Module 3

RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research design is a plan to answer your research question. A research method is a strategy
used to implement that plan.
• Research design and methods are different but closely related, because good research
design ensures that the data you obtain will help you answer your research question more
effectively.
• Research design is a framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher
to conduct a study.
• The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable for the subject
matter and set up their studies for success

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have
chosen in order to integrate, in a logical way, the different components of the study, thus
ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated
• Research design refers to the plan or strategy that is developed to guide the research
project.
• It is a blueprint that outlines the steps that will be taken to collect, analyze, and interpret
the data.
• The research design is developed based on the research problem, research questions, and
the type of data that will be collected.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

• Ensuring Validity and Reliability: A well-designed research project ensures the validity
and reliability of the research findings. The research design helps to ensure that the research
is conducted in a rigorous and systematic manner, and the data collected is accurate and
reliable.
• Minimizing Bias: Research design helps to minimize bias in the research study. It ensures
that the research is conducted in an objective and neutral manner, and the data collected is
not influenced by personal, political, or ideological biases.
• Providing a Framework for Analysis: Research design provides a framework for the
analysis of the collected data. It outlines the data analysis techniques that will be used and
ensures that the data is analyzed in a systematic and rigorous manner.
• Maximizing Efficiency: Research design helps to maximize the efficiency of the research
project. It ensures that the research is conducted in a structured and organized manner, and
the resources are used effectively and efficiently.

COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• The components of research design include the research methodology, data collection
methods, data analysis techniques, and the timeline for the research project.
• The research methodology outlines the overall approach to the research project, and the
data collection methods outline the specific techniques that will be used to collect data.
• The data analysis techniques outline the specific statistical techniques that will be used to
analyze the collected data.

FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

A good research design is crucial for conducting a systematic and reliable investigation. It
serves as the blueprint for the entire research process and helps ensure that the study produces
valid and meaningful results.
• Clear Research Objectives: Clearly defined and specific research objectives help guide
the entire research process. These objectives should be aligned with the overall purpose of
the study.
• Rigorous Literature Review: A thorough review of existing literature helps researchers
identify gaps in knowledge, refine research questions, and avoid duplication of efforts. It
also provides a theoretical framework for the study.
• Appropriate Research Type: Choose the most suitable research type (e.g., exploratory,
descriptive, explanatory) based on the research questions and objectives. Different types of
research have different design requirements.
• Sampling Strategy: Develop a well-thought-out sampling strategy to ensure the selection
of a representative sample. The sample size and sampling method should be appropriate for
the research objectives and population.
• Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate data collection methods (e.g., surveys,
interviews, experiments) based on the nature of the research. Ensure that the chosen
methods align with the research questions and objectives.
• Validity and Reliability: Ensure the validity of the research design by using measures that
accurately capture the intended constructs. Reliability refers to the consistency of
measurements; use reliable instruments and procedures to enhance the trustworthiness of
the data.
• Control of Confounding Variables: Identify and control for potential confounding
variables that could affect the study's outcomes. This is particularly important in
experimental research to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Randomization: Randomization helps minimize bias in the assignment of subjects to
different groups in experimental research. It enhances the internal validity of the study.
• Timeframe and Sequencing: Clearly define the timeframe for the study and the sequence
of activities. This includes outlining the duration of data collection, analysis, and reporting.
• Ethical Considerations: Ensure that the research design adheres to ethical principles and
guidelines. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their
privacy, and minimizing any potential harm.
• Flexibility: Design the study to allow for flexibility in case unexpected issues arise. This
can involve adapting the research methods or modifying the design as needed without
compromising the integrity of the study.
• Data Analysis Plan: Develop a clear plan for data analysis, specifying the statistical or
qualitative methods that will be used to answer the research questions. This plan should be
aligned with the study's objectives.
• Peer Review: Seek input and feedback from peers or experts in the field to ensure the
research design is robust and well-constructed.

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

In research, experiments, and statistical analysis, variables are used to measure, observe, or
manipulate elements of interest. Variables are broadly categorized into two types: dependent
and independent variables.
Independent Variable
• The independent variable is the factor that the researcher manipulates or controls in an
experiment.
• It is the variable that is presumed to cause a change in the dependent variable.
• In experimental design, it is often plotted on the x-axis of a graph.
• For example, if you are studying the effect of different doses of a drug on blood pressure,
the independent variable would be the different doses of the drug.
Dependent Variable
• The dependent variable is the variable that is observed or measured in response to the
changes in the independent variable.
• It is the outcome variable or the variable that researchers are interested in understanding
or predicting.
• In experimental design, it is often plotted on the y-axis of a graph.
• In the example of the drug and blood pressure, the dependent variable would be the blood
pressure readings.
Example:
• Scenario: Researchers want to study the effect of different amounts of fertilizer on plant
growth.
• Independent Variable: Amounts of fertilizer (e.g., 0 grams, 10 grams, 20 grams).
• Dependent Variable: Plant growth (measured, for instance, in height or weight).
In summary, the independent variable is the one that is manipulated, while the dependent
variable is the one that is measured in response to the changes in the independent variable.
Understanding these variables is crucial in designing experiments, making predictions, and
drawing conclusions in scientific research.

Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are defined as any variable other than the independent and dependent
variable. An extraneous variable is any variable not being investigated that has the potential to
affect the outcome of a research study. In other words, it is any factor not considered an
independent variable that can affect the dependent variables or controlled conditions.

Control variables are variables that are kept the same in each trial.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE CONTROL

Extraneous variables, also known as confounding variables, are variables other than the
independent variable that may affect the dependent variable in a research study.
It's important to control for these variables to ensure that any observed effects are genuinely
due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not influenced by other factors. This
process is known as controlling extraneous variables.
Strategies for controlling extraneous variables:
• Random Assignment: In experimental research, participants are randomly assigned to
different groups. This helps distribute extraneous variables equally among the groups,
making the groups comparable.
• Matching: Participants are matched based on certain characteristics to ensure that each
group is equivalent in terms of those characteristics. This is often done before the
experiment begins.
• Hold Constant: Researchers can control certain extraneous variables by keeping them
constant across all experimental conditions. For example, if studying the effects of a drug,
keeping the room temperature constant for all participants.
• Counterbalancing: For experiments with multiple conditions, the order of presentation of
stimuli or tasks can be varied among participants to control for potential order effects.
• Statistical Control: Statistical techniques, such as analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), can
be used to statistically control for the influence of extraneous variables.
• Experimental Design: Careful experimental design can help minimize the impact of
extraneous variables. For example, using a repeated-measures design or a matched pairs
design can control for individual differences.
• Blinding: Single-blind or double-blind procedures can be employed to reduce bias,
ensuring that participants or researchers are unaware of the specific conditions or
treatments.
• Pilot Studies: Conducting pilot studies can help identify potential extraneous variables and
refine the research design before the main study.
By implementing these strategies, researchers aim to isolate the effects of the independent
variable and increase the internal validity of their study. Internal validity refers to the extent to
which an experiment accurately demonstrates a causal relationship between the independent
and dependent variables, without the influence of extraneous variables.

CONFOUNDED RELATIONSHIP
• A confounded relationship in research occurs when the effect of an extraneous variable is
mixed with the effect of the independent variable, making it difficult to determine which
variable is responsible for the observed changes in the dependent variable.
• The relationship between the independent and dependent variables is unclear because an
additional variable (or variables) is influencing the results.
• Confounding can lead to inaccurate conclusions and compromises the internal validity of
an experiment.
• To address confounding, researchers need to identify and control for extraneous variables.
If a confounded relationship is not recognized or addressed, it can undermine the reliability
and validity of study findings.
ILLUSTRATE A CONFOUNDED RELATIONSHIP WITH EXAMPLE:
• Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the relationship between the amount of time
students spend studying (independent variable) and their academic performance (dependent
variable). However, the researcher fails to consider the extraneous variable of sleep quality.
Students who study more might also be getting better sleep, and improved academic
performance may be due to better-rested individuals rather than the actual studying.
• In this case, the relationship between studying and academic performance is confounded
by sleep quality. To address this, the researcher should control for or measure sleep quality
to isolate the true effect of studying on academic performance.
• Controlling for confounding variables is crucial for establishing a clear cause-and-effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Researchers use various
methods, such as random assignment, matching, statistical control, and experimental
design, to minimize the impact of extraneous variables and reduce the risk of confounding
in their studies.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A research hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction or statement about the expected
relationship between two or more variables. It is an integral part of the scientific research
process and serves as a guide for designing and conducting a study. A well-formulated
hypothesis helps researchers focus their efforts and provides a basis for empirical investigation.
Key characteristics of a research hypothesis include:
• Clear Statement: The hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner. It
articulates the expected relationship between variables.
• Testable: The hypothesis must be testable through empirical observation and measurement.
This means that there should be a way to collect data and analyze it to determine whether
the hypothesis is supported or not.
• Specific: A good hypothesis is specific and avoids vague or ambiguous language. It should
clearly indicate the variables involved and the expected direction of the relationship.
• Falsifiable: A hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning that it can be proven wrong through
empirical evidence. If a hypothesis cannot be tested or potentially refuted, it is not
scientifically useful.
• Based on Theory or Previous Research: Ideally, a research hypothesis is grounded in
existing theory or supported by previous research. It demonstrates a logical connection to
the current state of knowledge in the field.
• Predictive: The hypothesis makes a prediction about the outcome of the study. This
prediction is what the researcher aims to test or confirm through data collection and
analysis.
Examples of research hypotheses:
Example 1:
Null Hypothesis (H0): "There is no significant difference in test scores between students who
receive tutoring and those who do not."
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): "Students who receive tutoring will achieve significantly higher
test scores than those who do not."

Example 2:
Null Hypothesis (H0): "There is no correlation between hours of exercise per week and weight
loss."
Alternative Hypothesis (H1): "There is a negative correlation between the number of hours
of exercise per week and weight loss."
• In hypothesis testing, researchers collect data to either accept or reject the null hypothesis
based on statistical analysis.
• The results of the analysis contribute to the understanding of the relationships between
variables and help build or refine scientific theories.

EXPERIMENTAL AND NON-EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS-TESTING

RESEARCH

Experimental and non-experimental research are two broad categories of research design, each
serving different purposes and utilizing distinct methodologies. Within these categories,
hypothesis-testing research is a common approach where researchers formulate hypotheses and
conduct studies to test them.
EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS-TESTING RESEARCH:
Definition: Experimental research involves manipulating an independent variable to observe
its effect on a dependent variable while controlling for other variables.
Characteristics:
• Controlled Environment: Researchers control and manipulate variables to establish cause-
and-effect relationships.
• Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups to minimize bias.
• Manipulation of Variables: The independent variable is intentionally changed to observe
its impact on the dependent variable.
• Quantitative Data: Emphasis on numerical data and statistical analysis to draw conclusions.
Example: A study testing the impact of a new drug on blood pressure by randomly assigning
participants to either the treatment (drug) or control (placebo) group.

NON-EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS-TESTING RESEARCH:

Definition: Non-experimental research does not involve the manipulation of an independent
variable but instead focuses on observing and analyzing existing conditions or relationships.
Characteristics:
• Observational Nature: Researchers observe and analyze existing phenomena without
intervention.
• No Manipulation: There is no manipulation of variables, and events occur naturally.
• Correlational Studies: Often involves studying relationships between variables without
establishing causation.
• Qualitative or Quantitative Data: Data may be qualitative, quantitative, or a combination,
depending on the research design.
Example: Studying the correlation between smoking habits and lung cancer rates in a
population without intervening or manipulating any variables.

HYPOTHESIS-TESTING RESEARCH IN GENERAL:

Definition: Hypothesis-testing research aims to systematically investigate the relationships
between variables and test specific hypotheses.
Characteristics:
• Hypothesis Formulation: Clearly stated hypotheses guide the research process.
• Data Collection: Gathering relevant data to test the hypotheses.
• Statistical Analysis: Employing statistical methods to determine the significance of
findings.
• Drawing Conclusions: Based on the analysis, researchers either accept or reject the
hypotheses.
Both experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research play essential roles in
advancing knowledge in various fields. Experimental designs provide stronger evidence for
causation, while non-experimental designs are valuable for exploring relationships and patterns
in real-world settings. Researchers often choose the most appropriate design based on the
nature of their research questions and the level of control needed over variables.

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design refers to the overall plan or structure that guides the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data in a research study. Different research designs are used to
address different research questions and objectives. Here are some common types of research
designs:
Descriptive Research Design:
• Purpose: To describe the characteristics of a particular phenomenon or to explore the
prevalence of a particular variable.
• Methods: Observational studies, case studies, surveys, and content analyses.
Correlational Research Design:
• Purpose: To examine the relationships between two or more variables without manipulating
them.
• Methods: Correlation coefficients are often used to quantify the strength and direction of
relationships.
Experimental Research Design:
• Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more
independent variables and observing the effects on the dependent variable.
• Methods: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), field experiments, and laboratory
experiments.
Quasi-Experimental Research Design:
• Purpose: Similar to experimental design, but lacks random assignment of participants to
groups due to practical or ethical constraints.
• Methods: Non-equivalent control group design, time series design, and natural
experiments.
Longitudinal Research Design:
• Purpose: To study changes over time by collecting data at multiple points.
• Methods: Cohort studies, panel studies, and repeated measures.
Cross-Sectional Research Design:
• Purpose: To collect data at a single point in time to analyze and compare variables.
• Methods: Surveys and observational studies.
Ex Post Facto Research Design:
• Purpose: To study the effects of an independent variable that cannot be manipulated, such
as gender or ethnicity.
• Methods: Observational studies and retrospective studies.
Case Study Research Design:
• Purpose: To provide an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, event, or situation.
• Methods: In-depth interviews, direct observations, and analysis of documents or artifacts.
Meta-Analysis:
• Purpose: To statistically combine the findings from multiple studies on a particular topic to
arrive at an overall conclusion.
• Methods: Statistical techniques are used to analyze and synthesize data from multiple
studies.
Action Research Design:
• Purpose: To solve a specific problem or improve a situation within a specific context
through a cyclic process of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting.
• Methods: Collaboration with stakeholders, iterative cycles of intervention, and reflection.
These research designs can be adapted and combined based on the specific requirements of a
research study. The choice of a particular design depends on the research question, available
resources, ethical considerations, and the nature of the phenomenon under investigation.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary data, secondary data, collection of primary data-

observation method, interview method, questionnaires, collection of data through

schedules, collection of secondary data