Paper No.

: 04
Paper Title: Unit Operations in Food Processing
Module- 18: Circulation of fluids through porous bed
18.1 Introduction

A typical packed bed is a cylindrical column that is filled with a suitable packing material.
The packing material in the bed may be sphere, cylinders or various kinds of irregular size
particles.
Several unit operations such as absorption, adsorption, distillation and extraction are carried
out in packed columns. These packing enhance the surface area available for transfer
operations.
The packed bed configuration also facilitates the intimate mixing of fluids with mismatched
densities, largely due to increased surface area for contact.

As a fluid passes through a packed bed it experiences pressure loss due to factors such as
friction. The essential factors determining the energy loss, i.e. pressure drop, in packed beds
are:
1. Rate of fluid flow
2. Viscosity and density of the fluid
3. Closeness and orientation of packing
4. Size shape and surface of the particles
The first two variables concern the fluid, while the last two the solids.

In the discussion to follow it is assumed that the packing is everywhere uniform and that little
or no channelling occurs. The ratio of the diameter of the tower to the packing diameter
should be a minimum of 8:1 to 10:1 for wall effects to be small. In the theoretical approach
used, the packed column is regarded as a bundle of crooked tubes of varying cross-sectional
area.

18.2 Geometric relations for particles in packed beds

Certain geometric relations for particles in packed beds are used in the derivations for flow.

18.2.1 Void fraction

The void fraction ε in a packed bed is the fraction of the flow cross-sectional area occupied
by the gas phase and represented as the ratio between volumes of voids in the bed to total
volume of the bed.

( )
… (1)

18.2.2 Specific surface

The specific surface of particle (av) in m-1 is defined as the ratio between the surface area of a
particle in m2 ( ) and the volume of a particle in m3 ( ).
 … (2)

… (3)

… (4)

DP is the diameter in m.

For a packed bed of non-spherical particles, the effective particle diameter DP is defined as

… (5)

Since (1-ε) is the volume fraction of particles in the bed,

( ) ( ) ... (6)

Where, a is the ratio of total surface area in the bed to total volume of bed (void volume plus
particle volume) in m-1.

18.2.3 Average interstitial velocity in the packed bed

The average interstitial velocity in the bed is v (m/s) and it is related to the superficial
velocity v‫ ׳‬based on the cross section of the empty container by

… (7)

18.2.4 Hydraulic radius

The hydraulic radius is the ratio between the cross sectional area available for flow and
wetted perimeter.
( )
… (8)
( )

Hence

⁄
… (9)
⁄ ( )

Since the equivalent diameter D for a channel is D= 4 ,

18.2.5 Reynolds number for a packed bed

The Reynolds number for a packed bed can be presented as following.

( )
… (10)
( ) ( )
For packed beds Ergun defined the Reynolds number as above but by eliminating 4/6 term.
Hence Reynolds number for packed bed can be stated as below.

( )
… (11)

As, G‫ =׳‬v‫׳‬ρ.

( )
… (12)

18.3 Laminar flow through a packed bed

The pressure drop for laminar fluid flow through a packed bed of spheres with
diameter D may be calculated using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation
18.3.1 Hagen-Poiseuille equation
For laminar flow, the Hagen-Poiseuille equation states that

… (13)

Where ∆L = length in m, D=inside diameter in m,

Putting D= 4 and the expression for can be presented as follows.

( ) ( )
… (14)
( )

18.3.2 Blake- Kozeny equation for laminar flow

Experimental data shows that the constant should be 150.

For void fraction less than 0.5, effective particle diameter DP andNRep<10.
( )
… (15)

18.3.3 Pressure drop for Turbulent flow in packed bed

For turbulent flow pressure drop is expressed as

… (16)

Where f is the fanning friction factor.

Putting D= 4 = and the expression for can be presented as follows.

( )

( )
… (17)
18.4.1 Burke-Plummer equation for turbulent flow in packed bed

For highly turbulent flow the friction factor should approach a constant value. Also, it is
assumed that all packed beds should have the same roughness.

Experimental data indicated that 3f=1.75.

Hence, the final equation for turbulent flow for NRep> 1000, which is called the Burke-
Plummer equation, becomes

( )
… (18)

18.5 General equation for flow, intermediate, and high Reynolds numbers

Ergun proposed the following general equation for low, intermediate, and high Reynolds
numbers which is a combination of Blake-Kozeny equation for laminar flow and Burke-
Plummer equation for turbulent flow.

( ) ( )
. … (19)

Rewriting Eqn. 19 in terms of dimensionless groups,

… (20)
( )

18.6 Shape factors

Many particles in packed beds are often irregular in shape. The equivalent diameter of
particle is defined as the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as this particle. The
sphericity. Shape factor of a particle is the ratio of the surface area of this sphere having
the same volume as the particle to the actual surface area of the particle.

For a sphere, the surface area Sp=πDp2 and the volume is Vp=πDp3/6.

Hence, for any particle,

= πDp2/ Sp … (21)

Where, Sp is the actual surface area of the particle

Dp is the particle diameter (equivalent diameter) of the sphere having the same volume as the
particle.

… (22)

… (23)
As, ( )

( ) … (24)

For a sphere, =1.0. For a cylinder where the diameter= length, is the calculated to be
0.874 and for a cube, is calculated volume and surface as 0.806.

Typical values for manycrushed materials are between 0.6 and 0.7. For convenience for the
cylinder and the cube, the nominal diameter is sometimes used (instead of the equivalent
diameter) which then gives a shape factor of 1.0.

18.7 Mixtures of particles

For mixtures of particles of various sizes mean specific surface avm can be defined as
following.

∑ … (25)

Where xi is the volume fraction.

As, Hence, … (26)

The effective mean diameter for the mixture (Dpm) can be expressed as

… (27)
∑ ∑
( ) ( )

18.8 Flow in Fluidized Beds

18.8.1 Minimum velocity and porosity for fluidization

18.8.1.1 Minimum fluidization velocity

When a fluid flows upward through a packed bed of particles at low velocities, the particles
remain stationary. As the fluid velocity is increased, the pressure drop increases according to
the Ergun equation (19). Upon further increases in velocity, conditions finally occur where
the force of the pressure drop times the cross-sectional area just equals the gravitational force
on the mass of particles. Then the particles just begin to move, and this is the onset of
fluidization or minimum fluidization. The fluid velocity at which fluidization begins is the
minimum fluidization velocity vmf‫ ׳‬in m/s based on the empty cross section of the tower
(superficial velocity).
Let
εmf = The porosity of the bed when true fluidization initiates or the minimum porosity for
fluidization.
Lmf = height of the bed in m.
18.8.1.2 Experimental process
The bed with particles is subjected to rising gas stream. As the gas velocity is increased the
pressure drop is also increased until the onset of minimum fluidization. Then as the velocity
is further increased, the pressure drop decreases very slightly and then remains practically
unchanged as the bed continues to expand or increase in porosity with increase in velocity.
The bed resembles a boiling liquid. As the bed expands with increase in velocity, the bed
continues to retain its top horizontal surface. Eventually, as the velocity is increased much
further, entrainment of particles from the actual fluidized bed becomes appreciable.

For a bed having a uniform cross-sectional area A, the relation between bed height L and
porosity ε is expressed as,

( ) ( ) … (28)

… (29)

Where,

L1 is height of the bed with porosity

L2 is height of the bed with porosity .
18.8.1.3 Pressure drop and minimum fluidization velocity

As a first approximate, the pressure drop at the start of fluidization can be determined as
follows the force obtained from the pressure drop times the cross- sectional area must be
equal the gravitational force exerted by the mass of the particles minus the buoyant force of
the displaced fluid.

Force obtained from the pressure drop

= Pressure drop at the start of fluidization × cross- sectional area

= gravitational force exerted by the mass of the particles- buoyant force of the displaced fluid

( )( ) … (30)

Hence,

( )( ) … (31)

18.8.1.4 Pressure drop for irregular shaped particles

For irregular shaped particles in bed the particle size and shape factor are considered.

Parameter Sphere Irregular shaped particles

Effective mean diameter Dp
Pressure drop in a packed bed for irregular shaped particles becomes
( ) ( )
… (32)

Where ∆L =L, bed length in m.

18.8.1.5 Minimum fluid velocity vmf‫ ׳‬for packed beds

The minimum fluid velocity vmf‫ ׳‬at which fluidization begins can be obtained by small
extrapolation of the equation obtained for packed beds.(Eqn.32) and by the following
substitutions.

Parameter Fluidized bed Packed bed

Fluid velocity v‫׳‬ vmf‫׳‬
Porosity ε εmf
Bed length L Lmf
Reynolds number

( ) ( ) ( )
… (33)

… (34)

Eq .(33) becomes

( ) ( )( ) ( )
… (35)

Case1:

When N Re,mf < 20 (small particles)

( )( ) ( )
… (36)

Case2:

When N Re,mf > 1000 (large particles)

( ) ( )
… (37)

18.8.1.6 Expansion of fluidized beds

For the case of small particles and where N Re,mf = Dpv‫ ׳‬ρ/µ< 20, we can estimate the
variation of porosity or bed height L as follows.

( ) ( )
… (38)
 ( ) ( )
(Or) … (39)

Solving for
( )
(Or) … (40)

In the above Eqn.(40) all terms except ε are constant for the particular system.

ε depends upon v‫׳‬.

18.8.1.7 Applicability

Equation (40) can be used with liquids to estimate ε with ε<0.80. However, because of
clumping and other factors, errors can occur when used for gases.

References

1 Transport Processes and Unit Operations (3rd Edition), C. J. Geankoplis, Prentice Hall Inc.
Publ., 1993
2 Transport Phenomena in Food Process Engineering (3rd Edition), A. K. Datta, Himalaya
Publ., 2001
3 Flow through Packed Beds and Fluidized Beds, Subramanian, R. Shankar. Clarkson University,
http://www. clarkson. edu/subramanian/ch301/notes/packfluidbed. pdf (2004)..

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