FST-328

FOOD CHEMISTRY-II

Cr. Hrs. 2+1

Notes designed by HAIDER RAZA

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Food Chemistry
Food science deals with the physical, chemical, and biological properties of foods as they relate
to stability, cost, quality, processing, safety, nutritive value, wholesomeness, and convenience. It is an interdisciplinary
field, primarily involving microbiology, chemistry, biology, and engineering. Food chemistry, a major aspect of food
science, focuses on the composition and properties of food and the chemical changes it undergoes during handling,
processing, and storage. Food chemistry is intimately related to various scientific disciplines and is concerned with
biological substances in non-living states, especially during food preservation and processing.

Chiral carbon
A chiral carbon atom is one that can exist in two different spatial arrangements (configurations). Chiral carbon
atoms have four different groups attached to them.

Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are carbohydrate molecules that cannot be broken down into simpler carbohydrate molecules
by hydrolysis, so they are sometimes referred to as simple sugars. They are the monomeric units that are joined
together to form larger structures, namely, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides which can be converted into their
constituent monosaccharides by hydrolysis.
(o) This shorthand way of indicating monosaccharide structures is called the Rosanoff method.

d-Glucose
d-Glucose is both a polyalcohol and an aldehyde. It is classified as an aldose. d-Glucose is the only free aldose
usually present in natural foods, and that too only in small amounts.

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Isomerization of monosaccharides
Simple aldoses and ketoses containing the same number of carbon atoms are isomers of each other, that is, a
hexose and a hexulose both have the empirical formula C6H12O and can be interconverted by isomerization.
Isomerization of monosaccharides involves both the carbonyl group and the adjacent hydroxyl group. Isomerization can
be catalyzed by either a base or an enzyme
OR
Isomerization of monosaccharides refers to the process of interconverting different isomeric forms of
monosaccharides. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements or
spatial orientation. Monosaccharides, which are simple sugars, can exist as isomers due to variations in the arrangement
of their atoms. Isomerization of monosaccharides can occur under various conditions, such as in aqueous solutions, as a
result of changes in pH, or enzymatic processes.

• Structural Isomerization • Stereoisomerization

Structural Isomerization: Structural isomerization involves changing the arrangement of atoms within the
monosaccharide molecule. This can result in the formation of different types of monosaccharides. There are three
common types of structural isomerization:
a) Chain isomerization
b) Functional Group Isomerization
c) Ring Isomerization

Chain Isomerization: Chain isomers have the same molecular formula but differ in the linear arrangement of
atoms. For example, glucose and galactose are chain isomers because they have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6)
but differ in the arrangement of hydroxyl groups around the carbon atoms.

Functional Group Isomerization: Functional group isomers have the same molecular formula but differ in the
functional groups present. For example, glucose and fructose are functional group isomers. Glucose is an aldehyde,
while fructose is a ketone, even though they both have the same formula (C6H12O6).

Ring Isomerization: Ring isomerization involves changing the ring structure of a monosaccharide. An example is
the conversion of glucose from its linear form to its cyclic form (pyranose ring) or its open-chain form. This isomerization
occurs through a process known as mutarotation.

Stereoisomerization:
Stereo isomerization involves changing the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule without changing the
overall connectivity of the atoms. In the context of monosaccharides, stereo isomerization is especially significant
because it can influence the biological activity and properties of sugars. There are two common types of stereo
isomerization:
(a) Enantiomerization
(b) Diastereomerization

Enantiomerization: Enantiomers are mirror-image isomers, and they differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms,
particularly around chiral (asymmetric) carbon atoms. Common examples of enantiomers in monosaccharides are D-
glucose and L-glucose.

Diastereomerization: Diastereomers are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. They have
different arrangements around one or more chiral carbon atoms. An example is the conversion between the alpha and

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beta anomers of a monosaccharide (e.g., alpha-glucose and beta-glucose), where the orientation of the hydroxyl group
at the anomeric carbon differs.
Ring formation
Ring formation is a common structural feature in the chemistry of monosaccharides, which are simple sugars.
Monosaccharides can exist in either linear or ring forms, depending on the specific conditions and the type of
monosaccharide. The most common monosaccharides that form rings are glucose and fructose.

Linear Form: In an aqueous solution, glucose primarily exists in its linear form, which is an aldehyde (in the case of
glucose) or a ketone (in the case of fructose). The linear form contains an open-chain structure.

Ring Formation (Cyclization): In the presence of water, monosaccharides like glucose can undergo a reaction known as
cyclization. This process results in the formation of a hemiacetal or hemiketal ring structure.

For glucose, the ring form is a six-membered ring known as a pyranose ring. In the case of glucose, the aldehyde group
(C1) reacts with one of the hydroxyl groups, typically the hydroxyl group on the fifth carbon (C5), to form a hemiacetal
linkage. This results in the formation of a six-membered ring.

In the case of fructose, a similar process occurs, but it forms a five-membered ring known as a furanose ring.

Anomers: When a monosaccharide forms a ring structure, it can exist in two different anomeric forms, known as
anomers. These anomers are defined by the position of the hydroxyl group at the first carbon (anomeric carbon) with
respect to the ring structure. The two possible anomers are the alpha (α) and beta (β) forms. They differ in the
orientation of the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon.
• In the alpha form, the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon is oriented downward from the ring.
• In the beta form, the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon is oriented upward from the ring.
The formation of the ring structure is an equilibrium process, meaning that both the linear and ring forms coexist in
a dynamic equilibrium. The ratio between the alpha and beta anomers can be influenced by factors such as temperature
and ph.

Reactions
• Caramelization
• Non-enzymatic browning
• Acrylamide formation

Non-enzymatic Browning/ Maillard reaction

. Common browning of foods on heating or on storage is usually due to a chemical reaction between reducing
sugars, mainly d-glucose, and a primary amino group (a free amino acid or amino group on a side chain of a protein
molecule.) This reaction is called the Maillard reaction and the overall process is sometimes designated Maillard
browning. It is also called nonenzymic or nonenzymatic browning. Common browning of foods on heating or on storage
is usually due to a chemical reaction between reducing sugars, mainly d-glucose, and a primary amino group (a free
amino acid or amino group on a side chain of a protein molecule.) This reaction is called the Maillard reaction and the
overall process is sometimes designated Maillard browning. It is also called nonenzymic or nonenzymatic browning

Maillard browning products, including soluble and insoluble polymers, are found where reducing sugars and amino
acids, proteins, and/or other nitrogen-containing compounds are heated together, for example, in soy sauce and bread
crusts. Browning is desired in baking, for example, in bread crusts and cookies, and roasting of meats. The volatile

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compounds produced by nonenzymic browning (the Maillard reaction) during baking, frying, or roasting often provide
desirable aromas. Maillard reaction products are also important contributors to the flavor of milk

Caramelization
Caramelization is a non-enzymatic browning reaction unlike the Maillard reaction, which involves the reaction
between amino acids and reducing sugars, caramelization specifically involves the heating of sugars, typically sucrose, in
the absence of proteins or amino acids. that occurs when sugar, typically sucrose, is heated in the absence of proteins or
amino acids. It results in the thermal decomposition of sugar molecules, leading to the development of a characteristic
brown color, rich flavor, and aroma. There are four recognized classes of caramel.

Class I caramel (also called plain caramel or caustic caramel)

Class II caramel (also called caustic sulfite caramel) which is used to add color to beers and other alcoholic beverages, is
reddish brown
Class III caramel (also called ammonium caramel) bakery products, syrups, and puddings
Class IV caramel (also called sulfite ammonium caramel) Used in cold drinks or acidic beverages

Acrylamide formation
Acrylamide formation is a chemical reaction that occurs when certain foods, particularly those high in
carbohydrates, are cooked at high temperatures, typically above 120°C (248°F). During this process, acrylamide, a
potentially harmful chemical compound, is produced. Acrylamide formation is a result of the Maillard reaction, which is
the reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids in the presence of heat.
Acrylamide is considered a potential carcinogen, and its presence in foods has raised concerns related to food
safety. Foods that are commonly associated with acrylamide formation include potato products (such as French fries and
potato chips), baked goods (like bread and cookies), and roasted coffee beans. Efforts are made in the food industry to
minimize acrylamide formation through various cooking and processing techniques.

Formation of Acrylamide in Food

• Maillard Reaction and Acrylamide: Acrylamide forms in foods heated at high temperatures through the
Maillard reaction, with levels typically <1.5 ppm in processed items like fried, baked, or roasted foods.
• Formation Mechanism: Acrylamide primarily arises from the reaction between reducing sugars and free l-
asparagine, favoring conditions above 120°C. Potato products, rich in both substrates, are particularly prone to
acrylamide formation.
• Influencing Factors: Acrylamide levels increase with temperature (optimal range 120–200°C) and higher pH
(4–8). Extended heating and increased surface area, as seen in high-temperature processed foods like potato
chips, contribute to elevated acrylamide levels.
• Mitigation Strategies: Minimizing acrylamide involves removing substrates through blanching, modifying
processing conditions, and incorporating competing substrates or salts. Effective reduction often requires a
combination of these methods tailored to specific food systems.

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 • Health Implications and Ongoing Research: Acrylamide is a known neurotoxicant and a potential weak
human carcinogen. Current studies show no clear link between acrylamide in foods and cancer risk, but ongoing
research focuses on long-term health effects, mutagenicity, and neurotoxicity, alongside efforts to reduce
acrylamide in food processing.
Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are small groups of sugar molecules linked together, commonly found in foods like
vegetables and legumes. They play a role in promoting the growth of good bacteria in our digestive system. An
oligosaccharide contains from 2 to 10 or from 2 to 20 sugar units, depending on who is defining the term, joined by
glycosidic bonds.

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of multiple sugar molecules linked
together. These macromolecules serve various roles, such as energy storage (e.g., starch in plants) and structural
support (e.g., cellulose in plant cell walls). In the context of food, polysaccharides often contribute to texture, viscosity,
and overall functionality in formulations. Polysaccharides can be homogeneous (composed of a single sugar type) or
heterogeneous (containing different monosaccharide units.

Starch
Starch, a unique carbohydrate with distinctive chemical and physical properties, serves as the primary food
reserve in plants, supplying 70–80% of human calorie intake globally. Derived from sources like corn, wheat, rice, potato,
and cassava, commercial starches find extensive use in diverse food applications, showcasing properties such as
adhesive, binding, gelling, and thickening. Another feature is the presence of two polymers, amylose, and amylopectin,
within most starch granules.
⬧ Amylose
Amylose is a linear polysaccharide, a type of starch, characterized by its straight-chain structure. Comprising
glucose units linked by alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds, amylose is relatively unbranched, forming a helical structure.
It contributes to the viscosity and thickening properties of starch when heated.
⬧ Amylopectin:
Amylopectin is a highly branched polysaccharide and a component of starch. Unlike amylose, amylopectin
features a branched structure with alpha-1,6-glycosidic bonds, allowing for a more complex, tree-like
arrangement. This branching imparts unique functional properties to starch, influencing its ability to form gels
and contribute to the texture of various food products.

Hydrolysis in starch
Hydrolysis in starch involves breaking glycosidic bonds through hot acid treatment, producing acid-modified
starches with improved dispersibility. Complete hydrolysis yields dextrins used for adhesion in candies, while
enzymatic processes create maltodextrins, maltose, and d-glucose for diverse food applications.

Modified food starches

Modified food starches are starch derivatives created through chemical or enzymatic processes to enhance
specific functional properties. These modifications improve characteristics such as stability, texture, and
thickening ability, making them versatile ingredients widely used in the food industry. Modified food starches
contribute to the development of processed foods with desired qualities, such as improved texture and shelf
stability.

Lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of compounds soluble in organic solvents, known as fats or oils in

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food. They include nonpolar (e.g., triacylglycerol, cholesterol) and polar lipids (e.g., phospholipids) with distinct
solubility characteristics. Polar lipids have a hydrophilic head and lipophilic tail. In food, lipids impact properties
like texture, flavor, and nutrition. The chemical and physical properties of lipids are essential for producing
high-quality foods, influencing factors such as crystallization behavior and health implications.
Supercooling: Supercooling refers to the cooling of a substance below its usual freezing point without
transitioning to the solid state, presenting challenges in predicting the onset of freezing and influencing
crystallization behavior in various applications.
Nucleation: Nucleation is the initial stage of crystal formation where small clusters, called nuclei, develop from
a supersaturated solution or a supercooled liquid, playing a critical role in determining the size, number, and
distribution of crystals in a material.
Crystal Growth: Crystal growth is the process by which a crystal increases in size over time, often occurring
through the addition of molecules or ions from the surrounding medium, influencing the final structure and
properties of the crystal lattice.
Crystal Structure: Crystal structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms or molecules in a
crystal lattice, determining the material's physical and chemical properties and influencing its behavior in
various applications.
Polymorphism: Polymorphism describes the ability of a substance to exist in multiple crystal structures or
arrangements, impacting its properties, stability, and performance in pharmaceuticals, materials science, and
other fields.
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Physicochemical properties

Supercooling in Lipids: In lipids, supercooling can affect the formation of lipid crystals, leading to variations in
texture and stability, as lipids may remain in a liquid state below their typical solidification temperature.
Nucleation in Lipids: Nucleation in lipids involves the initial clustering of lipid molecules during crystallization,
influencing the size and distribution of lipid crystals and, consequently, the physical properties of fats and oils
in food.
Crystal Growth in Lipids: Lipid crystal growth is the process wherein lipids increase in size within the
crystalline structure, impacting the overall texture and structural characteristics of lipid-based food products.
Crystal Structure in Lipids: The crystal structure of lipids determines the arrangement of fatty acid chains and
influences properties such as melting point and texture in fats, playing a crucial role in defining the functional
characteristics of lipid-based materials.
Polymorphism in Lipids: Lipid polymorphism refers to the ability of lipid molecules to adopt different crystal
structures, influencing the physical properties of fats and oils in food, including their stability, texture, and
suitability for various culinary and industrial applications.

PROCESSING
Isolation: Lipids are initially isolated from their natural sources, such as plants or animals, through processes
like extraction or pressing, separating them from other components like proteins, carbohydrates, and water.
Purification: Purification follows isolation, aiming to remove impurities and unwanted substances from the
extracted lipids. This step often involves techniques like filtration, centrifugation, or solvent-based methods to
obtain a more refined lipid extract.
Modification: Lipid modification is a customizable step where the composition or structure of lipids is altered
to achieve specific desired properties. This can include processes like interesterification, hydrogenation, or
fractionation, allowing for tailoring the functional characteristics of the lipids to meet specific needs.
Refining - Degumming: Refining is a critical step to enhance the quality of lipids. Degumming is a specific
refining process where impurities like phospholipids, known as gums, are removed from the lipid mixture. This

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is typically achieved through water or acid treatment, improving the clarity and stability of the final lipid
product.
Neutralization, where a caustic soda solution is mixed with crude oil, forms soluble soaps. These soaps are
then separated from the oil-water mixture. The quantity of caustic soda used depends on the free fatty acid
levels. The resulting soap byproduct.
Bleaching In lipid refining, the bleaching process targets undesirable pigments and compounds in crude oils
that cause off-colors and lipid oxidation. Hot oil is mixed with absorbents like clays or activated carbon to
remove pigments, free fatty acids, and phospholipids.
Deodorization In lipid bleaching, undesirable aroma compounds are removed through steam distillation.
Deodorization enhances oxidative stability but may produce trans fatty acids. After deodorization, the distillate,
rich in tocopherols and sterols, is recovered for use as antioxidants and functional food ingredients.

ALTERING THE SFC OF FOOD LIPIDS

Modifying the Solid Fat Content (SFC) of food lipids involves adjusting the ratio of solid to liquid components,
impacting texture, consistency, and shelf stability in various food products. The SFC is the percentage of fat in a
food product that exists in a solid state at a particular temperature.

Blending: The simplest method to alter fatty acid composition and melting profile is by blending fats with different
triacylglycerol compositions. This practice is performed in products such as frying oils and margarines.
Fractionation: in altering the Solid Fat Content (SFC) of food lipids involves selectively separating and isolating
specific components, such as saturated and unsaturated fats, to achieve desired SFC profiles. This process
allows for the customization of lipid characteristics, influencing the texture and properties of food products.
Hydrogenation is a chemical process that adds hydrogen to double bonds. The process is used to alter lipids so they
are more solid at room temperature, exhibit different crystallization behavior (by making the triacylglycerol composition
more homogenous), and/or are more oxidatively stable.
Interesterification is a chemical procedure where acyl groups within triacylglycerols are reorganized. Typically
a random process, it leads to the creation of a triacylglycerol profile distinct from the original lipid.
Function of Triacylglycerols in Foods:
Triacylglycerols, the primary components of fats and oils, significantly impact food quality, influencing texture,
appearance, and flavor. Their functionality involves intricate roles in determining the textural, visual, and taste
attributes of various food products.

Flavor:
Triacylglycerols indirectly influence flavor by carrying volatile compounds and natural impurities, contributing to the
distinctive taste of fats and oils. The partitioning of flavor compounds between oil, water, and gaseous regions within
the food matrix is influenced by lipid composition.

Texture:
Lipids intricately shape the texture of food products. In liquid oils, viscosity dominates, while in partially crystalline fats,
like those in chocolate, the concentration, morphology, and interactions of fat crystals play a key role, determining
properties such as spreadability, stability, and mouthfeel.

Appearance:
The appearance of food products is profoundly affected by the presence of lipids. In bulk oils, color is determined by
pigment impurities, while solid fats exhibit optical opacity due to light scattering by fat crystals. Food emulsions appear

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opaque due to the immiscibility of oil and water, with the concentration, size, and refractive index of lipid droplets
influencing both color and opacity.

❖ Chemical Deterioration of Lipids: Hydrolytic Reactions

Lipid hydrolysis, releasing free fatty acids, induces off-flavors, reduced stability, foaming, and lower smoke points in
oils—termed hydrolytic rancidity. While problematic, it contributes to desirable flavors in products like cheeses.
Processing disrupts lipase activity, seen in olive oil production. Triacylglycerol hydrolysis in frying oils, influenced by high
temperatures, is managed through filtration for prolonged shelf-life, highlighting the importance of understanding and
controlling these reactions in lipid-containing food products.

❖ Chemical Deterioration of Lipids: Oxidative Reactions

"Lipid oxidation" refers to intricate chemical changes resulting from the interaction of lipids with oxygen. Triacylglycerols
and phospholipids, having low volatility, don't directly contribute to food aroma. However, during lipid oxidation, fatty
acids within these lipids decompose, forming volatile molecules leading to off-aromas, known as oxidative rancidity.
While generally detrimental to food quality, certain products like fried foods, dried cereal, and cheeses benefit from
small amounts of lipid oxidation products, enhancing their flavor profile.
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Altering the SFC of Food Lipids

• Texture Modification: The adjustment of Solid Fat Content (SFC) significantly impacts the mouthfeel and melting
characteristics of food products, especially evident in chocolate production. This process is crucial for achieving
the desired sensory experience for consumers.
• Consistency Control: Altering SFC is a common practice in the production of margarine, spreads, and bakery
fats. It serves the purpose of maintaining the consistency and stability of these products under various storage
conditions, ensuring they remain spreadable and possess the desired texture.

• Extended Shelf Life: Another significant outcome of modifying SFC is its contribution to the extended shelf life of
food products. By preventing the crystallization of fats and oils, undesirable changes in product quality are
mitigated, leading to increased durability and consumer satisfaction.
• Formulation Control: Food manufacturers utilize SFC modification as a precise tool for controlling the properties
of their products. This ensures that the final offerings meet both consumer expectations and regulatory
standards, providing a high degree of formulation control.

Blending

• Selecting Fats and Oils: Blending involves the careful selection of fats that are solid at room temperature, such
as palm oil, and oils that are liquid at room temperature, like soybean oil. This strategic selection sets the stage
for achieving the desired physical properties in the final product.
• Mixing and Homogenizing: The process of blending extends beyond the selection of fats and oils; it includes
meticulous mixing and homogenizing to ensure an even distribution of these components throughout the blend.
This step is vital for achieving uniform texture and consistency in the end product.
• Controlling SFC: The key objective of blending is to control the Solid Fat Content by adjusting the ratios of solid
and liquid fats in the blend. This meticulous control is employed across a wide range of food products, including
baked goods, spreads, confectionery, and dairy products, to attain the desired texture, stability, and mouthfeel.

Fractionation

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 • Cooling and Separation: Fractionation is a process where fats are cooled and then separated into different
fractions based on their melting points. This method allows food manufacturers to customize the SFC of fats for
various food products, such as confectionery and bakery items, to achieve specific textures and properties.

Hydrogenation

• Adding Hydrogen: Hydrogenation is a process where hydrogen gas is added to unsaturated fats to make them
more saturated. This conversion turns liquid oils into semi-solid or solid fats, contributing to improved texture
and shelf life. Hydrogenation is commonly used in the food industry for creating fats with desirable physical
characteristics.

Interesterification

• Fatty Acid Rearrangement: Interesterification is a process where the fatty acids in different fats are rearranged
to achieve a specific SFC profile. This is done by chemically modifying the fats to create fats with desirable
melting and solidification properties. Interesterification is a valuable tool for customizing the texture and
stability of fats and oils in food products.

Lipolysis

• Natural Fat Breakdown: Lipolysis is the natural breakdown of fats into their component fatty acids. This process
can significantly influence the texture and flavor of food products. Lipolysis is often employed in cheese aging to
develop unique flavors and in some confectionery to create a smoother texture.

Auto-oxidation

• Oxygen Reaction: Auto-oxidation is a chemical reaction where fats or oils react with oxygen in the air, leading to
spoilage and the development of off-flavors. This reaction can negatively impact the quality and shelf life of food
products. To prevent auto-oxidation, antioxidants are crucially added to the fats and oils, safeguarding their
quality and extending their shelf life.

Lipid Oxidation:
Lipid oxidation, often termed autooxidation, is a self-acting process generating free radicals from unsaturated fatty acids
in the presence of oxygen. Initiation involves hydrogen abstraction from unsaturated fatty acids, leading to a single free
radical. While the subsequent propagation step with peroxyl radicals doesn't increase free radicals, the observed lag
phase followed by rapid exponential increase implies additional reactions producing free radicals. Prooxidants, present
in most foods, accelerate lipid oxidation by direct interaction with unsaturated fatty acids or by promoting free radical
formation. Notable prooxidants include LOXs, singlet oxygen, transition metals, and UV light, influencing the overall
process and contributing to rancidity.

MECHANISMS OF LIPID OXIDATION

Lipid oxidation is initiated by free radicals, including the extremely reactive
hydroxyl radical (•OH). This procedure entails an essential period of delay, succeeded by a quick growth phase resulting
in the swift emergence of undesirable smells. Various parameters such as temperature, oxygen concentration, fatty acid

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unsaturation, prooxidant activity, and antioxidant content affect the length of the lag phase. The process of fatty acid
oxidation involves three essential stages: initiation, propagation, and termination. Initiation consists of the process of
hydrogen abstraction, resulting in the formation of alkyl radicals that are stabilized through the delocalization of double
bonds. The trans configurations are more prevalent due to their higher stability.

Initiation:
▪ Involves hydrogen abstraction from fatty acids, forming alkyl radicals.
▪ Alkyl radicals stabilize through double bond delocalization, producing cis or trans configurations.
▪ Susceptibility to oxidation increases with higher unsaturation, with linoleic acid more prone than oleic acid.

Propagation:
▪ Begins with the addition of oxygen to the alkyl radical, forming peroxyl radicals.
▪ Peroxyl radicals promote hydrogen abstraction, resulting in the formation of fatty acid hydroperoxides.
▪ Reaction propagates from one fatty acid to another.

Termination:
▪ Describes the combination of two radicals, forming nonradical species.
▪ Under atmospheric conditions, termination may occur between peroxyl and alkoxyl radicals.
▪ In low oxygen environments (e.g., frying oils), termination can occur between alkyl radicals, forming fatty acid
dimers.

Formation and Effects of Lipid Oxidation Decomposition Products:

The process of lipid oxidation involves the degradation of lipid hydroperoxides into different molecules. The process of
decomposition results in a wide range of products that are affected by factors such as the kind of fatty acid and the
location of hydroperoxides. The resultant chemicals can have discernible impacts on sensory attributes, including the
taste and scent of food. The debate also emphasizes the β-scission reaction as a notable mechanism, which leads to the
decomposition of fatty acids into smaller molecules and contributes to the impression of rancidity in food products.

Dietary lipids (BIOACTIVITY OF FATTY ACIDS)

Dietary lipids—which are often linked to health problems because they are high in calories—are involved in heart
disease, diabetes, and other illnesses. Saturated fats raise LDL cholesterol levels, while unsaturated fats lower them.
Dietary suggestions for preventing heart disease include eating less saturated fat, and cholesterol, and adding soluble
grains to lower LDL cholesterol

Trans fatty acids,

Trans fatty acids, resembling saturated fats, contribute to heart disease by raising LDL-cholesterol and lowering HDL-
cholesterol. Trans fatty acids are primarily produced through the industrial process of partial hydrogenation of
unsaturated fats. This alteration creates a structure similar to saturated fats, impacting cholesterol levels and
contributing to heart disease risk. Initially grouped with unsaturated fats, they are now required on nutritional labels.
Amidst health concerns about dietary lipids, bioactive lipids like ω-3 fatty acids, phytosterols, carotenoids, and CLA show
promise in reducing disease risk, providing a nuanced perspective on lipid impact on health.

ω-3 Fatty Acids:

Omega-3 fatty acids are essential polyunsaturated fats that play a crucial role in various physiological functions.
They are a type of fatty acid with a double bond at the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain.
Common sources include fatty fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts. These bioactive lipids contribute to membrane

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structure, cellular signaling, gene regulation, and overall health. Insufficient intake is associated with various
health issues, emphasizing the importance of incorporating ω-3 fatty acids into the diet.

Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA):

Conjugated Linoleic Acid is a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with a unique arrangement of double bonds.
Found in meat and dairy products, CLA is associated with potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory
and anti-cancer properties. It has gained attention for its role in body composition, metabolism, and overall
well-being.

Phytosterols:
Phytosterols are plant-derived compounds with a structure similar to cholesterol. Found in various plant-based
foods, they are known for their cholesterol-lowering properties. Phytosterols compete with cholesterol
absorption in the intestine, helping to reduce overall cholesterol levels. Incorporating phytosterol-rich foods,
such as nuts and seeds, into the diet can contribute to heart health

Carotenoids
: Carotenoids are pigments found in plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria that contribute to the vibrant
colors of fruits and vegetables. These compounds, including beta-carotene, lutein, and lycopene, serve as
antioxidants in the human body. Carotenoids play a crucial role in supporting eye health, immune function, and
overall well-being. Consuming a diverse range of colorful fruits and vegetables ensures a varied intake of
carotenoids.

Low Calorie Lipids

are fats and oils that include necessary fatty acids but have fewer calories than standard lipid sources. These
lipids are frequently formulated to fulfill dietary and health requirements, such as lowering the overall calorie
consumption. The inclusion of low-calorie lipid substitutes in food products is intended to facilitate weight
control and encourage the adoption of healthier eating habits. Examples may encompass distinct varieties of
oils or lipid substitutes designed to lower calorie content.

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 Nomenclature & Classification of Lipids

Fatty Acids:
Naming Conventions: Based on carbon chain length and double bonds.
Examples: Palmitic acid, oleic acid.

Triglycerides (Fats and Oils):

Structure: Three fatty acids esterified to glycerol.
Nomenclature: Named based on constituent fatty acids (e.g., tristearin).

Phospholipids:
Structure: Glycerol backbone with a phosphate group.
Naming: Based on attached groups (e.g., phosphatidylcholine).
Components:
Polar Head Group: Contains a phosphate group (PO4) and a glycerol molecule.
Fatty Acid Tails: Two long hydrophobic fatty acid tails, composed of hydrocarbon chains (14 to 24 C), either
saturated or unsaturated.

Sphingolipids:
Structure: Named after sphingosine backbone with a long-chain amino alcohol.
Components: Contains a hydrophobic alkyl chain and a hydrophilic amino group.
Functions: Important in cell membranes, signaling pathways, blood type determination, and nervous system
function.
Examples: Sphingomyelin, ceramide.

Steroids:
Structure: Based on four interconnected carbon rings.
Composition: Composed of a 17-carbon skeleton, with a methyl (CH3) group at one end and a functional
group (e.g., ketone, alcohol, or aldehyde) at the other end.
Examples: Cholesterol, cortisol, estrogen.
Roles: Essential in physiological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, immune response, and
reproduction.

Waxes:
Composition: Named by long-chain alcohol and fatty acid.
Example: Carnauba wax.
Structure: Consists of a long hydrophobic alkyl chain and a hydrophilic functional group.

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Function: Provides a waterproof coating for plants and insects, reducing water loss and preventing microbial
invasion.

Lipid-Soluble Vitamins:Types: Vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Solubility: Fat-soluble, stored in the body's fat tissues.
Roles: Play various roles in metabolism and health.

Lipid-Derived Signaling Molecules:

Examples: Eicosanoids, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Functions: Involved in inflammation and immune responses
.
Lipid-Soluble Pigments:
Examples: Lipochromes.
Role: Responsible for the coloration of various tissues and structures in organisms

--------------------------------------------------

Food color, known as food dye or colorant, enhances visual appeal by altering the color of food and
beverages. It can be natural or synthetic, coming in various forms like liquids, gels, powders, or paste, offering
flexibility for creative culinary applications.

Natural Food Colorings:

• Derived from fruits, vegetables, and plant-based materials.
• Examples include beet juice (red), turmeric (yellow), and spirulina (green).
• Obtained through extraction from natural sources.
• Typically considered more 'natural' or 'organic' in food labeling.
Synthetic Food Colorings:

• Manufactured in laboratories.
• Identified by FD&C (Food, Drug, and Cosmetic) numbers, such as Red 40 or Yellow 5.
• Artificially created and not derived from natural sources like plants or fruits.
• Often used for precise and consistent coloring in various food products.

Dyes, soluble in liquids or solvents, are utilized to color materials that absorb and retain these molecules.

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Widely applied in textiles, they contribute vibrant hues to fabrics. In the food industry, edible dyes, water-
soluble for even distribution, color various food products, with liquid food colorings being common in baking.

Lakes, crucial in food and cosmetics, are insoluble in water and are created by combining water-soluble dye
with an aluminum-based solid. Widely used in high-fat content products like chocolate, they provide stable
color dispersion, ensuring superior retention and enhancing visual appeal.

Pigments, insoluble in water and oil, are solid particles suspended in a medium to create colors. Versatile in
applications like paints, inks, plastics, cosmetics, and foods, they are notably stable in the food industry, used
for coloring dry products such as candy and cereals. Their resilience to environmental factors ensures
prolonged color vibrancy in various edibles.

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Heme Compounds:
Heme compounds constitute a class of biomolecules featuring a heme group—a complex of
iron coordinated within a porphyrin ring. These compounds play crucial roles in various biological functions,
including oxygen transport, electron transfer, and enzymatic reactions.

Occurrence:

▪ Hemoglobin: Predominantly found in red blood cells (erythrocytes), hemoglobin is essential for oxygen
transport in the bloodstream.
▪ Myoglobin: Located in muscle tissues, particularly skeletal and cardiac muscles, myoglobin functions to
store and transport oxygen within muscle cells.
▪ Cytochromes: These proteins, containing heme, are integral to electron transport chains. Distributed
across cellular compartments, they contribute significantly to energy production and various metabolic
reactions, exemplified by mitochondrial cytochromes.
▪ Cytochrome P450 Enzymes: Found in the endoplasmic reticulum, these heme-containing enzymes
play a vital role in the metabolism of drugs, toxins, and various endogenous compounds.
▪ Heme-containing Enzymes: Acting as cofactors, heme participates in enzymes like catalase and
peroxidase, contributing to antioxidant defense and the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide.

Structure:
▪ Heme Group: The heme group consists of a central iron (Fe) atom coordinated within a planar porphyrin ring.
The iron atom can exist in either the ferrous (Fe2+) or ferric (Fe3+) state, depending on its oxidation state.
▪ Protein Binding: In heme-containing proteins, the heme group is bound to a specific protein structure. This
protein-heme complex determines the molecule's function

Functionality:
Hemoglobin:

▪ Oxygen Transport: Primarily, hemoglobin serves to transport oxygen in the bloodstream.

▪ Oxygen Binding and Release: It binds oxygen in the lungs, forming oxyhemoglobin, and releases
oxygen to tissues where oxygen levels are lower.
▪ Carbon Dioxide Transport: Additionally, it plays a role in transporting carbon dioxide and regulating
blood pH.

Myoglobin:

Oxygen Reservoir: Myoglobin functions as an oxygen reservoir within muscle cells.

Oxygen Binding and Release: During periods of high oxygen availability, it binds oxygen, storing it within
muscle tissue. Conversely, during decreased oxygen levels, it releases oxygen to support aerobic respiration in
muscle cells, particularly during exercise.

Cytochromes:

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 • Electron Transport: Cytochromes are essential for electron transport, shuttling electrons
between molecules in cellular respiration and other redox reactions.

Cytochrome P450 Enzymes:

▪ Metabolism: These enzymes play a pivotal role in the metabolism of various compounds, including
drugs, steroids, and fatty acids.

Heme-containing Enzymes:

▪ Catalysis: Enzymes like catalase and peroxidase utilize heme to catalyze reactions involved in the
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and the detoxification of reactive oxygen species.

Stability:
Heme-containing proteins generally maintain stability under physiological conditions, with a limited range of
temperature and pH. However, exposure to extreme factors such as high heat, strong acids or bases, or
oxidative agents can lead to denaturation and loss of functionality in these proteins.

Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll, a group of pigments located in chloroplasts, is essential for photosynthesis

in green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.

Occurrence:

▪ Green Plants: Found in the chloroplasts of cells, chlorophyll is most commonly associated with green
plants, serving a vital role in photosynthesis.
▪ Algae: Various types of algae display chlorophyll, contributing to their characteristic green coloration.
▪ Cyanobacteria: Also known as blue-green algae, cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll and are capable of
photosynthesis.

Structure:
Chlorophyll is a complex molecule featuring a porphyrin ring with a central magnesium atom. It exists in
various forms, with chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b being the most common types, differing in their side-chain
structures.

Functionality:

▪ Photosynthesis: Chlorophyll plays a central role in photosynthesis, capturing light energy to convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
▪ Energy Source: This process sustains growth and provides energy for organisms.
▪ Light Absorption: Chlorophyll molecules absorb light primarily in the blue and red regions of the
spectrum, utilizing this energy for chemical reactions.

Stability:

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Chlorophyll molecules are generally stable under normal physiological conditions but face challenges.
Protective mechanisms, like non-photochemical quenching, help mitigate damage caused by high-intensity
sunlight.

Light: Excessive light exposure, especially high-intensity sunlight, can lead to the degradation of chlorophyll
through a process called photo-damage.
Temperature: Extreme temperatures, both high and low, can impact chlorophyll stability and photosynthetic
efficiency.
pH: Changes in pH can affect the stability and activity of chlorophyll, as it functions optimally within a certain
pH range.
Disease and Stress: Disease, environmental stressors, and nutrient deficiencies can also affect chlorophyll
levels and overall plant health.

Carotenoids: Carotenoids, a diverse group of pigments found in various organisms, play crucial
roles in biology, including photosynthesis and acting as antioxidants.

Occurrence:

▪ Plants: Widespread in the plant kingdom, carotenoids are found in fruits, vegetables, and leafy greens,
exemplified by carrots (beta-carotene), tomatoes (lycopene), and spinach (lutein).
▪ Algae: Various algae types contain carotenoids, contributing to the diverse colors in aquatic
environments, with red algae containing astaxanthin.
▪ Bacteria: Some bacteria, including photosynthetic cyanobacteria and non-photosynthetic species,
produce carotenoids.

Structure: Carotenoids feature a long hydrocarbon chain with alternating single and double bonds,
characterized by a series of conjugated double bonds (polyene structure) responsible for their pigmentation.
The central part of a carotenoid molecule consists of a system of carbon atoms with double bonds, while the
ends may contain functional groups like hydroxyl (-OH) or keto (=O) groups.

Functionality:

• Photosynthesis: Essential pigments in photosynthesis, carotenoids act as accessory pigments

capturing light energy and transferring it to chlorophyll for efficient conversion into chemical
energy.
• Antioxidant Properties: As potent antioxidants, carotenoids protect cells from oxidative
damage caused by free radicals, reducing the risk of oxidative stress-related diseases.
• Vitamin A Precursors: Some carotenoids, like beta-carotene, are converted into vitamin A
(retinol) in the body, crucial for vision, immune function, and overall health.
• Coloration: Responsible for the red, orange, and yellow colors in fruits and vegetables,
carotenoids serve ecological functions, attracting pollinators and seed dispersers.

Stability:

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Carotenoids, found in various organisms, exhibit variable stability influenced by factors like UV exposure,
cooking temperatures, and oxygen. While UV light can degrade them, cooking methods matter, with some
being more heat-stable. Oxygen exposure poses an oxidation risk. Maintaining optimal stability is crucial for
retaining nutritional and visual attributes in carotenoid-rich foods.

Anthocyanins and Other Phenols:

Occurrence:

• Fruits: Commonly found in fruits like grapes, cherries, blueberries, and blackberries, anthocyanins
contribute to vibrant colors.
• Flowers: Roses, tulips, and pansies, among others, contain anthocyanins giving them striking colors.
• Vegetables: Red cabbage and purple potatoes also contain anthocyanins, often in outer layers or peels.
• Leaves: Present in leaves, particularly during autumn, contributing to red and purple hues.
• Stems: Some species may have anthocyanins in stems and branches.

Structure: Anthocyanins consist of a central core with an attached sugar molecule, making them
glycosides. The core contains a chromophore, responsible for light absorption and color production. Various
structural forms (aglycones) exist based on chemical group variations attached to the core.

Functionality:

• Coloration: Primarily responsible for red, purple, and blue colors, anthocyanins attract pollinators, deter
herbivores, and protect plant tissues from UV radiation.
• Antioxidant Properties: As flavonoids, anthocyanins have antioxidant properties, neutralizing free
radicals, reducing oxidative stress, and potentially benefiting health.
• Health Benefits: Associated with potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of chronic
diseases like heart disease and cancer, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Stability:
• pH: Anthocyanins change color based on pH; acidic conditions appear red, while alkaline conditions
turn them blue or purple.
• Temperature: Heat can potentially degrade anthocyanins, causing color loss, though some are more
heat-stable.
• Light: Exposure to light may degrade anthocyanins, making them less stable in bright sunlight.
• Metal Ions: Certain metal ions, like iron and copper, can accelerate anthocyanin degradation.
• Preservation Methods: In the food industry, preservation methods such as canning, freezing, or
adding antioxidants aid in maintaining the color and stability of anthocyanin-containing products.

Betalains:
Occurrence:

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 • Beets: Red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) is a well-known source of betalins, responsible for its vibrant red
color.
• Other Plants: Betalins are found in plants like Swiss chard, some spinach varieties, and certain cacti,
contributing to red, purple, or yellow colors in fruits, stems, and flowers.

Structure:

Betanins are glycosidic pigments with a chromophore (colored part) attached to a sugar molecule.
The chromophore in betanins comprises two aromatic rings connected by a nitrogen bridge, distinguishing
them from carotenoids and flavonoids. Different types of betanins result from variations in the attached sugar
molecule.

Functionality:

• Coloration: Primarily responsible for red and violet colors, betalains attract pollinators and aid in seed
dispersal.
• Antioxidant Properties: Betalains neutralize free radicals, reducing oxidative stress in plants,
potentially benefiting animals, including humans, when consumed.
• Health Benefits: Associated with anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, though more research
is needed for a comprehensive understanding.

Stability:

• pH: Betanins are pH-sensitive, stable in acidic conditions but turning yellow in alkaline environments,
used in food processing for color variations.
• Heat: High temperatures can cause betanins to degrade, resulting in color loss, especially during heat
processing like boiling.
• Light: Exposure to light, especially UV light, can lead to betanin degradation, affecting color stability.
• Oxygen: Sensitive to oxidation, antioxidants are often added to minimize color degradation in betanin-
containing foods.
• Preservation Methods: Low-temperature storage, vacuum packaging, and antioxidant additions may
be employed for stability.

Certification and Approval: Certified food dyes undergo rigorous evaluation by regulatory agencies
like the FDA or EFSA to ensure their safety and suitability for use in foods.

➢ Color Characteristics:
These dyes offer a diverse range of colors, allowing food manufacturers to achieve various color options
in their products.
➢ Solubility and Distribution:
Most certified food dyes are water-soluble, facilitating easy dissolution in water-based products for
even distribution and consistent coloring.

Stability:

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Certified food dyes exhibit stability under normal processing and storage conditions, resisting degradation
from factors like heat, light, oxygen, and changes in pH.

➢ Taste and Odor:

At concentrations used in food, certified dyes are typically tasteless and odorless, ensuring they do not
impact the flavor or aroma of colored foods.
➢ Regulatory Compliance:
Undergoing thorough safety evaluations, certified food dyes comply with specified usage levels based
on toxicological assessments.
➢ Labeling Transparency:
Food manufacturers are required to transparently list specific certified food dyes on product labels,
identifying them by common name or numerical code.
➢ Consistency in Manufacturing:
Produced under strict quality standards, certified dyes ensure batch-to-batch consistency, meeting
quality and purity requirements.
➢ Allergenicity Consideration:
While allergic reactions are rare, labeling regulations inform consumers about the presence of specific
dyes in food products.
➢ Xdc c5
Certified food dyes are versatile, compatible with a wide range of food formulations, including both
liquid and solid forms.
➢ Regulatory Limits:
To ensure safety, regulatory agencies establish maximum allowable levels for each certified food dye in
different food categories.
➢ Expiry Dates and Shelf Life:
Dyes have a shelf life, and it is crucial for food manufacturers to maintain color and purity specifications
throughout the product's shelf life.
➢ Color Strength Variation:
Varying in color strength, food manufacturers can adjust the concentration of certified dyes based on
the desired color intensity
➢ Consumer Concerns and Alternatives:
While generally considered safe, some consumers express concerns, leading to exploration of natural
alternatives and clean-label products.
➢ Natural Colorant Adoption:
In response to consumer demand, food manufacturers explore natural colorants derived from fruits,
vegetables, and spices as alternatives to certified food dyes.

USE OF CERTIFIED COLORS

1. Certified colors, also known as artificial or synthetic food colors, are color additives approved by regulatory
authorities like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and other
products. These colors are used for a variety of purposes in the food industry. Food Coloring: Certified colors are
added to foods and beverages to enhance their visual appeal. They can create vibrant and consistent colors,
making products more attractive to consumers. For example, they are used in:
2. Baked Goods: To achieve colorful icings, decorations, and fillings in cakes, cookies, and pastries.
3. Candies: To produce a wide range of colors and patterns in gummy candies, hard candies, and chocolates.
4. Beverages: To give soft drinks, fruit juices, and sports drinks their characteristic colors, such as bright red or
deep blue.
5. Jellies and Jams: To create colorful spreads and fillings for sandwiches and pastries.

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 ❖ Processed Foods
❖ Pharmaceuticals
❖ Cosmetics and Personal Care Products
❖ Pet Foods
❖ Printing Inks
❖ Food Service
❖ Artificial Flavors and Aromas
❖ Decorative and Seasonal Food

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