Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

Course Objectives :
At the end of this course student is expected to :
1. Recognize and discuss the importance of Forensic Chemistry in relation to the other fields of Forensic Science.
2. Enumerate the Scope of work and Roles of a Forensic Chemist in crime investigation.
3. Identify different types of evidence
4. Define who is a witness

Chemistry
Is a science that deals with the composition, structure and properties of substances and with the
transformations that undergo. It includes the study of the composition and chemical properties of a substance, chemical
processes and phenomena (as of an organism).

Forensic Chemistry
 That branch of chemistry deals with the application of chemical principles in the solution of the problems that
arise in connection with the administration of justice.
 It is a chemistry applied in the elucidation of legal problems. It is chemistry used in courts of law.
 It is chemistry that belongs to the court of law.
 A forensic chemist is the one who practices forensic chemistry
Scope of Forensic Chemistry
1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation.
2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal proceeding.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings.
4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably Legal Medicine, Ballistics, Questioned Documents,
Dactyloscopy, and Photography.

Roles of the Forensic Chemist in the Scientific Criminal Investigation

The forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific criminal investigation.
He may be called upon to aid an investigation in:
 Determining whether or not a place/location is a clandestine laboratory
 Examination of marked bills/suspects during entrapment (extortion case)
 Taking paraffin Cast

Four stages of Work of a Forensic Chemist

1. Collection or reception of the specimen/evidence for laboratory examination
 Sufficiency of sample
 Standard for comparison
 Maintenance of individuality
 Labeling and scaling
2. The actual examination of specimen
3. Communication of the result of examination
4. Court appearance

Standard Specimen
 Are known specimen to compare with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a suspect’s
relationship to the crime under investigation.
Practical Person to Collect the Evidence/Specimen
 Person capable of applying knowledge or theory to practice. Person trained by practice.
Ideal Person to Collect the Evidence/ Specimen
 Perfect person. The forensic Chemist.

Physical Evidence
 An articles and materials which are found in connection with an investigation and which aid in
establishing the identity of the perpetrator of the circumstances under which crime was committed or
which in general assist in the prosecution of the criminal.
 It compasses any and all objects that can establish that crime has been committed or can provide a link
between a crime and its victims or a crime and its perpetrator.
Evidence
 Is a proof allegation.
 It means sanctioned by the law of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of
fact.
Evidence as distinguished from Proof
a. Proof –refers to the degree of kind of evidence, which will produce full conviction or establish the proposition to the
satisfaction of the court.
b. Evidence – is the reclusion of proof.

The Major Classification of Evidence

Direct Evidence
 Evidence which directly establishes the main fact of an issue. It is simply that which the senses perceive.
 Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he saw, heard, smell, touched or tasted.

Indirect/ Circumstantial Evidence

 One which tend to establish a fact by proving another fact.
 A kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inference from proved facts.
 An evidence which establishes a fact or circumstances from which the court may infer another fact at
issue.
Real Evidence
 Comprises tangible objects introduced at a trial to prove or disprove a fact in issue.
 The evidence speaks itself.
 It requires no explanation, merely identification.
Hearsay Evidence
 Proceeds not from the personal knowledge of the witnesses but from the mere repetition of what the
witness heard other say.
 It is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not from his own personal
knowledge or observation.
 Hearsay evidence is inadmissible in court except with certain well-defined exceptions. Like declarations
against interest, dying declaration, reputation, public records and statements made at a prior time.
Scientific Evidence
 An evidence wherein scientific knowledge is necessary. It is an evidence based on or conforming to the
principles and techniques of science.

Forms of Scientific Evidence

Real or Autoptic Evidence
 Is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court.
 It is not limited to that which can be known by the senses of vision but extends to those which are
perceived by the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
Testimonial Evidence
 An expert witness may be called upon and placed on the witness stand and answers all questions to be
propounded by both parties in the case.
 It is a solemn declaration made orally by a witness under oath in response to the interrogation by a
lawyer.
 It is the declaration of truth of facts by an expert.
Experimental Evidence
 An evidence required of an expert witness to prove a certain matter of fact through certain experiments.
An expert witness may be required to perform certain experiments to prove a certain matter of fact. The
court, however, in its own discretion may or may not allow this kind of evidence.
Documentary Evidence
 Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute
and not excluded by the Rules of Court.

Relevance of Physical Evidence

 Physical properties of physical evidence cannot change, whereas testimonial evidence is based solely on
interpretation that can change or be erroneous
 Physical evidence can't lie, quit, die, forget, or get fired. In addition, the source of testimonial evidence
may also be lost, thus losing the connection between the original and the court version

Quantum of Evidence - the amount of evidence needed; the quality of proof is how reliable such evidence should be
considered
Criminal Case
 Proof beyond reasonable doubt
Civil Case
 Preponderance of Evidence
Administrative Case
 Substantial Evidence
Several types of physical evidence that are likely to be found at the scene of a crime, and can be analyzed scientifically
including those listed below;
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
 Any tissue from the victim or suspect, such as hair, fingernails, bones, teeth
Body fluids
 Saliva, blood, sweat, semen, and urine of the victim or suspect
Impressions
 Tool marks, shoeprints, fingerprints, bite marks, tiretracks, etc.
Weapons
 characteristics of firearms, ammunitions and residue, chemical composition of explosives, etc.
Questioned documents
 printing method or paper and ink used in forged documents, handwriting style, counterfeit bills,
ransom notes, etc.
Miscellaneous trace evidence
 Such as dust and dirt, fibers, soil, glass, paint, skeletal remains, fracture matches, etc.

Primary Reason which may Contribute to the Disaster of Evidence

 Improper packing of specimen
 Improper preservation
 Failure of Identification of Specimen
 Improper precaution used in transmitting the specimen
 Lack of precaution to prevent tampering of the specimen

Witness
 Is the one who testifies in court and has personal knowledge or experience of something.
 A person other than a suspect who is requested to give information concerning an incident or person.
 He may be a victim, a complainant, an accuser, a source of information, and an observer of an
occurrence.

Suspect
 In an offense is a person whose guilt is considered on reasonable grounds to be practical possibility.

Witness in Court may be:

1. Ordinary Witness
 State facts and may not express his opinions or conclusions.
 He may testify to impressions of common experiments such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a
voice was that of a man, woman or child. Beyond this he is closely limited.
2. Expert Witness
 One who possess a special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who has special knowledge in waters
not generally known to men or ordinary education and experiments.
 A person skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not within the
common knowledge of man.
3. Eye Witness
 A person who saw the fatal act.

Qualification of an Ordinary Witness

 Any person who can perceive and perceiving
 Can make their known perception to others
 He does not fall in any exception provided for Rule 130. Rules on Evidence.

Rule 130 of Rules on Evidence

C. TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE
1. Qualification of Witnesses
Section 21. Witnesses; their qualifications. - All persons who can perceive, and perceiving, can make known their
perception to others, may be witnesses.
Section 21. Disqualification by reason of mental incapacity or immaturity (DELETED)
Section 22. Testimony confined to personal knowledge
Section 23. Disqualification by reason of marriage.
Section 24. Disqualification by reason of privileged communication[s]. - The following persons cannot testify as to
matters learned in confidence in the following cases:
(a) The husband or the wife
(b) An attorney to his client
(c) A physician, psychotherapist to his patient
 (d) A minister, priest to a person make a confession to them
(e) A public officer
2. Testimonial Privilege
Section 25. Parental and filial privilege.

History of Forensic Chemistry

The history of forensic chemistry can be traced back to the use of poisons by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans Democrats, an ancient philosopher widely considered as the father of modern science, was probably the first to
study poisons. Poisoning was used by the ancient world as a method of murder and execution, such as when Socrates
was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock, a highly poisonous plant. The use of arsenic, a very poisonous metallic
element, was so wide spread during this time that by 82B.C.E, the ancient Roman civilization created laws against
poisoning.

Years where significant event happened in the field of Forensic Toxicology

1752
 The first actual chemical test for poison was undertaken during the Blandy trial
1836
 The Marsh test was developed by James Marsh
 An examination use to detect the presence of arsenic in a human body
1851
 Stas was required to examine the organs of a dead body involved in a notorious murder case, concluding
that the victim had been poisoned by nicotine.
 Jean Servais Stas – Belgian Chemist, conducted studies on various methods employed to detect certain
types of vegetable poisons in the body.
1863
 Discovery of the first reliable method for identifying human blood, Christian Friedrich Schobein.

Edmond Locard's Exchange Principle

 The principle holds that every contact leaves a trace or that every contact between two objects results
in an exchange of traces between them.
 In 1910, Locard succeeded in setting up the first police laboratory in Lyon,France.

Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila

 Father of Modern forensic Toxicology
 Established numerous basic principles of modern toxicology and probably the first person to conduct
experiments on the effects of poisons. Frequently summoned in criminal trials as an expert witness on
the use of poisons that time.
Sir Francis Galton
 Finger Prints (book)
 Claims that every person had a unique fingerprint characteristics

Forensic Laboratories In The Philippines

In the Philippines, the practice of forensics began with the passage of the Royal Decree No 188 by King Philip
during the Spanish rule in the country. Under this decree, forensic physicians, called "Medicos Titulares” were assigned
to the Philippine provinces to perform public sanitary and medico legal duties.
Today, there are several forensic laboratories in the country, including those from the five district offices, two
satellite crime laboratories in Valenzuela City and Marikina City, regional and provincial offices of the Philippine National
Police(PNP), the University of the Philippines-Philippine General Hospital (UP-PGH) in Manila, the Philippine Drug
Enforcement Agency(PDEA) in Quezon City, and the National Bureau of Investigation(NBI) in Manila and its regional and
provincial offices

The Crime Laboratory

 A crime laboratory ("crimelab") is a scientific laboratory that uses forensic science for the purpose of
examining evidence from criminal cases.
 It refers to a laboratory where highly trained technical personnel render various related services.
 The PNP Crime Laboratory consists of uniformed and non-uniformed personnel with high level of
expertise and the ability to provide Scientific investigation services through fieldwork, crime scene
operations, forensic laboratory services, as well as criminalistics training and research. Allied services
include autopsy, drug tests, DNA examinations, examination of questioned documents, fingerprinting
services, histopathological examinations, macro-etching examinations, semen determination, and so
on.
Chemist
 Any person who is engaged in the professional practice of chemistry, and is duly registered with the
Board of Chemistry and the Professional Regulation Commission to undertake the professional practice
of chemistry.
Forensic Chemist
 Is a professional chemist who analyzes evidence from the crime scene and derives a conclusion based on
undertaken on such evidence.

Functions of a Forensic Chemist

1. Conduct qualitative and quantitative examination of dangerous drugs as well as volatile substances (R.A.9165 &
PD1619)
2. Conduct examination of explosives and/or explosive ingredients (PD1866)
3. Conduct examination of firearms and paraffin casts to detect the presence of gunpowder nitrates or gunpowder
residue(GPR)
4. Conduct gunpowder examination of clothing to verify possible gunshot distance
5. Conduct chemical-toxicological examination of human internal organs, gastric contents, blood water, food
samples, and other substances.
6. Conduct examination of fake products in case of unfair trade competition(e.g.,bleach, cement, cigarette, beer or
liquor brands, etc.)
7. Conduct blood alcohol determination
8. Examine urine and other bodily fluids for the presence of dangerous drugs
9. Conduct research and training related to the cases being examined
10. Deliver lectures on forensic chemistry and toxicology to police and military training centers, investigative units
schools, and universities
11. Testify and provide expert opinion in court as well as at the court duty as an expert witness
12. Respond to queries of all investigative units and render expert opinion regarding matters related to the
application of chemical principles, for the purpose of assisting investigators in developing investigative leads.
13. Conduct field laboratory work and clandestine laboratory investigation

Chain of Custody
The chain of custody refers to a written record of all the individuals who maintained unbroken control over
certain items of evidence collected from a crime scene. This establishes the proof that the items of evidence collected at
the crime scene are the same items being presented in a court of law, hence validating their origin.
Drug-related cases are the ones that strictly require a chain of custody form. Through a written document, the
prosecutor establishes all individuals who handled the drug specimen submitted and the specific times and dates at
which they had the evidence in their possession. The evidence is officially turned over to the court once the testimony of
the forensic examiner has been heard and admitted to the court.
The chain of custody follows a specific sequence. From the crime scene, evidence is collected, stored, labeled,
and recorded by the evidence collector. He or she then turns it over to the forensic examiner, who submits the evidence
to the evidence custodian up until the date at which it has to be presented to the court. It is important to note that the
evidence must stay in the evidence room for safekeeping until a subpoena is served to the crime lab to retrieve that
evidence and its documentation.

Things to consider in establishing chain of custody

 The date and time at which the evidence was handled;
 Those who had contact with the evidence;
 What changes, if any were made in the evidence; and
 The circumstances under which the evidence was handled.

The Evidence Custodian

An evidence custodian is the person responsible for preserving the chain of custody of each item of evidence
submitted by the examiner, he or she ensures the security and integrity of such evidence. The evidence custodian is also
responsible for receiving inventories, logs, stores, packages, and issues and providing assistance in the release of that
adjudicated piece of evidence. Furthermore, the custodian must keep the evidence safe by placing it inside the evidence
room.

The Evidence Room

An evidence room or property room refers to a secure facility or room, in which evidence related to criminal
cases or investigations are stored. The evidence custodian always has direct supervision of this room. The evidence room
is often located inside the forensic laboratory itself, and is used to store old evidence. It is also used to store physical
evidence apart from transcripts, recordings, and other supporting information. Sometimes, case files are also stored in
the evidence room, depending on the organizational structure of the department. The contents of the evidence room
are stored and organized through a database that has references for all items stored in the room, along with notations
indicating their specific locations.
The Forensic Chemist as an Expert Witness in Court
Qualifications :
 Education
 Training
 Experience
- must have sufficient and specialized knowledge in the forensic sciences beyond that of an average person, such
that his or her expert opinion about a piece of evidence can be considered dependable on legal grounds.

Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

As with other disciplines, there are several important rules that must be followed, which include the ones listed below:
 Go slowly.
 Be thorough
 Take notes.
 Consult others.
 Use imagination.
 Avoid complicated theories.

BLOOD

Blood circulates throughout the body and is made up of four (4) elements, namely the red blood cells or
erythrocytes, the white blood cells or leucocytes, blood platelets, and plasma. Human blood consists of 65% plasma, of
which 90% is water and 10% are proteins (albumen, globulin and fibrinogen).
Blood clots found at the crime scene usually exhibits a straw-yellow colored liquid called serum. The difference
between serum and plasma is that the latter contains no fibrinogen, which changes to an insoluble form called fibrin.
Blood examination in forensics can include blood typing and testing for the presence of blood stain in serology, blood
stain pattern analysis, and testing for the presence of deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) in paternity tests.

Serology
 is a branch of science that deals with the determination of the type and characteristics of blood, blood
testing, and the examination of blood stain, semen, saliva, and other body fluids that may or may not be
involved with DNA typing. The preparation of testimony through the results obtained via serology and
its presentation in a trial by oral and written testimony delivered by an expert witness is the main job
function of a forensic serologist.
 The study of serum and other body fluids

Importance of Serology in Crime Investigation

 As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator
 For disputed parentage
 Determination of the cause of death the length of time the victim survived the attack.
 Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant.
 Determination of the origin of the flow of blood.
 Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

Problems in the Study of Blood

 Where blood has to be searched for.
 Collection, preservation and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood.
 Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
1.Preliminary Test (a.k.a.: Presumptive or Color Test) – a positive result is not conclusive that the
stain is blood but a negative result is conclusive that the stain is not blood. REASON: Other
substances may yield the same reaction as blood. This includes: sputum, nasal secretion, plant
juices, formalin, etc.
i. Benzidine Test: Benzidine Solution & Hydrogen Peroxide (agua oxigenada). A
positive reaction is indicated by BLUE COLOR
ii. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen’s, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test) – Guaiac & Hydrogen
Peroxide. A positive reaction is indicated by BLUE COLOR
iii. Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle-Meyer Test) – Phenolphthalein reagent and
Hydrogen Peroxide. A positive reaction is indicated by RED/PINK COLOR.
iv. Leucomalachite Green Test – Leucomalachite Green Reagent & Hydrogen
Peroxide. A positive reaction is indicated by MALACHITE GREEN WITH A
BLUISHGREEN OR PEACOCK BLUE COLOR.
v. Hemastix Test – designed as a urine dipstick test for blood, the strip can be
moistened with distilled water and placed in contact with a suspect bloodstain.
A positive reaction is indicated by GREEN COLOR.
 vi. Luminol Test – its reaction with blood results in the production of light rather
than color. By spraying luminal reagent onto a suspect item, large areas can be
quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. Develop by Walter Specht in
1937.
2.Confirmatory Tests – The actual proof that a stain is blood consists in establishing the presence
of characteristic blood pigment, hemoglobin or one of its derivatives. The 3 Confirmatory Tests
commonly employed are Teichmann, Takayama and Wagenhaar Tests. They are designed to
show the presence of hemoglobin in a suspected bloodstain by the appearance of specific
crystals observed under a microscope.
i. Teichmann or Haemin Crystal Test –DARK BROWN RHOMBIC CRYSTALS OF
HAEMIN OR HAEMATIN CHLORIDE (arranged singly or in clusters).
ii. Takayama or Haemochromogen Crystal Test – LARGE RHOMBIC CRYSTALS OF A
SALMON-PINK COLOR (arranged in clusters, sheaves and other forms appear
within one to six minutes).
iii. Wagenhaar Test or Acetone-Haematin – Small dark, circular crystals
iv. Spectroscopic Examination – Most delicate and reliable test for presence of
blood in both old and recent stains. Uses MICROSPECTROSCOPE: a direct vision
spectroscope that fits into the microscope tube in place of the eyepiece.
Positive result: OXYHAEMOGLOBIN for recent blood stain; METHAEMOGLOBIN
(a converted oxyhaemoglobin owing to exposure to air and light) in old blood
stains
 If the stain is that of blood, is it human or animal?
 If the stain is of human blood, did it come from the victim, the accused or from other persons?
 Precipitin Test (human antiserum) – The formation of gray precipitation ring at the interface of the two
layers within 20 minutes indicates that the stain is human blood.

Three Categories Of Blood Stain

Passive Blood stains – these are drops created or formed by the force of gravity acting alone.
 Drip - caused by dripping blood
 Drop - created by force of gravity
 Pool - this refers to a change in the shape and direction of a blood stain due to the influence of gravity or
movement of the object.
Transfer Blood Stains - created when a wet, bloody surface comes contact with a secondary surface.
 smudge
 Contact bleeding
 Wipe
 Swipe or smear
Projected Blood Stains – created when an exposed blood source is subjected to an action or force, greater than the
force of gravity.
 Arterial Spurt or Gush
 Cast-off
 Impact Spatter

What Information Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Provide?

• About the surface texture
• Dropping distance
• Angle of impact
• Directionality of angle of impact
• Classification of the Impact pattern
• Origin of the impact pattern
• Impact of bloodstain spatter pattern
• Types of spatter
https://www.slideserve.com/elvis/blood-spatter-analysis

Antigens vs Antibody
 Antigens, or immunogens, are substances or toxins in your blood that trigger your body to fight them.
 Antigens are usually bacteria or viruses, but they can be other substances from outside your body that
threaten your health. This battle is called an immune response.
 Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins or Ig. They are Y-shaped proteins made by your immune
system’s B lymphocytes or B cells.
 B cells attack and eliminate viruses and other toxins outside the cell. They do this by making specific
antibodies for a single type of antigen.
  These tailored antibodies lock on to their specific antigens and tag them for attack. Antibodies also block
these antigens, keeping them away from your healthy cells. Ultimately, antibodies kill these antigens,
stopping infection.

ABO blood type Percentage of people

A-positive (A+) 30%
A-negative (A-) 6%
B-positive (B+) 9%
B-negative (B-) 2%
AB-positive (AB+) 4%
AB-negative (AB-) 1%
O-positive (O+) 39%
O-negative (O-) 7%

BLOOD TYPE COMPATIBILITY

Blood Type Gives Receives

A+ A+,AB+ A+,A-,O+,O-

O+ O+,A+,B+,Ab+ O+,O-

B+ B+,AB+ B+,B-,O+,O-

AB+ AB+ Everyone

A- A+,A-,AB+,AB A-,O-

O- Everyone O-

B- B+,B-,AB+,AB- N-,O-

AB- AB+,AB- AB-,A-,B-,O-