gas in each cubic foot (decreases‘increases). 65. For accurate measurement of gases, you need to know both the pressure and the________of the gas. 66. The petroleum and natural gas industries define 14.7 PSIA and 60°F as the standard conditions for the meas- urement of gas volume. SCF is an abbreviation for. cubic feet. 67. SCF is the volume a gas would occupy if it were measured at a standard pressure of __________PSIA and a standard temperature of, F. 10 pressure expands fewer reduced increases temperature standard 147 6069. 70. 1. 72. 4. . %. 17. 81. . At atmospheric pressure, a cubic foot of gas contains: less than 1 SCF if its temperature is (more/less) than 60°F; more than 1 SCF if its temperature is (more/less) than 60°F. It is seldom possible to measure gas under standard conditions. Gas must be measured under actual conditions of and pressure, whatever they happen to be. Gas is metered under actual conditions, but for aecount- ing and engineering purposes, gas volume is calculated A ‘The volume measurement that could be converted to standard conditions is: 10 CF (pressure and temperature not indi- cated). 10 CF (80°F; 100 PSIG). In measuring gas for conversion to standard volume, it is necessary to specify the and of the gas. ‘The letter M is the Roman numeral for one thousand. 1 MOF of gas is one___CF of gas. ‘The abbreviation for thousand cubic feet of gas is Gas volume is often measured in MCF. 50 MCF of gas is (50/50,000) cubic feet. 50 MSCF is 50 MCF as measured under conditions of temperature and pressure. A million is a thousand times a thousand. 1 MM is an abbreviation for one 5 MMCF of gas is 5__________cubie feet, or it is (5000/5,000,000) cubic feet. For convenience in measuring and calculating, gas volume may be measured in MCF or MMCF. MCF is an abbreviation for. cubic feet. ‘MMCF is an abbreviation for cubic feet. Sometimes MM is written M?. 50 MICF is cubie feet of gas. Ww temperature SCF, or standard cubic feet 10 CF (80°F; 100 PSIG) pressure temperature ‘thousand ‘MCF 50,000 standard million million 5,000,000 thousand million 50 million, or 50,000,00082. Let’s review some abbreviations used in measuring gas volume. CF means SCF means ‘M means ‘MM means ‘M? means 10 MMSCF means 83. What are the standard conditions for the measurement of gas volume? Pressure is______PSIA. °F, or. ‘Temperature is oR. THE GAS LAWS The pressure, temperature, and volume relation ships defined by the general laws of gas behavior refer to an “ideal” or perfect gas. Under some conditions, gases may show a slight deviation in behavior. Deviation factors are neglected for the purposes of this program. 84. We have learned that gas pressure is caused by the mo- tion of gas molecules. When molecules strike the walls of a closed container, they exert ‘on the walls of the container. 85. The faster the molecules move, the (higher/lower) the pressure. 86. Heat causes the motion of molecules. ‘Molecules can be made to travel faster by increasing their 87. Pressure is force exerted on a unit of area, ‘When the number of molecules striking a given area in- creases, the pressure of the gas. 88. These facts are essentially true for all gases. They explain why any volume of gas behaves as it does under changes in or 89. The relationships between the pressure, volume, and tem- perature of a gas are known as the gas laws. The PVT relationships are known as the general of gas behavior. 12 cubic feet standard cubic feet thousand million million 10 million, or 10,000,000 standard cubic feet 14.7 60; 520 pressure higher temperature increases pressure; temperature laws91. 92, 93, In applying the gas laws, pressure and temperature must be expressed in absolute units. Pressure must be expressed in (PSIG/PSIA) ‘Temperature measured in degrees Fahrenheit must be converted to PSI to To convert PSIG to PSIA, add the gage reading. To convert *F to °R (*abs.), add_______* to the Fahrenheit reading. Pressure and Volume (Boyle's Law) 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 100. This cylinder contains gas molecules. Pushing down on the piston forces the gas to occupy a smaller ‘The gas exerts (more/less) force on each square inch it touches, and gas pressure (increases/decreases). In other words, foreing gas to occupy a smaller volume increases the of the gas. ‘Suppose the gas is free to expand. ‘The energy of the molecules will be exerted over a (larger/smaller) area. As gas expands into a large volume, gas pressure (in- creases/decreases). Increasing the volume available to 2 gas decreases gas, If a volume of gas is forced into a smaller volume, gas pressure 18 PSIA °R, or “abs. 147 460 volume, or space more increases pressure increases101. 102. 108. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. a1. 112. Suppose 10 CF of gas at 14.7 PSIA is compressed into 5 CF. ‘The final volume of the gas is exactly original volume. the If the temperature is held constant, the new pressure of the gas will be 29.4 PSLA, or 14.7 PSIG. ‘When the volume of a quantity of gas is halved, and temperature is held constant, the absolute pressure of the gas (is halved/doubles). Boyle's law states that if the temperature is held con- stant, the absolute pressure of a gas changes in inverse Proportion to changes in gas. If the temperature is held constant, pressure-volume changes can be calculated by using a ratio of one pressure or volume to another. Any number can be increased by multiplying it by a number that is (larger/smaller) than 1, or 1/1. Suppose 90 CF of gas is compressed into 30 CF, and tem- perature is held constant. 90 / 30) i i The number (20 of 30) is larger than 1 If the original pressure was 21 PSIA, the final pressure of the gas will be (7 PSIA/63 PSIA). Final pressure can be calculated by using a ratio of the new. and the old. To caleulate pressure changes due to a decrease in gas volume, use a number that is (larger/smaller) than 1. 15 MCF of gas at atmospheric pressure is compressed into 10 MCF, with no change in temperature. To find the new pressure, use the ratio (12 / 18 The final pressure of the gas is 15/10, or 116 times PSIA, or it is: PSIA. ‘When gas is expanded into a larger volume, its pressure To calculate changes in gas pressure due to an increase in gas volume, use a ratio that is (larger/smaller) than 1. 4 half, or 14 doubles volume larger as volume larger She113. 14, 115. 116. ut. 118. 119. 120. 121. At a constant temperature, 50 MCF of gas at 200 PSIA is expanded into 80 MCF. The ratio to use is (30 / $0). x 200 = 125 ‘The new pressure of the gas is PSIA. 125 PSIA is a gage pressure of: PSIG. Suppose you know the pressure change and you want to find the new volume. If the temperature has not changed, an increased pres- sure indicates a in a gas volume. If gas pressure has decreased and temperature remains the same, the volume of the gas must have (increased/ decreased) . For convenience in calculation, 14.7 PSLA is often rounded off to 15 PSIA. ‘Suppose 30 CF of gas is measured at 45 PSIG and 60°F. ‘The absolute pressure of the measured gas is about PSIA. At 15 PSIA, the gas would occupy (more/less) than 30 CF of space. To find the larger volume that the gas would occupy at atmospheric pressure, use the ratio ($2 / 15) At 60°F (standard temperature), 30 CF of gas at 45 PSIG is: SCF of gas. To convert actual volume measures to standard volumes, use a ratio that is: larger than 1 if the pressure is than 15 PSIA; smaller than 1 if the pressure is than 15 PSIA. 15 ae 125 110.8 decrease increased 120, moreTemperature and Volume (Charles’ Law) 128. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 180. 181. 132. When gas is trapped in a closed container, heating the gas inereases its A telescopic gas holder is a constant pressure container. ‘The ________ of the gas holder changes with changes in temperature or gas quantity. Suppose gas in a telescopic holder is heated. The volume of the gas (increases/decreases). If the gas is cooled to a lower temperature, its actual volume Charles’ law states that the volume of a gas changes in direct proportion to changes in absolute Suppose gas in a telescopic holder is heated from 70°F to 80°F. 10°F is “R. 80°F is a If the gas is in a constant pressure holder, its volume must have (increased/decreased) with the increased tem- perature. To find the new volume, multiply by a number that is (larger/smaller) than 1. If the old volume was 2 M*CF, the new volume will be ECF times (580 / 540. 2 MCF times ( 380 / 340). Now tum the page, be tum the book over, and go on. pressure volume, or size increases decreases ‘temperature 580 540 increased aE183. In a constant pressure container, 2 M&CF of fuel gas heated from 70°F to 80°F has a final volume of: about. MCF. 134. If gas is cooled and pressure remains the same, the actual___of the gas decreases. 135. Gas at 80°F is cooled to 40°F, while pressure remains the same. Absolute temperature has changed from R to oR. (86. To calculate the new volume of the gas, use the ratio i ) c y tEVIEW AND SUMMARY 87. Pressure, volume, and temperature are gas variables. When one of these variables changes, at least one other variable (is/is not) affected. 88, All gases behave essentially the same with respect to changes in pressure, temperature, and volume. If gas volume is decreased, the pressure of the gas 39. Heating gas in a closed container increases its as well as its temperature. 40. Pressure and volume vary in (the same/the opposite) direction; when one goes up, the other goes (up/down) 41. Pressure and temperature vary in (the same/the oppo- site) direction; when one goes up, the other goes (up/ down). 42. The relationship between pressure and volume is an ‘inverse relationship. ‘The relationship between pressure and temperature is (an inverse/a direct relationship. 13. Temperature and volume are also directly related gas variables. ‘Temperature and volume vary in (the same/the opposite) direction; when one goes up, the other goes (up/down). Ww 2.088 volume 88 500, or 540 is increases pressure the opposite down the same up a direct the same up44. Complete the following chart, using an arrow (+) when one of the variables goes up, and an arrow (+) when one of the variables goes down. Temperature | Pressure Volume + remains the same ¢ remains the same Temains the same t + ‘remains the same + remains the same Temains the same + 45. Another way of describing the relationship between pres- sure, volume, and temperature is to say that the fraction EY always has the same value for any quantity of gas. So that, when temperature does not change and pressure increases, the volume must (increase/decresse) so that the fraction keeps the same value. 46. And when temperature increases, either pressure, or vol- ume, or both, must (increase/decrease) so that the frac- tion keeps the same value. 47. We have to remember that PVT relationships, as ex- pressed in the gas laws, hold true only for absolute tem- peratures and absolute pressures. In using the general gas laws to solve problems, tempera- ture and pressure must be expressed in units. 48. Fahrenheit temperature must be converted to degrees for use with the gas laws. 19. Pressure must be converted to (PSIG/PSIA). 50. The quantitative effect of PVT changes on any gas can be closely estimated. Any number can be increased by multiplying it by a num- ber (greater/less) than 1. 1. In compressor operations, any gas PVT relationship problem can be solved by using absolute units and ratios. We have to remember that volume has to be multiplied by a fraction: than 1 if the temperature increases; than 1 if the temperature decreases; than 1 if only the pressure increases; than 1 if only the pressure decreases. 18 decrease increase absolute Rankine, or absolute PSIA greater greater less less greater152. 153. 154, 55. 3T. 2) . Suction pressure is approximately For example, suppose 50 MCF of gas at 14.7 PSLA is compressed to 44.1 PSIA. Suction temperature is 520°R and discharge temperature is 720°R. ‘The change in temperature would act to (increase/de- crease) volume. To calculate the effect of the temperature change on gas io (320 / 720 volume, use the ratio (755 / Et). The pressure change from 14.7 PSIA to 44.1 PSIA in- dicates a_______in gas volume. To calculate the effect of the pressure increase on volume, use the ratio { 3. Bo 50 x 320 ‘The final volume of the compressed gas is MCF. 200 SCF of gas at 60°F and atmospheric pressure is compressed to 30 PSIG, with a temperature increase of 100°F, Absolute discharge pressure is approximately PSIA. Absolute discharge temperature is R PSIA. Suction temperature ii ‘To find the final volume of the gas, multiply 200 CF by: } to correct for the pressure increase; and by {——F to correct for the temperature increase. If pressure were the only change, the final volume of ‘the gas would be: oF. 66.7 x $20 = 79.5 Because of the temperature increase, the final volume of compressed gas is actually. CF. 19 increase 20 Be 15 520 | gg a 66.7, or 663% 79.5163. 164. 165. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. a A compressor is processing 1 MCF of gas an hour, at 75 PSIG and 100°F. How many M°SCF /hour are being processed? ‘The absolute pressure and temperature of the gas is approximately PSIA and “R. At 15 PSLA, the gas would occupy a (larger/smaller) vol- ume; therefore, to correct the volume for standard pres- sure, use the ratio The gas would occupy a smaller volume at standard temperature. ¢ ) § ; ‘The temperature correction ratio is 520 90. 1 x 20 x 56 The compressor processes an hour. MPSCF of gas ‘Suppose a compressor is moving 4 M:CF a day, at 45 PSIG and 200°F. To find the standard volume, use the pressure correction ratio (__). Use the temperature correction ratio (__), ‘In terms of standard cubic feet, the compressor processes: MSCF/D. The density of a gas is its weight per unit volume. Density can be measured in (pounds per square foot/pounds per cubic foot). Specific gravity is the weight of a volume of gas com- pared under standard conditions with the weight of the same volume of dry air. Specific gravity compares gas density with the density of under standard conditions. 20 90; 560 larger 20 15 56 60, or4 Worl 520, op 26 660° °T 33 126 pounds per cubic foot178. 174. ls. 76. . The specific gravity of air is 1.0. A gas that is lighter than air has a specific gravity of (more/less) than 1.0. If the gas is heavier than air, its is more than 1.0. At the same temperatures and pressures, different gases have different densities and specific gravities. All gas molecules (are/are not) exactly alike in size and structure. Because of differences in molecules, all gases do not be- have exactly alike. Many gases deviate slightly from the behavior defined in the general gas, ‘The deviation is frequently small and does not usually need to be considered in compressor operations. Usually, the deviation of gases from the gas laws affects compressor operation (very much/only slightly). 21 specific gravity are not laws only slightlySection 2 The Nature of CompressionSECTION 2 THE NATURE OF COMPRESSION ‘THE RATIO OF COMPRESSION a 2. 5 10. 1. A compressor is a machine that does work to increase gas The compressor takes in gas at one pressure. It discharges the gas at a (higher/lower) pressure. ‘The difference between suction pressure and discharge Pressure represents the work done on the gas by the ‘The ratio of compression (R) is the ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute suction pressure. If the compressor doubles absolute gas pressure, R is 2. If the compressor triples absolute gas pressure, R is R is calculated by dividing the absolute discharge pres- sure by the absolute suction pressure. If suction pressure is 20 PSIA and discharge pressure is 50 PSIA, R is (23 / 38), ‘The R is the ratio of absolute discharge pressure to ab- solute____ pressure. Since compression always increases gas pressure, R is always (greater/less) than 1. In calculating R, (absolute/gage) pressure units are used. A compressor takes in gas at atmospheric pressure and discharges it at 45 PSIG. ‘Suetion pressure is approximately ____ PSA. Discharge pressure is approximately PSIA. The R for this compressor is: pressure higher compressor ais suction absolute 140 7, or 4.06ue 1B 16. A compressor takes in gas at 18 PSLA (1.7 PSI Vacuum) and discharges the gas at 14.7 PSIA. The B is ( }, or about 1.13 Ris an abbreviation for the of compression. ‘Multiplying the absolute suction pressure times R. gives the absolute of the gas being compressed. Suction pressure is 14.7 PSLA and R is 2.5. Absolute discharge pressure is approximately: This is equivalent to about _____ PSIG. ‘THE HEAT OF COMPRESSION WW. 18. 19. A compressor expends work on gas. As the compressor forces gas molecules closer together, it also the speed of the molecules. This increase in molecular speed causes (an increase/ a decrease) in gas temperature. ‘The amount of temperature increase depends on the na- ture of the gas, the suction temperature, and the amount of compression. Increasing R charge gas. With the same gas and the same R, discharge temperature increases as_________________inereases. the temperature of the dis- With the same suction temperature, discharge tempera- ture increases as_______ increases. For the same gas, the discharge temperature depends on ‘both the and the ae Two compressors with the same suction temperature are compressing methane; each compressor operates at an R of 3, but with different suction pressures. ‘The amount of temperature increase caused by these two compressors is (the same/different). 23 36.75 22.05 increases an increase increases suction temperature R; suction temperature the sameFor the same gas at the same suction temperature, the amount of temperature increase in compression depends only on the Compared with heavy gases, light gases show more tem- perature rise for the same ratio of compression. Light hydrocarbon gases (and hydrogen) tend to show (more/less) heat of compression than the heavier ones. Ethane is heavier than methane. You would expect a greater rise in temperature when (methane/ethane) is being compressed. Air shows more heat of compression than most hydro- carbon gases. For the same suction temperature and R, the temperature increase is greater when (natural gas/air) is being com- pressed. The amount of heat added depends on: the suction _______; ——__ and the type of —____. Look at Exhibit 2. 29. 30. Exhibit 2 shows the “n” factor of gases having different specific gravities. The series of curves are for various average compressor temperatures. ‘Thus a hydrocarbon gas having a specific gravity of 0.8 with an average compressor temperature of 150°F has an “n” value of —___ ‘The “trend” of the curves shows that as the specific gravity increases, the “n” value Using the “n” value obtained, go to Exhibit 3. al. 32. 33, 34. For an “R” of 4, the “n” of 1.21, and a suction tempera- ture of 80°F, the discharge temperature will be ___ The trend of Exhibit 3 shows that lower suction tempera- tures yield (higher/lower) discharge temperatures. ‘These calculations are made assuming (air/natural gas). If instead the gas is air, final temperature for the-same suction temperature and compression ratio would be (higher/lower). R, or ratio more methane temperature 121 215°F natural gas higher35. For good operation, the final temperature of compressed gas should not go above specified limits. ‘Final temperature can be reduced by: (increasing /decreasing) R; cooling the ______before it enters the com- pressor; or by the compressor. 36. If discharge temperatures are excessive, 2 combination of reducing R and_________ the suction gas may be needed. 87. The R can be decreased by reducing the pressure, or by increasing the or both. Pressure, Intercooling 38. This diagram represents a multistage compression unit. 10 PSIA 20° F SUCTION 90 PSIA 20° F DISCHARGE 30 PSIA 220° F The gas is being compressed in stages. 39. The discharge from the first compressor is passed through a—______ before it reaches the second stage com- pressor. 40, The intercooling is used to reduce the of the gas before it goes through the second stage com- pressor. 41. In most cases, multistaging with intercooling is used wher R is 3.0 or more, to reduce the _____of the discharge gas. 25 decreasing cooling cooling discharge temperature temperature42. In some cases where R is less than 3.0, compressors are multistaged without intercooling to reduce the load on each compressor. ‘Without intercooling, multistaging does not reduce final discharge temperature. If the gas is allowed to enter each stage at existing tem- perature, the overall total. ise is the same as with single-stage compression. “48. When R is 3.0 or more, it is necessary to use two or more stages (with/without) intercooling. Suction Cooling 44. When temperature is lowered and pressure remains the same, the volume of a gas decreases. If a balloon is filled with gas at atmospheric pressure and then cooled, it will (shrink/expand). 45. When gas is cooled, it becomes more dense. Therefore, more standard cubic feet are compressed for the same actual cubic feet when the gas is (heated/ cooled) . 46. One reason for intercooling is to reduce the final of the gas. 47. But a more important reason is to________ the volume of the gas before it reaches the second stage com- pressor. 48. Roughly 1% of horsepower is saved for every 5°F ab- sorbed at the intercooler. ‘Maltistaging with intercooling reduces the total required for 2 given compression. 26 ‘temperature shrink temperature shrink, or reduce power, or HP49, 50. Suction cooling: decreases the final. of the gas; and permits processing (more/less) gas (SCF) for the same power input. Or, suction cooling can be used to the power required to maintain a constant flow rate in SCF per hour or day. CAPACITY AND RATE 51. 58, 55. 58. 59. Rate is the volume of flow per unit of time. (Cubic feet/Cubic feet per minute) is a measure of rate. Gas flow rate is also measured in cubic feet per hour or in cubie feet per day. To measure rate, we need a measure of volume and a measure of, The flow rate of a gas is the number of that flows through or is handled by a compressor in a certain period of —___ In measuring rate, abbreviations are used for both vol- ume and time. For example, a rate of 650,000 cubic feet per day is ab- breviated ____ MCF/D, If the volume of this gas is in standard cubic feet, the abbreviation is 650M ___ CFD. One million standard cubie feet per day may be written ae or ag eee) Cubic feet per unit time may also be written as CF/D or CFM. 1 M°CF/D is one million cubic feet per —__. ‘The capacity of a compressor is the rate at which it com- Presses gas. A capacity of 100 SCFM means the compressor is taking in and discharging __________SCF of gas every ‘Suppose a compressor has a rated capacity of 60 SCFM. At an intake pressure of 14.7 PSIA and a suction tempera- ture of 60°F (standard conditions), the compressor will compress __ cubic feet of gas per minute. ar temperature more decrease, or reduce Cubic feet per minute time cubic feet MMSCF; M°SCF day 100 minute 6060. Compressors are often rated in terms of cubic feet per minute (CFM). An air compressor handles 100 CFM. Its daily rate is (remember there are 60 minutes in an hour and 24 hours in a day) : MCF/D. 61. When a rate such as 100 SCFM is used, the volume has been corrected to a temperature of oF and a pressure of. PSIA. 62. If rates such as 100 MCF/D or 100 CFM are used, we know that the suction conditions of temperature and Pressure are (standard/whatever they happen to be at the time of measurement). BHP 68. The basic unit of work in our system is the foot-pound. One foot-pound is the work done in lifting a weight of one. a distance of one. 64. To lift a 10-pound weight one foot requires foot-pounds of work. 65. Work is force times distance. If we lift a 60-pound weight 8 feet off the floor, we have done (20/80/180) foot-pounds of work. 28 144 60 ut whatever they happen to be at the time of measurement pound; foot 10 18066. Horsepower is the time rate of doing work. One horse- power (HP) is 33,000 foot-pounds of work done in one 1 MINUTE 1 FOOT —| Horsepower (HP) is a measure of foot-pounds of work done per unit of 67. If 99,000 foot-pounds of work is done in one minute, the horsepower is 68. HP can be determined by knowing the foot-pounds of work done and the___-___ taken to do it. 69. As the amount of work or foot-pounds per unit of time increases, the HP required —___. 70. When more time is consumed in doing work, the HP re- quired (increases /decreases). 71, There are other units of energy and power besides foot- pounds and horsepower. Table of Power and Work Factors 1 horsepower = 746 watts 1 horsepower = 83,000 ft. Ibs. per minute 1 horsepower = 42.41 BTU per minute 1 BTU T78 foot-pounds 1 BTU 2980 watt hours 1 kilowatt 1000 watts 1 Kilowatt .34 horsepower 1 Kilowatt = 44,286 ft. Ibs. per minute 1 kilowatt 56.87 BTU per minute Electric power is measured in 72. One HP is equal to 746. 29 time time increases decreases kilowatts, or watts watts4. 1. 6. One kilowatt is watts, or it is EP. ‘Two compressors operate on the same gas from the same suction conditions at equal flow rates; Unit A compresses, through an R of 2, and Unit B compresses through an R of 3. Compressor (A/B) does more work. ‘The work done by a gas compressor depends on: ‘the _____of flow through the compressor; and on ‘the _____ of compression, the temperature, and the kind of. Absolute discharge pressure divided by absolute suction Pressure is the compression REVIEW AND SUMMARY 7. B. 79. 80. 81. The ratio of compression (R) is the absolute discharge pressure divided by the absolute If suction pressure is 15 PSIA and discharge pressure is 45 PSIA, the ratio of compression is The work done by a gas compressor depends on: the ____of flow through the compressor; and on the ______ of compression, the temperature, and the kind of. On a constant-speed unit, HP loading can be adjusted by changing. R usually can be reduced by: (inereasing/decreasing) suction pressure; or by (inereasing/decreasing) discharge pressure. ‘The discharge temperature at a compressor depends on: the____ temperature; the compression j and the composition of the Air heats up (more/less) than hydrocarbon gases through ‘the same R, from the same suction temperature. Discharge temperature can be reduced by decreasing suction temperature or by reducing 30 1000; 1.34 rate R, or ratio; suction gas ratio, or B suction pressure rate R, or ratio; suetion gas R inereasing decreasing85. 86. 87. When the compression R is above 8, gas is usually com- pressed by multistaged units. In these units, intercooling reduces overall discharge Intercooling also reduces the actual ____of the gas entering the second stage compressor and permits handling the gas with__________ BHP. Without intercooling, multistage compression (reduces/ does not reduce) overall discharge temperature, If R and suction pressure remain the same, lowering the suction temperature _______ the standard volume of gas processed and the discharge tem- perature. THE END 81 temperature volume does not reduce increases decreasesAN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSION Section 1 ‘The Behavior of Gases . Gas Measurements Pressure . ‘Temperature . Volume ‘The Gas Laws : Prescure and Volume (Bove's Law) ‘Temperature and Volume (Charles’ Review and Summary Section 2 ‘The Nature of Compression ‘The Ratio of Compression . The Heat of Compression .. Intercooling ...-...--- Suetion Cooling Capacity and Rate BHP ... . Review and Summary -Resource Development Corporation TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEARNING 13831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 20 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 (713) 460-4460, (800) 527-1851