CHAPTER-12-“Sound”

Main topics covered in this part Sound: Chapter Notes, are:

 Sound-Production and Propagation

 Medium
 Wave and its Types
 Characteristics of Sound
 Audible Frequency
 Reflection of Sound and its Laws
 Applications of Reflection of Sound

Sound

Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.

Production of Sound
Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects.
Vibration is a periodic back-and-forth motion of the particles of an elastic body or
medium about a central position. It is also named as oscillation.
For example:

 Stretched strings of a guitar vibrate to produce sound.

 When membrane of a table is struck, it vibrates to produce sound.

Propagation of Sound

 The travelling of sound is called propagation of sound.

 Sound is propagated by the to and fro motion of particles of the medium.
 When an object vibrates, the particles around the medium vibrate. The particle in
contact with the vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium position.
Each particle disturbs the other particle in contact. Thus, the disturbance is carried
from the source to the listener.
Only the disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through the medium but the
particles do not move forward themselves.

Medium

 The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium.

 A medium is necessary for the propagation of sound waves.
 The medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
 Sound cannot travel in vacuum.

Wave that requires medium to propagate is called Mechanical wave.

Wave

Wave is a phenomenon or disturbance in which energy is transferred from one point to

another without any direct contact between them. For example: Heat, light and sound is
considered as a wave.

Types of Waves
On the basis of direction of propagation, waves are categorized into two parts:

(i) Longitudinal waves: These are the waves in which the particles of the medium
vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave. For example: sound wave.
(ii) Transverse waves: In this type of wave the particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. For example: waves
produced in a stretched string.
Another type of waves which do not require any medium for propagation are called
electromagnetic waves. These waves can travel through vacuum also. For example, light
waves, X-rays.

Compressions and Rarefactions:

 Compression is the part of wave in which particles of the medium are closer to one
another forming the region of high pressure and density.

Compressions are represented by the upper portion of the curve called crest.

 Rarefaction is a part of the wave where particles spread out to form a region of
low pressure and density.

Rarefactions are represented by the lower portion of the curve called trough.
Characteristics of a sound wave

Sound waves have following characteristics:

(1) Amplitude
(2) wavelength
(3) Frequency
(4) Time period
(5)Velocity

Amplitude

 The maximum displacement of each particle from its mean position is called
amplitude.
 It is denoted by A.
 Its SI unit is metre (m).

Wavelength

 The distance between two nearest (adjacent) crests or troughs of a wave is called
its wavelength.
 It is denoted by the Greek letter lamda (λ).
 Its SI unit is metre.

Frequency

 The number of vibrations per second is called frequency.

 The SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
 The symbol of frequency is ν (nu).

Time period

 The time taken to complete one vibration is called time period.

 It is denoted by T.
 Its SI unit is second (s).
 The frequency of a wave is the reciprocal of the time period.
 i.e., v = 1/T

Velocity

 The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the wave or
speed of the wave.
 Its S.I. unit is metres per second (m/s).
 Velocity = Distance travelled/Time taken

⟹ v = λ/T , where λ = wavelength of the wave travelled in one time time period T)

⟹ v = λv (As 1/T = v)

Thus, Velocity = Wavelength × Frequency

v = λv is called the wave equation.

Pitch and loudness of Sound

Pitch: It represents shrillness or flatness of sound.

It depends on the frequency of vibration. Higher the frequency of sound wave, the higher
will be the pitch of sound and vice-versa.

Loudness: It is a measure of the sound energy reaching the ear per second.

It depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.

It is measured in decibel ‘dB’.

Music And Noise

Music: It is the sound that is pleasant to hear. For example: Sound coming out of musical
instruments)
Noise: It is the sound that is unpleasant to hear. For example: Sound produced by
vehicles.

Tone and Note

Tone: A pure sound of single frequency is called tone.
Note: An impure sound produced by mixture of many frequencies is called a note. For
example: A musical note has tones of various frequencies.

Audible Frequency
The audible range of human ear is 20 Hz and 20,000HZ, i.e., the human ears can hear
only those waves whose frequency lies between 20 Hz and 20,000HZ.

Reflection of sound

When sound waves strike a surface, they return back into the same medium. This
phenomenon is called reflection.

Laws of reflection

There are two basic laws of reflection of sound:

(i) Angle of incidence is equal the angle of reflection.

(ii) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal all lie in the same plane.

Applications of Reflection of Sound

Many instruments work on the basis of multiple reflections of sound:

 Megaphone, loudspeakers, bulb horns, musical instruments like trumpets, shehnais

etc. are designed to send sound by multiple reflections in a particular direction
due to which the amplitude of sound waves adds up to increase loudness of sound.
 Stethoscope which is used by doctors to listen to the sounds from the human body,
also works on principle of multiple reflections of sound. Here, sound of heartbeat
reaches the doctor's ears by multiple reflections.
 In big halls or auditoriums sound is absorbed by walls, ceiling, seats, etc. So a
curved board (sound board) is placed behind the speaker. Then the voice of
speaker suffers multiple reflections to increase its loudness so that his speech can
be heard easily by audiences.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Is sound wave longitudinal or transverse.

Q2. Which characteristic of the sound helps you to identify your friend by his voice while
sitting with others in a darkroom?

Q3. An airplane produces a sound wave with frequency of 5 KHz and wavelength 30 m.
In how much time would the sound wave cover the distance of 4 Km?

Q4. A source is producing 15 waves in 3.0 s. The distance between a crest and a trough is
10.0 cm. Find : (a) the frequency, (b) the wavelength, and (c) the velocity of the wave.
Q5. A source is producing 1500 sounds waves in 3 seconds. If the distance covered by a
compression and an adjacent rarefaction be 68 cm, find (a) frequency (b) wavelength and
(c) velocity of sound wave.

Q6. A sound wave travels at a speed of 340m/s. If its wavelength is 2 cm, what is the
frequency of the wave? Will it be in the audible range?

Q7. Can we hear the ringing of a mobile phone placed in a vacuum chamber?

Main topics covered in this part of Sound: Chapter Notes, are:

 Echo
 Reverberation
 Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Waves
 Applications of Ultrasound
 Sonar
 Working of Sonar
 Human Ear: Structure and Working

Echo

 Phenomenon of hearing back our own sound is called an echo.

 It is due to successive reflection of sound waves from the surfaces or obstacles of
large size.
 To hear an echo, there must be a time gap of 0.1 second in original sound and the
reflected sound.

Necessary Conditions for the formation of an Echo

There are two conditions to experience the echo of sound -
(i) Time gap between the Sound must come back to the person after 0.1 second.
(ii) For above condition, the reflecting surface must be at a minimum distance of 17.2m.
It also depends on temperature.

Reverberation

 Persistence of sound wave for a long time because of repeated (multiple)

reflections of sound are called reverberation.
 In big concert halls, due to the reverberation, sound may become blurred and
distorted to be heard.
 To avoid reverberation, soft sound absorbent materials, such as curtains, plant
fibre, compressed fireboard, carpets, etc. are used in the auditorium.
Light Travels Faster Than Sound
Speed of light in air = 3 × 108 m/s
Man hears sound of thunder only after he sees the flash of lightning. This is because light
travels at a very great speed as compared to the speed of sound, we see the flash before
the sound.

Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Waves

Infrasonic Waves:

 The waves having freqnecy less than 20 Hz are infrasonic waves.

 A vibrating simple pendulum produces infrasonic sounds.
 Elephants and whales produces infrasonic waves.
 Earthquakes produces infrasonic waves

Ultrasonic Waves:

 The waves having frequency more than 20,000 Hz are ultrasonic waves.
 Bats and rats can produce ultrasonic sounds.

Applications of Ultrasound
These are the sound waves having frequency more than 20,000 Hz. Due to the high
frequency, ultrasound is associated with more energy and can penetrate upto a large
extent. This characteristic of ultrasound makes it very useful for many purposes. Some of
its uses are stated below:

 They are used to detect any deformities (flaws, cracks) in metal blocks or sheets.
 They are used to clean the hard to reach parts of machinery, like spiral tubes.
 Bats use ultrasoung waves tp find their prey. Bats produce high- pitched ultrasonic
squeaks. These squeaks are reflected by objects such as prey’s and are returned to
the bat's ear. This allows a bat to know the distance of its prey.
 Dolphins use ultrasound to find fish and to detect sharks that may attack them.
 Ultrasound waves are commonly used for medical diagnosis and therapy, and also
as a surgical tool.
 They are used to check the development of foetus during pregnancy to detect any
abnormalities.
 They find their application in breaking stones formed in the kidneys into fine
grains.
 Ecocardiography: These waves are used to reflect the action of heart and its
images are formed. This technique is called echocardiography.
 Ultrasonography: The technique of obtaining pictures of internal organs of the
body by using echoes of ultrasound waves is called ultrasonography.
Sonar

 Sonar stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging.

 It is a device which is used to find distance, direction and speed of underwater
objects like, water hills, valleys, icebergs, submarines, sunken ships etc.

Working of SONAR

 SONAR consists of a transmitter and a receptor or detector and is installed at the

bottom of a ship.
 The transmitter produces and transmits ultrasonic waves.These waves travel
through sea water and after striking the objects on the bottom of sea, are reflected
back and received and recorded by the detector.
 The sonar device measures the time taken by ultrasound waves to travel from ship
to bottom of sea and back to ship.
 Half of this time gives the time taken by the ultrasound waves to travel from ship
to sea bed.
 Let the time interval between transmission and reception of ultrasound signal is t.

Speed of sound through sea water is v

Total distance travelled by waves = 2d.

Then, 2d = v × t.

This method of measuring distance is also known as ‘echo-ranging’.

Human Ear
Structure of Human Ear
The human ear can be divided into three main parts: Outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

Outer Ear: The outer ear is outside the body and is also called pinna. It extends into the
ear canal. Ear canal is filled with air.
Middle Ear: The middle ear is composed of the ear drum or tympanunn( it is an elastic
membrane, circular in shape) and the bone ossicles. There are three bone ossicles,
namely, the hammer, the anvil and the strirrup.
Inner Ear: The internal ear is composed of a cochlea and three semi-circular canals. The
cochlea is filled with liquid. The cochlea makes the hearing apparatus and the auditory
nerve from it goes to the brain.
Eardrum is the intersection of the outer and middle ear.
Oval window is the intersection of middle and inner ear.

Working of Human Ear: The outer ear called pinna collects the sound waves. The
sound waves passes through the ear canal to a thin membrane called eardrum. The
eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified by the three bones of the middle ear called
hammer, anvil and stirrup. The middle ear then transmits the sound waves to the inner
ear. In the inner ear the sound waves are converted into electrical signals by the cochlea
and sent to the brain through the auditory nerves. The brain then interprets the signals as
sound.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. But thunder is heard a few seconds
after the flash is seen, why?
Q2. An echo is returned in 3 s. What is the distance of the reflecting surface from the
source, given the speed of sound is 342 ms-1

Q3. Why are the ceilings of concert halls curved?

Q4. A submarine emits a sonar pulse, which returns from an underwater cliff in 1.02 s. If
the speed of sound in salt water is 1531 m/s, how far away is the cliff?

Q5. An explosion takes place at the moon. After what time would it be heard at the earth?

Q6. How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?

Q7. How do bats navigate even in the dark?

Q8. A submarine emits a sonar pulse, which returns from an underwater cliff in 1.02 s. If
the speed of sound in salt water is 1531 m/s, how far away is the cliff?

INTEXT Questions

Question-1.
How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?
Solution:
When a disturbance is created on an object, it starts vibrating and sets the particles of
the medium to vibrate. The particle of the medium is displaced from its mean position
and exerts a force on the adjacent particle. As a result, the adjacent particle is disturbed
from its mean position and the original particle comes back to rest. This process
continues till the disturbance reaches our ear.

Question-2.
Explain how sound is produced by your school bell.
Solution:
When the school bell is struck with a hammer, it starts vibrating and as a result of these
vibrations, sound waves are produced.

Question-3.
Why sound waves are called mechanical waves?
Solution:
Waves which need a material medium for propagation are called mechanical waves.
Since sound waves also need a material medium for propagation, these waves are
called mechanical waves.
Question-4.
Suppose you and your friend are on the moon. Will you be able to hear any sound
produced by your friend?
Solution:
No, we will not be able to hear the sound because sound requires a medium for its
propagation. On the moon there is no atmosphere, i.e., there is vacuum.

Question-5.
Which wave property determines

1. loudness,
2. Pitch?

Solution:

1. Loudness is determined by the amplitude of the sound wave which in turn

depends on the force with which the object is made to vibrate.
2. Pitch of a sound is determined by its frequency.

Question-6.
Guess which sound has a higher pitch: guitar or car horn?
Solution:
A guitar has a higher pitch than a car horn, provided the guitar is properly tuned.

Question-7.
What are wavelength, frequency, time period and amplitude of a sound wave?
Solution:

 Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive compressions (C) or two

consecutive rarefactions (R) is called the wavelength, unit-metre.
 Frequency: The number of oscillations per unit time is called frequency, unit-Hz.
 Time period: The time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to
cross a fixed point is called the time period.
 Amplitude: The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either
side of the mean value is called the amplitude of the wave.

Question-8.
How are the wavelength and frequency of a sound wave related to its speed?
Solution:
The speed is defined as the distance travelled by a wave per unit time.
Question-9.
Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave whose frequency is 220 Hz and speed
is 440 m s-1 in a given medium.
Solution:
Here, frequency of the sound wave, v = 220 Hz

Question-10.
A person is listening to a tone of 500 Hz sitting at a distance of 450 m from the
source of the sound. What is the time interval between successive compressions
from the source?
Solution:
Here, frequency of the source, u = 500 Hz

The time period between successive compressions from the source is equal to the time
period of the tone, i.e., (1/500) s and it has nothing to do with the distance (450 m) of
the person from the source provided the sound wave reaches the person.

Question-11.
Distinguish between loudness and intensity of sound.
Solution:

Loudness Intensity

It is not an entirely physical It is a physical quantity which

1. 1.
quantity. can be accurately measured.

2. It depends upon 2. It does not depend upon the

 (i) sensitivity of the ear and

(ii) intensity of sound. sensitivity of the ear.

It has a subjective
3. existence. 3. It has an objective existence.

Question-12.
In which of the three media, air, water or iron, does sound travel the fastest at a
particular temperature?
Solution:
The speed of sound in air = 346 m s-1. The
speed of sound in water = 1531 m s-1.
The speed of sound in iron = 5950 m s-1.
.’. The speed of sound in iron is greater and sound travels fastest in iron.

Question-13.
An echo returned in 3 s. What is the distance of the reflecting surface from the
source, given that the speed of sound is 342 m s-1 ?
Solution:
Given, speed of sound in air = 342 m s-1. Time taken by echo to return, t = 3 s If d is the
distance between the source and the reflecting surface, distance covered by sound in
time t = d + d = 2d (distance d while going to the reflecting surface and distance d while
returning back) As distance = speed of sound x time, 2d = 342 m s-1 × 3 s = 1026 m or d
= 513 m

Question-14.
Why are the ceilings of concert halls curved?
The ceilings of the concert halls are curved to ensure that after reflection from the
ceilings, sound reaches all corners of the hall.
Solution:

Question-15.
What is the audible range of the average human ear?
Solution:
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

Question-16.
What is the range of frequencies associated with
 1. Infra sound?
2. Ultrasound?

Solution:

1. Frequencies associated with infra sound : < 20 Hz.

2. Frequencies associated with ultrasound : > 2 × 104 Hz.

Question-17.
A submarine emits a sonar pulse, which returns from an underwater cliff in 1.02 s.
If the speed of sound in salt water is 1531 m s-1, how far away is the cliff?
Solution:
Speed of sound in salt water = 1531 m s-1 Time taken by sonar pulse to return = 1.02
sec Distance travelled 2 × d = speed × time

NCERT Exercises

Question-1.
What is sound and how is it produced?
Solution:
Sound is a form of energy and it is produced due to vibrations of different types of
object, e.g., a vibrating tuning fork, a bell, wires in a sitar and a violin etc.

Question-2.
Describe with the help of a diagram, how compressions and rarefactions are
produced in air near a source of sound.
Solution:

1. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes the air in front of it and
compresses the air creating a region of high pressure called compression (C).
2. It starts moving away from the surface of the vibrating object.
 3. As this occurs the surface moves backward creating a region of low pressure
called rarefaction (R).

Question 3.
Cite an experiment to show that sound needs a material medium for its
propagation.
Solution:
Take an electric bell and an air tight glass bell jar. The electric bell is suspended inside
an air tight glass jar which is connected to a vacuum pump.

Working :

1. When we press the switch, we will be able to hear the bell.

2. When the air in the jar is pumped out gradually, the sound becomes feeble
although the same amount of current is flowing through the bell.
3. When the air is removed completely, are will not be able to hear the sound of the
bell. Conclusion: This experiment shows that sound requires a medium for its
propagation.

Question-4.
Why sound wave is called a longitudinal wave?
Solution:
A sound wave is called a longitudinal wave as it travels in a medium in the form of
compressions and rarefactions where the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
which is parallel to the direction of propagation of the sound wave.

Question-5.
Which characteristic of the sound helps you to identify your friend by his voice
while sitting with others in a dark room?
Solution:
The quality (or timbre) of sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish
one sound from the other even when these are of the same pitch and loudness. Each
person has its own quality of sound and it is this characteristic which enables us to
identify a person from others even without looking at him (i.e., in a dark room).

Question-6.
Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. But thunder is heard a few
seconds after the flash is seen, why?
Solution:
The speed of light (c) is greater than the speed of sound (u) by a factor of 10 6 as

Thus, the flash of light is seen earlier than the thunder of sound even though both are
produced simultaneously.

Question-7.
A person has a hearing rang! from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. What are the typical
wavelengths of sound waves in air corresponding to these two frequencies? Take
the speed of sound in air as 344 m s-1.
Solution:

Question-8.
Two children are at opposite ends of an aluminium rod. One strikes the end of the
rod with a stone. Find the ratio of times taken by the sound wave in air and in
aluminium to reach the second child.
Solution:
Speed of sound in air, vx = 346 m s-1 Speed of sound in aluminium, v2 = 6420 m s-1 Let
the length of the aluminium rod = x m
Question-9.
The frequency of a source of sound is 100 Hz. How many times does it vibrate in
a minute?
Solution:
Frequency of sound = 100 Hz Time taken = 1 minute = 60 s

Question-10.
Does sound follow the same laws of reflection as light does? Explain.
Solution:
Yes, sound follows the same laws of reflection as light does because,

 Angle of incidence of sound is always equal to angle of reflection of sound waves.

 The direction in which sound is incident, the direction in which it is reflected and
normal all lie in the same plane.

Question-11.
When a sound is reflected from a distant object, an echo is produced. Let the
distance between the reflecting surface and the source of sound production
remains the same. Do you hear echo sound on a hotter day?
Solution:
The minimum distance (d) for the distinct echo to be heard (say at 22°C) is 17.2 m (as
2d = vt = 344 × 0.1 = 34.4 m). On a hotter day, the temperature increases and the
speed of sound in air also increases. For example, at 40°C, speed of sound, i.e. v = 356
m s-1 and as such 2d = 356 × 0.1 = 35.6 m or d = 17.8 m. Thus, if the distance of the
reflecting surface and the source of sound remains the same (i.e., 17.2 m), no echo is
heard on the hotter day as the minimum distance now required is 17.8 m.

Question-12.
Give two practical applications of reflection of sound waves.
Solution:
Ear Trumpet : It is a sort of machine used by persons who are hard of hearing. The
sound energy received by the wide end of the trumpet is connected into a much smaller
area at the narrow end by multiple reflections. The narrow end of the trumpet which is
inserted in the ear delivers the entire amount of energy falling on the wide end which
makes the inaudible sound audible to the user. Stethoscope : It is a medical instrument
used frequently by doctors for making a rough diagnosis of the diseases existing inside
the body at places which are either inaccessible or accessible only through major
operations.

Question-13.
A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 500 m high into a pond of water at the
base of the tower. When is the splash heard at the top? Given, g = 10 m s -2 and
speed of sound = 340 ms-1.
Solution:

Question-14.
A sound wave travels at a speed of 339 m s-1 If its wavelength is 1.5 cm, what is
the frequency of the wave? Will it be audible?
Solution:
Here, speed of sound wave,
The sound is not audible as its frequency lies beyond the audible range (20 Hz to 20000
Hz).

Question-15.
What is reverberation? How can it be reduced?
Solution:
The persistence of sound in an auditorium as a result of repeated reflections of sound is
called reverberation. To reduce the undesirable effects due to reverberation, roofs and
walls of the auditorium are generally covered with sound absorbent materials like
compressed fiberboard, rough plaster, glass wool etc. The furnitur is upholstered and
floor is carpeted.

Question-16.
What is loudness of sound? What factors does it depend on?
Solution:
Loudness is a physiological response of the ear to the intensity of sound. Loudness of a
sound depends on the amplitude of the vibration producing that sound. Greater is the
amplitude of vibration, louder is the sound produced by it. The amplitude of the sound
depends upon the force with which an object is made to vibrate. The loudness of a
sound also depends on the quantity of air that is made to vibrate. .

Question-17.
Explain how bats use ultrasound to catch a prey.
Solution:

The ultrasonic waves emitted by the bat are reflected from the prey (e.g., an insect) and
are detected by its ears shown in figure. The nature of reflected waves tells the bat:

 the location and

 the nature of its prey.
Question-18.
How is ultrasound used for cleaning?
Solution:
Ultrasound is used to clean parts located in hard-to-reach places, i.e., spiral tube, odd
shaped parts, electronic components etc. Objects to be cleaned are placed in a
cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into the solutions. Due to the high
frequency, the dust particles, grease get detached and drop out. The objects thus get
thoroughly cleaned.

Question-19.
Explain the working and application of a SONAR.
Solution:
SONAR consists of a transmitter and a detector and is installed in a boat or a ship as
shown in figure.

The transmitter produces and transmits ultrasonic waves. These waves travel through
water and after striking the object on the sea bed, get reflected back and are sensed by
the detector. The detector converts the ultrasonic waves into electrical signals which are
appropriately interpreted. The distance of the object that reflected the sound wave can
be calculated by knowing the speed of sound in water and the time interval between the
transmission and reception of the ultrasound.
Let, depth of the sea = d
Speed of sound in sea water = v
Time taken for transmission and reception of signal = t

Question-20.
A sonar device on a submarine sends out a signal and receives an echo 5 s later.
Calculate the speed of sound in water if the distance of the object from the
submarine is 3625 m.
Solution:
Here, time interval between the transmission of the signal and its reception, t = 5 s
Distance of the object from the submarine, d = 3625 m If v is the speed of sound in
water, then

Question-21.
Explain how defects in a metal block can be detected using ultrasound.
Solution:
Ultrasounds can be used to detect cracks and flaws in metal blocks. Metallic
components are used in the construction of big structures like buildings, bridges,
machines and scientific equipments. The cracks or holes inside the metal blocks, which
are invisible from outside reduces the strength of the structure. Ultrasonic waves are
allowed to pass through the metallic block and detectors are used to detect the
transmitted waves. If there is even a small defect, the ultrasound gets reflected back
indicating the presence of the flaw or defect.

Question-22.
Explain how the human ear works.
Solution:
The function of the human ear is shown in figure.

1. The outer ear collects sound wave which are conducted through the auditory
canal.
2. These waves fall on the ear drum xl set it into vibrations.
3. The middle ear which is of ‘the size of a small marbie and houses ossicles (th ee
bones : hammer, anvil and stirrup) amplifies these oscillations about 60 times.
4. The inner ear which contains cochlea and is filled with a fluid converts these
pressure variations into the electrical signals.
5. These electrical signals are conveyed to the brain via auditory nerve for
interpretation.