CHAPTER

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

M. Samutra Pandian, Assistant Professor, Science and Humanities, PPG Institutions

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

 State the meaning and definition of population and sample
 Explain the estimation of sample size for a research study
 List the factors influencing sampling
 List the steps in sampling
 Explain various sampling techniques used in Nursing Research
 List the problems in sampling
 Explain the probability and sampling error.

POPULATION
Introduction: Population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is
the main focus of a scientific query. Collection of data is an essential part of the
research process. In order to collect data for any research problem the researcher has
to select a representative sample from the population so as to enable him to draw
conclusions from the sample, which will hold good for the population.

A sample is selected since it is neither possible nor feasible to gather data for the whole
population. By correctly drawing a sample from a specific population, a researcher can
analyze the sample and make inferences about population characteristics. However,
due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot test every individual in
the population because it is too expensive and time-consuming. If the sample is
representative of the population from which it is drawn, the researcher can have
confidence in concluding that the results are generalizable to the entire population.

Meaning and Definition of Universe, Population and Sample

Universe refers to the total of the items or units in any field of inquiry, whereas
the term 'Population' refers to the total of items about which information is desired.
Population is any collection or aggregate of specified group of human beings or non-
human entities such as objects, time units and others. Thus, all units in any field of
inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of one characteristic
or more) constitute population. In practice, these two terms such as population and
universe, are taken as interchangeable. However, a researcher must necessarily define
these terms precisely.
SAAM SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION, ESTIMATION AND HYPOTHESIS TEST

Population is the entire group whom you want to generalize the research finding.
For example if you want to study the morbidity and mortality pattern of
children with Leukemia in Tamil Nadu, the population might be defined as all children
with Leukemia in Tamil Nadu.
The population may be finite or infinite. If you are looking for a job in the
Automobile Sector, so you search online for Automobile jobs. Here the universe is jobs
all around the World, but if you want to work in India, then your Population is jobs in
India or especially Automobile jobs in India. The sample is top 30 companies or top 30
positions in Automobile Sector.

The number of units constituting the population is called the size of population.
For example, in the study of socioeconomic conditions of a particular village, all
families or houses in the village will be a population. A population comprises all
possible cases (persons, objects, events) that constitute a known whole. The population
or universe can be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it consists of a
fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality. For
instance, the population of a city, the number of nurses working in Government sectors
are examples of finite populations. The symbol 'N is generally used to indicate how
many elements (or items) are there in case of a finite elements.

Types of Population
Finite vs Infinite Population
Finite: A population containing a finite number
of units, individuals, or member is called a ‘finite
population’ (e.g. the students studying in a
particular Institution)

⮨
Infinite: A

population containing an infinite number of

units, individuals or members is called infinite
population' (e.g. all herbal plants in a particular
forest area). The infinite population cannot be
counted.

⮩
Real (or) Existent vs Hypothetical Population
Real population:
In real population, all potential observations are
possible and accessible at the time of sampling.
This is otherwise known as existent population
which is the population of concrete individuals.
Example, Weight of all students in a School.

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Conceptual/hypothetical population:
It is a population which does not physically
exist or potential observations are not
accessible at the time of sampling is
referred to as the hypothetical population.
For example, all possible values of
tomorrow's highest temperature or rainfall
or all possible new cases of diabetes
mellitus in the next year.

⮩
Target Population vs Accessible Population:
Target population refers to the entire
group of individuals or objects to
which researchers are interested in
generalizing the conclusions. The
target population usually has varying
characteristics and it is also known as
the "theoretical population.
For example, we may want to study
the problems of adolescents in
Chennai. In this case, the target
population may be all those
adolescents residing at Chennai is our
population.

The accessible population is the

population in research to which
the researchers can apply their
conclusions. This population is a
subset of the target population and
is also known as the 'study
population. It is from the
accessible population that
researchers draw their samples.
For example, in the study of
problems of adolescents in
Chennai, the researcher may have
access to adolescents studying in 8 schools in Chennai. In this case, the adolescents
studying in the selected 8 schools in Chennai is the accessible population. Accessible
population is feasible for the researcher to access.
In a research, the researcher would like to study the children with Leukemia, he
cannot have access to all children with Leukemia. He may have access to children who
are attending OPD or In-patient department of few hospitals. Any of the clients at these
few hospitals would constitute the accessible population for the study.

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SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION AND ESTIMATION

Objectives:
 To take a sample from an entire population and use it to describe the
population
 To make sure the samples you do take are an accurate representation
of the population from which they came
 To introduce the concepts of sampling distributions
 To understand the trade-offs between the cost of taking larger samples
and the additional accuracy this gives to decisions made from them
 To introduce experimental design: sampling procedures to gather the
most information for the least cost

SAMPLING
Although there are over 10000000000 TV
viewers in India and somewhat over half
that many TV sets, only about 1,000 of
those sets are sampled to determine what
programs Indians watch. Why select only
about 1,000 sets out of 100 crores?
Because time and the average cost of an
interview prohibit the rating companies
from trying to reach crores of people. And
since polls are reasonably accurate,
interviewing everybody is unnecessary.

In this chapter, we examine questions such as these:

 How many people should be interviewed?
 How should they be selected?
 How do we know when our sample accurately reflects the entire population?

Introduction to Sampling
Shoppers often sample a small piece of cheese before purchasing
any. They decide from one piece what the larger chunk will taste
like. A chemist does the same thing when he takes a sample of
alcohol from a still, determines that it is 90 proof, and infers that
all the alcohol in the still is 90 proof, If the chemist tests all the
alcohol or the shoppers taste all the cheese, there will be none to
sell. Testing all of the product often destroys it and is
unnecessary. To determine the characteristics of the whole, we
have to sample only a portion.

Suppose that, as the personnel director of a large bank, you need to write a report
describing all the employees who have voluntarily left the company in the last 10 years.
You would have a difficult task locating all these thousands of people. They are not
easily accessible as a group many have died, moved from the community, left the
country, or acquired a new name by marriage. How do you write the report? The best
idea is to locate a representative sample and interview them in order to generalize
about the entire group.

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Time is also a factor when managers need information quickly in order to adjust an
operation or change a policy. Consider an automatic machine that sorts thousands of
pieces of mail daily. Why wait for an entire day's output to check whether the machine
is working accurately (whether the population characteristics are those required by the
postal service)? Instead, samples can be taken at specific intervals, and if necessary,
the machine can be adjusted right away.

Sometimes it is possible and practical to examine every person or item in the

population we wish to describe. We call this a complete enumeration, or census. We
use sampling when it is not possible to count or measure every item in the population.

Statisticians use the word population to refer not only to people but to all items that
have been chosen for study. In the cases we have just mentioned, the populations are
all the cheese in the chunk, all the whiskey in the vat, all the employees of the large
bank who voluntarily left in the last 10 years, and all mail sorted by the automatic
machine since the previous sample check. Statisticians use the word sample to
describe a portion chosen from the population.

The sample refers to those individuals or units or elements who are selected for
a study. A sample is simply a subset of the population. The concept of sample arises
from the inability of the researchers to test all the individuals in a given population.
The sample must be representative of the population from which it was drawn and it
must have good size to warrant statistical analysis.

According to Goode and Hatt, "A sample as the name applies, is a smaller
representative of a large whole, According to Pauline V Young, "A statistical sample is a
miniature of cross selection of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is
taken'. A sample is a part of the population from which it was drawn.

The statistician is often confronted with the problem of discussing population of

which he/she cannot examine every member, i.e., of which complete enumeration is
impracticable.

A finite subset of a population is called a sample. A sample is thus a small

portion of the population. The number of individuals in a sample is called the sample
size. The process of selecting a sample from a population is called sampling.
Large and Small samples: If the sample size is greater than 30, such a sample is
called large sample, while the size of the sample is lesser than 30, it is small sample.

Sampling
Sampling is the process of selection of samples from a population. According to
Bogardus, "Sampling is the selection of certain percentage of a group of items according
to a context of funds available for the research study. It should be such that the results
of sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence. It should result in small sampling error. Sampling is the process of
selecting a group of subjects for a study in such a way that the individuals represent
the larger group from which they were selected. This representative portion of a
population is called as sample. Sampling may involve the selection of people, events,
organizations, and periods of time, record and many other phenomena of concern to
the field of nursing.

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Sampling Frame
Sampling frame is a list of all elements of the population and it is the list from
which we draw a sample. Sampling frame can be prepared for the finite population
whereas it is impossible in infinite population. The elementary units or the group or
cluster of such units may form the basis of sampling process in which case they are
called sampling units is known as sampling frame. Thus sampling frame consists of a
list of items from which the sample is to be drawn. If the population is finite and the
time frame is in the present or past, then it is possible for the frame to be identical with
the population. In most Cases they are not identical because it is often impassible to
draw a sample directly from population. As such this frame is either constructed by a
researcher for the purpose of his study or may consist of some existing list of
population. For instance, one can use telephone directory as a frame for conducting
opinion survey in a city. Whatever the frame may be, it should good representative of
the population.

Ideally, the sampling frame and the population are identical. But practically, it is not
possible to include all the units of the population. We may omit few elements or it may
be an incomplete list. The goal is to get accurate sampling frame list as much as
possible.

Sampling Design or Sampling Technique

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame.
It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting some
sampling units from which inferences about the population is drawn. Sampling design
is determined before any data are collected. There are two major types of sampling
techniques. They are probability and non-probability sampling technique.

Factors to be Considered in Selecting Samples and Sampling

 Type of universe: A researcher must decide whether the universe is finite or
infinite. In case of finite population, preparation of sampling frame is possible.
Sampling frame facilitates the job of the researcher in selecting the samples for
the study
 Sample frame: It contains the names or lists of all items of a universe. t should
be a representative of the population and should be appropriate reliable, correct
and comprehensive.
 Sample unit: It is to be decided before selecting the sample. Sampling units
may be geographical, constructional, social and individual.
 Sample size: This refers to the number of items to be selected rom universe to
form a sample. Sample size should not be very large or too small. It should fulfil
the requirements of reliability, efficiency, flexibility and representativeness.
While deciding the size of sample, the researcher must consider the population
size, the parameter of interest in research study and the budgetary constraints
 Parameters of interest: While determining a sample design, the specific
population parameters, which are of interest, must be taken into account by
the researcher. For instance, the researcher may be interested in estimating the
portion of persons with some characteristic in the population or he may be
interested in knowing some average or the other measures concerning the
population. A sample design is generally affected by all this. Suppose one may
like to study the individuals with rare form of cancers in which case availability
of samples itself is very limited.

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 Budgetary constraints: The size as well as the type of sample depends upon
the cost consideration.
 Sampling procedure: Finally the researcher must decide about the techniques
to be used in selecting the items for the sample, i.e, he must decide the type of
sample. This technique stands for the sample design itself. He should select the
sample design in such a way that for a given sample size and for a given cost,
the sample design has a smaller sampling error.

Significance (Reason) of Using Sampling

 Scientific base: It is scientific because the conclusion derived from the study of
certain units can be verified from other units. By taking random sample, we
can determine the amount of deviation from the norm.
 Economy: The sampling technique is much less expensive, much less time
consuming than the census technique. Sampling can save time and money. A
sample study is usually less expensive than a census study and produces
results at a relatively faster speed.
 Reliability: If the choice of sample unit is made with due care and the matter
under survey is not heterogeneous, the conclusion of the sample survey can
have almost the same reliability as those of census survey
 Detailed study: Since the number of sample units is fairly small, these can be
studied intensively and elaborately. They can be examined from multiple views.
 Greater suitability in most situations: Most of the surveys are made by the
techniques of sample survey, because whenever the matter is of homogeneous
nature, the examination of few units suffices.
 Speed: The data can be collected and summarized more quickly by studying a
sample than by studying the entire universe.
 Practicability: When the universe is extremely large, sampling is the only
practical method for analysis. Sampling remains the only way when population
contains infinitely many members. Sampling remains the only choice when a
test involves the destruction of the item under study.
 Estimation of sampling errors: Sampling usually enables to estimate the
sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining information concerning Some
characteristic of the population.

Characteristics of Sampling
 Sample design should be such, so that systematic bias can be controlled in a
better way
 It should result in a truly representative sample
 It should be viable in the context of funds available for the research study
 It should be such that the results of sample study can be applied, in general,
for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence
 It should result in small sampling error.

Steps in Sampling
 Identify the target population
 Identity the accessible population
 Specify sampling frame
 Determine the size of the sample
 Decide sampling plan
 Select the sample.

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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
There are various types of sampling techniques. Basically, they are classified as
probability and non-probability sampling techniques.

Sampling techniques

Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Simple random sampling

Systematic sampling Purposive sampling
Cluster and area sampling Convenience sampling
Stratified random sampling Quota sampling
Multistage sampling

Classification of sampling techniques

Probability Sampling Techniques
In this, every item has equal chance of being included in the sample. It is a lottery
method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group by some
mechanical process and not deliberately. The results obtained can be assured in terms
of probability, i.e. the error of estimation or the significance of results obtained can be
measured. Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regulatory which states that
if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe. That is why this sampling is
considered as the best techniques of selecting a representative sample.

Simple Random Sampling

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where
each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
Lottery method:
In this the number of data are written on sheet of paper and they are thrown into a
box. Now a casual observer selects the number of item required in the sample. For this
method, it is necessary that s of paper should be of equal dimensions. For example, if
we have to select a sample of 100 items from a universe of 1,000 items, then we can
put the names or numbers of all the 1,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a
lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling 10
select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1-1,000. then, 100 random
numbers are selected from the random table. Since the numbers were placed in the
table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure
gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the
selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability and
that successive selections are independent of one another.
Advantages
 Due to impartiality, there is possibility of selecting any unit as sample
 Units have the characteristic of universe, hence units are more representative
 Simplicity of method makes no possibility of error
 Error can be known easily
 It saves money, time and labor.

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Disadvantages
 The selector has no control over the selection of units. The researcher cannot
contact the far situated units
 He cannot prepare the whole field when the universe is vast
 If units have no homogeneity, the method is not appropriate
 There is no question of alternatives. The selected units cannot be replaced or
changed.
Systematic Sampling
In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 1st, say
example, 10th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and So on.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is
usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the
unit with which to start. 2his procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in
the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random
point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is
secured.
Advantages
 It can be taken as an improvement over a simple random sampling
 It is an easier and less costly method of sampling and can be conveniently used
even in case of large populations.
Disadvantages
If there is a hidden periodicity in the population, systematic sampling will prove to
be an inefficient method. For example, if we take every 4th piece of thermometer in
a production unit which is detective, we will get all defective thermometer as our
samples.
Stratified Sampling
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample, In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of
non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each
stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling,
the entire procedure, must stratification and then simple random sampling, is known
as stratified random sampling Process of stratifying: The stratification of domain or
data should be with great care, because the success of the technique depends upon
successful stratification.
Following points should be kept in mind:
 We should process extensive information of all items included in a domain and
should know which item make a coherent whole on the basis of similar traits and
which others are different from them and why?
 The size of each stratum should be large to enable the use of random sampling
technique.
 In stratifying, it must be kept in mind that various strata should have similar
relation to the domain and should be themselves homogeneous.
 The various strata which differ from each other should be the same as the
proportion of stratum from the domain. Suppose a domain has four strata,
1
accordingly the proportion of each stratum of domain is . Now if the number of
4
total items of the sample is 64, we shall select 16 items from each stratum and
1
thus the proportion of selected items from each stratum will be .
4

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The strata may be formed on the basis of common characteristics of the items to be put
in each stratum. This means that various strata be formed in such a way as to ensure
elements being most homogeneous within each stratum and most heterogeneous
between the different strata. Thus, strata are purposively formed and are usually based
on past experience and personal judgment of the researcher. From the strata, samples
can be selected using simple random sampling technique or systematic sampling
technique. Regarding the number of samples to be selected from each strata, a
proportionate sampling can be done, i.e. the samples from different strata are kept
proportional to the sizes of the strata.
Example:
Suppose, if we want to select 50 samples from 6000 population which is divided into 3
strata of 1000, 2000 and 3000 then the proportionate sample can be selected from
each strata as follows:
1000
The number of sample to be selected from the strata one   50  8.3  8
6000
2000
The number of sample to be selected from the strata two   50  16.66  17
6000
3000
The number of sample to be selected from the strata three   50  25
6000
The total sample size 8 17  25  50

Proportional allocation is considered most efficient and an optimal design when

the cost of selecting an item is equal for each stratum, there is no differences in within
stratum variances. But in case if we want to compare the strata, then we have to select
equal number of samples from each stratum even if it differs in size.

Advantages
 Neither group nor class of importance is totally neglected as units of each are
represented in the sample
 If different classes are divided properly, selection of few units represents the
whole group
 On the classification of regional basis, units are not in contact easily. This leads
to economy of time and money
 There is a facility in substitution of units. If someone is not contacted easily,
the other person of the same class can be substituted for him. Such inclusion
will not show any contradicting result.
Disadvantages
 The sample does not become representative if selected sample has more or less
units of a class
 If the sizes of different group are different, no equal proportional quality can be
viewed
 Non-proportional selection leads to more emphasis in the end. During such
time researcher can be biased, hence samples will not be a representative
 If group is not expressed properly, the difficulty is seen about the unit to be
kept under which group or class.

Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose a college
wishes to sample its alumni members for some purpose and if it has 20,000 alumni
members, and the sample size is to be kept say 200. For cluster sampling this list of

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20,000 students could be formed into 10 clusters of 100 students each. Two clusters
might then be selected for the sample randomly. The clustering approach can, however,
make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work,
especially in the case of personal interviews.
Advantages
 It is no doubt, reduces cost by concentrating surveys in selected clusters.
Cluster sampling is used only because of the economic advantage it possesses;
estimates based on cluster samples are usually more reliable per unit cost
 The disadvantage is that it is less precise than random sampling.

Area Sampling
It is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total &
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we must
divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called
geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and
all units in these small areas are included in the Sample. Area sampling is especially
helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the
field interviewin8 more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each
location.

Multi-stage Sampling
This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is meant
for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families
within towns. If the technique of random sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

Non Probability Sampling Techniques

This procedure does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item
in the population has been included in the sample. Deliberate sampling, purposive
sampling and judgment sampling are non-probability sampling methods. In this type of
sampling, there is always a danger of entering personal element into the selection of the
sample. The researcher may select a sample which will yield results favorable to his
point of view. If such things happen, then the entire inquiry may get spoiled. If the
investigator is impartial, and if work without bias, then the results of selected sample
may be tolerably reliable. The sampling error cannot be estimated in this method.

Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling, also known as Judgmental,
Selective or Subjective sampling, reflects a group
of sampling techniques that rely on the
judgment of the researcher; when it comes to
selecting the units that are to be studied.
For example, Specific People, specific
cases/Organizations, specific pieces of data.

It is otherwise known as deliberate sampling. In this method the investigator

has complete freedom to choose his sample according to his wishes and desire. This
sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. To choose or leave an

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item for the purpose of study depends entirely upon the wishes of investigator and he
will chose items or units which in his judgment are representative of the whole data.
This is a very simple technique of choosing the samples and is useful in cases where
the whole data is homogeneous and the investigator has full knowledge of the various
aspects of the problem.

Judgment Sampling

Purposive sampling is otherwise known as judgmental sampling, uses the

researcher's expertise and knowledge of the population to hand pick the cases to be
included in the sample. The researcher usually selects participants who are considered
to be typical of the population of interest.
In judgment sampling the researcher's judgment is used for selecting items
which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgment
sample of mothers of children with autism might be taken to study their coping
strategies. Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where
the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger
populations.

Expert Sampling
Expert sampling is a type of purposive sampling used in Delphi technique.
Sample of experts on a particular phenomenon is selected based on the belief that they
are the expertise in those field.

Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples involve selection on the basis of
ease or convenience. When population elements are
selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called 'convenience sampling. At times
such a procedure may give very biased results
particularly when the population is not homogeneous.

Advantages
 More representation is possible in this method
 As sample is small in size, the method is less expensive and less time consuming
 The utility of this method increases when few units of universe have special
importance
 When units are less in number, sample is profitable.
Disadvantages
 Units are selected by researcher at his will. Hence sample is biased
 The error of the sample cannot be detected
 Researcher is unable to understand the whole group
 Those hypotheses on which inference of error of sample is attributed, are less used.

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Quota Sampling
In stratified sampling the cost
of taking random samples
from individual strata is often
so expensive that interviewers
are simply given quota to be
filled from different strata, the
actual selection of items for
sample being left to the
interviewer's judgment. This is
called quota sampling. The
size of the quota for each
stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota
sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgment samples rather than random samples.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in
the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling! I maybe pointed out
here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be
eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered
desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to
be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other
than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low
costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into
consideration the objectives, availability and feasibility, time and the cooperation of the
others.

Deciding on the Size of the Sample

The usual question that many researcher asks is ‘How big should my sample be?’
Using as large a sample as possible is better. The reason is larger the sample, the
better it represents the population. But if the sample size is too large, then the value of
sampling-reducing time and cost of the study-is negligible. Then what is the minimum
number of subjects to study effectively? The size of the samples depends on certain
factors, they are:
 Availability of resources
 Cost
 Accuracy
 Nature of research
 Method of sampling
 Homogeneity of the population.

Factors to be considered in determining the Sample Size:

Size of the sample should be determined by a researcher keeping in view the following
points:
 Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogeneous in
nature. If the items of the universe are homogeneous, a small sample can serve the
purpose. But if the items are heterogeneous, large sample would be required.
Technically, this can be termed as the dispersion factor.
 Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub- groups) are
to be formed, a large sample would be required because a Small sample might not
be able to give a reasonable number of items in each class-group.

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 Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the

sample should be small. For a general survey, the size of the sample should be
large, but a small sample is considered appropriate in technical survey.
 Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the
size of the sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger
but badly selected sample.
 Probability value or alpha level: In general, we keep the alpha value as 0.05.
When it is small, we need larger sample whereas when it is large, we need smaller
sample.
 Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of
accuracy or the level of precision is to be kept high, we shall require relatively
larger sample. For doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance level, the sample
size has to be increased fourfold.
 Power of the study: When we keep the power of the study low, we need lesser
sample, whereas when we keep the power of the study high, we need large sample.
 Alternative hypothesis: When alternative hypothesis is one sided, we need small
sample whereas if it is two sided, we may need, larger sample size.
 Effect size: To detect even smaller effect size, we need large sample whereas to
detect large effect size, we need less sample, Effects are harder to detect in smaller
samples. Increasing sample size is often the easiest way to boost the statistical
power of a test.
 Availability of finance: In practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of
money available for the study purposes. This factor should be kept in view while
determining the size of sample. Large samples result in increasing the cost of
sampling estimates.
 Other considerations: Nature of units, Size of the population, size of
questionnaire, availability of trained investigators, the conditions under which the
research is being conducted, the time available for completion of the study are a
few other considerations to which a researcher must pay attention while selecting
the size of the sample.

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