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CHAPTER 1: Load Classification and

Simple Stresses

Intended Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Determine the different types of load applied and stresses to the materials.
2. Determine the resultant loading acting on the cross section of the material.
3. Determine the formula to be used when computing the simple stresses.

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that studies the internal effects of stress
and strain in a solid body that is subjected to an external loading. Stress is associated with the
strength of the material from which the body is made, while strain is a measure of the deformation
of the body.

Equilibrium of Deformable Body

External Load

A body is subjected to only two types of external loads, namely: surface forces and body
forces. Figure 1 shows the illustration of the external forces in a body.

Figure 1. Illustration of external forces in a body.

Hibbeler, 2011

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1. Surface Forces
Surface forces are caused by the direct contact of one body with the surface of another. In
all cases these forces are distributed over the area of contact between the bodies.

a. Concentrated Force
If this area is small in comparison with the total surface area of the body, then the
surface force can be idealized as a single concentrated force, which is applied to a point on
the body

b. Linear Distributed Load

If the surface loading is applied along a narrow strip of area, the loading can be
idealized as a linear distributed load

b.1 Uniformly distributed load

A distributed load acts over a finite length of the beam. A distributed load
may be uniformly. Such loads are measured by their intensity which is expressed by
the force per unit distance along the axis of the beam.

b.2 Uniformly Varying Load

A load is spread over a beam in such a way that it varies uniformly on each
unit length, is known as uniformly varying load.

The resultant force of distributed load w(s) is equivalent to the area under the
distributed loading curve, and this resultant acts through the centroid C or geometric center
of this area.

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2. Body Forces.

A body force is developed when one body exerts a force on another body without direct
physical contact between the bodies. Examples include the effects caused by the earth’s gravitation
or its electromagnetic field.

Supports Reactions

The surface forces that develop at the supports or points of contact between bodies are
called reactions.

As a general rule, if the support prevents translation in a given direction, then a force must
be developed on the member in that direction. Likewise, if rotation is prevented, a couple moment
must be exerted on the member.

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Equations of Equilibrium

• Equilibrium of a body requires a balance of forces and a balance of moment

• For a body with x, y, z coordinate system with origin O,

• Often in engineering practice the loading on a body can be represented as a system of

coplanar forces. If this is the case, and the forces lie in the x–y plane, then the conditions
for equilibrium of the body can be specified with only three scalar equilibrium equations:

• Best way to account for these forces is to draw the body’s free-body diagram (FBD).

Internal Resultant Loadings

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Objective of FBD is to determine the resultant force and moment acting within a body. In
general, there are 4 different types of resultant loading:

a) Normal force, N

This force acts perpendicular to the area. It is developed whenever the external loads tend
to push or pull on the two segments of the body

b) Shear force, V

The shear force lies in the plane of the area and it is developed when the external loads tend
to cause the two segments of the body to slide over one another.

c) Torsional moment or torque, T

This effect is developed when the external loads tend to twist one segment of the body with
respect to the other about an axis perpendicular to the area.

d) Bending moment, M

The bending moment is caused by the external loads that tend to bend the body about an axis lying
within the plane of the area.

Coplanar Loadings.
If the body is subjected to a coplanar system of forces, then only normal-force, shear-force,
and bending- moment components will exist at the section,

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Procedure for Analysis

The resultant internal loadings at a point located on the section of a body can be obtained
using the method of sections. This requires the following steps.

1. Support Reactions
First decide which segment of the body is to be considered. If the segment has a support or
connection to another body, then before the body is sectioned, it will be necessary to determine the
reactions acting on the chosen segment.

2. Free-Body Diagram
Keep all external distributed loadings, couple moments, torques, and forces in their exact
locations, before passing an imaginary section through the body at the point where the resultant
internal loadings are to be determined

3. Equations of Equilibrium
Moments should be summed at the section, about each of the coordinate axes where the
resultants act.

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Sample Problem 1:
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C of the
cantilevered beam shown in Fig. a.

Solution:

270 𝑁
𝑤 180𝑁
= 𝑚 𝑤=
6𝑚 9𝑚 𝑚
1 𝑁
𝐹 = (180 ) (6𝑚) = 540 𝑁
2 𝑚
1
(6𝑚) = 2𝑚
3
Equations of Equilibrium

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Sample Problem 2:
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C of the machine
shaft shown in the figure below. The shaft is supported by journal bearings at A and B, which only
exert vertical forces on the shaft.

Solution:
Solve this problem using segment AC of the shaft Support
For the entire shaft,

For Segment AC,

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Equations of Equilibrium

The negative signs for and indicate they act in the opposite directions on the free-body diagram.

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Sample Problem 3:

The 500-kg engine is suspended from the crane boom

in Figure. Determine the resultant internal loadings
acting on the cross section of the boom at point E

Solution:

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Sample Problem 4:
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at G of the beam
shown in Figure below. Each joint is pin connected.

Solution:

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Stress (σ)
One of the basic problems facing the engineer is to select the proper material and proportion
it to enable a structure or machine to perform its function effectively. For this purpose, it is essential
to determine the strength, stiffness, and other properties of materials. The unit strength of a material
is usually defined as the stress of the material. Stress describes the intensity of the internal force
on a specific on a specific plane (area) passing through a point.

Normal Stress
The intensity of the force acting normal or perpendicular to the area is defined as the normal
stress. If the normal force or stress “pulls” on the area, it is referred to as tensile stress, whereas if
it “pushes” on area it is called compressive stress.

Where:
σ= normal force at any point on the cross-sectional area
P= internal resultant force, which is applied through the centroid of the cross- sectional area
A= cross sectional area

For Tensile Stress

The force applied tends to elongate fibers, each fiber represents a unit stress

For Compressive Stress

The force applied tends to compressed or crushed (shorten) the fiber.

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Procedure for Analysis

The equation gives the average normal stress on the cross-sectional area of a
member when the section is subjected to an internal resultant normal force P. For axially loaded
members, application of this equation requires the following steps.

1. Internal Loading
Section the member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at the point where the normal
stress is to be determined and use the necessary free-body diagram and force equation of
equilibrium to obtain the internal axial force P at the section.

2. Average Normal Stress.

Determine the member’s cross-sectional area at the section and calculate the average
normal stress
It is suggested that be shown acting on a small volume element of the material located at
a point on the section where stress is calculated. To do this, first draw on the face of the element
coincident with the sectioned area A. Here σ acts in the same direction as the internal force P since
all the normal stresses on the cross section develop this resultant. The normal stress on the other
face of the element acts in the opposite direction

Shear Stress (τ)

The intensity of force or force per unit area, acting tangent or parallel to area is called shear
stress.

Where:
τ= shear stress at the section
V= internal resultant shear force at the section
A= area at the section

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Two Type of Shear

1. Single Shear
Single shear connections are often referred to as lap joints. For single shear F=V.

2. Double Shear
These types of connections are often called double lap joints. For Double shear V= F/2.

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Sample Problem 1:

The bar in the figure below has a constant width of 35 mm and a thickness of 10 mm.
determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is subjected to the loading shown.

Solution:
Internal Loading
For region AB

For region BC

For region CD

The largest loading is in region BC, where Since the cross-sectional area of the bar is
constant, the largest average normal stress also occurs within this region of the bar.

Normal Stress

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Sample Problem 2:
The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods
AB and BC as shown in the figure below. If AB
has a diameter of 10 mm and BC has a diameter
of 8 mm, determine the average normal stress
in each rod.

Solution:
Support Reaction and Free Body Diagram

By Newton’s third law of action, equal but opposite reaction, these forces subject the rods to
tension throughout their length.

Normal Stress

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Sample Problem 3:
What force is required to punch a 20mm diameter hole in a plate that is 25mm thick? The
shear stress is 350 MPa.

Solution:
The resisting area is shaded area along the perimeter and the shear force V is equal to the
punching force P.
, then

Therefore,

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CHAPTER TEST
Directions: Solve the following problems. Follow the procedure for analysis.
1. A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as shown in the figure
below.
Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120
MPa in steel.

Answer: Abr=43.6mm2, Ast=32.7mm2

2. An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze rod as shown in figure
below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the maximum value of P that will
not exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in aluminum of 90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa.

Answer: P=10 000 N=10 kN

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3. Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b if P = 400
kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.
Answer: d=29.13mm

4. Compute the shearing stress in the pin at B for the member supported as shown in the figure
below. The pin diameter is 20 mm.

Answer: τB=94.02 MPa

5. Determine the resultant internal loadings on the cross section through point D. Assume the
reactions at the supports A and B are vertical.

Answer: NC = 0, VC = 4.50 kip,

MC=31.5 kip ft

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6. Determine the average normal stress developed at points A, B, and C. The diameter of each
segment is indicated in the figure.

Answer: A=15.2789 ksi (T)

B= 7.6394 ksi (C)
C=10.1859 ksi (T)

References:
1. HIBBELER, R. C., Mechanics of Materials, 8th Ed. (USA: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011)

2. PYTEL, A. and SINGER, F.L, Strength of Materials 4 th Ed., (New York: Harper Collins
Publisher
Inc.)
3. Raihan Kabir, 2016. Types of Load in a Beam. Viewed: January 2021, Available at:
http://mechengineeringbd.blogspot.com/2016/06/types-of-load-in-beam.html

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